THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands and Hormones

Pituitary Gland Gland: sits in the sella turcica (sphenoid bone), attached to the hypothalamus two glands in one - neurohypophysis (or posterior pituitary) attached to hypothalamus by an infundibulum (contains a nerve bundle) composed of neural tissue (downgrowth of hypothalamus) stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus (supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, which are secretory neurons) - adenohypophysis (or anterior pituitary) attached to neurohypophysis (originates from an out-pocketing of oral mucosa) composed of glandular epithelium vascular connection to hypothalamus (no direct connection), which forms hypophyseal portal system (a portal system is an unusual arrangement of blood another vessels in which a capillary bed feeds into veins, which in turn feed into capillary bed) by the hypothalamus (via releasing and inhibiting hormones) "master gland" because many of its hormones regulate the activity of other endocrine glands (tropic hormones, or tropins, are regulatory hormones) because it controls this notation recently has been given to the hypothalamus the anterior pituitary.

produces, stores, and releases own hormones; however, release is regulated

(1) Hormone: ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), also known as Vasopressin stored in neurohypophysis Function: prevents wide swings in water balance returns water to the bloodstream, increases blood volume mechanism - targets kidneys
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- increases water reabsorption from the kidneys o inhibits water loss from the kidneys Hypersecretion: fluid retention increased blood pressure and heart rate (due to vasoconstriction of visceral blood vessels) edema (also may be of the brain) decreased urine production decreased solute concentration in the blood Hyposecretion: diabetes insipidus - marked by output of huge amounts of urine o intense thirst - dehydration decreased blood volume decreased BP and heart rate Regulation: by blood volume also may be influenced by: pain, low BP, drugs, and alcohol consumption Synergist: mineralocorticoids (for blood volume only) Antagonist: none (2) Hormone: Oxytocin stored by neurohypophysis positive feedback mechanism peptide Function: stimulates smooth muscle contraction of the uterus to initiate labor stimulates release of milk ("let-down") from the mammary glands promotes sexual arousal and sexual satisfaction of orgasm (a "feel good" hormone) promotes nurturing and affectionate behavior ("cuddle hormone")
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Hypersecretion: no ill effects Hyposecretion: could lead to insufficient contractions leading to C-section (surgical delivery) lack of "let-down" Regulation: for labor decrease in estrogen/progesterone from placenta (stretching of uterus and cervix) Synergist: none Antagonist: none (3) Hormone: growth hormone (GH or HGH) produced by adenohypophysis protein somatotropin Function: stimulates somatic growth major targets are bones and skeletal muscles promotes long bone growth and increased muscle mass mechanism - stimulates amino acid uptake by the cells promotes protein synthesis, which allows growth by cell division - stimulates formation of collagen and deposition of bone matrix - encourages use of fats for energy (glucose sparing) - promotes gylcogenolysis in the liver (also glucose sparing) Hypersecretion:
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for milk release suckling

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in children gigantism, which is characterized by excessive long bone growth in adults acromegaly (enlarged extremities), which is characterized by overgrowth of bony areas of the hands, feet, and face (leads to protruding jaw Hyposecretion: in children pituitary dwarfism, which is characterized by slowed long bone growth (but normal body proportions) in adults Simmond's disease, which is characterized by early aging Regulation: GHRH and GHIH Synergist: glucagon glucocorticoids epinephrine/norepinephrine thyroxine Antagonist: insulin (4) Hormone: MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone) Function: stimulates melanocytes to increase synthesis of melanin pigment controls appetite in humans (5) Hormone: Prolactin (PRL) Function: promotes milk production by the glandular alveoli of the mammary glands no function until after a woman gives birth protein and large forehead)

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Hypersecretion: inappropriate milk production cessation of menses ED in males Hyposecretion: poor milk production in nursing females Regulation: PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone), which is now known as dopamine (6) Hormone: TROPINS regulatory hormones TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), ACTH (adrenocortcotropic hormone), FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone) Functions: TSH targets the simple cuboidal epithelium of the thyroid gland to stimulate thyroxine production ACTH targets the adrenal cortex to stimulate glucocorticoid production FSH targets the ovarian cortex to stimulate follicular development to graaflan follicle (for estrogen surge) and for ovum development; also targets the seminiferous tubules of the testes for sperm development LH targets the ovarian cortex to stimulate rupture of graaflan follicle (ovulation) for release of the mature ovum, stimulates formation of corpus luteum, maintains corpus luteum; also targets the interstitial cells of the testes for Regulation: RH and IH testosterone production

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Thyroid Gland Gland: located below larynx butterfly-shaped composed of follicles and parafollicular cells simple cuboidal epithelium, surrounding each follicle, produces thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) these hormones can be stored extracellularly parafollicular cells produce calcitonin (1) Hormone: Thyroxine (T4) amine hormone; however, enters target cells as would a steroid (binds to intracellular receptors within the nucleus and initiates transcription of mRNA for protein synthesis) affects virtually every cell in the body stored as thyroglobulin (protein-bound colloid) in the follicle lumen sufficient for two to three months formation requires iodine trapping (ions from the blood) released in free-form, but immediately binds to transport proteins (especially those produced by the liver) 13 is about 1 Ox more active than 14, but 14 is easily converted to 13 Function: increased basal metabolic rate essential for protein synthesis, glucose catabolism, fat mobilization promotes normal nervous system function, cardiac function promotes muscular and skeletal development and function promotes GI motility, F reproductive ability, hydration of skin Hypersecretion: increased: body temperature, appetite, weight loss, heart rate, blood pressure, GI motility (diarrhea)
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muscle atrophy, soft nails, flushed/thin/moist skin, fine/soft hair depressed ovarian function, ED irritability, restlessness, insomnia, personality changes Graves' disease autoimmune disorder whereby antibodies stimulate TH release; characterized by: exophthalmos (bulging eyeballs), nervousness, rapid/irregular heart rate Hyposecretion: decreased: body temperature, appetite, weight gain, protein synthesis, heart rate, blood pressure, GI motility (constipation) muscle cramps, myalgia (muscle pain), pale/thick/dry skin, thick/coarse hair depressed ovarian function, sterility (in F) mental dulling, depression, hypoactive reflexes, memory impairment, joint pain if pre-puberty cretinism (slowed/deficient brain development, retardation, skeletal stunting, thick tongue and neck) preventable by thyroid hormone replacement; but once symptoms show, it is not reversible feeling chilled, puffy eyes, thick/dry skin, edema, mental sluggishness, constipation, lethargy) reversed by iodine supplements or hormone Regulation: by the pituitary tropin TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) Synergist: growth hormone (for physical growth only) Antagonist: None (2) Hormone: calcitonin Function: decreases blood calcium ion levels mechanism:
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elevated metabolic rate, sweating, weight loss,

if post-puberty myxedema (facial swelling, joint pain, low metabolic rate,

replacement therapy

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- inhibits osteoclast activity - inhibits bone resorption (loss of bone mass) o inhibits calcium ion release from matrix - stimulates calcium ion uptake into bone matrix o bone-sparing effect hypocalcemic) Hypersecretion/Hyposecretion: does not appear to play an important role in calcium homeostasis Regulation: by blood calcium ion concentrations (short-lived, but rapid) Synergist: none Antagonist: PTH (parathormone) Parathyroid Gland Gland: located on the dorsal surface of the thyroid gland four small glands cells arranged in thick, branching cords chief cells secrete parathormone Hormone: Parathormone (PTH) protein hormone Function: increases blood calcium ion levels single most important hormone controlling calcium balance of the blood mechanism: - stimulates osteoclasts to digest bony matrix to release calcium and phosphate ions to the blood - stimulates reabsorption of calcium ions by the kidneys - promotes activation of vitamin D, increasing absorption of calcium ions
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from the digestive tract Hypersecretion: rare calcium is leached from the bones bones soften and deform and may fracture spontaneously depresses the nervous system leads to abnormal reflexes and weakness of skeletal muscles throughout the body Hyposecretion: usually results from trauma or surgical removal can result in hypoparathyroidism leading to hypocalcemia increases excitability of neurons leading to tetany, loss of sensation, muscle twitches, convulsions, respiratory paralysis, death treated by intake of calcium and vitamin D Regulation: by blood calcium ion concentrations Synergist: none Antagonist: calcitonin Thymus Gland: located in the inferior neck and extends into the mediastinal region (center of the chest) most active during fetal development and early years of life diminishes in size throughout adulthood bibbed
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leads to formation of renal calculi (kidney stones) and calcium deposits

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Hormone: Thymosins Function: involved in the development of 1-lymphocytes and the immune response (cellular immunity) mainly act as paracrines Pineal Gland Gland: located below the corpora quadrigemina Hormone: melatonin Function: a sleep-inducing signal an antioxidant anti-gonadal effect Hypersecretion: triggers a later puberty Hyposecretion: triggers an earlier puberty Regulation: sunlight light inhibits production, dark stimulates production Synergist: none Antagonist: gonadal/adrenal testosterone gonadal estrogen Pancreas Gland: located posterior to the stomach has both exocrine (digestive enzymes) and endocrine (hormones) functions islets of Langerhans (cell clusters) produce hormones alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, beta cells produce the hormone insulin
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acinar cells produce digestive enzymes (1) Hormone: Glucagon polypeptide Function: increases blood glucose concentrations potent hyperglycemic agent major target is the liver mechanism - promotes glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose) - promotes gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and from noncarbohydrates) - release of glucose to the blood by liver cells - decreases amino acid levels in the blood (because it is used to make glucose) Hypersecretion: no symptoms due to effect of insulin Hyposecretion: no symptoms due to effects of synergists Regulation: by blood glucose concentrations Synergist: sympathetic system stimulation growth hormone glucocorticoids epinephrine/norepinephrine (aka adrenalin/noradrenalin) Antagonist: insulin (2) Hormone: Insulin Function: decrease blood glucose concentrations hypoglycemic effect small protein mechanism
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- enhances membrane transport of glucose into body cells (note that the liver, kidney, and brain tissue all have easy access to blood glucose regardless of insulin levels) - nhibits glycogenolysis - inhibits gluconeogenesis - promotes uptake of glucose by the liver and glycogenesis (conversion of glucose into glycogen) -triggers oxidation of glucose for Al? production, joins glucose molecules to form glycogen, converts glucose to fat (particularly in adipose tissue) Hypersecretion: hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) triggers the release of hyperglycemic hormones, which could lead to insulin shock (most affects nervous system cells, which need a constant blood supply of glucose), which is characterized by: o nausea - the fight or flight response - anxiety - nervousness - tremors - weakness - disorientation - convulsions - coma o death treated by ingesting simple sugars, followed by intake of complex CHOs and proteins Hyposecretion: hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) could lead to diabetes mellitus (DM) Types Type I the pancreas does not produce insulin Type II the pancreas does not produce usable insulin
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in that order

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- Cardinal Signs polyuria increased urination (water reabsorption by kidneys is inhibited, leading to dehydration, decreased blood volume, nausea, stomach pain) polydipsia increased thirst (due to dehydration) polyphagia increased hunger - Side Effects hemoconcentrations (increased blood viscosity) poor circulation increased BP (increased risk of heart attack) increased clotting (increased risk of stroke) poor wound healing (increased amputations) decreased neuro-sensitivity blindness erectile dysfunction renal failure cellular utilization lack of glucose prevents glycolysis (breakdown of glucose for energy production) or cellular respiration cells turns to proteins and fats, which are abundantly available protein breakdown results in loss of muscle mass fat breakdown results in ketone body formation which leads to an increase in H+- leads to acidosis Regulation: by blood glucose concentrations Synergist: None Antagonist: glucagon glucocorticoids growth hormone epinephrine/norepinephrine
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Adrenal Glands Gland: located on top of each kidney enclosed by a fibrous capsule and fat divided into a cortex (outer portion) and a medulla (inner portion) cortex glandular o zona glomerulosa cells arranged in a circular fashion, produces mineralocorticoids o zona fasciculata cells arranged in a linear fashion, in a produces glucocorticoids o zona reticularis cells arranged branched fashion, produces androgens medulla part of the autonomic (sympathetic) nervous system o produces epinephrine/norepinephrine (1) Hormone: Mineralocorticoids (primarily, Aldosterone) steroid synthesis begins with cholesterol not stored in cells, release depends on rate of synthesis Function: regulates balance of minerals and water in the blood essential to electrolyte (primarily, Na and K+) concentrations in extracellular fluids where Na* goes, water follows regulation of negatively charged ions (bicarbonate and chloride) is coupled to Na+ regulation of K+ and H* also are coupled to Na+ K+ sets the resting membrane potential of all cells and regulates action potential in nerves and muscles crucial to overall body homeostasis mechanism regulatory effects are brief -stimulates Na+ reabsorption by the distal kidney tubules (reducing excretion)
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-indirectly stimulates water reabsorption by the kidney tubules -indirectly stimulates reabsorption of negatively charged ions by the kidney tubules o stimulates the elimination of K* by the kidney tubules Hypersecretion: Aldosteronism increased Na+ and water retention leads to increased blood volume leads to hypertension, increased heart rate, and edema decreased K+ - leads to skeletal muscle weakness and paralysis Hyposecretion: decreased Na + and water elimination leads to decreased blood volume leads to decreased BP, decreased heart rate, and dehydration/lethargy increased K+- leads to cardiac muscle weakness Regulation: by decreasing blood Na* concentrations and blood volumes (by the reninangiotensin mechanism) by increasing blood K+ concentrations Synergist: ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) for blood volume only Antagonist: None (2) Hormone: Glucocorticoids (primarily, Cortisol) steroid modifies gene activity Function: -promotes gluconeogenesis and glyconeogenesis - promotes hyperglycemia - mobilizes fats for energy metabolism
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- stimulates protein catabolism - depresses inflammatory and immune responses - decreases size of lymphoid organs - decreases fibroblast production - assists body in resisting stress - keeps blood glucose levels constant - maintains BP through vasoconstriction Hypersecretion: inhibits inflammation by decreasing release of inflammatory chemicals depresses the immune system depresses cartilage and bone formation promotes change in cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal functioning Cushing's disease - could be caused by tumor or medicinal doses of glucocorticoid drugs - leads to elevated blood glucose levels, "moon" face, swollen/distended abdomen, hump back, bruising, poor wound healing, overwhelming Hyposecretion: Addison's disease (deficits in both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) o weight loss - decreased plasma glucose and sodium - increased blood potassium - dehydration - low blood pressure - complete physical and emotional exhaustion Regulation: by the pituitary tropin ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) Synergist: glucagon growth hormone epinephrine/norepinephrine
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infection

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Antagonist: insulin (3) Hormone: Androgens (or gonadocorticoids) (primarily, Testosterone or Estrogen ) Function: contribute to the onset of puberty appearance of pubic and axillary hair sex drive Hypersecrefon: hyper-masculinization in prepubertal M and F - rapid development of reproductive organs in M - rapid development of secondary sex characteristics in M o increased sex drive in M - beard in F - enlarged clitoris in F Hyposecretion: not important Regulation: not understood Synergist: gonadal hormones Antagonist: melatonin (4) Hormone: epinephrinelnorepinepherine (aka adrenalinlnoradrenalin) secreted by chromaffin cells epinephrine more potent stimulator of metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart norepinephrine greater influence on peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure Function: reinforces and prolongs the fight-or-flight response
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activates body's response to stress brief effects mechanism - stimulates glycogenolysis by the liver leads to increased blood glucose - increases vasoconstriction leads to increased blood pressure and heart rate o increases bronchial dilation increases rate and depth of urine output Hypersecretion: hyperglycemia increased blood pressure, heart rate, respiration if prolonged, may lead to complete collapse Hyposecretion: no effect due to synergists and sympathetic nervous system Regulation: stress Synergist: growth hormone glucagon glucocorticoids the sympathetic ANS Antagonist: insulin Gonads Gland: testes (M) and ovaries (F) testes are located in the scrotal cavity - surrounded by a fibrous capsule called a tunica albuginea - capsule invaginates to divide testes into lobes, within the lobes are seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells - seminiferous tubules produce gametes (M sex cell is sperm) - interstitial cells produce testosterone ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity
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respiration o decreased digestive system activity and

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- surrounded by germinal epithelium - outer region is the cortex contains follicles, which contain gametes (F sex cell is ovum) graafian follicle produces surge of estrogen corpus luteum produces surge of progesterone (1) Hormone: testosterone steroid synthesized from cholesterol Function: masculinizing hormone (responsible for growth and development of M reproductive organs) required for sperm formation (which begins in puberty) . enables sex drive linked to increased aggression responsible for secondary sex characteristics o deeper voice - oilier skin and increased acne - denser bones and increased muscle mass o body and facial hair Hypersecretion: increased secondary sex characteristics Hyposecretion: decreased secondary sex characteristics Regulation: by the pituitary tropin LH (luteinizing hormone) formerly called ICSH (interstitial cell stimulating hormone) influenced by the pineal hormone melatonin daily cycle Synergist: adrenal testosterone Antagonist: melatonin (2) Hormone: Estrogen steroid
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synthesized from cholesterol Function: femininizing hormone (responsible for growth and development of F reproductive organs) promote breast development promote cyclic changes in the uterine mucose promotes oogenesis and ovulation stimulates growth of uterus in pregnancy partially responsible for sex drive enhances HDL blood levels responsible for secondary sex characteristics - feminization of the skeleton (especially, the pelvis) - inhibits bone reabsorption - promotes hydration of skin - promotes fat re-distribution Hypersecretion: increased secondary sex characteristics Hyposecretion: decreased secondary sex characteristics Regulation: by the pituitary tropin FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) Synergist: none Antagonist: melatonin (3) Hormone: Progesterone Function: thickens endometrium (innermost uterine lining) stimulates growth of breasts quiets myometrium during pregnancy increases body temperature anti-estrogen effect Hypersecretion: no ill effects
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Hyposecretion: lack of implantation spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) Regulation: by the pituitary tropin LH Synergist: none Antagonist: none

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