PRACTICAL SEISMIC INTERPRETATION by Dr Michael E. Badley 1987 BADLEY, ASHTON & ASSOCIATES LIMITED Ayeland House Queen Street Spilsby Lincolnshire PE23 5JX EnglandACKHOVLEDGEMERTS 5 {would Like to express sy thants to the following individuals aad orgpaieatioae far help ta prepariag the course, This course would not have been possible without the great help of Merlin Profilers Ltd. I The help of colleagues at Badley, Ashton & Associates Ltd., in particular Mike Ashton and John Price, has been invaluable. dl) To Harold Nordberg and Worsk Hydro for help in obtaining seismic data. To Ana Trim for word processing and to my wife, Pam, for her help in many ways. a ISa a oS j OT ama a a CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. . SEISMIC INTERPRETATIO! Key concepts. : How to estimate the seismic pulse shape... How to estimate seismic pulse frequency or wavelength. 7 How to evaluate seismic resolution. How to identify multiple reflections............ How to identity diffractions and reflected refractions... How to recognise velocity distortions. . How to determine static shifts of marine seismic data. How to make a well-to-seisnic tie.. Data preparation SEISKIC INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES Picking tips and well to seismic tie .... Seismic stratigraphy terminology....... Where to pick and tying loops...... Recogaising lithology from seismic sections Reflections associated with hydrocarbons and diagenetic. . effects How to digitise seismic data... Yanual contouring techniques... Velocity and depth conversion. BASIN ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES Large scale tectonic processes and stratigraphy...... Structural geological techniques..... STRATIGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES Log correlation............ How to decompact sediments.......... How to construct burial history diagrams... REFERESCES. ...eer Bee Wiha! ee hee! INTRODUCTION The manual is written for explorationists working in an office environment who have to interpret seismic sections, The purpose of the manual is to encourage problem tackling from first principles. If the essence of a problem is appreciated, it is much easier to choose the technique(s) that is likely ta give the best solution. This manual provides the seisafc interpreter with a comprehensive ‘tool xit' that can te used to help solve common interpretation problems.sees ‘Ac KBY CONCEPTS i] Reflection seismic uses sound waves to investigate the subsurface. Acoustic impedance is t! rock property that governs reflections q Acoustic ‘apedance = interval velocity x density. Reflections arise at boundaries across which acoustic impedance (AI) changes, eg. q es Limestone S==seec= Ala = 2.6g/cm® x 4500m/s = a (the greater the refraction Reflection Strength The greater the difference in the acoustic impedance, the stronger the reflection. The size of the change is defined by the reflection coefficient (RC), RCs are tve (positive) if AI increases, eg shale Re AL, - AT, AT, +AI, RCs are ~ve (negative) if AI decreases, eg Limestone shale Reflections from positive RCs are compressional. Reflections from negative RCs are refractional. The ideal stfsnic response to an acoustic tnpedance change would be a spike, a ar cally! but Life Le more complicated we and we get a wave consisting = ——> =| of troughs and peaks -Roe Some basic definitions 4 Frequency = number of tines Amplitude 2 wavelet repeats per second, iansiasa wavelength 00 ors Is measured in Hertz, poe i X@s) eg. a wavelet with a duration of S0ms (05s) has a frequency of 25 Hertz (Hz) tea! oa ar a 7 © and refraction i fo reflection occurs if the acoustic impedance does not change, even if lithology changes a, 2.3g/em* x 2300m/s = $290 units 53 \_ Wo reflection 2g/ca? x 2126a/s 5290 units “-|\aly refraction ae Ray path bending (refraction) responds to velocity change: the greater thé velocity change +SSeS Vavelength (z or ft) = velocity | frequency Yaveforas are conplicated but pragmatic interpreters can, as a first assumption, hope thet the wavelet end response on the seismic section is either Rc “s Xaxinum anplitude ia first peak Symmetric wavelet with or trough. Vavelet starts at the maximum amplitude at AT boundary Al boundary Polarity is the way in which seismic data is recorded and displayed. SEG nornal polarity data has conpressional waves (from +RC boundaries) recorded as a negative number on ta; and displayed as a trough (white). A negative reflection has the sane shape but is reversed - every peak a trough, every trough a peak. Fornal Reverse Polarity Polarity . example of normal and reverse polarity mininun phase wavelet FRC. = VHAT VE MEASURE - the basics (we can do much more than this) 1. * travel time down to a reflector two-way time (IVT) which is and back to the surface = related to depth by: time = 2 x depth ales 2 anplituce ~ the relative amplitude gives @ measure = 5 of the acoustic impedance change Fa... — reflection polarity which (for interference free reflections) "aS can show 17 the toundary has @ positive or negative reflection coetticient a 4. Interval velecity - in favourable cfrculfstances All these 4 parameters o: carry a lithological and geological message! HDA LAL Dn ey CE VERBS RAEI ae oe Set vec. : one aa Fy PS ra Ts eyic wal Wate 1. Agoustic’ impedance increases with depth as rocks compact (overpressured zones excepted). Compactable lithologies such as clays increase their acoustic impedance with burial at a 4 greater rate than less compactable sediments, eg. Limestones, sandstones. Result: ATS increase but contrasts Hisfefoce reflections becowe weaker with depth for a given lithology pats! The seismic signal loses strength through transmission losses, spherical divergence, ete. \ The earth attenuates the higher frequency content of the propagating wavelet at a greater \ rate than lover frequencies. a Result: a progressively lower frequency wavelet (le. a longer tine duration or wavelength) and poorer resolution with depth. i © the combined effect is weaker reflections and poorer resolution with dept. VERTICAL 28501 Vertical resolution determines how thick a unit must be to be resolved J | ie Seismic wavefora. Vhen a unit is thicker than.4 wavelength (\), reflections from its top and base are interfere: free. 5 : +R sehepabi | a ab te Sele » delayed by Base 1A #50) -RC /-Yhen a unit is A thick reflections, froz 5 its top and base are just separate. Less HRC : than ¥s thick, ag refle-tions overlap and ® 3 (1 constructively inter: If RCs at top and =RC base are of opposite sign, but destructively LAnterfere if the RCs are the same sign. At Wo talctnees, maxima soterterence Ctuning? = MV Lt occurs. Dinsing occurs if RCs are same sign % RC At about 1/30 interference destroys the reflection no matter how large the RCs Sao gGgeguaa@aa Top Base +R 41/804 —_- — -RC vy | r ae¢ mors Rousd Horizontal resolution: On unmigrated sections reflections arise from the portion of the reflector from which the reflection reaches the detector within &\ of the first reflected energy ~ the fresnel zone. err Fresnel zone radius can be estimated from: Radius Fresnel = Average Velocity ts\TWT) 2 F Wominent frequency hertz) On migrated sections lateral resolution is affected by the trace interval, array length, processing shorz-cuts and imperfections of migration. but is usually not a sigaificant problen, {Ea NOISE AND DISTORTIONS Unfortunately, even with good processing not all reflections are primaries. Ce . setimic ecprestion Hultiples are reflections that have surface re 1 Rore than one “bélisce". They occur multiple x i Lh as ‘reflectiona” With a time-delay travel path—\X/ +nC— primary = EF equal to the tine thickness of the reflector’ ees layer in which the extra bounce(e) multiple Lvememe — f] occurred. Multiple reflections E Snvolving a reflector with a negative RC (eg. groun Mbave OF Le opposite phase (polarity) to the prinary reflection phase (polarity) to the prinary reflection om Multiples irom dipping reflectors | |§ —————_________ surface will show twice the dip of the primary reflection. ——— =~ 10° Rettector SE eee multiple Diftractions are reflections NYO contosy ecotiered ty simp aneeeeee Dittractions”—7 = eg. fault. They appear es characteristic hyzerbolic EEE 2 ection t reflections on utnigrated seismic A sections AN attractions k Reflected ref surface Feflections shat save ed fl Significant latera! travel [UL Geology. | paths. They occur when E angle and instead of heiag refracted through a layer Seismic exoression travel withia it for some Ai ffrections distance. oe Reflected refraction a fl7 comzon mid-point (CMP) seismic method surface ] assumes that reflections arise at the mid-point between source and receiver. This is only true for horizontal reflectors. If a reflector dips the and the reflection will be longer than 7 the reflector. This results in anticlines being too broad and an rettector synclines too narrow. apaean Reflector surface Migration corrects this effect but unless part of a 3-D survey, only operates in two dimensions, ie. the migration assumes that all reflections have originated in plane of the section. This is acceptable on a dip- Line but on a strike line even dipping reflections appear flat! - and arise updip from the intersection of seismic section and reflector. 2-D migration has no effect on a strike line. Consequently, after migration dip and strike Lines mis-tie. The effect becomes serious for dips greater than 10°15". ~ “VELOCITY: Varying velocity with depth causes a distortion - rock units of the same thickness but different interval velocities will have different time thickness on seismic sections - low velocity intervale will icker than high velocity intervals, because, surface : saterval velocity fet a co time - _2 x thickness Perhaps nore serious, lateral velocity _—_—_— variation will cause spurious Zin seionte seek See ANG in a salt diapir than adjacent forge cedinent will cause a pull-up of Bie pull-up of planer base underlying reflections Push=down fait resleche occurs beneath lower velocity units, eg. sea-floor canyons, low velocity near-surface layers. Velocity effects must be antictrated, MM NON A Te —=—=> eee _recognised and evaluated. = Geslog a AeWhtE OF REFLECTIONS Ten? poe Maimick sunccowek sreuctuee /]2ee REFRACTION: Refraction occurs across boundaries where velocity changes Noraallysrefractional effects are not a problem. ie. when dip is low. But when a target interval is overlain by a thick dipping sequences with velocity changes the following problen can occur: m4 s. 6 surface torget FOTN achoat wtplchon Pepeeke IEEE poi pat Ordinary migration will not correct the positional error caused by the essumption that the reflection is located beneath the mid-point between source and receiver. Simple depth conversion of the time migrated sections will not correct the error. Refractional effects are a very important consideration for targets beneath complex structures, eg. salt diapirs, thrust sheets, etc. In such situations depth migration involving ray-path tracing ts required. SSScries te SEISMIC PULSE How to estimate the seisaic pulse shape fron seis: ‘sections ‘A imowledge of the pulse shape is required before the interpreter can evaluate interference effects.’ There are many types of pulses of different phases and characteristics but, in 2 simplified way for the interpreter, we can group the seismic pulse {nto two min types:- minigum phase and zero phase. A pules where the energy 1s cocceatrated at its front can be said to be minimum phase and is ‘thought to te typical of many seisaic signals (Pig. PLS1). Minimum phase pulses ave their offset at. the acoustic Ampedence contrast. However, zero phase pulses offer the following advantages:— : : / For the same amplituce spectrum a zero phase signa! is always shorter than minisum phase and has greater amplitude than the equivalent minimim phase signal a:7 so improves the signg,to noise ratio, zero phase signals also have thei: maximum amplitude cofaciding with the theoretical reflectivity. spike, The maxim amplitude of a minima phace signal is delayed with reference to the reflectivity spike. Figures PLS? and PLSS. show contrasting interference effects for a variety Of bed configurations for minimum and zero phase wavelets. The differences between the responses are due to interference effects caused by the different shapes of the zero and minimm phase wavelets. The zero phase wavelet centred around each acoustic Impedence boundary can interfere with wavelets from nearby boundaries both above and below je mint base. wavelet; extending dowi from the boundary, can only inte dth vavelete from underlying acoustic impedence contrasts: The tigures illuctrate the isrtance for tie tatemreee er knowing the type of wavelet to which the seigyig has bees processed end dieplayed, a5 they fundamentally affect the per Bion of the geological interfaces. Although the above diécussion has: been ceutred around a description of ninimun and zero phase wavelets, unfortunately processing 1s not alvays successful in producing these idealised pulse shapes. Frequently. for example, processing can result in Binimum phase data having a second half cycle. It’ is nct uncommon to find ‘that phase changes with time in seismic sections. Determining tne seismic pulse can be difficult, fa the first instance we Gan read the seismic section label ani se2 what type of seismic pulse should have been generated by the processing sequence. For example Rinimm phase deconvolution should produce minimum passe seismic pulses. Often we, have a mix of operators in the processing, for example minimum phase deconvolution followed by a zero phase tine variant filter. The. result should be slightly mixed phase r: With the underlying minimum phase data being dominant in this situacicn. an alternative approach, or one which can check the success of the processing, ig to observe directl. ‘gduced at a boundary wits a Big in the seismic the shave of the wavelet acoustic impedence contrast. It is essential that the reflecting boundary Se free froa iaterference efiects. Figure PLS¢ shows an example of minimum phase data, where the pulse shape is quite clearly discernible at the strong une y reflection and Figure PLSS shows an example of zero phase deta, Obviously, visual inspection of the data t pulse shape a rather crude method, and the po: see interference effects acdifying this wavelet and producing an pulse shape, or of pulse, must be borne in mind. mnaa a aw lg a a sg ae a UGsssssiteenest cece he a wwSPF Ps seme een ee oot eaDix Interval velocitiesHOV TO ESTIMATE THE DOMINANT SEISKIC PULSE FREQUENCY OR VAVELENGTH Z A very important agpect of interpretation is a knowledge of the dominent i] ] frequency content of our seisnic data and how this varies with tine iy one seismic section. Knowledge of the dominant frequency enables us to calculate wavelength from the relationship: wx - a . or) (a) = interval velocit q Freq. (kz) ~Trequeney HZ and so calculate dept condly, snables us to estimate the likely interference sffecr Interference between the seismic responses Tron close! ‘spaced seustie teettee| boundaries 0 che “SF-Tie nae Sone Tie Saeae tareee igure FOF SigWe the composite seismic response frou a nunber of closely spiced acoustic. tspedence contrasts, thie comecite: Ceaeey cof ciety interpreted easily. as there is not a simple one-tocons relationship between the seismic trace and the acoustic impedance in boundaries. Interference always occurs when reflections from different reficcters overlap. Interference fe detersined tere the seismic pulse ts pilliseconse and tae. cpaclag of the poise eetase og ee bales tn which function oF TtoraT WeLeet — Obviously, we have no control over the spacing oi acoustic impedsice boundaries but clearly the length of the seismic pulse in milliseconds {s related to the doxinant frequency of cur seismic signal. The length of the soienie pulse {s critical. Ideally, the seismic pulse would be a spike whose reflections would also be spikes with amplitudes corresponding to the magnitude of the Teflection coefficients. Such a situation would resule in perfect resolution, However, in practice, the seisaic source pulse bas a duration | of several tens of milliseconds and consists of one or two peaks and one or two ‘troughs. Figure FQ2 shows an example of a selemc cource pulse extracted from real seismic data, Although seismic systens are designed to Produce a seismic source signal of both high frequency and broad band width, the earth, unfortunately, scts as a’ very efficient attenseton of a this signal, This attenuation causes loss of frequency with depth, there a potential seismic resolution and how this varies with. now] “of a-domiaaat frequency at a particular de being an almost constant fractional energy loss per cycle of ths selene wave, The high frequencies are attenuated more than lower frequencies sor f-barticular path length. This process produces a decrease in the dominant nN frequency of the seisnic signal with depth (Fig. FQ). The destene saisaic fraiuency with depth neaulte in loner febsiaos eee Eire sea ESS ee eset ton tential and are “Blssie SeGtTETren oe eratuated by to mae Sane y TE CR nS has access. to processing facilities, it is possible to estimte ths siewe wavelet frequency at various tines directip tren the doe mes Be geisatc Figure FQ. However, norsally the interpreter will not have’ thee facility available and a nore pragtatic approach has to be used - visual inspection Gf the Selenic section itaelf. "En tavouraole cireoeveanc eet messes Frequency caa be estimated by chocrving, the asrerion es Sty Sosimast prs response | cfTOe _,tsolstea reflecting boundaries that produce “strong FQ4 shows an exszpie of a seismic section where ctions are developed at different times. The ns Suggests that they are largely interference /_show the response to a single reflecting beomdary- Cn EF aga ite siaply be estimated by aeacur: dy rete one ; F 4- range of frequencies. It must be borne in mind that this method of determining the dominant frequency is rather crude and the results should be treated accordingly. However, the method does give the interpreter sone guidance when estimting the likely resolution potentia! of the seicnic data. = Integrated Composite Sonic og Lith.tog_ Vlog plog pVlog ..RClog RClog seismic trace jews SG S Salt ‘ reflection coettictent og and the Resulting composite trace for a winiaun phase, sermal polarity (5.£.6) + Tre ithologacal sequence shove at the lefe consists oft a Desai salt section overlain by thick shale, massive Limestone, and 4 hate sequence containing te sands. The lower sand is vater ated, white the Upper sand contains gas overlying water saturated sand, The welocsty is shown under V Jogi with Mish velocity in the s4Le and Linestone, a velocity tn the viter wat sande lightly higher aod 4 aajor cepretsion of velocéty in the gas sand density log is show under p log. ‘The sale density is very tow, snd the porosity in the lower sand causes the density to be councadent ith Ohat of the shales. me density in the gas sand is depressed. The acoustic inpndance og, show under BY tog, is the product of velocity and density. rot aoet Lihologaée it Nes similar form to the tog, excepting cuses share velocity and density change in opposite Bue in the sait the changes in velocity and density alaoee coetticiente of the acoustic iapedance boundaries are shown under AC log vALen shove the eign and expected strangen of reflections, A comgosite seismic trace that would be ‘Produced by convolving 4 ainimun phase, noceal polarity (3.5.6) wavelet | Ath Oe RC Jog Lt unovn. me sntagrated 20 loz shove the smeeang 4 running ous of 421 values in 4 poving vindow do RmLE cestores che pv log. (After Anstey 197 and Rabon 15= ee oo a oe oS ky La « cobey ae a as ae ag ay Hg ly yy ilps DE gy oo My Y LY + ii tei f =~ i VY aHOW TO EVALUATE SEISMIC RESOLUTION : i k An essential factor in the a interpretation of Tica setot gett, Potential, vertical and horisenal Vertical resolutica can be expressed as the nic to Gisplay reflections from both the top and the bese oo @ unit. Horizontal resolution {s the ability of the seismic to display the lateral extent of units or features. data is an resolution. The doztzent frequency or wavelength of the Seismic pulse is the Sortzol over vertical resolution. Figure RESt yetecity Mnestone over- and underlain by shales, Front” (ioP ad bese of the Limestone are opposite tn sign. The diagran shows that fac limestone thickness is greater than belf “tae pigglereth. reflections from the top and base of the attr are interference sree gGtee the lisestone thins to less thee Leif the wavelength, the Tye ettO8 from the base begins to overlap in tims with the reflection from fhe top and we have interference and a sore confusing seismic expression. This interference continues until, at 2 warter wavelength, This thickness Ie often ‘length, the interference is destructia, eee OF the Setsnic signal decreases, but note that she actual ize duration of the wavelet stays constant; it dose nee thin as the stratigraphic unit thing ypn the signal-to-noise ratio of the data, we find that by the tine the it is around one thirtieth of the Sayelength thick the seiszic response is se weak, due to interference aifecte, tae Ie ie eatnntioy eee eS noise. So we have soy _ ibtee_critical resolution parameters, the half wavelength for the vy “situation where there is ao interferance, ter wavelength for mxinua oe Was sun thickness whers_ve_cen min Shows a wedge of high Reflection coefficients ee Te STEnGE Or tuning thickness, and a’ at ticker y Eaasouably expect reflection to appear in the agtse of one eh wave: ch. With a knowledsé~orIfker ‘ely interval velocity and the dures at SESS, Piura Regptay © calculate the wavelength in terss af ieee or cs, Tigure RES is a nonogren relating velocity, frequency and rere e ee cee itt, Situation is slightly difverens however, if the reflection coer: eats at the top and the base of the ui Sigere 8583 shows = sand unit overlain by cf The reflection coefficients at the topo: = In this case, we find thet 2 Grhgial one in ¢! 2k! a wevelength, re: waver, mit have the sane ay and underlain by he Sand and its base (é~ inserzere, reflection: OO? Ez © interfere: 2 loss of amplitude. Below one ¢. becones acre construe ea itude seen on ¢: impedence ma: on OE 19~ i LYHOV TO EVALUATE SEISKIC RESOLUTION cciastae) gfttee Am the interpretation of seiscic data ts an qeigtion of the poteatial, vertical and horizontal resolution. Gietics! resolution can be expressed as the potential os the setszic to Sisplay Teflections from bots the top and the base of a ame’ forizontal saree gee is the ability of the seisic to display the leceral extent of units or features, The doninent frequency or wavelength of the seisuic pulse is the min seize) Oke vertical resolution. Figure RESI shows a wedge of high velocity limestone ever~ and underlain by shales Reflection coefficients at the top an base of the Limestone are opposite ta sign, The diagram Shows that when the limestone thickness is greeter than half the povgereth. reflections from the top and base of the unit are interference free: |, nee the linestone thins to less than half the wavelength, the fgglection from the base begins to overlap in time with the reflection fron fhe top and we have interference and a nore confusing seismic expression. This interference continues until, at a warter Wavelength, the s ei" maximum interference or tuning. Thig THGeaes is often called tunin, hs Below the quarter wavelength, the interference is-Hotheniee aud The anplitude of the seismic cignal decreases tet note that the actual breadth or tine duration of the wavelet stays constant; ic does not thin as the stratigraphic unit thins. Depending, po the signal-to-noise ratio of the data, we find that by the time the alt te arcu one thirtieth of the sovelength thick the seismic response isso weak Gee ee interference three orstegdt 1S Seeentially Tost in the baciground noise. “ce have \\ free critical resolution parameters: The half wavelength for the \\) situation where there is so interference, quarter wavelength for maximn Vu auverrereice or tuning thickness; ane mun tbickness “WEeré we can reasonably expect reflectian te api in the Seismic of one thirtieth @ the dournam fi Saye ith a Thowledge ely interval velocity weeren EN it Gs easy to calculate the wavelengts in terse 6 Monga, Tigure RES2 is a nosogran relating velseity. requency and Wavelength, —_ The situation is slightly disveress, however, if the sents at the top and the base of the unit have the se. A ny stgnf F: zi RESS shows a sand unit overlain by clay and underlain by S LineStone. The re: tion coefficients at the top of the sand an its bass are orb positive, In this case, we find that one ‘erugial oj ao wavelength, re: O¢ Ce“ interfere once the unit ay reflections froz the top and the bese, overlap ané interfere destructively vats! Rave meximsa destructive interference fe. a loss of amplitude. ang plitude seen on the apedence material 19 ow| 1 HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION Horizontal resolution is a problem essentially only on vazigrated data. Th lI extent of the resolution then is defined by the size cf the Fresnel zone re 2 ft , ajt ] rf = radius of the Fresnel zone | v = average velocity t = two-way time in seconds y £ = dominant frequency in hertz J Although ¢- migration can effectively do away with the Fresnel zon problem, cc. acional two-dimancional migration cannot tackle the other effect ofthe Fresnel zone sideswipe. Sideswipe occurs when the Fresi zone impiiges on other structures out of the plane cf the section (Fig RES4). This process can generate reflections which are derived out of the plane of the seismic section. The convention 2-D aigration takes a0 account of the origins of the reflections derived fron a sideswipe situation and they are left in the section. Sideswipe effects can only be removed by 2-D migration. Figure RESS shows an example of sideswipe. 1 20°Retlection trom Yop limestone ‘ D> ference —— PEs omptete No interference reflection irom ose Ee Retlecton trom % «bose imestone Bebo I30 wovelengin 0 reflection \ ee” Shale 3000 m/s —— iio interterence Limestone 5000 m/s ‘Shate"3000 m/s 50 hertz wavelet Pa Ea Amplituse : : ( sy Wavelength 5 Frequcy + Humbe worse pr second ‘wavelength per second = Thertz 3 re rT: Time Waveform attributes Ea Ee Pim SE io Cie Ty_— Se a ee a manos ce EE Oy yy[ iff ttl Hina Rott fs Ut aataeh U Ph oe |Location Map TT4 surface {rox a reflector bounces back into the subsurface again frcx tl e distace. A simple multiple will appear on the seisaic section, if it has y not been resoved during the processing, at a time double that of the 4 primry reflection. Figure ¥2 shows the comon types of multip reflections. Meltiples can be divided into two msin catagories, long path and short path, Long path multiples have travel paths which are several tens of nilliseconés longer then those of the primry reflections. Sbort path multiples arrive so soon after the primry reflection from the same interface that they interfere with, and add tails to the prisary reflection, changing the wave shape but not neccesarily appearing as separate reflections. Every effort is mée to remove miltiples during the Processing through stacking, F-K filtering and deconvolution, etc. However, even after these processing steps, multiples are frequently left in the data and it is necessary for the interpreter to be able to recognise and disregard them There are several characteristics which we can use to help us to recognise multiples in the seismic data Firstly, multiples will bear a direct tine relationship to the reflector responsible for thez. In the case of a simple multiple, the multiple will occur at twice the tine of primary reflection. For an inter-bed multiple, the multiple will occur beneath a primry reflector, at a tine equivalent to the tine thickness of the interval ia which the multiple bounce hee occurred. ae Go a Secondly, multiples which involve reflection at a boundary with a negative Feflection coefficient, for example the air/ground or air/water interface, -will have their phase reversed with respect to the primary reflection (Fig. 3). aS the a rimry reflectors stow an crease of twice the vorigisal dip of the grimsry reflection (Fig. MO. An aot Wexaggerated dip of multiple reflect: can often be useful in discrininating then from primary reflections. The primary reflection § in Figure ¥5 has a positive reflection coef it and dips from right to left. The first multiple B has twice the dip and reversed polarity. The third mileigie ¢ tas three timgg, the dip of A. The reflection qua! ple C 1s too poor to de: ate polarity raversal. It ty of the primary reflection 4. Remnants of a fourty just be seen. fo) a is quite coascr to have sore than one multiple xtreme cases, the whole 2 45 shows such an ne basement rocks out sea-floor reflection can re ion can 0 the weathe: rock | 26 ves 7 ee| $ | | Source Geophone ae Surface et Seismic reflector \ is : RC ee et re “— ———— Ist multiple t= two-way time eg Rg Og Erg Ey Meg Oe OEasa aa a + shot wonsey9s avaid sme; vousee ‘erdiyaw revojeusoy-sesuy wonsesyes moqeye enea s20u1p srouan erdninas Bo)-B0d arduinw wiedDooy erdnynws ed-vovs soy woj2e07 personas vonseye a1dwye 28{a) Geological Model Strong -ve RC Sea surface Sea bed Rettector 1 tye RE (0) ‘Seismic Expression (S.E.G. normal polarity) { _ irtce SSS SSDI SLOSS ASSIS. Sea bed Water dottem ELAM. mullple of reflector 1 eee aemmeers Reflector | + a 29Geophone Source Geophone Source Surfoce Dipping rellector Se ta mates Direct travel pain “Multiple travel path ‘ig of Ge pevnary settection A. [Courtesy of meziin Protsiers a) 30-20 - : =-- 5 TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS og Ong FT Ogg Og Oey OT ° 7 zwiues vith ceyataltine banenant outcropping at the “ta Bee era “es Eg ey Fin S a1HOW TO IDENTIFY DIFERACTIONS AND REFLECTED REFRACTICNS Distrsctions are a common source of noise and eMiste frou any abrupt interface in the gubsurface. Fer example, the ternination of reflectors against a fault or an unconforaity or tersination ef reflestore against the Pac ade nee arte Pea eect gaa teeee nee of_the dif bie that reflections alee fram. she, aldpoint setieen ‘Ebe Feceiver (Fig. DPI). Secauae thel?-cosvee-ErSpe car be sieatee an Peal structure, it ig important to identify and disregara Giftrections, cross-cutting, ete. Diffractions can have their uses however. in sults situations, fault planes can be found by joining successive diffraction apexes Fig, DE2). Rowever, on reflection profilac, in, nonchorivestat velocity distributions, difiraction curves fran faults wil in genersl, not culainate at fault traces; the relative dteplacesent dapenéa upon depth ane dip of the diffraction source, the attitudes of velocity ineeriaces and the mgattudes of velocity coutraste. (ilaya, 1980). Gensreliy, however, diffractions are troublesome and detract from the appearance of the seismic Section. They can be removed by migration techniques, which restore the Tay paths back to their correct subsurface positions ‘ant eiffractions collapse back tos poiat. Diftractions arising from out of the line of the seisnic section my not be properly aigrated and will remin os remant diriractions. = eo oo Reflected refractions are sound waves which have travelled laterally for sove distance in the subsurface before reaching the geophones. Normally, they do not produce events as muting before stack is designed to renove far trace arrivals due to refracted rays travelling along a bigh velocity layer (ay and Edwards, 1983). However, in certain circunstaces they do appear in seisnic sections. For example, as an upgoing ray crosses each acoustic impedance boundary {t is refracted, the angle of refrection increasing across boundaries with increased acoustic impedance. Above a critical angle the ray is no longer reflected but is instead refracted along the high velocity layer which acts like a leaky wave-guide, an only pe: the signal reached the geophones (Fig. DF3). This results in a refie-tion whose characteristics are dependent on the interval velocity of the layer ané its structure. Alternatively, reflected refractions ars often 5 r and straight, with an associated shadow zone which can easi: aterpreted as a fault. They are commonly developed in and caused by a velocity inversion in the sedize acting interval must be fairly flat lying, or gepundulating, to act as an effective wave guide. The avent ‘A’ iq Figure O74 e is a reflectee refraction developed in association with a major fault J Event 'B’ is the waterbottom mitiple of the reflected refraction ‘A'. The artefact Likely to be confused with a reflected reira nvelope of a series of diffractions. Such a situation could 20 steeply dipping fault plane generates a large number of d terfere with each other to produce no events, excest cn envelope. where only one diffraction is present (ay ane The shape of the envelope will be dependent upon the fa in many eases the flanks _ dq coSe Lt a Eg CS, gag Og ig eg a BE OO OB Sy OR: Py ag SQNOO3S NI _BWHL AVM-OML 150 ttrection trom feuttr (0) GeologyHOW TO RECOGNISE VELOCITY DISTORTIONS IN SEISKIC SECTIONS Changes in rock properties include varying formtion thickness, facies change, etc., which can produce subsurface velocity variations. Secn Neristions can cause considerable distortions in stacked tine sections when compared with the actual depth and thickness relationships. jee, followiag examples are all variatioas on the sane then, nanely that lateral and vertical variations in velocity will distort the esisne picture. Their likely effects mst be understood and appreciated to snterpret seiemic data properly. A whole range of subtle effects ces originate aerely ‘through the steady increase in velocity with depth, dve Prénarily to increased compaction, Velocity anomalies arise because the Sergnte Section thickness of 2 unit, displayed in time, is depeadent on velocity. The greater the velocity the thinner the unit. . For situations where velocity varies laterally the magnitude of the tine anomaly (pull-up or push-down) can be evaluated from the relation: where: Tr is time thickness of the feature causing velocity effect; Ys interval velocity of feature, Vadj interval velocity of adjacent eedinents. Apparent thinning downdip tiypice) example could be @ rock unit of constant thickness and lithology, that appears to thin on the seiemtc section as it dips into a basin. the y and entirely due to a steady increase in interes polocity with depth (ig, ¥D1). However, many units comoaly thia Pasinwards and in these cases the thinning my be exaggerated by iscreasiag interval velocity with depth, 4 depth-converted version of the section would remove the apparent thinning. To depth convert requires detailed knowledge of the interval velocities, which are often unavailable. Vitiia well-explored basins reliable tine/depth relationships can be coastrucres for a variety of lithologies and horizons, enabling gocd mates of interval velocity. In undrilled areas reasonable values of velo (derived from the seiemic stacking velocities) can be used to chess fhe observed thinning falls within the anticipated range. However. this will only work 1f the target unit is thick enough (at least 100s and to nest cases nore than 200-400ms) for a reliable estimation of its interval velocity from seisnic data. Where the thianing is greater (or less) anticipated alternative geological explanations can be considered. Apparent thinning across faults Apparent thissing of a unit from the upthrowm side to dowothromn side of a fault {8 Sonetines observed on a seismic section. In Figure tions X and ¥ can be correlated across the major fauit below 5 interval between { and Y, however, ts about 40s5 th downchrown side thea on the upthrow side, although in depth fhicknesses ore the same. The apparent thinning is believed to be due % 7 USE increase in interval velocity due to the greater burial depth betwe % and ¥ in the downthrown block. “Sone faults have throws which appear decrease with depth, Both gicaily plausible bur are not ver: common. The mast likely explanation for the 35 | a Be Ba Tc Tag i Oe | oo op oore Peo oe eB eS i (a) Geological Model Surface (b) Seismic Expression Time Interval thins in timeTWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS BOR ae Bing Fy OR Bc Fy Eg MT ° ’ 2mices NPT Aeearene chaning aroun 4 fault. See tere ter enparation, Greae ISN eo me ce Re ee ee ek variant on the principle of gradual iner in velocity with deptt described above. “The units on the downthrow: side, being deeper, may Lave gher interval velocity and will therefore appear thinner on a tise The most likely explanation con be investigated by calculating 1 velocities from beth sides of the fault or, alternatively, checking 1f the observed thickness change is vithin reasonable limits for’ possible velocity increase. It may be difficult to determine the cause of She observed thinning in a downfaulted bleck froz a single seismic section. The correct interpretation would depend on correlation with other data in the tunediate ares. This, hopefully, would support either a geological Feason for the observed anomly, (eg. strike-slip faulting juxtasosing different parts of the basin; a period of reverse aovesent on a noraal fault, etc.) or suggest that the relationship could be ascribed to velocity variation Apparent rollcver into faults Seisaic reflections in the upthrown block of a normal fault are sometimes Observed to bend down towards the fault plane (Fig. VD3). Caution should be exercised in interpreting this ‘rollover! as the observed effect caa te explataed in several ways. 1, True rollover caused by reverse drag on the fault plane on listric normal faults. 2. A portion of a diffraction curve, not entirely removed by nigration, appearing to be in continuity with the:reflection. fo 8 3. 4 veloctty artefact caused by the wedge of lower velocity rocks above the fault plane waich overlie the upthrown edge of the fault within tne fault zone. Velocity facts associsted with reverse ‘and thrust faults are also possible. In all cases care sbould be tazen to ensure that diffra: have been recognised and eliminated. Curvature on reflections lying fault zones (skadows) should be viewed with suspicion. tons hin Xvelocity anomalies beneath faults Valse: are common beneath mafer lowdipping faults su thrusts ori detached listric normal faults (Figs. ¥9s and WD5). The lateral 1 variations caused by faulting modify the time struc! per reflectors. Figure D4 shows how lateral velocity. var: associated with growth faults can affect the time structure of a deepe: DS, part of a seisaic section from the inner Trough, erat, 1982). The thrust slices, beneath which reflector 'A" clear: trai Yielocity anomlies associated with salt the subsurface less has a tendency to point 3a.5 ll — lll — ll ld i) a ks cg tg eg eh sea e —Surtoce ve ve va va vn Deep Reflector Ve = Low velocity Deptn Vwi = High velocity (a) Geological Model Surtoce 40LINE H-1 05 Yetocisy pultvup baneach Dhrune faults, The setamie section we faneas Trough, SE_ of Japan (BORE &e nest satees, ermines by the eiftezence 4 MIGRATED TIME SECTION ~ \ oe CB T_T Ce Pe es pe aea 2 4 coy os cus Kee a see mst Situations sound waves travel much faster through the salt layer than the laterally adjaceat sediments. Any reflector beneath the salt will, therefore be recorded sooner on the tine section bensath a alt structure than beneath the adjacent area where the salt layer is’ auch thinner or absent (Fig. VO7). If sufficient velocity information is available, depth Sections can be constructed to correct for the pull-up. Often, there is insufficient data to preclude the possibility that part of the putl-up could be genuine structure, However, the interpreter can use the shape of the pull-up to come to a decision. If the contact between the salt ant the overlying sediments can be seen clearly, and if the pre-salt structure ghows a similar shape, thea a velocity pull-up should be suspected Conversely, if the top of the salt layer cannot be seen clearly but a velocity pull-up fs suspected and sufficient velocity information is available, the degree of pull-up can be used to estimte the salt’ thickness and so locate its top. The pull-up can be used as an approximate guide to predict the time of the top salt layer where this cannot be coon clearly on the seismic section. YVelocsty push dova under shale diaptrs Thick sbale sequences, if undercompacted and overpressured, often show flowage features similar to those of salt, forming domes, wells, etc. The velocity effects, however, are quite the opposite to those of salt, as the shales usually have lower velocity than adjacent sediments. This lengthens the travel time, and the underlying reflectors are pushed dow ty she Opposite sense ‘to Figure VD6. : Figure ¥D8 shows evidence of major shale flovage from about 800ns-1200us between shot-points 1010 and 1170. Subst push-down beneath the shale flowage affects reflections A and b. Sonetimes, even without flowage, undisturbed overpressured shale intervals can produce velocity anomalies. If accurate velocity data te available the anomaly can be, investigated and removed by depth conversion Alternatively, it ie possible to resolve the, anomaly. grashically ty plotting the observed thickening against the observed pusi-down relatice to “a straight line. If the cag is caused by velocity push-dam the points Will approxinate toa straight Line. Obviously the phenomena of pull-us or Bush-down is a useful criterion for distinguishing between salt or shale Giapirs, but could be misleading for a situation wiere salt foras a pillow oF diapir in higher velocity sediments, such as carbonates. In thie situation a push-dowa would appear beneath the salt structure Y terocity anomlies beneath reefs Carbonate reefs are important reservoir rocks in many parts of the world Reefs are associsted with rapid lateral facies and associazed changes, and are so complex that it fs difficult to generalise about tieie detailed attributes. Reef limestones may have higher velocity than the t facies, back and foreree! s y have where surrounded, for example Both situations will to velocity ancaslies on the reef has a higher in will develos, pull-up could structure Ge. pre-ree: 1 interpretation. velocity than 42,lll lil ll atl ig eg eal ty a mo a ia oe4 Gr by bs i ‘Two-woy time in seconds, 9990009009 CaIaasuN HO pulnug of 222 an on the base sale reflector beneath oho nals aiapit Surface = (a) Geological Model Cloystone 3000ms. Travel time through the solt is 1500 ms. faster than the salt reflection, Apporent structure on base salt due to velocity effect 1g claystone producing @ pull-up on the bose Top salt * Surface = ‘eve position of base sait : (b) Seismic Expression (2) castegient mote1000 noo 1200 45 TWO-WAY TIME IN. SECONDSdeveloppent, tf the lower velocity is attributed to exceptional pore: ush-down could have great prospactive interest. High-velocity wedge focussing effect Ge cay 3S) ww Aa overlying Bigh-veloctty wedge con act as a distorting leas and disrupt the reflection from a continuous surface beneate (Fig. V5IO). The figure, taken fron Sheriff (1981), shows, a geological noel snd the correspotiing predicted seismic response. Vbile the top of the baseaeat on the ode! ie Continuous ané saooth, the reflection for it has @ Fine (including cose \ overlap) because of distortion by the overlying bigh-velocity wedge “whion acts as a distorting lens). Two raypaths involving reflecting polats 2 acd F are closely spaced on the reflector (Fig. ¥D10). The raypath from E is shown to miss the high-velocity wedge, whereas the one from F my. be Fefracted by the Bigh-velocity wedge ‘so that it actually crosses’ the raypath fron £. Tals causes the basement reflection to be distorted because of the shallower high-velocity vedge. Over the sorsion of the Surface P the. basezent reflection, is observed twice, once without going through the wedge and once. going thraugh the wedge. Svcs e situation eles produces phantom diffractioss ~ they appear in the seiszic but there 1¢ a0 discontinuity in the reflector. Ey eo een oe Channels often produce a velocity anomaly. If the chasnel cuts dow {ato consolidated material there is a good chance that the channel-fill will have lower velocity than the adjacent rock. Such a chanzel would cause a velocity push-dowa. Channels or canyons in the cea-ted have the came ettect. Figure VD11 shows a deep sea-floor canyon systez with more than 200 milliseconds (about 110m) of relfef which produces undulations ia the 4, usderlying reflectors, eg. reflections A and 3. The magnitude of the qP undulations corresponds to the travel-tine differences between watér in the © scanyon. and in the laterally adjacent cedineits. Depth converted, the Y reflectors A and B-would be planar. In some channels, however, the channel-f111 can have a higher velocity than the surrounding sediments and produce a velocity pull-up. Figure VDI2 shows part of a seismic section . from the south-western African Contintental Margin (Jaunich, 1963). A compacted sandstone fill, is causing severe disturbances in the shallower horizons below shot-point 210¢. Deeper horizons show a pull-up of 200 300m i ao Yfetnay cognate stiead wth eerie an prensa Velocity push-down is a dlagnostic urally the gas-bearing interval has to be thick e ccity contrasts ta 98 a measurable pus- are often observed beneath gas-chimneys lity formation? 2 VDIS shows an ey and associat. ag push-down in the Yor: The push-down effects of gas are shown very a seismiz section across e eflectors beneath the gas push ontact is tilted. The tilt is ckening of the gas-fil led reservoirs. the lateral riking pusb-down cf both a gas- Sex Skofisk Field © VD13, are the gas/wa caused byVYfelocity anomlies caused by varying water depth Aishough act a Fock velocity, a ‘change in water depth can produce fetortion of the seismic time section. In cases where water depth paerences rapidly, the effect can be great encugh to produce an entirely false impression of dip in tine and, in extreme cases, a complete reversal ef _the true dip direction. This effect is illustrated by the setente ections an the North Atlantic slope near the Viluington Canyon, southeace gf Hew Jersey (Morgan and Dowdall, 1983), in Figures VDl4a and be Reflections ta the west of the reefoid mss in Figure VDida dip to the east and there is no structural closure. Figure YDidb shove the line after gepth conversion. The push-down effect of eastuards increasing water depth has been renoved to reveal structural closure associated with the reefoia mass. 5 EO germ ete 0 - re ooJ r ! J J | J ! 4 SEISMIC SECTION SEIsMe SECTION ea eee as _—o eee eee —_— o o Mooet waGHea ve, EVPORITES SEISMIC SECTION —_ SS Per eet eee © © vo + Vetecksy anomalies Beneath cette, (a) 4 reef congened of Bish eiocsty Lineatone encased sn lover velocity shales produces a velocity poitcve on undeelying ceflaccions. (B) Sane as (a) excezeing reef nas 48ae eee the S L ie t } 4o ’ 2uies (cd ection shoving velocity pustedova on reflections A baarine canyons. (Courtesy of Marlin Prottlere 2 50 ‘TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS:SGNOO3S NI 3WIL AVM-OMLSeimaic ssction shoving push-dow Deneatn & gas chianey. SSASSSG5S35 Samm m 2m a>atzzrazasaooa TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS oP er om pe THIN FEET a oe emfoe aos HOV TO DETERMINE STATIC SHIFTS OF MARINE SEIS¥IC DATA If several marine seismic surveys are used in an interpretation, it is common to find systematic differences in the seismic times to a given reflector at line intersections. These differences arise through sis- calibration back to a reference datum and must be resolved before beginning the interpretation. Older marine data especially may not be corrected to a sea-level reference datum. Systematic mis-ties can be upto 60ms or greater, when compared with tires observed in the wells. In such Situations it is aot uncommon to find that the water depths calculated simply from the seismic sections are in conflict with the water dapths measured by the ship's echo-sounder. (The latter are recorded on each section below the shot-point numbers). Factors which may be contributing to this error include the following: 1, the echo-soundar may have been set to record the depth be! instead of below sea-level datum w the ship, 2. the ship's positicn is determined at the antenna; as suggested in Figure SHl, this may be appropriate for echo-scunder but a setback is Fequired to related the ship's position to that of the corresponding common mid-point; 3. the reflection times my not be corrected for the depth of the’source and the streamer below sea-level datum; : ~ 4. the sections my not be processed to bring the maximum of ‘the reflection envelope back to the correct travel tine. Vhen this is not doi the time necessary for the reflection pulse to build up to its maxisun envelope represents a lag, which may be several tens of milliseconds. The echo-sounder, working with sharp-fronted pings of sound, is much less susceptible to this problex. In modern seismic data which is well-controlled and processed, none of the above should happen. All measurements should be. referred to sea-level datum, all positions should be referred to the common mid-point identified by the shot-point aumber and all data should be wavelet processed so that the reflection envelope maxinua occurs at the correct reflection tine. Frequently, Rowever, we have to work with old data, and to harson: ‘lection tines at intersections between lines of different vintage. Then the seavfloor, if deep enouga to be recorded as a reflection by the Streamer, gives us a good way of assessing the lag present on the rst. we and strike the setback problem by comparing observations on di Then, with the locations correc we turn to thi nes. Figure SH2 shows how a dipping sea-flcor may be used to calculet: reflection lag at the two ends of the section, A and 8, the water depts given by the echo-soy are 832 and 607a, The carresronding for the seafloor are 1166 and 363m, depth by the in sea-wate: ves using the ocity. 1g the two-way of raflectic: (We hope thet b-s0u:have a first estimate of the reflection tine lag on this survey: 40me. The true zero time of our section should not be at AS, but at A'B', 40m later @ sane exercise perforned on intersecting lines from another survey my yield a different lag (because of a different source, different instruments, and/or different processing). By correcting both surveys for their individuel lags, we would hope to improve the line ties. In practice, after establishing and correcting the lags, one survey showing a good tie te the well infomation is used as a reference, and the times of all other surveys adjusted to those of the reference survey by applying eppropriste positive or negative static shifts. Once established, the Static shifts must be used consistently throughout the interpretation. Unfortunately, aot all static shifts are systeimtic, eg. onshore, where differences iz weathering zone corrections occur. In such cases the interpreter must make the best of a bad job, recording all mis-ties in the interpretation diary, so that they can be dealt with when preparing contour maps. 55 C oeFOR EP a mapriates by peraiation of (aprintad by peratarion of Tune from tadley & Anstey. 1904) processed. ( S41 Re swtaaer atetance Detwoan posttioniog antenna and coonHOV TO MAKE A VELL-TO-SEISMIC TI Although there are several intuitive approaches to reflector identification there is no substitute for a good well-tie, Tying well snd seismic data ic an essential step in an interpretation and the process begins with an anlysis of the data collected in the well In preparation for tying wells to the seismic a thorough review and analysis of the available well data, including wells adjacent to the area, is essential. The results of the review are used ta: 1) calibrate the seismic to a reference datum. The well tines are assumed to be correct (unless there is evidence to the contrary) and systemtic deviations in seismic tine are corrected by an appropriate static shift; ; ii) detect inter-survey static shifts. If older marine data is being used it is possible that the seismic is not corrected 'to the sea-level, reference datum, This results in a systematic mis-tie between well(s) and seisnic for the entire survey, and can produce seismic tizes upto 60 milliseconds greater than those observed in the wells. Other systematic misties can arise because of phase distortion, wavelet interference, or Ancorfect static corrections. It is not possible to correct for such uon- systematic effects; : 411) to provide a preliminary identification of the seisaic sequence bouadaries and other reflectors for both stratigraphic age and local lithology; ° iv) to provide a deteited anelysic of reflector origins The well log stratigraphy is dominantly lithostretigraphic (arising mainly from the correlation of wireline logs with subordinate palacontologica? control) whereas seismic~deprived — stratigraphy ic both chronostratigraphic and lithoetratigraphic. s can lead to significaat differences in the placing of sequence boundaries (unconformities) between the well and seismic (Fig. WIir. Wells are also often drilled at stratigraphically anomlous locations. The setemic is the more powerful tool for demcustrating unconformity relationships. fowever, in vntavourable circumstaaces, eg. closely-spaced reflecting boundaries, interference can produce a composite waveforz and a tie to the well is no longer straigatforward Before proceeding with the interpretation discrepancies between well and seismic stratigraphy should be noted and, if possible, 2t this early stage, resolved. ven if synthetic seismograms are available, it is recommended that a well ie first established using times and tops extracted from the available well logs. This approach involves a full consideration of tbe raphic implications of the seismic. Jumping strai synthetic seismegram, can focus too much attention on nate! and cha: 2 considerat, y they are first place. Vertical selsuic profiles are mre satisfactory in, with a eflections a direct between 2 measured se: Fae However, in a danger of concentrating too much eflections and character and aot on the geology thet generat Af synthetic seisacgr. 2 prof 87=) mG oO te Go Go Gp Co oe ee Big sond formation Interpreted geology I fom vell logs Geological Model S555 Uncenfersity Bop CBS LL op Ry Seismic ExpressionED & a a Obtain coptes of the completion log, together with calibrated velocity log and density log if detatled studies are required. If no sonic log, synthetic seismogram or Well velocity is available, the interpreter bas a problem. A formation density log can be used to give a very qualitative indication of the relationship between the geological section penetrated by the well and the equivalent seismic section. [f there is some confidence in velocities derived regionally from seiszic and well data, the gamm ray, spontaneous potential (both reflecting lithological changes?, formation density or even resisitivity depth scales can ba converted to time and used as a guide for making the seismic-to-well tie. Where a reasonable log suite is avatlable, the likely problems should not be so serious. If a completion log is not available, use the sonic log and obtain preliminary formation tops from the area geologist. In any case, always discuss the well results with the area gealgoist before beginning the interpretation. Vell results are often reinterpreted and revised as nore information becomes available, and the completion log tops-my not correspond to the latest interpretation. Work through the composite log noting depths to important (relevant to the interpretation) stratigraphic tops and significant acoustic impedance changes. If a reduced scale sonic log, two-way time log or a pict of acoustic impedance on a synthetic seismogran display is available, use thea to help locate the acoustic impedance changes. Tabulate the results-in the format shown in Figure W712 with columns for tops, depth, anticipated sesimic response and two-way time. Tops and depths: The use of subsea depths or depths to a reference datum, rather than driller' depth, 1s recommended. Tabulation of both stratigraphic tops and acoustic impedance contrasts is necessary as they do not always correspond. Stratigraphic tops aay have no seismic response at the well location. Moreaver, the stratigraphic tops based on palaeontology could also be wrong, as generally the palaeostological resolution is much poorer than that of the seisaic or my not correspond to a significant acoustic impedance change. For example, ia the northera North Sea refleétions from tuff beds in the Palaeocene/early Eocene Balder Formation, provide an excellent regional marker horizon, The top of the Balder formation is picked by geologists at the first occurrence of volcanic tufi (Fig. WIS). There is usually no sigaificast acoustic contrast at this level. The main acoustic impedance occurs several tens of metres deeper Simply tying the seismic to the top Bélder Formation will result in a tie 20-50ms above the min seismic reflection. Significant acoustic impedance changes should be used to supplement the stratigrpabic traps for correlating the well and seisnic tines, and locating the lithological changes associated with the main reflectors. Select only major acau: impedance changes or those that may be especially relevant, eg. ne: or within an objective horizon or sone other critical level. Tt is not necessary to select every change on the log - the main purpose is to suppleneat stratigraphic tops and prov: seismic correlation. Ve should also renember that reflections from t and base of units thinner thaa half of the sevent interfere. Tuning thickness and maximum amplitude occ quar the wavelength for units with Mgher or lower acoustic izpedance thas adequate control for wel 60,the composite log. As mentioned above, a reduced-scale sonie curve, or better still accustic impedance curves, produced as part of a synthetic seisnogran display, are ideal for detecting acoustic impedance boundaries. Select sone acoustic impedance changes in the shallower section (1.0-2.5 seconds) as {t is generally easier to use these points to confirm the correlation between well and seisnic tine and to detect static shifts. Remeber to use the caliper log-to check that the velocity changes are real and not caused by bad hole conditions. Deeper events are auch more likely to be influenced by processing factors, structure, etc. and are sometines difficult to correlate to the seisaic without reference to shallower horizons. In the vicinity of the objective(s), or if there is some vacerteinty in the sonic-derived acoustic impedance boundaries, use the density log to supplement the sonic. Sometimes the density varies in the Opposite sense to velocity and chenges in acoustic impedance and. therefore, reflection strengths do not correspond to the velocity changes. This is often the case with salt layers. The deasity log can be used to verify the sonic log results, and to locate other acoustic impedance changes due to density variations not producing a change in the sonic curve. Anticipated seismic response: The anticipated seismic-response depends on the seismic display polarity. For lines of normal polarity: 1. an increase in acoustic impedcance should give a trough (white) at the boundary, @ decrease should give a peak (black) at ‘the boundary. Indicate with a syzbol in the table whether a peak, trough or no response is expected (Fig. W12). Tworway Time: A problen can arise in calculating the seisnic two-way time 4f there is no calibrated velocity log relating time to depth. Usiag the integrated transit times on the sonic log alone, it is possible to calculate interval velocities and elapsed time between the reflections, but these still lack a fixed tine depth reference. One possible way around the problem, givea suitable data, is to hang the tie on a prominent reflector of fairly certain origin and fix all other levels above and below dy reference to this datum. For’ exeaple, in areas of the North Sea whe Upper Cretaceous chelk is developed, the top chalk reflector can often bo used as a datum on which to hang sonic log derived tines A perfect fit should not always be expected as the error in the ITT can be significant If a calibrated sonic log is available the tesk is mich simpler, ag she fines corresponding to any dapth can be read directly from the log However, note that the tines givea on the log are frequently one-way trave tine to the seismic data, but the depthe msy correspond to a different datum, eg. the dr: Fig, kelly bushing or rotary table. Also note that the colibrated travel times’ values should be used. No further adjustuent for emsll discrepancies with check shot tims is necessary. From the table of depths, ti and anticipated acoustic response prepare a well-tle strip cn film (or any suitable transparent materia!) on the same section. The well-tie strip can then be overlain the well location. Sefcre doing this, however, es the seisz: mic section at er a EB FE BE EBwell location if the tie is being sade to a migrated seismic section. but thea only if it is a dip line. If we are tying the well to an unnigrated line, the tie point will not be at the well location but at some distance dowadip from the well location (Fig. WIA), The actual distance dowdip depends on the reflector dip, If only a strike line is available then neither the unigrated or migrated line will tie dipping reflections. The tie can be more complicated if the well is not located on the seismic lo: and some of the reflections are dipping. The same considerations apply as before for the unmigrated versus migrated lines, but even with migrated data, there. is the added complication that the best tle-point ts aot necessarily the shot-point where the setenic line passes closest to the well, The best tie-poiat is found by contouring the dipping reflector locally around the well location and then using the countour trend to establish the best tie-point (Fig. WIS). If there are several dip: reflectors, with different dip directions, there could be several well. polats on the seismic line, each one suited to a particular reflect direction. Once the best tie-point has been established, a tie is made by overlaying the vell tie strip at the well location and observing the mitch. Doee the well-strip tle the seismic with the anticipated sesinic responce, corresponding to-at least some of the siapler reflectors (originating from a single acoustic impedance contrast) and do unconformities concur between well stratigaphy and. the seiemic? Ve should reneaber that on seismic Processed with a alnimn phase type wavelet, reflections do act oven begin until after the two-way tine of the reflection. Picks made with this type Of seismic wavelet will always be late with respect to travel tine. If, after taking all these considerations into account, the well strip and Seismic do not tie, try the following: 4) check that the well is located correctly on the base map, 11) check the shot-point intersection at the corrrect well location. 111) chack the seismic polarity. If all the above are correct try the following: - Move the well strip downwards (ie, to increase observed tines), upto about 60 nillisecands, 'to counteract any static shift left in the seismic. Such Ris-ties can be caused by incorrect norm]. mave-out and/or static correction, incorrect corrections for weathering or other low velocity dstuz corrections on land, and offshore the possible use cf inca: datuz corrections for gun and cable depths. It should not be subtract tize from the strip (ie, move ‘t upwards) to make a he seismic has been overcorrected during cal!) concentrate on flat or lowdipping strong ri g froma Single acoustic iapedance contrast in the shallow : ortunately, 2 static siift established in the shallow not recain constant, but may vary with depth dus caused by processing: instrumentation effects. velocity log calibrations, migration effects on dipping strata, etc 2 earlier review of the seismic should Pay special attent 62stratigraphy. It is most important that significant differences between the geology derived frou well logs and seismic are resalved, or good explanations found for the discrepancies, before proceeding with the interpretation. At this stage, it is very useful to incorporate and tle any synthetic seisnograns and vertical seienic profiles to the seismic. This my help Fesclve outstanding problers between the well strip and seismic and give a more detailed correlation to both reflectors and character. The choice of which synthetic seisuogran display to use is a ustter of trial and error but the polarity and type of wavelet should be the sane as used for the seismic processing (eg. zero-phase, minimn-phase, etc.). Often a version showing primaries and short term multiples provides a good match. The synthetic seismogran can be overlain or spliced in the seismic section at the appropriate locetion. 4 good well tie is one in which there is a gocd correlation of shape and amplitude for peaks and troughs between the synthetic seismogran and seismic data. Vhen comparing real and synthetic gata, more emphasis should be placed on correlation of high amplitude and continuous, rather than discontinuous, reflections. In most cases, a reasonable tie will have been established and the min Feilectors dated with soue confidence. However, detailed correlation between setsmic response and the more closely spaced acoustic impedance boundaries may still be uncertain and require a sore detailed analysis of reflection origins using an expanded scale synthetic seisnogran. 63 CT GP EO TERM BP a er. l fSonic tog > Increasing velecty ‘Top alder Fm, picked ——>* by geologists by regional og correlation, ot ‘occurrence of shallowest tuff bee. = Geological pick (no acoustic impedance contrast) 1Bms. difference 1 oir ccoustie impedence contrast, - Balder Fm, F toterbedded 10m. timestones clays and tufts, ‘Tersiany Voleanie tulE Buiter Ta, in the Morthesn HOFER seteCorrect Ce point well ATTA, Seismic tine Reflection trom reflector A woulé te feo shallow in well o~ Reflection peint o'> Assumed location ‘He of veld te selsase fata for « digging rettecror and Best tie point for sequence 8 Contour trend of sequence D \ ‘Best tie point for sequences AondC g ‘ “Contour of sequence 8 oe orm er | ! mE oo| | PICKING TIPS Find sequence boundaries ~ this is the key to efficient picking. Recognising seismic sequences subdivides the seismic section into episodes of deposition and erosion. These episodes can then be analysed and internal reflections picked. For example, sequence A was deposited, subsided, infilled by $ prograding beds 2.3,4 - which are sequence B, Progradation stopped sand the infant sequence 5,6,7,8,9, Meee ieee from sequence C, The natural sub-division into sequences is made by observing reflection terminations. Eases of sequences are recognised by: eS ae Seer or beselep rihen we are rok sore if HS onlp or conmop Tops of sequences are recognised by: Truncation Tee lop La Yarking schem . Fmention + Hoala Baselap = = prs a SS # SF lrg ttl Ft wih OE ah Gor hin ‘haere ong Shen = use a red penetl Vhat to do when reflections split MSE EE pee pec hy ca when pry egal se SE Gili rrcrtas ci tae Ee oe seue ving 27 Onlapatig or dovenlepping reflection smimivigerce FR nad P fee we wes ef E. vec Tncation ond helo Slay In when Ze direction of reblectn termnrabiins 7 wearin tak the robeoop pitting agains the Beriore of ching Teese Ane WPS war Butts ~ rey were 2 fret out of 2! 66Vhere to pick - Assuming we have either mininun or zero phase. Minimum phase: it is usually better to pick high - remember reflections start only at the acoustic inpedance boundary. Clearly ‘the situation is more complex when interference occurs Do not pick beneath a strong peak unless you have # good reason - Femember the pesk has had to come from somewhere. Either it te from a negative RC cr an even shallower positive RC (for normal polarity SEG data) : el i a BR; Tee I. cto enee fee ee pte a aa aed cele eh upne seteade then « pen ox gee seth pen Interference: this mecses-up the above guidelines, and the effects cannot generally be evalusted without detailed kmowledge of the interval in question. 87VELL 70 SEISMIC TIE Otnval technique) Odjectiv : to relate time and depth and identify reflections. SOBIC LOG OFLY - a problea, as there is usually no time datum ac the i sonic log starts at an unknown time interval below the surface. Solution: {¢ we can identify at least one reflection, the intergrated sonic travel times can be used to provide times of horizons or reflections above this datua. Sere peigsan SCRA Ontet, B'S, @ Btw ened pee ae Oe eeferne ddfe, >} ess Shpe 1-3 ean be reversed, hiake @ aisech= Sime eens 9 tec tt ts poet aa Problens: The sonic log measures velocity over very short travel path in Dorehole wall at very bigh frequencies. Errors (or differences) between sonic times and seismic for the same interval are common and can be Several tens of ms. over a thick (several hundred ms) interval. Be t prepared to ‘adjust’ (fudge) the values. This is called pragnatien! t ] - ‘CHECK SHOT OR VELOCITY SURVEY A geophone clamped in the borehole measures one-way travel tine to aknown om depth. Several readings are takea at each tere Whee FE nl eee depth. Typically control points are 10- r “ 50m apart. The results are compared with the integrated sonic to produce an edited and calibrated version of the velocity oe ios. q, as, ( 3 To use a calibrated velocity leg staply: 1. read the one-way tiae corresponding ¢ a the selected depth; 2, evaluate ‘the anticipated seismic | Bee nd his tel cores eed ne emma oars il wed ol te response from the sonic and density log, (= { i mm, pe of seismic pulse and seisaic eS hagated (177) . For example, a minisum phas MSTA YS polarity. For exanpl inisum phase, normal polartty (SEG) processed section Zl fe stertevence should produce: Fy Eee repectars z ae 4 lnteeference Sey complicates the situation, ord con be aibreute 4 eweluste. we need fe evens wavelet Shoo ond Pega eeTHE TIE: Assuming flat dip, perfect migration (and the correct location) well and seismic tines should match for interference fre= reflections. They often do not! This is 2 potential nis-tie. Reasons: There ere numerous possible explanations. Seismic tines are often longer than well surveys (due to acquisit{on, processing delays, Phase shifts, incorrect corrections, ete.) A fit can often be found by adding (occasionally subtracting) tine to the well times. Several tens of milliseconds may be needed, ‘There are situations when well and seismic times will not correspond: 1) When tying to dipping reflections on an unmigrated seismic section. better te pale me — reflector & refctan 2) When tying to 2 migrated trike Mine for a dipping surface at the baa reflector Inigrsted clemic eeehon — migration has no LE tin of reflection actual atereceD09 between seit Sectin end tePecion The situation improves as the seismic line orientation approaches the dip direction. 9) hen tying a well that does act lie on a seisnic section - unless you are lucky? Hf dips are low the best tie point will perhpas be where the well and sefsmic are closest - but fo> dipping surfaces the best tie point will probably be along strike. ' ©) Mop " wer 69 ON a RL, ere ee reeSynthetic Selemograms - a more sophisticated, but better, approach? Synthetic selsnograns are made by convolving @ wavelet that actches the seismic section with a reflection ce hte coeffielent series calculated fromthe “ sonic and (elso hopefully) dessity (out } ¢ | Acnustie Inga Meety taped respon Pens not always) logs. 4] In practice the process may be a bit nore sophisticated but the objective is to match the synthetic trace with the seismic section. If it fits all is well, but it will also aot fit in the three cases Listed above. a Ge Go & Synthetic seismograms also often do not fit for the following reasoas. The synthetic seismogran was designed to match a particular seismic survey. If yours is different - a new survey perhaps - it is 20 use pulling a synthetic seismogran out of the file and hoping st will fit. It might ~ but beware! Synthetic seismograms are often designed for a particular objective and Processed with a seismic wavelet af a frequency that matches that of the Objective depth. The resulting interference effects above and below will * not and should not be expected to match the seiemic if you are investigating an interval above or below the design Zone. Moral: Ideally make your own synthetic setsmogram to match your setsnic and your objectives. Do not rely ony old synthetic sefsmogran that may be lying in the well file. c$§eee eee SeSEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY TERMINOLOGY Seismic reflection profiles have the potential to bridge the gap between litho and chronostratigraphy. Vail et al (1977) argue the case for the ehronostretigraphic (time-stratigraphic) nature of reflections using examples from log correlations and seismic. In favourable circumstances reflection relationships can be used to deduce chronology, while reflector configuration and attributes can be used to infer lithology and depositional setting. It has long been recognised that the rock record ts divisible {nto depositional sequences, comprising many individual beds, within which the strata are genetically related. Depositional sequences are bounded at their top and base by unconforalties and/or their correlative conformities (Fig. SS1). The term unconformity is used here in the sense of Mitchum et al (1977) who defined 4t as “a surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates younger strata from older rocks and represents a significant hiatus (at least a correlatable part of a goechronologic unit uct represented by strata)". Unconformities are recognised By discordant reflection relationships and, in seismic stratigraphic jargon, are termed sequence boundaries. Sequence boundaries taclude: 1, disconformities, an unconformity separating parallel strata where there has been significant erosion. Generally palaeontological control is required for the recognition of disconformities and they are difficult to recognise seismically; 2. paraunconformity, an unconformity between parallel strata where there hes been little erosion: They are alsa difficult to identify seismically; 3. angular uncenformity, an unconformity where tilting and erosion of strata below the unconformity hac been followed by deposition; 4. other discordant relationships, eg. the progradation of inclined strata across underlying flet-lying beds; Depositional sequences, lying between seqience boundaries, reprecent a geologic episode during which the depositions] eavironpent(s) and procegs(es) were essentially constant, eg. a prograding delta systen and its Co¥val basinal mds. At the level of seissic resolution, seismic sequences approach the duration of standard stratigrephic stages, eg. Bathonian, Oxfordian, etc. However, seismic sequences are not directly analogous to the stratigraphic | formatione which are based on lithostratigraphy and are comscnly time diachronous. Seismic interpretation using these concepts has become popularly known as seismic stratigrapty and has provided a whole new approach to relating Seisnic reflections to geology. Brown and Fisher (1980) provide a good discussion and introduction to the topic. Numerous papers in AAPG Memoir 26 (Payton 1977) provide further inforsation. To help etaadardise this approach and provide a basis for more detailed analysis, a set of terme have been widely adopted to describe reflector relationships. Figures S31 and SS2 display tke suite of reflection terminations that define vacouformable boundaries of # depositional sequence and sequence boundary internal struct Figures S83 and SS4 display possible combinations of ‘tor relationships and how they can be used to estimate the magnitude of uncanforaities. n COOL Oe Gem, eee, ee ee re a: malfas) Cay) Ln o tl ag? oe tee? ce ete nar Antone Kien su UPPER BOUNDARY SS EROSIONAL TRUNGATION = TOPLAR 3 CONCORDANCE LOWER BOUNDARY —, 1 ‘ONLAP z DOWNLAP 2 CONCORDANCE 8 ( saserap——_ ous of so4t to wpper boundary ofa sequence. Al. Ersonal cncaoe: sata 4 gp of given sequence ‘apuot upper boundary pnily a reat of onc leg. ted sev termina apna evtning boron ‘tonoa suface. or tantooial seat teesoatag aga ner Chae artace AZ Topp. talline fra at op given sequace wrmsaie alas upper Dounaary macly ater of sonseponion (ef. forts! sate reatong ‘gues oveyog boop ace a base-evel equim where no comou opinion ook past 3. Topeoneat ‘ice tinue sbch sai ttep of given sequence do net wrmnne opine oper Poe 'B. Retatns of att lower boundary surtce ofa seqeence BL Oslap. ease a sequenet itl hascomal sata vermin propesively sas ltl Igeinedsutace. 2 ill ieinee sev termonte pei pogrteney gan ‘nese ol pester a elaaton, BL Dowalap: a bae of sequence neal ince Hrta ermoue Soreaip Pager Sey agate iialyNeraowal ot incnedsutice eg inital inkned at teresting nuiet. Sorabail sre) BX, Basecoueordane: sata at bus of aequence do a0 ermine apusutfove Sou roventwina ‘ayncanion uncowronsrry: % ukcoeSamirn i patiection selationmaps, (a) Aelationshipe a she top 36 8 72pana, susesnauet, rd = me ae at Bas SSS TRG rion Some modiying wesc rection coir schoo compu sono oruave Seine rftucion pater ntrpvedm progading cinoma eS ES aS E> SS Ss Some fl auc ase wt 73o coe Gaus! pee ert ee eee 1 baie — S The following description of reflector types te largely taken from Mitehus et al (977). Discordance is the main criterion used in determining « sequence boundary. The type of discordance is the best indicator of whether an unconformity results from erosion or non-deposition, Two sata types of termination are recognised. kta the lateral termination of austratum at its original deposition 1 Truncation is the termination ofa be subdivided into more specific categories which are descrited below. They are deternined with greater confidence where several strata within a sequence show a pattern ‘of discordance along a given surface. Table St summarises the terminology used to descrite reflection terainations, configurations and geometry. ratum resulting from post-deposttions) erosion, Theae two types can Baselap: Onlap and dovalap (Fig. SS1 and Figs, 995-10) Baselap is a general term for lapout at the lower boundary of a depositional sequence. Two types are recognised. Onlap is baselap in which an initially sub-horizontal stratum laps out against an initially inclined surface, or in which an initially inclined stratum laps out against a surface of greater initial inclisation. Downlap is baselap in which an initially inclined stratum terminates downd!p against an initially sub-horizontal or incline surface. Usually onlap and dowmlap can te readily distinguished, but later structural complications my necessitate Teconstruction of the depositional surface ta determine the type of baselap. Onlap and downlap are indications of non-depositional breaks (htatuses). Successive terninations of strata at their depositional limits along the initial depositional~surtace produce an increasing depositional hiatus ia the direction of dowlap or onlap (Fig. S84). Toplap (Figs. SSi, 7, 10 and 12) Toplap is lapout at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence. It is a fora of offlap. Initially inclined strata, cuch as foreset beds and clinoforns, may show this relationship. The lateral-terminaticns updip my \"staper and approach the upper boundary as¥aptopically. On seisnic sections, ‘the resolution may be such that the toplap lapout interval is too thin aad the reflections appear to terminate abruptly against the upper surface at a high angle. Toplap is evidence of a non-depositional hiatus, Occasionally the reflector relationships can be very complex. Figure SS12 shows an .example of a sequence(s) displaying offlaps. This is a form of toplap and ‘the upper sequence boundary follows the offlap terminations. Truncation and erosion (Figs. SS4, 7, 11, 12 aid 19) Erosional truncation is the lateral termination of a stratus ty erosioa. It occurs at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence., . Truacation is evidence of an erosional hiatus. Sometines toplap can reseable truncatice (due to limited vertical, resolution) and distinction between the two may be difficult, but in the latter case reflections tend to retain parallelisa as they tarninate abruptly against the upper boundary rather than taper to it. Both apparent truncation and aiatus of a stratua can also occur by structural diéfuptioa. The truncation can be produced by faulting. Slumping, salt intrusion, igneous intrusion, ete. Distinction betwecs Structural asd erosional truacation say be difficult, su: should es tex Althougs structural truncation aay produce discordast reflections and appear to be a sequence boundary, suct a disruyeion sos any, regional chronostratigragbic sigaificance with respect +2 es and biatuse: 74EROSIONAL, NON: DEPOSITIONAL UNCONFORMITIES UNCONFORMITIES conconpant_ ssove covconount sove SOT TS MOOK? EROSIONAL: ANGLAR/STAUCTURAL, TORLAP eciow omar avove EROSIONAL! ANGULAR/ STRUCTURAL THLTING 08 ORIGINAL OEFOSTIN ATRTUOE BELOW ERosiont ancuanrsrfucrunat, EECOROANT BELOW omar asove 2 | LL a, ee re TORCORGNT BELOW ctl Lepout Rellecton Terminations cm oncogis EE oraer —— EROSIONAL) ANGULAR/NON- STRUCTURAL, . a Enesionat EROSIONAL: ANGULAR/NON- STRUCTURAL, ond $$ fer aepostions! Uncontormities ( 75 ITt c= roo co ooo oe me ae ee2, rn re Ja epence barony Sequence baendory CO rl f 7oa sccion shoving AWBELE lowangie oniap. (Gourseny of rr “Kans Ramee Ae estH 3 8 3 ee a ee aJ q 34 Lee me ee ne ee Seisaic facies analysis By combining the analysis of stratal relationships with the attributes of the individual reflector, it is often possible to build up a quite detailed picture of the cubsurface geology. The attitude, continuity, pinchout, Tapout or truncation of reflections permit the interpreter to use the Selsnic section to infer superposition, depositional topography, erosion, non-deposition and other stratigraphic aspects. Seisnic facies parameters and their geological interpretation are listed in Table S2. Fitted into this wider framework the attributes of the single, or small package of reflections can be grouped into characteristic seismic facies, Feich can often be directly translated into the most likely lithologies and Gepositional environneat. For sone lithologies the external form of the resulting deposit can be diagnostic, eg. salt diapirs, In mst instances, however, the translation of seismic sections to geological cross-sections involves two distinct phases. Firstly, the recognition of the principal seismic sequences which are correlated throughout the seisnic grid to provide a first order tim Seisnic stratigraphic framework. This caa be illustrated by individual seismic sections and/or by structural and {sopach maps. Secondly, lesser reflection units and individual reflections within each Sequence are analysed to provide a detailed picture of possible lithology and, by implication from this, Lithofacies. Seismic facies are Charactertsed by responses displaying distinctive reflection continuity, Configuration, amplitude, frequency, external geometry and possible nterval velocity, Detafled analysis of individual reflectioas permits © Greater “Gophistication in the iaterpretation of facies through evaluation of wavefors, axplitude, eto. Reflection configuration Reflection configuration is the shape of a reflection or surface. Some depocitional enviroments produce charateristic reflection configurations. for example, a prograding delta produces a characteristic reflection package consisting of subparallel topset reflections, inclined foresst or Elinoforss and subparallel bottomset reflections ia the basinal area. Ye Gan-infer lithology from bath the location and also individual reflector attributes. For example, sigmoidal prograding configurations are more Likely ‘to be shale-prone than are oblique prograding vonfigurations, slumps tend to occur in sbale-prone or carbonate-prone sequences, etc ‘The philosophy of, and assumptions implicit in, the above discussion ts that seismic interpretation is not serely a mechanical following of reflectors through a grid, but can go far beyond this prosaic ambition. Seismic, interpreted imaginatively and intelligently, can reveal details o: depositional environment, lithology, rock properties, etc. Tables $3, St, 55 and S6 from Browa and Fisher (1980) descrite how this approach can be implemented vtiliciag the relationship betweea seismic facies, depositional enviroanent and lithofacies for parallel and divergent, progradational, novnded and draped, and onlap aad fill reflector configurations, The approach act only extracts more information from the seissic but can also be used in a predictive manner as an interpretational eid, The seismic section, thern data grid, a sinimom phase rev Techniques’ eeLithotypes in these intervals without the help of well data. The oldest and thickest carbonate interval is present from 1285-1470ss. The carbonatés are easily recognised by their associated high amplitude reflections, These mintain their character over large areas facilitating mapping of lateral seisnic facies change. The underlying sequence, undifferentiated from Perno/Triassic arenacecus sedinente, hac a less characteristic seismic expression at this locality. The interval ts seienically quiet, its base being picked using the low angle truncation of the underlying Carboniferous, eg. at 1460ms, shot-paint 2250 Carboniferous: In figure SS4 the Cartontferous can be subdivided into two main sequences; an upper _,sequence of hgh to moderate continuity reflections (faulting spoils the continuity), truncating beneath the Perm/Triassic Arenaceous Group unconformity; lower sequence of subparallel, low frequency reflections (eg. 1860m9 at shot-point 2100), onlapped by reflections in the overlying interval. The upper sequence consists cf Upper Carboniferous Coal Keacures, “which onlap the underlying Lover Carboniferous Linestone, The positive nature of the top Lower Carboniferous Limestone reflection coefficient con be determined from the onlap relationships. The strong top limestone reflection bas a duration of around 40ms (fron the os8ét of the lead cycle peak to the end of the follow cycle trough) and can be used to demonstrate that the seismic has a frequency of sbout 25%2 at this depth. Figure 15, 18, part of a seismic section through part of a complex shallow water prograding sequence, shows examples of clinoforms, onlap, dowalap, toplap and truncation. Apart from the characteristic overall shape and internal structure, other important diagnostic characteristics are the changes in amplitude and continuity. Amplitude and continuity increase gradually up the clinoforms with come of the highest amplitudes in the upper pert of the clinoform zone. Reflection spacing is also at a maximum here. This is the zone where shallow water sands and silts and more basinal clays have a maximum {nterfingering. These reflecticne pass-up into the subparallel high amplitude, good continuity reflections of the topset sequence ~ in this particular case, probably consisting of interbedded sands, clays and ignites, In detail the prograding sequence is. very complex. The ultimate goal of any interpretation, within the limitations and constraints imposed by resolution, data quality, etc., is to identify indtvidvel lithologies. The examples in Figures SS14 and SS15 show how difficult this can be in practice. Other seismic examples can be found in Brown and Fisher (1980), Payton (1977), AAPG Memoirs 29, 30," 32, 34, journals such ds AAPG Bulletin, Geophysics, Marine and Petroleum Geology and occasionally other journals. It is generally much simpler to identify a seismic facies, typical of a depositional environment and consisting of several possible lithological ccmbinations, rather than to ideatify individual lithologies 85 BO Em Br eR pe ee a eS.ees Eames Saeeme mm meeKems mess shows very clearly not only elements of the local stratigraphy but also the faulting style. Using the two-way tines measured beneath shot-poiat 2150 as a reference the following can be observed: Tertiary: A zone of high frequency, low amplitude reflections with poor continuity characterised the upper 435 ms of the section. Interpretation of this shallow interval is made difficult by muting effects of the processing. For iastance, the water bottom reflection is very attenuated. Great care should: te taken in using reflection character in an interpretative manner in the. shallow section. However, the effects are partly geological as the sequence consists of Tertiary marine clays with interbedded thin sands and occasional carbonates. A sequence boundary, recognised by truncatioa of underlying reflections, is preseat at about 270ms at shot-point 2350. The sequence boundary, at around 300ms beneath the shot-point 2150, is extremely difficult to detect. Cretaceous: Upper Cretaceous chalk is present from 435 to 520m. The top eaalz is a sequence touadary ~ low angle onlap can be seea to the right of shot-point 2150, The lapout of the onlapping reflections can be used in tais minigum phase data to position precisely the top chalk pick at the onset of the black peak. This {s exactly where we would expect the pick to be located, as the top chalk reflection coefficient is strongly positive and so should appear as a peak, with a trough follow cycle, in aiaimum passe data displayed with reverse polarity. The width of the top-chalk Feflection, arcund 25ms, can be used to demonstrate a frequency of about 402 for the seiemic at around 500ms. The character and continuity of the top chalk reflection {s extremely stable, a characteristic. of reflections from laterally extensive carbonates or chalks. The base Chalk, characterised by a negative reflection coefficient (we anticipate a trough followed by a peak) is also a sequence boundary characterised by truncation of the underlying reflections. Botice how the truncated reflections ‘terminate against the follow cycle peak of the base chalk reflection. Truncation terminations are a poor criterion to use for locating the correct position of a sequeace boundary and pick. Apart from the ebaracteristic reflection coefficients, there is little else that can be observed in the seisaic that is immediately indicative of a chalk or carbonate. .The interval is just about thick enough, however, for its interval velocity to be assessed from a seismic velocity analysis display. A Lower Cretaceous sequence \is present from 520 to 570m. The thin interval is identified using the sequence boundaries developed at its top and base. Both sequence boundaries are characterised by truncation below, for which the negative reflection coefficients (at least at shot-potnt 2150) can be deduced. The thinness of the interval aitigates against the development of characteristic reflections, as does the probable litaolegy - predomiuantly clays with sone sands. The negative reflection coefficieats at top and base of the sequence indicate a lower interval velocity than that of the Chalk above and the Triassic sediments below. Triassic: The Triassic interval is beautifully depicted by the seisate. In this part of the basin the Triassic is characterised by four intervals curing which evaporites and associated cartonates were deposited. . These Lithofacies produce packages of hign amplitude, high continuity reflections which can be picked easily between 640-740ms, 330-920ns and 100-1050me exe! quality of the seismic data enables the facies relationsbips to be anpoed consisting of claystones, silts and aandetones, produce a } seisaic response and it is difficult ognise individual @ intarventag 86i le ld ld ld et ls a ad de ssmim ™ z > aWl tae a ne ae mais Naa Aeneas Prapein ‘Depanional Enveamenlbanngs Seacea | Shumate guBtfaailetSin ATPL, Banal Pin Refictian | Prato] Prlefigny cverent Pa gneaiy | Paaelignty Songurtiod Srerget ip onanekceeptyaverseny —|padwstineanl | gagralner deerpent near | new grow aso Fetodetasan” | grstinerint Bape” | ds aeraias ohio eit Ro aeren, Tiatices | Alernaing | Shalow marine dea hon | Meander and alma wea ‘ete Umextone sandstnetale wading upward | channel ndstoe | hemislape cave Srneion| dha | a uber 8 pat, | el Raoaatn maa | ta ten Gein’ [proldaacer duces) | findetu uncon) gercr tampon Gepost” | Except wnere tooep i absent | pola Neeastons | tndsform devon Enaafoen doosits | seoonit Geamaury | Shestiee to, | Shesvne wo wecye Hyped | Sheesice to Sheaitne a edee oe Sredge hazed | ertabulr cn soa primate, | weage sages | shaped, ray be Sauce | Srabuars | Tlenaculgrbginedes af | Tadaly Hghiy wey Serysabie | Sibicne self edge wien. |longteiOborsor | drtped or sie: tine: outs fault andeikaver “| febey commonly. | et moandy gener Gnorm | nines; elavelysabie, | Sitedindwocee’ | Sysabie Duktorm] Siosidence | tpitoem mirigenet on Subgenee may elfrapd buses and Pale ateniy eo alle in deepater dla iat Sewanee Tiel | Way wade | May pase tndwara win Gadelundaard nia | Cormeniy gades rdatonships | andvard into | aol syseme and basnward | refesvontiee mph | Shltead Ske cousal faces, | Into predetafite cinotarms | nditonefce:®” | ounded ori Sed Sataward | (onshet) or powecauited "| slwal acer grde | or sone cinctorns int thetnari| prelasone es Stsinwardinta upper | Say grace nec eatonate faces (eepreaer tog) ‘ie platy fon dee | Int Seeoater feesteabonste ee grade busnward] mounds ors moved intoimoucionm or Inte Sope efor Trareot (Coa, | Rea coca aing Une nace | Coy $eeedaes” | Sndlor Set | orbuclrpedrupeeraurice | Gvtenal Acar | fopanatuct iperupper sit: | may be eroded brsubmarse, | tpiaiy be mpsiar | wy casa Rextroe _ | aotenatae wrice wy] merranre | celal sore sutace may be | Splipoed by prewttahiope "| Sueeegeersly | Sinaformy oe ‘ded by'ube | Gholorme ten elfiiwey | eareorentctan | Soded mounds, frarne cryons| eococantrtn pradera” | Sstarcaly renie | Goperaartce, Gislustacecen|orelf butcammenin | enalorms (osaa) | trey eroded earner] Sevbante rbot weston ‘esboeed ya Reais | Fes Taw dea Foc cal) | aro low aR | Tose ligtte of marine vanigrecsre spose ‘eis win dia palo? SGinprocers ance ruinaey with ae Fone Conary [Fis igh in dela front, coal] | Dizontranon | Ripe giieind mete taniyeive| anna es fow moderate ese lane malar of gee pi rosea where inser vei cle ont Broader in gla Geaigaracr banca ting Savmelblcior Rerowerimemer dea avorm bead: Dials ana pee a wnere in ougot Exndecity wit gla front > suamasy of facies cnaracterisad Sp pars 30 Sat Gunpnby Brown oa Fane: Sepa Enema TRE | spe: auacte wn ocean: ced wih prong sel seer ol pee | rede el oled oem Beit everga exis er Slopes oubcited mi progeaing set WEF naples Sek Cates eecion |S Toto Dot dts fserton|regacrionln ep srotie; | Pepataiend nda profle hunmaty, srr aoe pute gingied nd | tomounded nome peftingurar nee oontan iovnded nite patie | erp son tn sascaione so heh TBST | Hemp oe Iai in] On shel rds leper sow tose ror Scan | azamirlaotor: tbmasne | fino nd oe canton seis ca ‘resiton | Hs canmon'e wer cnalor: | bmarge ultcamponien erect Ere eres cy tan | asian add cacao A nee Sereand uc ot cinco) | fn noe eins Sesto aegsted in det>” | Beyond se ed pela deep sone water bayent lf ecpe | tec Sal atta areca Bo {ed ay stand and foe oat fa sf dep-raur dope cate mio prgey eft ef pied pray oy fotos Seta rd for a epee | Lenchapd pe peas ——| Comper ingramey win apc sanclicepol es, [Baxi dtd mdrcva'n- | eortaret Maae hn anata ee, unce |huirefinrand pene ure | tulsa nan ie wacaeasse eich eke pai ay tect fas | uct ar arene ciel ome eee ‘Pact ouale cw sigoy | namic cet essing tay taste eae Deed eantgunttnsriy | Indforms tect tarnghy ork detec ieced by gown fags | Wir acpi esas oe ase, ins oe reenter of edinene : Semone eatvcy writers itn vie nore rs Ta Gadeund ea Tea ap as ae oa Geo tsninos| aaifattorm dee cinine | eaulisador Gratien) Geeta Due Balcehertet elton | Somap mio tucal in forisorn or oeelece lento] ecsans may” | fer may cnr ates apna tite cowndip inion plain | pate songs mm necnond hal sey Uenétcnl & eundlenge "| Rares yr oer | si di pase one mie may chee | bndrwe Goble at SET] every sonorant atop nd Tani urminaca ip Edo BOT jeeefwer | sows nial wiinetont | urmnasor aroun sarconasond a ae ens’ | neuer nae af age’, | stmte veselons emcees ese £3 Simos maybe ries | Sige Csslow conmoy ekete Sribrarreroden arabe | Sob nd aboarce yen i aed Palecinyaireed wae |S teel aloo y Contac 0 a enoniy eiped oy Share heal ASB | Nedere wo hcunioos | Naas hig ppd RSTO TS toiow mown binalrn Soar abe Coa | ey coins Gere conic woe cater i Sicomitees mmidctacerm ed foes cna \ iar bet contunes be Taps | Salaam ne Gnelem when | Sealer as wearers (a [betes unorm amgsuike downdip as beds thin; variable along strike (nV 4 119% 9616508 nage by Breen aa Fe Hummacy of seLeaic Cartes chazaccesized oy ar SOT. er ~— a -— SO eee, ee oto.Depoinal EnvvonmentSeringy 4 SEER | gatbeiten wan, eden Henipeiae Canes: cine | gulbtieney, eee “gata dg caeen, — egammia Titan f foe, ee eee coe aa ET ee ee ee penser [Seaaae ibemiaceo jane mehmtaort (etn ee i motte on, ee | pieciepeand ponies em, | Seva tact Reuben |osmay andre meee fees |ieiectliio |S kr oe tienen [ebeerce |e sheen, |e Seriientee | oon: _ eile ' Bohm { Senta ery a et ee [ heerind | opmay be onlipped by trowinal and oniapped, oncoedang, bue may be [ sero |gakesiaedey” |ieieewmesy, |eectrs tne ouncaries | saace concordant bee | (wid drapel ban Boa arace gery sSearmapouic, | iepianybizapne | oneoren : Beem Calavsutun | tarioperconcaans | ay io waded f SREP Ca? | Pelican omer | mound o Soe i She commen Sots Taos ci fay Tamaiade | ip arg boundvigy | Vue gemray ow: [ow fo nae Aittnbienn colo | wneniperinwral Sore state : Tuesyeconmeny’” | nphates my oetsin | fect fected | inti Stbageatee away, I Sate sa . ‘Continsity | High along boundaries: ‘Discontinuous High eer oe ‘ret Famarey | Brot ole my Tir aes Tao aor ose [EGET ay | Sty moe Shay | ERI SE sec tam Va ea 09 teaped raltection configurations eer eee 92Fre neray ica Rurneenbarnen: faces etsy torsese etidloneses Depa Enronmene Ea treperies | couse (Paraic) ——_Cantinenl Ries ‘Submarine Other Decp-tater (Boome | Bama) Saeco set toonw ti Besa xe oe tots ese ie, reton_| ale Reais onfgurition| eos enlap Bhttorm ot fangward ehaatle;mourced Rikiloans (Rea [he TRS | Dam ATT | sees Sg | Sd REOS [Ritinitaans [agscwens | seuecSyurvin | eeoouecoy Shootin |Rashargaer | mae aby | owing way An Sesion, | Bclderncen” | neybikeempsane| nae vs Feeyyemnimortie | Remicsac "| dvesie al | femoesc ay Setmoacdigtn [tengo Soest SERINE | eter rs Pees Baty ti conain "| foal proximal Sauter | skkes Seat Gepncay | Sea BEART —| Wedieaeeg aR | loner oapet | VERT ine elm iene mybelisehsed Inari ction: pace commonly peiekicaiingsse — | Sewgtow'” "| Sinthencut updo: | seaymeine sia BSESE SEE | Seren ecb sear seu 0 | Rat ben Tae Ta Ba | Paso wpe— | Poste oot icin isin’ |mduaatyceie |v srccion reat dita |Ristaal gine | Senay Sreserang'™ | Rept tase” | eiet te, weiss, [Reecentnvas | tnced wien, gle wbmarne Tate af | Upper stiee commonly een | el eed oe | depesrtae of facies ‘selipruncontonnty, Upper uieace come ‘ory bucitoped Gace alte antgy apagar cae ate eth moy. Siow bat ban, Sard Spina mounts srbadimetae hips ‘Upper gaier maybe | amare rae Reece nd iseralyouaap Ena [eae ace mar iochemipeasic Pere tiated Shactormes ba Satie oni in Si drectons ott ober. ‘Rape | Vanity nigh | Variable penpals [ Vara geecally | Varia generally Plas |Satnormatylow” | facies mosente to” |iowtamasente [low tomaserue wmocente phi ceasr tow femotente Contnaly | law nate Woderte HPT WaribipearTa Wiheracirocnae | coninaouarfetns ator mounded| bs aesrenes nrespone ithign iniow Hndeiea Reming facet esi wraiies fed hemp EauRa Weie erea i ateto narrow Nivowanitorm Vari br oer narow shot to Yat (1977, 251616): nnge by Sw ane Fates 93 Variable Brehda ears inerail ee — Fa oe,tz) dae tae HARK A PICK ON A REFLECTION AND LOOPS stage. During a data review sequence boundaries my have been indicated on sone sections, and reflection relationships marked with the red-arrow code shown in Figure Pl However, this will have been done only sparingly and not in a methodical manner.” To complete the interpretation, all the selected horizons, and perhaps soze others, have to be carried throughout the seisaic grid. One of the first questions to answer is where on the vavelet should the horizons - acoustic impedance boundaries - be marked. Knowing the shape of the seismic wavelet can be an important guide to the positioning af sequence boundaries and picks. For well-processed seferic data it is often possible to identify the type of seiszic wavelet fron the shape of strong reflections or froz reflection relationships. For land seismic data, however; recognising the wavelet shape is often difficult and not infrequently impossible. In such cases, application of the techniques Aiscussed below will be difficult. Two main wavelet shapes are commonly produced; zero and minimum phase (Fig. P2), Zero phace wavelets are produced by wavelet processing which shapes the reflections’ pulse to a form which 1s symetrical about the maximum of its envelope. This manipulation is termed phase-zeroising or bringing to zero phace. Thus - a discrete reflection, looking like Figure P2a before wavelet processing; afterwards the reflection pulse (and its envelope) are nominally symnetrical-about the envelope maxinum; that envelope maximum nay coincide with a white trough (Fig. P2b) or a black peak (Fig. P2c), The visual effect of the zero phase process is not mjor, Reflections move ariier, and their form becomes a Little sharper Tale can make ie harder to lecate sequerce boundaries, as the wavelet interferes both with basolapping and truncating reflections ig, P)- Homver, the process Ceasumiag that 1s has worked) doco mate ft easier for the interpreter te decide wBore to plck on the vavefors {teelt, On anrine sections shot {2 deep water, the success of th zero phase pracess can be aauassed {rou the searfloor rafTsCtisny-bocalee thls Peflection ie uauallytaicip. aiserate Tts foru-snould approximate cero phase symmetry. ewe have this coufort, there te tr doubt where we should plek a reflection, we aust pice fhe peak or rougs which lies at the enveloge mexima (Fig. 20). Ho ovter pick ta perafesiole ona discrete reflection, “if the esvelope’ maxima is chen toe sseerecniotrane rane reeriectsTinY gv ar estaeeetr eae ruicesear CrtSe peat. Of course, reflections are not always discrete. Often we can see a band or complex of reflections waich merge together into one long wave train. Then we scan all the lines of the survey, and ask whether (ia general) the reflectica trata shows just one envelope maxima, or two; is there a e" in the envelope? If ig are we just in making two = ponding to the two anvalope maxima ~ provided, of course, the extra t brings soze explorat a we might wish a layer thins, we my reflections froz Pers the ¢1, Truncation and toplop Sa 2, Baselap: Onlap and downlap Greet guck of the azrobead drt.Betore Foo. IMO TTD TPB ae SSase Unconformity +re positive -re negative a reflection coefficient Unconformity Ly ccoustic impedance increase acoustic impedance decreose Geological Model SRS et Sho Seismic Expression 97 a 4 Oo eo er TL oeJ a j Co pm positive reflection coetficent J negative reflection coeticieat === pick pA setenic section shoving emamplas of acousticnsapecence fe of the 2020 phase Coundartan located using te Fymateie 0 aceua 74 Reo sere phase eetlaccions coos together, Lllurtriting the ees thar result. (Maprinted Dy pocie changes in vavetorn attVhat if the layer is not thick enough, anywhere, to show us the top and base separately? Than we do nct have the thres or four traces on the right of Figure P5. Ve go to pick the envelope mxinum and find that it does not correspond tos peak or a trough. This tells us thet we have a thin layer. and that our reflection is actuelly an interference between two reflections. If the layer is our target, we pick both the trough and the peak, This is not perfect, but it is the best we can do. ae If we have a long reflection train which does not show any saddle in its envelope, the train is almost certainly composed of three or more reflections. Vbat can we say? The interpreter just does what seems reasonable, taking into account whatever is known about the geology and the importance of that level in the exploration play. Probably most interpreters would pick the first major peak or trough to show good continuity ané label that pick *near-top yellow complex What about sections without wavelet processing. or sections in which the success of the processing ie in doubt? The traditional approach has been to pick the first clear trough of each reflection - the trough in order to make the colour visible, and the first trough to minimize possible Lag. However, if -the wavelet is minimm phase and the reflector has a large reflection coefficient, relationships at an unconformity can often be @ very good guide as to the exact position of the boundary (Fig. P6). The figure shows how onlaps can be traced almost directly onto a sequence boundary, their terminations mrking its position. Truncation and top lep, on the other haad, are poor indications of the boundaries’ positions as they terminate against the sequence boundary follow cycle sone distance short of their true terminations. Onlap is the best criterion for locating boundaries with minimum phase data. Figure P7 shows @ sequence boundary located using the oulap criterion. A boundary with a positive reflection coefficient is best draw at the onset of the compressional wavelet (top of the trough for normal polarity data) for a section processed to minimum phase, and for @ zero phase section the boundary should be drawn at the centre of the trough. If the boundary has a negative reflection coefficient, the same rules apply and either the onset or centre of the black peak should be mrked. If a soft wax-based crayon with suitable selected colour or soft pencil is used, there should be little problem about seeing the boundary érawm on top of the black peak. Reflector terminations are best indicsted ty a red arrow at the end of the reflection, even though the boundery causing the reflection extend bayond the arrow's tip (eg. on truncated reflectia on einimem phase seismic). tuations where the boundary, detersined from reflector relationships, is a very weak poor continuity reflection. This is common with Inter: ts that are gun phase or ze: phase. In these cases the best continuity is always found near the wavelet envelope maximum. The lag to the better continuity part of the reflection can be used as a guide to locating the true bow In situat any cony - which is near 99 PO CTR TR rr ee j tus F I Even waen we have decided where to pick on the waveform, probless usually arise where there is a change in the reflection character. For exemple. the reflection splits and the decision has to be made - where does the pick go? Geology can often come to the interpreter's aid. The following rules have bean found to be useful and correct in the majority of cases. 1. For a surface that is being onlapped or downlanped, stay down when picking against the onlap or downlap direction (Fig. P&) 2. For 2 surface below which reflectors truncate or toplap, stay high when picking in the dip direction of the truncation (Fig. Pé) These rules are intended for guidance only and the interpreter will instances where the rules do not apply. As always, seolo; is the best criterion tind al plausibility Loop TYING Once the picks have been sattled the icop-tying can begin. The interpretation 1s best begun in an area where the seismic response is good and the horizons selected for mapping are well developed. This often results in an interpretation beginning in off-structure areas. Here the seismic stratigraphy can have more importance than the wall control (because the wells are often on the structural highs, where the sequences are usvally thinner and seismic resolution poorer). The objective of the line tying and interpretation is to trace the lateral continuity of each selectad event. The most prominent feature of an event is its alignient rather than the details of the pulse shape. vents can be traced laterally until there is a break in continuity, such as a fault, pinchout, trunction, pocr data area, etc. However, rather than attempting to follow each event as far as possible it better to adopt a more methodical approach and follow Loops around the seismic grid. Select a dip line where the events are il-developed and fold at intersections with the strike lines. Transfer the picks onto a strike line and carry to the next dip line. Sometines it is possible to carry the picks through several strixe line intersections, but it is best not to carry the picks too far. The picks transferred to the new dip Line are traced to the next strixe line intersection and then again to the original dip line, so closing a loop. If the picks fit adually expand the loops in a methodical fastion until the entire grid ic ed. If not, back-track, locate the mis-tie and try again to close the Careful progress, with methodical checting and back-tracking, 1 ewarded by the substitute. It my seem tedious, but will be wel: and confidence in the interpretation. fn major structural features such as fau sed by tying loops until an area cf mes no way around major struct iroz one side to the gee w ertheless. s side by juap cor: bet usp correlation involves usiag @ fault blocks, i the precrtft s lactions (Badley et 100,character, whilst other reflections in the sequence retein their continuity, the most likely couse is lateral facies change. Minor thickening and thinning con produce subtle changes in the sensitivity of the. seismic system itself due to operational or overlying geological conditions. It is good practice to pick and correlate too many reflections, rater than Goncestrate on one or two. Many reflections will prove to have limited lateral extent but my be of great help in achieving a proper geological understanding. The decision 2s to which of the picked reflections should be timed and mapped can be mde at a later stage. tor ER a a ER ref i J J ooo ee oe koe es <= ‘Unconformity re positive 7. reflection coefficient mre negative Geological Model a KSDI z 2 SSS = SES » cf SS o Unconformity Ly acoustic impedance increase A acoustic impedance decrease at : Seismic Expression we teeasdand reftection selatioeahipa a8 2 sequence Douotary for + nce affects are not shown). (4). pe inimum phase sefleceion fron the waconforeisy against theFS} com, ae ie pr gee gt eet a OO a oe b( J J J J J J J J Geological Model Onlep and Baselap ote SAL ONE £10 = sign of reflection coefficient SSigss RETIIELNLELEET one Siig Cetra So pe Continuity of reflection from top sondstone to limestone. Stoy down when picking against SToy dow the direction of onlap or downlep. SCY down J 2+ picking criterion ~ onleg and dovaiay. (2) ceotegicat novets A tandetone of intermediate acousnie Sapedance be ontapend Dy shatee,' om X Truncation and Toplap Geological Model fre. sign of reflection coefficient No reflection Correct pick uh : Ee BOO SSCS SSS Or ee SP $= ee and e, coureany of sactin Peotiiees) oP Gee ee a a ndstructure may be the product not only of depositional processes but also of erosional or reworking processes. Figure L3d. shows part of the saze clastic complex and, although the interval is about 400m thick, {atervel reflections are entirely lacking. The seismic here is totally non- Alagnostic More typical, however, is the case in Figure L3a, a seiemic section across Part of the giant Oseterg Field, offshore Norway, where the clastic target interval lacks any dtagnostic features. The reservoir interval, middle Iurassie Brent Group, sand sequence, although nore than 100m thick, has a Sheet-like external form, and is too thin to produce diagnostic seismic features of its clastic nature. K cortonstes density compared to other common sedimentary rocks. Only in cases where } the carbonates are very porous or fractured are reflection coefficients of E $f, 5800s would be represented by only 36ms two-way tine. Alternatively, L base is 110m, and the M wavelength tuning thickaess 1 sem, E } From a seismic viewpoint, carbonates can be conveniently divided into three groups, ~ ne msettike deposits, often extremely extensive laterally, coneistiag of fine-grained carbonate particles or calcareous aicrefessile are depostt from suspension, eg. nicritic limestones, chalk, calcareous clayetonee, see geese Meposits show stutlar characteristics to other fine-grained , Ggpostts but can usually be recognised by their high emplitules, gocd contisuity and, if thick enough, by high interval velocities, which “sca rarely less than 9500u/s. Mistaking volcanic ash or tuff beds foc fi Gafbonates is a potential interpretation pitfall. Tuff beds have bigh interval velecities and are laterally extensive, producing a seierie response similar to that of bedded carbonates ; em ferentiate between bioclastics and non-carbotate slastics: W 3. Buildvups, reefs, blotherns, banks, sounds, ete category. This type of deposit has a large ot the skeletal remins of living orgaaicae gharactertsed by shape and igh iatarzal reflection configuration criteria fer 113,“og fHEV. 1690515" DEPTH IN FEET Soe eo FLEV. 169 (51-541 gfLEv 169.01 5m) ee nee tere eae a ak i - L te TT TT Tt Ifom te Be ame tee ee TH ; (ee Be ) ie cu errs rr alias oo ieee eB UNASi ma oy seismic profiles. Bubb aad into 4 major types (Fig, 16); tied (1977) subdivided carbonate build-ups Xi) Barrier build-ups - tending to be linear with relatively deep water on both sides during deposition. Hits Ptanacte busid-upe ~ roughly equidiaensional features surrounded by doep water during deposition. 44) Shelf sargin build-ups - linear features with deep water oa one side gnd shallow water on the other. Figure L7 shows a carbosate shelf build-up from the Aptian/Albian of Rodessa-Mooringsport Formation of centrat Louisiana, The back shelf margin to the north consiste of an interbedded Sequence of Limestone and shales, with a seisaic response af parallel, Mgh frequency, low amplitude reflections. The shelf margin build-up, consisting of high energy porous deposits, has poorly developed iaterval reflections, The basinal area to the south, caneisting of fine-grained calcareous deposits, 19 characterised by downlap aod lateral amplitude variations. Vine _ratah totténupe ~ forned usualy tg Proximity to shelf nargias or over broad, shallowséas. Figure 18 shows 3° ‘seienic profile though aa Upper Jurassic build-up or reef in the Suackover of the US Gulf coast. The reef, S0-40m thick with a lateral extent of several square Kilometres, 1s associated with a dim-spat on the Smackover reflection. Wexwater, either in close A grid of good seismic data, often with spacial processing and meticulous interpretation, is required to define the shape and depositional environment of carbonate build-ups. The often relative small size of the build-ups compared to vertical and horizontal resolution Limits is always a potential problem (Figs. L9 and L10). Indirect methods, using. for example, velocity pull-up or push-down effects beneath a boild@ap or differential compaction of overlying layers, can scnetines be used to overcone the problem. The loss of reflection amplitude oftan associated with reefs ts not always a good indication of lower acoustic impedance and high porosity. Hach (1975) describes how defocussing, by dispersion of the seisnic sigual from the coastal areas of Silurian pinnacle reefs ia Michigan, due to the convex shape of the surface, causes dimspots in the seismic. The apparent fall in reflection coefficient, in these cases, is entirely geametric and sot necessarily related to increasad porosity. Veatt cstg tan Salt and associated evapcrites are quite common ta ay sed{neatary sequences. Salt has a lower density (2.2g/om*), lower than that of meet other commonly occuring sedisents and, if deposited ia sufficiently thice layers, ‘becomes inherently unstable it if is buried and a density inversion between overburden and salt is achieved. circumstances, 5: is initiated, which passes though tar: Fecognised stages of pillowing, diapiriom. and-sost-diapiri (2979) discusses the complex interaction between depostsion the surrounding sedizeats and salt structu: Controversy waether the demiaant devalopaent surroundsRegardless of the mechanism responsible for salt movement, flow of salt into @ growing structure creates a withdrawal basin that 1s a structural low and an isopach thick. Figure L12, a schematic diagran from Sedi end Jackson (1983), showing the three main growth stages of salt diapirs observed in the Hast Texas basin, has more generel applicability. The model in Figure Li2 can be used as a basis to interpret seismic reflector configurations. Diagnostic configurations for the various stages are: or Pillow etege: Syzdepositional thinaing of sediments over the pillow crests ad flanks, developed ia response to the pillow's growth, is the nos diagnostic feature of this stage. Only minor thickening usually develops into the primary rin syncline Diapir stage: Vittdraval of the sslt into the growing diapir leads to a “SoHE ci the Hasking sequence that thinned tovarce the original pillow A secondary rim syncliné its axis immediately adjacent to the diapi-'s edge, develops above the collapsed area. The secondary rim syncline is ustally more extensive than the primary rim syncline and also accumulates a thicker sequence. The thickened sequence in the primary riz syncline ts usually outside of the collapsed zone and, in {nterdomal locations, undergoes passive structural reversal from eynclines to enticlines, the ‘turtle structures' of Trusheim (1960). - Postodiapir stage: During this stage, diapirs stay at or near the sediment ie ane Gscuming there is sufficient salt for continued movenent) despite continued subsidence. 4 mall, often subtle, tertiary rim syncline flanks the diapir. Bot ell diaptrs, however, pase through all three stages. The reflector configuration produced by shale diapirs can be the saze as that of salt diapirs. If reflectors are present beneath the diapir the two lithologies can usually be distinguished by velocity effects. Salt should produce a pull-up while shale diapirs should produce a push-down on deeper reflectors. In the absence of deeper reflectors, distinguishing the two lithologies may be difficult. Longman (1979) discussad seismic criteria for the recognition of salt diapirs. Frequently, collapse features are associa (1984) discusses the formation of collapse features above salt structures and Seismic criteria for their recognition. Dissolution can potentially occur in deeply buried salt structures, through dissolution by salt under- saturated water deep in the subsurface being brought into contact with the salt. Increasing brine dencity causes gravitational flow and renov salt (Anderson 4 Kirkland, 1960). Alternatively, in the shallow section, meteoric waters can come into contact with a shallow diapir or salt layer and cause dissolution. Shale diapirs would aot nermally be expect exhibit collapse features. Care mst be taken, however, to distin true co} features, due to dissolution, from crestal faulting jtypicall in competent units due to extension above any type of janticlinal feature. Interpretation problems can arise in mapping salt! diapir flanks, a c: a of potential traps. Reflections steep dips or even overhanging walls, typical of salt di to record or display correctly on normal setenic profites. 38 ‘ tng by sany methods can be Sm oT m7 oF. ae ee d with post-diapiric dissolution of salt (Fig. 113)i | } } i ] ] | | ] | Gulf coast, where salt diapirs intrude relatively uncompacted clays and sands, the acoustic ispedance of salt is usually large enough to ensure a moderate positive reflection coefficient. In basins where salt pushes up, or intrudes sore compacted sediments, the acoustic impedaace contrast between overlying lithologies ard salt aay be too szall to produce good top salt reflection, This can be a serious problem {f potential prospects al located above salt diapirs (Fig. L14). [t ie very embarrassing to drill such a prospect to find the reservoir interval absent and top salt much higher than expected. In such a eituation a possible, though not foolproof, solution to locating the top salt in the seismic ie to use the pull-up on the base salt reflection if one is developed (Fig. 114). For the method to work it is necessary to know the interval velocity of salt and of the sediments adjacent to the salt and also to assume that the base salt reflector is planar in depth, In such a situation any structure on the base salt reflection is assumed to be due to the pull-up effect of the salt. Knowing the difference in velocity between the salt and adjacent rocks, the thickness of salt required to produce the pull-up can be calculated from: Salt thickness ~ + pul: x Ve x Vs We = Vy where pull-up = observed pull-up we = velocity in adjacent lithology Ve velocity salt. This thickness, converted back to time, is subtracted from the top of the pull-up time to locate the calculated top salt in the seiemic section. ~dasemeat. There are two definitions of basement rocks; igneous or metamorphic crystalline rocks or economic basement, indurated low porosity, sedimentary rocks that have no reservoir potential. Heither type of ‘basenent' necessarily have unique reflection character. Figure L15 shows an example of, shallow crystalline basement. Beneath the strong top basement reflection (positive reflection coefficient) the seismic is reflection-free and seemingly. dead. Figure LiSb shows crystalline basement outcropping at the sea floor, The strong interval reflections are multiples. Potential interpretation pitfalls can be produced by salt or shale diapirs, basalt flows or igneous intrusions into the sedineatery sequence, that result in basemeat-like reflection igurations. buried, crystalline basement becones zere 4! to ystalline basesent should have a positive reflection by practically any sedizeacar: [ few teas of metres may aot o! gures LISA and L18b are The presence of internal reflections, bility of crystalline bdaseme: can internal layering or str 129a a a a eeHib ma 12a(Bourresy Merit > i‘ salt diaper base salt ere eae eee ase ee ee pee eg pase ase cea ame eee ana eae eee CaeEconomic basement is more difficult to define as its definition ts subjective. As a generalisation, low porosity indurated rocks will be characterised by weak discontinuous reflections and poor dats quality (Fig Lise). Veak reflections with poor continuity, will be common because, although the actual acoustic impedance values would be high, acoustic impedance contrasts would be small Structural closure involving either type of beseement can never be immediately downgraded and disregarded. Plan (1982) describes of] and gas fields with basement rock reservoirs from many different basins, eg. the near billion barrel La Paz field, Venezuela, the fields of Central Hansas Uplift, etc. Basement reservoirs are charcterised by thick resergvoir intervals end although porosity and permeability are usually highly variable, production rates are high and reserves large Yrgreous and voleaste rocks Theco two categories, including intrusive and extrusive rocks, are Esa as ara Mig cearoan aucsaves pocl euon coe ecttononactiotone Sad. high ampiftuce reflections, when ‘overlain by practically all Sedtmatary ‘Iithologiea. Yery poor asta quality {e alco not uscomnn. Gravity and aaguecice, cen te ou tnvsluable oud to, ceiomic “data ta deutlfying. iguesue aad volcanic ‘socks, “On the basis of their geometry Intrusive igncove rocks con be grouped {nto najor bodies, eg, leccelithe tod botholithe, ues! vertical serusions = dpiee and letereliy extensive Sheete = wits, Large intrusive bodies generally produce seismically dead intervals. The intrusive nature of the body may be evident from upturning of the adjacent sediments. Igneous intrusives will not show the secondary rim syacline characteristic of salt or mid diapire. If, however, only the upper part of a deep salt diapir is visible, it could prove difficult to separate the two possibilities seismically. Figure L16 shows a seismic profile through the Ultramphic intrusion kaowa as the Great Stone Dome, 100km east of New Jersey in the centre of the Baltimore Canyon Basin. The igneous stack was intruded into and deformd a sequence of shallow water mrine sandstones and shales. The effects of the intrusion, rather than the intrusion itself, are the main features of the seismic. Uplift and disruption associated with the intrusion are evident up to 16x away. Differential compaction bas caused structuring of the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments (Crutcher, 1983). Dykes are more difficult to recognise, as the reflection selsnic is unsuited to imaging near vertical features. In addition, the lateral extent of dykes is generally aot great and may be below the Fresnel zone size ior horizontal resolution in may cases. Linear dykes are perhaps most easily recognised on unmitigated sections, where it my be possible to follow the course of a dyke by mapping diffractions from its top through a seismic grid & cccur together (Fig. L17). Sills are igneous into rock sequences and are more easily + in the seismi g thousands of square 125 (la. Se aeCom ese Re less for the recognition of sills is to observe discordant reflector relationships that demonstrate the intrusive nature of the sill (Fig. Lia). Volcanic rocks are, by definition, extrusive and form three main groups; lavas, tuffs (airborae deposits) ‘and water deposited volcanic deposits, Lavas can be up to thousands of metres thick and may be difficult to Gitferentiate seismically from intrusive igneous rocks, but they may be gxPected to show sone relationship to a volcanic ceatre or fissure syste Figure 119 shows a seiemic section across the Palaeacene Erlend complex, north of the Shetland Islands {n the North Atlantic. The fora of the volcano can be seen clearly in the profile with raflections from the lave flows dipping radially outwards, at up to 20°, from a central volcanie vent, The vent is roughly circular in plan, with a diameter of about oka and a depth of 300-400m. Drilling results show the basalts to have unusually low interval velocities of around 3500m/s, which Gatliff et a) (1984) Laterpret to be probably due to the lava pile having been bullt up by the extrusion of thin flows, each in turn being weathered before burial by the next lava flow. In the absence of a central vent or gravity data, a seismic interpretation of the volcano in Figure L19 could be difficult Fok only are the interval velocities uncharacteristically low for "typical* javass, but the clinofora prograding pattern of the radially outward dipping java lows could be mistaken for a prograding sedimentary sequence is Situations where it was not possible to demonstrate the overall shape of the feature, eg. with a widely spaced seismic grid. Tuifs, ignimbrites and water-laid volcanic clastics will share external forms and internal structures in common with other sedimentary rocks. if thick enough, interval velocities my be diagnostic, and such deposits could easily be confused in the seisafe as being carbonates. Figure L20 shows a Middle Miocene volcanic mound in the Sea of Japan. Mcrphologically she feature is similar in appearance to a reef, but consists of besaltic lavas, tuffs, dolomitic intrusions. In som cases volcanic mounds are the Sites of of] accumilations (Suzuki, 1983), eo they are not always bad news, 128aw a as a le ey soot W001 327129 TivO-WaY TIME IN SECONDS te.fous may TERADOMARI OKI 12-1 ESE SONOO3S NI SWLL AVM-OML Brees Seana Si) Btiere 130 NOOSS NI SAIL AYM-OML rcEO¥ To IOMISE TIONS ASSOCIATED ¥ITH AND DIAGENETIC EFFEC’ CARBONS, . se, eg. multiples, diffractions, centred on reflections arising from lithologica s extrezely impor: acoustic 1 These ere ¢ etc., attention has bee: changes. However, there nt group of reflectors that originate fros edance change not directly related to lithological change Fedlections associated with hydrocarbons and diagenesis. Gas = The presezce of gas in a reservoir often produces a detectable suite of responses the seismic. It is obviously very important for the interpreter to be able to recognise gas effects in the seismic. below are the main criteria for recognising its presence. Yacoustic Impedance Effects: The way in which a reservoir responds to the ( presence of gas depends on the acoustic izpedance of the gas filled portion Of the reservoir, the water filled reservoir, and the caprock and the thickness of the gas filled interval. If the gas column is thick eucugs and there is ea acoustic impedance contrast between the gas-/oil- or the gas~/water-f!lled portions of a reservoir a reflection, commonly called a feces spot’, will result. As a rule of thumb, flat spot. ikely to be found in porous sandstones or carbonates downto about 2-sim Figure HDi ‘cumertses"experisental results showing the relationship between acovstic Flat spots will always have positive reflection coefficients appearing as a L spets sre perhaps the best indications of gas, yet there can be other Giagnosic acoustic Impedance cbenges betveen the caprock and gas-searing £ reservoir, affecting the amplitude and polatity of the top reservoir S fall into two groups: gh amplitude anomalies, commonly termed ‘bright spots tow amplitude anomlies, comsonly terned ‘dim spots! i be ted in eny local chance of re: : not appear to ave its crigin to the geo! ots are susily associated with porous sends. In enca, the claystone to wend reflectis is or for witer of ofl saturated a covffictent becomes wee But ea ive reflection spote du ection HloF eR oea Sasa a i i SONOOIS NI BWIL AVM-OMLglaystone/conpacted-sand ar claystone/carbonate would usually have ‘a strong Positive reflection coefficient. Gas in the reservoir reduces the reflection coefficient causing the top reservoir reflector to lose auplitude and dim (Fig. HDS). Amplitude anomalies are usually accoupanied by corresponding polarity changes. These polarity effects are summrised in Figure HD6.' A polarity reversal of the top reservoir reflector at th gas/oil or gas/water contact {sa comzon feature of sright spots felocity effects: 12 the gas column is sufficiently thick, a push-dova my be observed on underlying reflectors, The differential velocity required fo produce a push-dowa can provide a check on the possible gas column. If the calculated interval velocity belived to be producing the pust-dowm is yareasonable, for example 1000n/s (3300%t/sec), thea something is wrong and the effect cannot be caused by ges alone Other effects: A frequency loss is cometises observed beneath bright spots. This is caused by greater absorption of the ccicmic wave witeiy gacwbearing than within vater-bearing tatervals. . This absorption Selectively depletes the signal of higher frequencies. Both aupliiude decrease and increase are sonetines observed associated with bright spots Actually anticipated transuission losses through a gas~saturated resesvoit ara so low as to be scarcely mearsurable on real data. Amplitude decrease both above and below a bright spot may be due to automatic gain effects - a procesing step to balance amplitude across a seismic section - and merely a yesponse to the extra high amplitude of the bright spot. An amplitvde jRerease beneath a bright spot is most likely due to increased signal levels associated with multiples of the bright spot. However, if a shadow is obvious only below, and not above a bright spot, it could be caused by transmission losses through multiple gas reservoirs. acoustic impedance and are often seen at the edges of bright spste. They will aot be expected in cases where the gas interval thickness decreases gradually. . Meckel and Hath (1977) show a synthetic seismic section across the orth Sea Brent Field with a flat spot developed at the ofl-water contact. In many cases, however flat spots associated with oil/water contacts are not due to acoustic impedance decreases caused by the presence of ail, but are due to the inhibiting effect of oil on the diagenetic reservoir growth of cementing minerals in the reservoir (Hancock and Taylor, 1978), A number of fields within the North Sea Province show this effect: within the hydrocarbon-bearing intervals the sands are relatively uncemented, but beneath the oil/vater contact the sands are well-cenented by kaolinite and/or illite (De'ath and Schuyleman, 1981), The effect of cementation on the acoustic impedance can be large enovgh to produce a reflection at the oll/water contact. It must be a pleasant eurprise drill a flat spot expecting gas but finding oil instead. Gas Hydrates Under appropriate conditions water saturated with natural gas, frequently composed mainly of methane, can freeze. Instead ct crystallising in the usual hexagonal crystal lattice, the ice crystallises inte 2 cubic form, which enables methane molecules to becone trapped in voids within the crystal lattice. Gas hydrates are only stable over a limited range of pressure and temperature and their thickness is largely determined by water depth and the geothermal gradient withia the gas hydrate bearing sediment g. #10). As a general rule the greater the water depth the thicker the potential gas hydrate bearing interval. Maclosd (1982) discusses the factors controlling the occurrence of gas hydrates. 4s the reflect from the base gas hydrate tend to follow the sea~fioor topography are somatines called bottom simulating reflectio} BSs. Gas hydrates are aportaat the interpreter because the accustic impedaace contrast between the gas hydrate and underlying sediments can produce a reflection g. HDID. Gas hydrates increase both velocity asity of the bos: ediments and the associated reflection at the hydrate layer a stroag negative reflection cooffici ections. Addition1700 1800 1300 2000 TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS D7 cas chunney aftece above the gesrbearing 11/10 alpha oes_ og LeESe 140Gas hydrates bave yet to be exploited conserctally. In fact, their main interest my not be as a source of hydrocarbons but as the seal to gas accunvlations trapped below the hyérate leyer. Diagenetic Effects The possibility that diagenesis effects have potential to produce reflections has already been described in connection with oil/water contacts. Another potential acoustic impedance bouadary could be caveed by the diagenesis of fine-grained silica-rich sediments. Hein, et al (1978) showed that the dissolution and precipitation of diatom frustules (the silicous cell-walls of microscopic single-celled plants) involved a change from opal~A to opal-Cl. The change causes a marked porosity reduction which results in increases in both density and velocity increase. Thesa incressee can potentially produce a detectable acoustic impedance contrast. As the change from opal-A to opsl-CT is dependent on burial depth the resulting reflection tends to perellel the sea~Jloor and is another type of BSR. Opal-cT eventually changes to quartz and the associated diagenesis front also has potential to form a reflection. 4s the opal-A to opal-CT diagenesis changes are depth-dependent, they should migrate gradually upwards through the sequence with tine and burial. Below ‘the migrating front, diagenesis could account for the commonly observed, reduced reflection amplitude and coherency often seen below BSRe. Homacnd and Gaither (1983) show examples of ES%s from the Bearring Sea Shelf, Potential interpretation pitfalls are possible where a BSR intersects other reflectors at an angle, opening the way for its incorrect interpretation as a sequence boundary or even a flat spot (Fig HD12). In this case, it my be extresely difficult to determine that the reflection comes from a BSR. The configuration could show the features associated with a gas accumlation, eg. a flat spot, polarity reversal and edge diffractions, etc. rm oe om i fSEA LEVEL, -————~ 2 iste Assumed geothermal eae pee om Lona) Haste con oder the ocean ss ydeate foraet correct for tydrat ‘ie fettoving assenpeions apply: (2) geothermal gratient of 27.3°/ka: (2) Ligestatie and nyerontatig pressure gradients of 0.1 ata/ay and (2) bottom water cempecatuce sange fou 2.8 bo 220 depeading on water depen, (Haprineed bY perwisaion of the AKEO from Rrenvolden and 082) 4 ] | ] ] ] 1 ] Setrale vection from the sagtern Clank of tha slate outer Ridge. The reflection at the base of che gas nyt ssolissee o€ radiations above the gan hyézate tay be the Feduend Acute Lnpadance conteasts ia the Dytrace. (rran suatey o€ a, 1979) wes 142,SONOOZS NI SWLL AVM OL a wd ldfae! te le HOW TO DIGITISE SEISKIC DATA ‘The first stage in contouring is to measure the two-way times to the picked horizons on the seismic sections and post these values on shot-point base maps. The simplest method of digitising the section, but certainly not the best in terms of efficiency, is to read off the values directly by band using a scele the same as the sections. A recommended procedure is to digitise, and record with an appropriate symbol, all slope oreaks (concave or convex), highs, lows, tops and bottoms of all faults, or other structural features. Mapping symbols are shown in Figure DG1. Methodical digitising in this manner, optimally carried cut as the interpretation progresses, not only ensures that all information required to produce an Accurate contour map is racorded and resolves mis-ties, but also provides feed back into the ‘aterpreta If, however, this procedure {s not strictly adhered to, the horizontal distance between each reading should be sufficient to ensure that a straight line interpolaticn between each point will describe the structure adequately. It makes no difference whether ne sample at regular intervals af shot~points or at regular intervals of ti provided that the measurements ara made at appropriate intervals. Thus @ loag and simple nonccline can be specified by just two nidely-spaced neasurenents, but a rough eroded surface requires at least two neasurenents per cycle of corrugation. Furthermore, an additional step (reconstitution) is necessary before values can be interpolated tetween the measured values. This is {llustrated in Figure D62a, which shows an anticlinel feature with a faulted crestal area. The black blobs represent the digitised points at regular shot-poiat intervals. The interval 1s too coarse; when we post and contour these values, the structure appears as show dashed, and all nenory of the collapsed crast has disappeared. In Figure DOZb, we see a major igh, a second high and a small saddle between them we represent by black plobs the shot~point values corresponding to regular intervals of reflection tize. The interval is too coarse; when we post and contour these. values, it ie not possible to determine whether the high is single or double. To be completely safe, therefore, it is necessary to time the reflection at least twice for each cycle of undulation or the reflection surface. It is also necessary to apply the process of reconstitution before interpolating between these tines for contouring purposes. This leads to a set of basic rules watch we should apply to marking and digitising (or, if we are using A computerised digitising system, which should give an excellen’ repraseataticn of the tined surface) when posting the tized values from our sections. i) During the picking, ignore ar smooth trace-to-trace variations waich we judge to be due to noise, or poor static corrections, or artefacts of the seisaic netbod. [a this, we are applying the criterion plausibit 1 2 sections overall, in the ligh explorat: play, and Judge what degree of relief in the reflection surface is mater! = anything less than tais we judge to be of no importance gas. ding ofl 144