MICROEVOLUTION AND MACROEVOLUTION LESSON

SLIDES

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Micro-evolution and Populations

THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF EVOLUTION

Micro-evolution: changes within one species

Macro-evolution: changing from one species to another

KEY TERMS
Species: population of organisms that are able to breed and produce viable, fertile offspring
Population: a group of individuals belonging to the same species that live in the same area and breed together Allele: a variation (or form) of a gene

Gene Pool: all the possible genes and alleles present in a population that are available to the next generation

Contains all variations (versions) for all genes

Individuals are selected Populations evolve

Natural selection acts on individuals

differential survival

survival of the fittest

differential reproductive success

who bears more offspring

Presence of lactate dehydrogenase

Populations evolve

genetic makeup of population changes over time favorable traits (greater fitness) become more common

Mummichog

VARIATION & NATURAL SELECTION

Variation is the raw material for natural selection

there have to be differences within population some individuals must be more fit than others

A sample of our classs gene pool?

1) Complete Genetic Trait Inventory Sheet 2) When requested share the results from your trait inventory sheet with the class 3) Record the class results in the data table provided on the Trait Inventory sheet 4) Calculate the % of Students that have a hitchhikers thumb

Why are we so very different? What are the sources of Genetic Variation?

TWO SOURCES OF GENETIC VARIATION

Mutation
Gene Shuffling during sexual reproduction

MUTATION

Creates Variation A random change in a the DNA sequence

1) 2)

Errors in mitosis or meiosis environmental damage

May be harmful May be advantageous May be neutral May affect phenotype May affect fitness

MUTATION

- SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ev olution/library/01/2/l_012_0 2.html

GENE SHUFFLING FROM SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

mixing of alleles

recombination of alleles

new arrangements in every offspring

new combinations = new phenotypes offspring inherit traits from parent

spreads variation

23 pairs of chromosomes can produce 8.4 million different combinations of genes

5 MECHANISMS OF MICRO-EVOLUTION
5 ways to change a gene pool: 1. Natural selection 2. Mutations 3. Gene flow 4. Genetic drift 5. Non-random mating

1. NATURAL SELECTION

Those best suited to the environment, survive, and pass on their genes to the next generation Differential survival & reproduction due to changing environmental conditions
climate change food source availability predators, parasites, diseases Toxins

combinations of alleles that provide fitness increase in the population

2. MUTATION & VARIATION

Mutation creates variation

new mutations are constantly appearing

Mutation changes DNA sequence

changes amino acid sequence? changes protein?

changes structure? changes function?

changes in protein may change phenotype & therefore change fitness

3. GENE FLOW
Movement (or transfer) of individuals & alleles in & out of populations This can introduce new variations into a population

or

If gene flow stops or is restricted, populations that were once joined, now change independently

Examples: seed & pollen distribution by wind & insect migration of animals

HUMAN EVOLUTION TODAY

Gene

flow in human populations is increasing today

transferring alleles between populations

Are we moving towards a blended world?

4. GENETIC DRIFT
There is a change in the allele frequencies as a result of chance (random) events Has a large effect in small popultions

Effect of chance events founder effect

small group splinters off & starts a new colony some factor (disaster) reduces population to small number & then population recovers & expands again

bottleneck

FOUNDER EFFECT
When

a new population is started by only a few individuals whose gene pool differs from tat of the source population

some rare alleles may be at high frequency; others may be missing skew the gene pool of new population
human populations that started from small group of colonists example: colonization of New World

EX. OF FOUNDER EFFECTBLOOD TYPES

Distribution of the O type blood allele in native populations of the world reflects original settlement

EX. OF FOUNDER EFFECTBLOOD TYPES

Distribution of the B type blood allele in native populations of the world reflects original migration

EX. OF FOUNDER EFFECT IN AN ISOLATED

POPULATION

Polydactyly = extra fingers or toes

One symptom of Ellis-van Creveld syndrome Found among the Amish community in Pennsylvania Traced back to one couple to came to the area in 1722

BOTTLENECK EFFECT
When

large population is drastically reduced by a disaster

famine, natural disaster, loss of habitat loss of variation by chance event
alleles lost from gene pool alleles overrepresented in gene pool not due to fitness narrows the gene pool

EX. OF BOTTLE NECK -- CHEETAHS

All cheetahs share a small number of alleles

less than 1% diversity as if all cheetahs are identical twins

10,000 years ago

2 bottlenecks

Ice Age poaching & loss of habitat

last 100 years

Peregrine Falcon

CONSERVATION ISSUES

Bottlenecking is an important concept in conservation biology of endangered species

When populations get small, there is a loss of alleles from gene pool reduces variation reduces adaptability

Breeding programs must consciously outcross

Golden Lion Tamarin

5. NON-RANDOM MATING

Organisms rarely mate randomly Examples:

1. 2. 3.

Harems: one male has many females Assortative mating: choosing those like you Sexual Selection: based on selection criteria (colour, displays, territory, song, size etc)

WHOS THE FITTEST?

Fittest in any population means the organism who contributes the most and best genes to the next generation (NOT who is in the best shape!)

In elk, one dominant male may mate with 80% of fertile females but if he happens to be sterile hes not fittest WHY?

FITNESS AND POPULATIONS

Populations are made of many variations of genes

Those who contribute the most (the fittest!) have their genes represented the most in the next generation

So in each generation the genes that are the most represented depends on who was the fittest in the previous generation

POPULATIONS

If NO evolution is occurring in a population, then these frequency of each variation should remain the same from generation to generation.
But, if we see changes in the frequencies from generation to generation than we know that the population must be evolving!

POPULATIONS

The most common genes can be represented in a graph

% of Individuals

Possible Variations (usually a gradient)

POPULATIONS
1. Stabilized Selection Acts against the extreme variations in a population, so makes the most common even more common

POPULATIONS

2. Directional Selection Occurs when extreme variations at one end are favored over average.

POPULATIONS
3. Disruptive Selection Occurs when extreme variations are favored over intermediate forms

POST-MATING BARRIERS
Prevent

fertilized zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Macro-evolution and Speciation

RECALL..THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF EVOLUTION

Micro-evolution: changes within one species

Macro-evolution: changing from one species to another

Macro-evolution: AKA Speciation

Speciation: new species (group of individuals that interbreed and produce fertile offspring) The new species is created by a series of evolutionary processes
Reproductive Isolation Evolution

Reproductive

isolation may occur before or after fertilization

Pre-mating (before the mating or zygote forms) Post- mating (after the mating or zygote forms)

PRE-MATING BARRIERS
Impede mating or the formation of the zygote Behaviour Isolation Geographic Isolation Temporal Isolation Mechanical Isolation

BEHAVIOUR ISOLATION
Two populations are capable of breeding, but have differences in courtship rituals or other reproductive strategies that involve behaviour

Eastern Meadowlark

Western Meadowlark

GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
Two

populations are separated by geographic barriers

2 species of garter snake, Thamnophis, occur in same area, but one lives in water & other is terrestrial

lions & tigers could hybridize, but they live in different habitats: lions in grasslands tigers in rainforest

TEMPORAL ISOLATION
Two

populations are separated by differences in breeding times or breeding seasons

Eastern spotted skunk (L) & western spotted skunk (R) overlap in range but eastern mates in late winter & western mates in late summer

MECHANICAL ISOLATION
Two

populations have incompatible sex organs

Animals

Physically impossible to mate.sex organs dont fit

POST-MATING BARRIERS
Prevent

fertilized zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult

TWO TYPES OF SPECIATION

1. ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Occurs when new species evolve from one ancestral species as populations adapt and evolve to different niches The populations become reproductively isolated EX. Galapagos Finches

9/17/2013

2. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
Occurs when two unrelated species begin to inhabit the same environment and display similar adaptations

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION CONTINUED.. Fish: aquatic vertebrates Dolphins: aquatic mammals

similar adaptations to life in the sea not closely related

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION CONTINUED.

Flight evolved in 3 separate animal groups

evolved similar solution to similar problems analogous structures

ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES

Separate evolution of structures

similar functions similar external form different internal structure & development different origin no evolutionary relationship

THE RATE OF SPECIATION

Current debate: Does speciation happen gradually or rapidly?

Gradualism
Charles Darwin Charles Lyell

Punctuated equilibrium
Stephen Jay Gould Niles Eldredge

Niles Eldredge Curator American Museum of Natural History

GRADUALISM

Gradual divergence over long spans of time

assume that big changes occur as the accumulation of many small ones

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM

Rate of speciation is not constant

rapid bursts of change long periods of little or no change species undergo rapid change when they 1st bud from parent population

Time