ANSWERS

CONTENTS
Foreword Unit 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Importance of Chemistry Nature of Matter Properties of Matter and their Measurement Uncertainty in Measurement Laws of Chemical Combinations Daltons Atomic Theory Atomic and Molecular Masses Mole concept and Molar Masses Percentage Composition iii 1 1 2 4 8 11 13 13 15 15 17 26 27 29 34 42 46 49 70 70 71 75 75 78 79

1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations Unit 2 Structure of Atom 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Unit 3 Sub-atomic Particles Atomic Models Developments Leading to the Bohrs Model of Atom Bohrs Model for Hydrogen Atom Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Why do we need to Classify Elements ? Genesis of Periodic Classification Modern Periodic Law and the present form of the Periodic Table Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number > 100 Electronic Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: s, p, d, f-Blocks 3.7 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements

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(viii) Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Kssel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding Ionic or Electrovalent Bond Bond Parameters The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory Valence Bond Theory Hybridisation Molecular Orbital Theory Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Hydrogen Bonding

CHEMISTRY

Unit 4

96 97 102 103 108 113 116 121 125 127 132 133 135 135 135 136 141 143 144 147 149 154 155 158 163 164 170 174 179 185 186 189

Unit 5

States of Matter 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Intermolecular Forces Thermal Energy Intermolecular Forces vs Thermal Interactions The Gaseous State The Gas Laws Ideal Gas Equation Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Behaviour of real gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour Liquifaction of Gases

5.10 Liquid State Unit 6 Thermodynamics 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Unit 7 Thermodynamic State Applications Measurement of U and H: Calorimetry Enthalpy Change, r H of a Reaction Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions Spontaneity Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium

Equilibrium 7.1 7.2 Equilibrium in Physical Processes Equilibrium in Chemical Processes Dynamic Equilibrium

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( i x) 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant Homogeneous Equilibria Heterogeneous equilibria Applications of Equilibrium Constants Relationship between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G Factors Affecting Equilibria Ionic Equilibrium in Solution

191 194 197 198 201 201 205 206 209 219 220 231 245 251

7.10 Acids, Bases and Salts 7.11 Ionization of Acids and Bases 7.12 Buffer Solutions 7.13 Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts Appendices Answers Index