Genesis of the elements: The Big Bang???

t1/2 = 11.3 min

1.8 x 1010
years ago

~0 V
universe after 1 s
αT
where:
 Few minutes later, after T dropped to 109 K

The limiting reaction; the reverse

reaction is also fast

The interplay of the rates gives

an atomic ratio of H/He = 10/1
Sun
 Within 11.3 min, half the matter of the universe consisted
of protons; the temperature was about 5 x 108 K.

In the first 30 to 60 min, 2H, 3He, 4He, and 5He were formed.

These nuclei were formed in the process called hydrogen

burning.
In stars, with T at 107 to 108 K, production of heavier
nuclei occurred.

Among known reactions that take place under such

conditions are called helium burning.
In more massive stars (T at 6 x 108 K or higher), the C-N
cycle is possible:
Heavier elements were formed as shown:

At still higher temperatures, further reactions take place:

 Formation of elements of higher atomic number takes place
by addition of neutrons to a nucleus followed by electron
emission decay.

56 1 69 69 0
26 Fe + 13 n" Fe" Co+ e
0 26 27 #1

In environments of low neutron density, the addition of

neutron is very slow, one neutron at a time; in high neutron
density, 10 to 15 neutrons may be added in a very short
! time.

The very heavy elements are also formed by reactions such as

this.
Curve of inherent stability of nuclei has a maximum at Fe.
Heavy nuclei tend to undergo fission reactions.
Ex. Radioactive series of U-238
Magic Numbers for Nuclear Stability

No. of Protons: 2 8 20 28 50 82 114

No. of Neutrons: 2 8 20 28 50 82 126 184

Distribution of Naturally Occurring Stable Nuclides

Combination Number of Nuclides

Z even - N even 163
Z even - N odd 55
Z odd - N even 50
Z odd - N odd 4
 Neutron-to-proton ratio and the stability of nuclides

Possible heavy nuclides of high stability

(long radioactive half-lives)

Naturally occurring and artificially

made radioactive nuclides

Naturally occurring stable nuclides

(ranging from H to Bi)
The cosmic abundances of some of the elements
Geochemical Classification of Elements

Siderophiles (iron-loving) - concentrate in the metallic core

Litophiles (rock-loving) - abundant in crust, oxides and halides
Chalcophiles - also found in crust, combine with S, Se and As
Atmophiles - present as gases