Report - Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province Angola

Faculty of Environmental Studies
Improved Wells
Social Impact Assessment in Huambo Province Angola
Prepared for:
Greg Michalenko
Prepared by:
Mathieu Cain
ID# 20069465
This report has not received previous academic accreditation and does not represent the views of the University of Waterloo or any other institution mentioned herein. December 01, 2005
Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola
Table of Contents
1.0 2.0 3.0 Introduction and Approach ................................................................................. 1 Historical Context ................................................................................................. 4 Development Workshops Approach .................................................................. 6 3.1 Training Exercises ....................................................................................... 11 3.2 Wider Impacts .............................................................................................. 14 Biophysical Assessment ...................................................................................... 15 4.1 Landscape Changes ...................................................................................... 15 4.2 Loss of Visibility.......................................................................................... 16 4.3 Soil Stability and Quality ............................................................................. 17 4.4 Air Quality ................................................................................................... 19 Socioeconomic Assessment ................................................................................. 20 5.1 Human Health Changes ............................................................................... 20 5.2 Sound Quality .............................................................................................. 22 5.3 Safety ........................................................................................................... 23 5.4 Cultural Effect .............................................................................................. 26 Economic Impact ................................................................................................ 29 6.1 Changes in Town Layout ............................................................................. 29 6.2 Population Growth ....................................................................................... 29 6.3 Labour Market ............................................................................................. 30 6.4 Income Distribution ..................................................................................... 30 6.5 Economic Activities ..................................................................................... 31 6.6 Adjacent Land Use ....................................................................................... 32 Criteria for Alternative ...................................................................................... 33 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 34 Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 36
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6.0
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ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465
Appendices
A B C D Project Stages Notes: Day in the Field Notes: Borehole Installation in a Rural Community Photos
Tables
Table 1: Sample Health Indicators for Angola (UNICEF, 2003-4) ................................... 2 Table 2: Training Courses for Project Beneficiaries (DW, 2003) ................................... 12
Figures
Figure 1: Huambo Province ............................................................................................... 1 Figure 2: Huambo's Municipalities .................................................................................... 7 Figure 3: Damaged Well in Town of Catchiungo .............................................................. 8 Figure 4: Afridev Well Hand Pump (Lifewater Canada, 2005)....................................... 10 Figure 5: Curious Children at the Village of Mombolo (2003) ....................................... 13 Figure 6: High Standing Colonial Pump.......................................................................... 17 Figure 7: Low Standing DW Pump ................................................................................. 17 Figure 8: Good Drainage ................................................................................................. 19 Figure 9: Bad Drainage .................................................................................................... 19 Figure 10: Drilling a Borehole ......................................................................................... 20 Figure 11: Washing at a Water Point - A Bad Practice ................................................... 21 Figure 12: Physical Abuse to a Water Point .................................................................... 22 Figure 13: Drilling a Borehole ......................................................................................... 24 Figure 14: A Community Digger in a Well ..................................................................... 25 Figure 15: Settling & Adjusting the Concrete Rings ....................................................... 26 Figure 16: Latrine Covers for Distribution ...................................................................... 32 Figure 17: Women Collecting Material for Mud Bricks ................................................. 33
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1.0 Introduction and Approach

Huambo is considered by many to be Angolas second most important province after Luanda. Its provincial capital, by the same name, had for a time been considered as an alternative capital to the Portuguese colonial empire, then Lisboa. It has a surface area of approximately 34,270 km2, and a population estimated at 1.9 million (the governments official figure lying at 1 million).
Figure 1: Huambo Province
The Province of Huambo was heavily affected by the civil war which lasted from independence in 1975 through to the defeat of the rebel partys leader, Jonas Savimbi, in 2002. The countrys population health has suffered as a consequence (see Table 1).
Table 1: Sample Health Indicators for Angola (UNICEF, 2003-4) Indicator Infant mortality - 2003 Under 5 mortality rate - 2004 Maternal mortality rate - 2004 Life expectancy - 2004 Access to sanitation (rural) - 2003 Daily calorie per capita - 1992 Value 154 / 1,000 live births 250 / 1,000 live births 1,280 / 100,000 live births 40 years 16% 1,840
Due to the conflict, much of the provinces infrastructure was destroyed. Not only were roads impassable due to control by UNITA (National Union for Total Independence of Angola the rebel party) and being heavily mined, electrical power connections from the Cuando hydropower station were cut off. Since running water from the Kulimahala River to the town through Kulimahala water treatment plant was unfeasible due to the lack of power to supply the pumps, the towns were forced to resort to the use of wells and water tankers.
To further exacerbate the problem, the main towns, such as the city of Huambo, experienced large influxes of Internally Displaced People (IDPs) fleeing rural areas where fighting and violence was occurring. The controlling authorities, whether the government or UNITA, did not have the capacity to cope with the mounting humanitarian
crisis. Now, with the end of fighting, a reverse trend has been observed as many have begun to return to their places of origin. The Ministry for Social Affairs and Reintegration (MINARS, 2004) has recently published figures showing a rapid decrease since the end of the war.
Province Huambo
End January 2002 435,138
Due to the ruling authorities incapacity to act, the humanitarian agency, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), stepped in to provide emergency relief to the province. Through rehabilitation of old wells and strategic new well installations, the ICRCs main goal was to provide water to all of the health facilities. The locations included hospitals, health posts, nutrition centres, orthopaedic facilities, and houses of expatriates (most often humanitarian workers). The pressing need for quick results led to the drilling of boreholes.
Since the end of the war in 2002, emergency relief has shifted to the search for a more sustainable approach. Development Workshop (DW) has suggested a community based well digging programme.
This paper examines its successes and limitations by evaluating the three approaches, including the borehole, the hand-dug well and the do nothing alternatives within their historical context.
In order to complete the evaluation, the analysis focuses on three main issues: biophysical, social, and economic. The report draws upon personal work experience in the field, discussing, comparing and evaluating against a number of reports produced by the participating organisations (ICRC and DW). The use of a matrix will be finally used to determine the most relevant alternative.
2.0 Historical Context

All roads were controlled by UNITA (National Union for Total Independence of Angola the rebel party) and were unusable due to mines. Towns were therefore only accessible by plane.
Traditional relief activities were carried out in areas controlled by either side. Humanitarian agencies undertook lengthy negotiations to obtain access to the affected areas. The ICRC was among the first to launch emergency operations. Eventually, United Nations agencies and other NGOs progressively moved in.
At times, the growing insecurity resulted in all the foreign aid agencies having to withdraw. During these periods the ICRC was unable to carry out its humanitarian work. Fighting led to large-scale destruction, lack of medical care and shortage of essential goods. However, when security improved, UN staff and other humanitarian agencies were able to return. Living conditions would improve, but still remained precarious.
During intense periods of hostility, large population displacements were observed, people having fled the rural areas. IDP camps were being set up in the cities. Major efforts have been made to address the needs of displaced people.
Water supply was dependent on the availability of power from the Cuando hydropower station: an exchange of water for power. Most of the water produced at the water station was therefore used to supply tankers. The drought of 1979 was the only time the river proved insufficient to provide enough water to the population.
The sudden increases in population density within and around the cities, combined with a lack of infrastructure to meet peoples basic demands and needs led to the prevalence of many water born diseases, such as dysentery and malaria. Whereas access to water was not as significant an issue during the rainy season (December to May), potable water was. Other sources of surface water contamination included sanitary disposal systems. The dry season on the other hand often saw shallow hand-dug wells running dry.
A major stumbling block for the emergency relief programme was institutions perceptions of the malnutrition crisis. A common misconception was that malnutrition was strictly related to access to food, not including water. Whereas food aid can be supplied with increased distribution of food packages and rations, water requires onsite technical implementation, including cement, pumps, tools, etc; all elements that provide a small challenge to be brought in by plane.
The main goal, of limited impact, was to provide water to all the health facilities: hospitals, health posts, orthopaedic centres, kitchens, feeding centres and the houses of the expatriates. The support was later extended to the whole population.
Programmes were extended and gradually handed over to the relevant provincial authorities or to other agencies that were willing to continue them. Many problems arose in the transitions to provincial authorities regarding the responsibility for fuel supply, chemicals and wages for the operators. The entire well programme in Huambo was handed over to Development Workshop (DW) at the beginning of 1997.
3.0 Development Workshops Approach

The handover marked a change in priorities, from a strictly emergency based approach to a more development-oriented one, requiring considerations for longer term sustainability.
DW adopted a more participatory approach to implementation, in a bid to involve the end-users in the installation and operation of the wells. The technique was focused on creating a sustainable system by instilling a sense of ownership and pride for their well.
Participation was more difficult to achieve in the urban areas, where, despite the advantages of the system, other alternatives often existed. For instance, during the rainy
season, when water was more plentiful, these water points would occasionally be neglected and fall into disrepair.
Wells are not a permanent solution for the city of Huambo. With an end to the civil war in 2002, and increased mobility, rehabilitating the Cuando hydroelectric dam and Kulimahala water treatment plant are imminent.
Whereas the city of Huambo is still in need of temporary assistance to meet its current water requirements, the focus is increasingly turning towards the more rural communas (municipalities) of Huambo province.
Figure 2: Huambo's Municipalities
Previously wells were often built with a lack of material and logistical difficulties. Some wells were merely dug and not lined. Whereas open wells were at risk of contamination, only a few were closed and equipped with hand pumps. Submersible pumps were installed where power was available. Much equipment had been looted or destroyed during the war.
Figure 3: Damaged Well in Town of Catchiungo
Many materials, such as cement and steel, were unavailable locally and needed to be air transported from the coast. Efforts were made to increase local capacity. A number of IDPs were employed to rehabilitate an old rock-crusher in the city of Huambo. The aggregate was used to cast the reinforced concrete rings to line the walls of the wells.
The diameter of the wells was increased to accommodate the poor permeability of the soil and so as to increase the wells recharge rates, for many were not deep enough or were being used by too many families.
Some significant population groups served by the project included:
Displaced people, numbering both those who had fled to the relative safety of the cities, and those who had begun to return to their places of origin
The large number of people living in the barrios (city neighbourhoods) who lacked sources of safe drinking water
Some of the goals included: Increasing the density of the water points, by increasing the capacity of the wells Decreasing the collection time, by strategically placing the wells in high population areas, and using simple technology to pump the water to the surface
Most of the wells were equipped with hand pumps. A village level operation and maintenance scheme (VLOM) was adopted for its community based sustainable technology approach. The selected system consisted of an Afridev model hand pump which has been popular in many African countries, including Ghana and Mozambique (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Afridev Well Hand Pump (Lifewater Canada, 2005)
In an effort to alleviate sanitation problems and sources of contamination to the wells, the project included the provision and construction of improved latrines.
The project has received funding from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and from the Swiss Development Corporation (formerly Swiss Humanitarian Aid).
3.1 Training Exercises

During the second community meeting, the communities would select their water committees. The committees usually consisted of 5 people, two of whom tended to be female. Though training was not exclusive to the water committees alone; the delegates would begin to receive training from the outset of the project, even before the construction of the wells. Depending on community participation in the training sessions as with the construction of the wells, the training sessions would occasionally outlast the construction period. The reason for such an early start was to attempt to incorporate some of the training courses best practices and concepts during the well implementation phase. This method would allow for greater practical understanding of the sustainability approaches used, early involvement, a sense of ownership to participation from the get go, and a more timely process.
Table 2: Training Courses for Project Beneficiaries (DW, 2003) Male Subject Matter No. Roles & responsibilities of water 66 committees Simple accounting Basic hygiene Conflict resolution Hand pump maintenance Health education Total 41 35 61 23 524 750 52 59 66 46 19 24 38 24 31 27 769 930 48 41 34 54 28 30 ----1,464 1,464 ----53 47 79 59 92 50 2,757 3,144 2.5 1.9 2.9 1.6 87.7 100 62 41 38 --107 3.4 % No. % No. % No. % Female Children Total
Table 2 shows a basic breakdown of attendance to the various courses. In a male dominated society, many of the responsibilities were broken up according to traditional structures with men taking more of managerial roles and women adopting the educational ones. However, it does show a few surprises, especially in the higher ratio of women to men attending the more technical courses on hand pump maintenance tasks. This high interest and involvement of women may be explained by the fact that the wells often have the greatest direct benefit to them. Gender division of labour often shows women and children as being responsible for household chores, such as the fetching of water. The time and effort savings are often more quickly perceived by women, thus sparking their interest and involvement in the wider management of the water point.
Figure 5: Curious Children at the Village of Mombolo (2003)
Training occurred in a number of forms: Seminars and lectures Theatrical performances: case studies of issues to expect Practical application during construction phase Onsite and offsite
Some of the main responsibilities of the water committees were: to ensure that the water points were kept clean, that the pump was in good working order, that the water point not be damaged, abused or mismanaged, that user fees were collected for the upkeep of the well, that preventative and corrective repairs be done as soon as they arose, that conflicts arising from the use of the water points be addressed and resolved
Health education is an essential part of the project. Whereas the wells are constructed to improve the quality of water at the source, it fails to guarantee the quality
of the water that the people actually consume. Drinking water at the household level may have been contaminated since retrieval at the source. Various home-based water treatment and conservation techniques, environmental hygiene and avoidance of waterborne diseases are explored within the seminars and theatrical productions.
One method that has been provided is the Solar Disinfection System (SODIS), whereby water contained in a transparent plastic bottle is exposed to the sun for a minimum of 5 hours; after which it is assumed the bacteria have died and the water is now potable (similar to boiling water over a fire).
3.2 Wider Impacts

Whereas local communities may have maintained traditional structures of society, new settlers, returning IDPs and the communities increased networks of communication and interaction since the end of the civil war suggest new strategies be considered. By helping to re-organise particular sectors of the communities, the communities may gain a sense of empowerment, and a vehicle to pursue further development initiatives. The system is structured in such a way as to encourage cooperation and networking between communities, NGOs and government. It attempts to strengthen and tie together the community members and provide them with a voice and a means to act and choose the direction of their own form of development. Providing a voice is especially critical during this new phase of Governmental policy making, especially in the area of water and sanitation, where no official policy has so far existed.
In the long run the structure may facilitate and help reinforce local governmental institutions. This was achieved through the creation of community delegates or spokespersons responsible for particular aspects of an important activity affecting a significant part of the community.
Like the ICRC, a long-term goal for DW is to hand over the water programme to the local authorities. Construction and monitoring aspects could for instance be transferred to the Huambo Provincial Water Department (DPEAH) once this agency becomes more financial sustainable to fully fund it. A prime consideration for instance is the improvement in salaries of government employees.
4.0 Biophysical Assessment

4.1 Landscape Changes
The final landscape is the same for both. Wells are often situated in a central location to facilitate access for everyone. Improved water accessibility, quantity and quality could influence a densification of the surrounding area as people are attracted to this benefit. Alternatively, if good management is observed and environmental health, then no human construction should occur within a minimum of 30 meters of the well. This could create a development vacuum in its immediate vicinity. Population growth and build-up will then occur around this buffer area.
The alternative to a well being constructed in a particular location in a rural community is that the area could be used for future human expansion. Since wells are usually situated in a location that is relatively accessible the majority of the local population, not building one in that location would simply leave the space open for other ways to congregate. The meeting place could remain open and clear from build-up, or could be developed to accommodate this activity further, such as building a meeting shelter, setting up logs or chairs for people to sit around, to hold public meetings or festivities, etc.
In an urban setting, the alternative to not building a well is often to rely on the supply from water trucks until such a time as the city can be served by the water mains. Consequently, empty space is likely to result in eventual human settlement. A different option, however, may be to create a preserved natural space to encourage further sustainable development in the area, and to pursue or increase quality of life in diverse ways.
4.2 Loss of Visibility

Unlike some of the earlier wells dating as far back as the colonial period, DWs wells and hand pumps are fairly low lying (see Figure 6). Loss of visibility should therefore not be a significant concern. Obstruction to visibility may be of concern if the well is located in an area where people did not congregate in the past, but that due to the
current presence of the well, will do so in the future: groups of people standing in a small area at specific times of the day (i.e. when the well is accessible and open for use).
Figure 6: High Standing Colonial Pump
Figure 7: Low Standing DW Pump
Indirectly, similar to the landscape changes issue, the construction of the well necessitates a human activity buffer area around it. Consequently, constructing a water pump, and maintaining the required environmental safety precautions will assure an open space of a minimum 30 meter radius where visibility will not be obstructed. This cannot be guaranteed however where no water point exists.
4.3 Soil Stability and Quality

One concern with regards to hand dug wells is soil erosion. The well is protected by concrete walls which impede the soil from caving into it. Furthermore, the well walls are solid for most of its length, except for the bottom few rings which have a granulated texture that allows for water to seep through. Consequently these precautions should
minimise erosion from occurring. It is also noted that a borehole well has a smaller well shaft and therefore has a smaller impact on its soil surroundings.
The well is built upon a concrete platform. The platforms slight slope and raised sidings allow for all water to be contained within the platform area. A ditch leads out from the platform, safely directing runoff away from the well area, thus minimising water contamination.
Figures 8 and 9 show some differences between good and bad practices. Figure 9 shows a short drainage system that leads directly to a plantation, not more than 10 meters away from the well. In order to avoid contamination of the well water, the water committees are taught that wells must be a minimum of 30 meters away from any form of human activity.
Figure 8: Good Drainage
Figure 9: Bad Drainage
4.4 Air Quality

Some private wells in the urban areas are operated with the use of electricity. Since electricity is not yet supplied by the hydroelectric dam, it is being provided by city or private diesel generators. Whereas generators produce emissions to begin with, further emissions are produced due to the extra load demanded by electric pumps. Wells in rural areas are for the most part human operated and do not produce any direct emissions. Indirectly though, emissions are produced during the construction phase from both the equipment transport trucks and the generators used to run the submersible pumps.
Transport trucks access the site only at specific times, when they are delivering tools or material. During the rest of the project (approximately 1 month), a Toyota 4wheel drive is used to transport the technical personnel and their equipment to and from sites. Similarly, generators are not constantly run. These are turned on only when a need to pump the water out of the well arises. During the period of excavation below the water recharge level, the generator may run approximately 2/5 of the time, or about two hours a day for a period of a little over a week.
Conversely, borehole drilling is a much quicker process and may require only a single day of generator activity to power both the drill and the pump.
Figure 10: Drilling a Borehole
A rural community, however, may not have been as historically exposed to forms of air pollution, as an urban setting might have, where airborne pollution point sources may be more common. Therefore, airborne pollution may be noticed more within rural settings. On the other hand, rural communities may have more surrounding vegetation that might act as a natural filter to some of the airborne pollution, thus mitigating the generators negative effects to some small extent.
5.0 Socioeconomic Assessment

5.1 Human Health Changes
These wells, if managed properly, can improve human health as it relates to water born diseases. The wells are closed at the surface, thus minimising surface contamination. The wells are lined with concrete rings and filtering soil material is
placed around the sidings, thus minimising contamination through the watershed and/or the soil immediately around the well. Deviation of run-off away from the well alleviates contamination of the water source from human activity around the water point.
As previously mentioned health education is an important part of the sustainability of the water point. An additional note is to consider traditional patterns of performing chores. Washing clothes for instance was often performed at or near the location of the source of water. This practice cannot be continued since it not only brings contaminants and detergents right to the site (see Figure 11), where infiltration into the whole water recharge area can occur, but it could also contribute to overuse of the water supply. Water is often much better managed when an individual is obliged to exert some effort to obtain it. For instance carrying the water to their home, and then performing the washing there, has a much higher likelihood of using less water in the long run.
Figure 11: Washing at a Water Point - A Bad Practice
5.2 Sound Quality

So long as the well pumps are regularly checked and maintained, they should not emit any significant sound. Problems begin to occur when their mechanism is abused or applied undue strain (see Figure 12). A water pump that squeaks is often due to some form of over exertion. It is the responsibility of the water committee to inform and enforce best practices for a well.
Figure 12: Physical Abuse to a Water Point
Similar to the air pollution issue, noise pollution is also prevalent during the construction phase due primarily to the use of a generator to pump water from the well. In the long-term, sound is minimised by the implementation of an improved well, as it eliminates the need for recurring traffic noise from water trucks. Furthermore, the generators are used during the day time, when much of the population is away working in the fields. There are therefore a minimal number of people who may be directly affected.
Noise due to construction is usually short lived and little evidence has surfaced about open opposition to it.
5.3 Safety
Safety is a difficult issue to address. Much of the success of the project is due in part to its focus on low cost solutions. Whereas a measure of caution is exerted in all activities, still each component involves a level of risk. For this reason, all project staff are insured.
The technical supervisors all wear full body overalls to protect both their clothing and skin from dirt and wear. Protective gloves are also available; however due to the need to minimise cost, a certain amount of sharing of protective gear may occur. For instance, a technical supervisors gloves may be lent to a community digger to operate the winch or haul up the rope and bucket manually.
During borehole drilling, caution tape is set up around the area, and hard hats are worn. However, it is often very difficult to observe these rules all the time, as curious children and community members will inevitably cross the caution tape warning. Possibly, a lack of information was provided to them regarding the rationale for the use of caution tape, or what it symbolises. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that all of the technical supervisors will wear hard hats all the time. Only select individuals wear the hard hats, even though others are within the same area. Typically, community members,
who do not have the technical expertise to operate the heavy machinery, will go without protective equipment as they try to help in any small way possible.
Drawing parallels with North American standards of safety are nearly impossible. This is not due to bravado, but simply to a restricted budget, and a lack of information and understanding of safety issues.
Figure 13: Drilling a Borehole
Safety considerations are not limited to borehole drilling. A hard hat is provided to the community digger inside the well. This safety precaution has proven extremely useful when a bucket was not firmly attached enough to the winch and was in danger of falling into the well. Despite this, due to the cramped conditions within the well, it is often difficult and awkward for the digger to keep the hard hat on his head while bending
over, or swinging the pickaxe. Often the hard hat is simply used as another recipient to aid in the scooping and filling of the bucket.
Figure 14: A Community Digger in a Well
When inserting the concrete rings into the well, they do not always slide down neatly into place. It is often necessary for a technician no stand on top of the rings and jiggle them back and forth to both help them settle to the bottom of the well, as well as to interlock correctly. The more securely interlocked the rings, the better permeability they provide to moisture seepage from the earth walls, and the less likely they are to crack with time as they naturally settle. The precarious and dangerous situation that the technician is faced with is well acknowledged by the other supervisors, as fairly severe accidents have happened in the past.
Figure 15: Settling & Adjusting the Concrete Rings
A final precaution that should be noted is the attempt to cover up the well hole at the end of a work day. Well covers are subject to the availability of resources of the locale. Large sticks and branches are crisscrossed along the top of the well in an effort to provide some level of safety. More often than not, the cover is simply to discourage children from trying to look down inside and possibly falling in. The covers do not provide any real form of physical protection as they would not be able to support a human weight. They also have a limited warning effect, as it could go practically unseen in the dark. It is therefore of no real protection to animals or rodents, as occasionally a drowned rat will be found in the bottom the next morning.
5.4 Cultural Effect

Significant cultural differences exist between urban and rural areas. It is therefore important to address these and include them into the planning of the project. Whereas most of the cities predominantly speak Portuguese, the official colonial national
language, rural communities often do not differentiate between Portuguese and Umbundu, the traditional language of the area of Huambo Province. It is only through formal education, which many do not have due in part to the effects of the war, that the distinction between the two languages is made. For this reason, the project mobilisers who do most of the consultation work with the communities must be fluent in both languages. Predominantly all of the workers, except for the occasional expatriate engineer or hydrologist, are locally born and resident. The use of local personnel for the project is incorporated within its overall sustainability objectives. The project in essence is an attempt to reinforce local capacity using local resources. Problems and solutions are therefore resolved within a much more local context.
Project acceptance at the community level is also much higher since the community does not associate the development as a foreign intervention, and so has a better chance of acquiring local ownership. In the past, foreign intervention was associated with humanitarian relief which involved very little interaction with the community. Instead it focused on providing the people with a basic need without their input. To fight against such stigma has always been a difficult battle.
Community based consultation is at the heart of the project, since a significant part of the project is to be performed by them. Consultation is therefore the initial phase of the project, and is returned to again at every stage of the development. DW is no longer the proponent or implementing organisation, but enters instead into a partnership with each local community, allowing them to choose the direction of their project.
DW goes to great lengths to emphasise that they do not approach a community unless someone has asked them to do so. The project is based upon the initiative of the communities. A strong community is one which shows great enthusiasm and energy in their involvement, often leading the project to be completed in record times. Such communities then find it easier to request help in other development projects such as the construction of a school or health clinic.
The Soba, or traditional leader of the community, is the first person that the project mobilisers consult with. It is only with permission from them that the rest of the community can be approached.
Since wells are not an unknown feature to the population, as is evidenced from old colonial remains, and since the community is involved to such a great extent in the decision making process, it is anticipated that the cultural effect of the wells will be minimal. At best, it will be positive, since it aims to reinforce the communitys capacities, by tapping into their knowledge base and own development objectives.
6.0 Economic Impact

6.1 Changes in Town Layout
One of the main conditions for the siting of a well is its distance from sources of contamination. Many human activities have a level of contamination. It is therefore inadvisable to conduct any large scale human activity within this buffer area.
Since distance to a water source is an essential starting point for many new settlers, it is expected that the communities will reorganise and develop around and out from the well, using it as a centre point.
6.2 Population Growth

Past experience of wells being used at over capacity within the city area, suggests that the wells will start off meeting its predicted capacity, but that with time, the population will increase, as further IDPs return to their places of origin.
In the long run, the improvements in health and nutrition may have an effect on the number of children per family. A decrease in infant mortality may encourage smaller families as life expectancy increases.
6.3 Labour Market

The project is based upon capacity building of local resources. The sustainable nature of it has been in part due to the increased local activities, such as the locally based rock crushing exercise. The demand for increasingly local materials to make it more sustainable has led to an invigoration of the labour market. Productivity and innovation are key to meeting the increasing demand for local solutions to local problems.
6.4 Income Distribution

During the second community consultation, the community was encouraged to set a predetermined amount for user fees. The amount should be determined by the community itself as they understood their own economic ability. The user fees would be collected on a regular basis and set aside for maintenance purposes, or for fixing a problem when it occurred.
The savings could also act as a useful bank to purchase an item that the whole community agreed upon, such as more livestock or seeds for planting. The money could also be used as a safety fund in case of a community emergency, such as to help pay for an injury or medication for an ill community member.
However, the local currency (the Kwanza) fluctuated greatly with respect to the dollar, leading to rapid spurts of inflation. The weakening Kwanza did not inspire confidence in the local populations. Any effort to create a maintenance fund through a
monetary collection system would be demeaned by the continuous devaluation of the amount collected. Many communities therefore opted to only contribute a monetary amount at the time a problem occurred. The disadvantages with this technique are the difficulty to enforce a community wide collection at random times, and the assurance that enough funds are immediately available to complete the repair or maintenance. The effectiveness is therefore questionable.
6.5 Economic Activities

Community involvement during the construction period was often sporadic depending on the size, wealth, and commitment, etc. of the population. Diggers would often rotate. Very seldom could a community member afford to be a digger for the entire excavation period, even though some were better than others.
The rural communities were agricultural and farm based. The dry season was the best time to excavate since this was when the water table was the lowest. Excavating enough water to meet current needs in the dry season assured that there would be enough come the wet season, when even greater amounts of water were present. The dry season was also a busy time of the year for the community as they had to work to maintain their crops and not loose them to the drought and heat.
Even when no fore notice was provided as to whether the community would be present that day or not to excavate, and that a significant amount of the day was lost due
to waiting for someone to show up, the technical supervisors were expected to accept and recognise the community members choices and priorities.
6.6 Adjacent Land Use

The main stipulation with regards to adjacent land use to the well is that no sources of contamination must exist. In order to assist in the mitigation of contaminants, DW launched parallel projects providing latrine covers.
Figure 16: Latrine Covers for Distribution
A completely community based initiative that ran along parallel to one community well digging project, was the building of a house for some community member. The extracted mud and water from the bottom of the well was immediately collected by the women in the community and carried to a group of men who then created mud brick blocks. Within a two to three day period, the second half of the community had managed to use the waste materials from the well to build all of the walls of the house. Only the
roof was left to be thatched. This was an ideal example of community based innovation in the maximisation of resources and labour for an adjacent land use.
Figure 17: Women Collecting Material for Mud Bricks
7.0 Criteria for Alternative

Based on the criteria and rationale explored in the biophysical, social and economic assessments, a cost matrix was assembled, attributing weighting to the three categories and their many sub-categories. The scale is outlined at the top of the table, where 1 is Excellent, and 5 is terrible. No further weighting was performed as it was deemed that all categories contained valid points and were not better suited to the project than others.
1 - Excellent; 2 - Good; 3 - Acceptable; 4 - bad; 5 - terrible Alternatives Criteria Hand-dug well Borehole Biophysical Impact Landscape changes 4 4 Loss of visibility 2 2 Air quality 2 2 Water quality 1 1 Soil stability 3 2
None 2 3 3 4 1
Social Impact Human health changes Sound quality Safety Cultural effect Economic Impact Changes in town layout Population growth Labour market Income distribution Economic activities Adjacent land use Total
2 2 5 1 2 4 1 2 4 2 37
2 2 5 3 3 3 5 3 2 2 41
4 3 3 3 4 2 4 4 2 3 45
The table concludes that Hand-dug wells may have the smallest overall impact on the community and its environment. This supports DWs rationale for the continued use of the technique as a sustainable approach to development.
8.0 Conclusion
The project can be viewed in many ways. First and foremost it is an initiative to satisfy the demand for better access to clean water. Secondly it attempts to create a structure for further development and eventual self governance.
This paper has touched upon the main areas of DWs project in Huambo, providing insight into the various components and interactions. Through the use of a cost matrix, it confirms the emphasis that the NGO has placed on improved hand-dug wells over boreholes and a no-action stance.
The principle concerns from the project include safety issues. Whereas numerous efforts have been made in this regard, it remains the responsibility of donors to recognise the need for increased funding, to better reward sound development practices.
15.0 Bibliography
Development Workshop (DW). Huambo Rural Water Supply Project Angola. 2001. IDP Project. IDP and Population Movements since the Cessation of Hostilities. 2005. Lifewater Canada. Afridev Handpumps for Safe Drinking Water. 2005. http://www.lifewater.ca/afridev.htm Nembrini, P. Cities in war: thirsty cities Huambo (Angola) Water supply in a war torn town: evolution and impact of the different interventions since 1985. 2001. Occasional paper No. 3 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC). Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Africa. 1998. http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/techpublications/techpub-8a/wells.asp UNICEF. At a glance: Angola Statistics. 2003. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html UNICEF. Strategic Plan for the Accelerated Reduction of Maternal and Child Mortality in Angola. 2004. http://www.unicef.org/angola/Strategic_plan_to_reduce_maternal_child_mortality.p df
Appendix A
Project Stages
Steps
1 Partner with: - NGOs (national & international) - government - church & community groups Secure project funding
Details
- Coordinate areas of implementation - avoid duplication - Coordinate use of materials & facilities - sharing cost & expertise - Coordinate timing (better integration) Principal Donors: - Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) - Swiss Development Corporation (Swiss Humanitarian Aid) Expressed through: - Local authorities - Traditional authorities - NGO working in the area - Community members (individual or group) Project mobilisers consult with: - Different sectors of the population - Senior project staff - Other NGOs in the area Consultation by project mobilisers & technical personnel - Local authorities - Traditional chiefs (i.e. Sobas) - Community-based organisations - Community members Criteria for selection: - Located on public land - Accessible by road (i.e. construction period) - No potential sources of pollution min. 30m around it - Ground water availability - Outline of plan of action - Outline of sustainability & management requirements - Community agrees to participate - community does the work - Community selects water committee (democratic means) - Community decides on hours of operation (e.g. sunrise & sunset) - Community sets amount for user fees - dependent on community commitment & enthusiasm - dependent on economic status of community Lecture-seminars & theatre: - Roles & responsibilities of water committees - Simple accounting - Hand pump maintenance - Basic hygiene - Health education - Conflict resolution
Expression of interest
Site visit
Location of water point
Community meeting
Water committee training
Steps
8 Well construction
Details
- Technical team provides tools and supervision - Community members dig well until reach water - Use of small tripod to lower diggers, tools, soil extraction bucket - Diesel powered submersible water pump removes water - Use of large tripod with winch to reach depth and lift soil with water - Community members continue digging while pump runs - At 1.5 to 2m below water recharge level concrete rings lowered into well using large tripod - Community members continue digging, removing soil under concrete rings and letting them drop/sink - Digging stops when water recharges 7 rings in height - Sidings filled and water flushed from well - Local masons used to lay cap - Technical team installs well pump By community water committee & DW mobilisers: - The water point is clean and tidy - The pump is in good working order - There is good drainage from the water point - The well gives clear (not turbid) water - There are no cracks on the well cover - Mobilising team visits sites - Mobilising team's supervisor summarises report - Project management team analyses & responds - Project Co-ordinator - Assistant Project Co-ordinator - Head of Construction - Mobilisation Supervisor - Results condensed into bi-yearly report Indicator for faecal contamination: - Greater than 10 thermotolerant bacteria Remediation: - Chlorine flushing Excel database Geographic Information System (GIS) - Improved project planning - Improved consultation - Improved monitoring (e.g. trends) - type of water point communal, institutional, private hand dug, boreholes - equipment - depth of well - depth of water - number of people supplied - Improved identification & mitigation of problems
Monitoring water point
10
Monthly activity reports
11
Water testing
12
Record data
Appendix B
Notes: A day in the Field
Its hot here. No way am I going into the shade again. Its as cold as night there. No sun and all that. The well is in the shade though. They are still digging in it. There is a guy down there right this minute digging in the mud. He is wearing a white helmet and goggles. The helmet is not really white anymore. Its more brown like the water he is standing in. Actually maybe it only looks brown from the surface as we are in shadow. Maybe it is actually pink. At first I thought someone has accidentally poured pink paint down the well shaft, but there arent any pink buildings around. They are all light brown. Anyways I found out that a layer of the soil is pink. The guy down in the well is using a pickaxe to break up the mud. We then lower down a metal bucket with the big winch over the well. The guy operating the winch is fairly short. He must be on a new exercise program because the loads are heavy. He must be strong. The guy in the well uses his shovel to fill the bucket, but there isnt much space in there so he resorts to scooping it out with his bear hands. We tell him to concentrate on the mud and stop adding water to the bucket. The guy with the winch hoists the bucket out. Two guys wearing work gloves empty the bucket into a wheelbarrow. It goes slosh. There is a lot of water in the bucket. There is a lot of water in the well. The supervisor pulls a cord on the generator to start it. It goes vroom and lets out a lot of black exhaust. He turns a few knobs on the generator and it makes even more noise. The guy at the winch helps the guy in the well to position better the sludge sucker next to him in another bucket. The sludge sucker stays down in there while he works. Its too much work to haul it up every time it is turned off. Now the water starts to disappear from the well. The water is getting sucked up through a yellow tube. Some little distance away the women are filling large plastic basins up with the water from the tube. It is really muddy. Sometimes the pressure is so strong that it splatters them in brown. When this happens, not very much goes into their colourful basins. Then other times the water is only a trickle and they just let it sit on the ground. The water flows onto the ground. The women use hoe to quickly dig a circular like trench for the water to go. It is almost a pond now. Other women fill plastic basins with the thick brown mud from the trenches. They carry them over to a large group of men. The men have made blocks with the mud. They have let them dry in the sun. They are hard. They are all working together to build a one-room house. They work surprisingly quickly. The wet mud from the trench is being used as cement mortar between the blocks. In three hours they have already raised the wall to six layers high. The house will turn a lighter brown as it dries over time. That will be up to the sun. I wonder if they are going to finish it today. This is the dry season. The water from the well has been mostly pumped out. There isnt any more coming out of the yellow tube. The supervisor turns off the noisy generator. Now I can hear the kids again. They are gathered around in small groups watching the work. They are as dirty as the dry mud covering their little bodies. The mud makes their faces white. They look like they are wearing clowns make up.
The water starts to fill back up in the well. The guy in the well has to work fast to dig at the mud before he cant see the bottom because of the water. When we first started this morning there was a rat in there. I wonder how he got in there. Maybe he decided to go for a midnight swim. Well its drowned now. I guess it wasnt as strong a swimmer as it had first thought. One of the supervisors had lowered himself down onto the top of a concrete ring. There are ten rings in the well at the moment. They fill up most of the shaft. Their diameter reaches just under my armpit. I should know. I am writing against one right this moment. They are pretty big. But they arent really big enough for the guy in the well. He is crowded. It cant be helped. The rings are the walls of the well. They are its protection, so that it doesnt cave in, or extra junk seep in from the sides. The supervisor on the top is holding a large pole he has wedged in between the earth and the rings. He is rocking it back and forth. He is trying to wedge it in securely into the side. It is so as to keep the rings straight. I guess they have learned from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. With the more they dig out of the bottom, they sink deeper. There should be at least seven rings submerged in water before they will stop digging. That should be enough water for a lifetime or two. The rings will be laid right up to the surface of the well. Then they will have to put in a concrete slab to cover it, and install a metal hand pump. Im not sure how they are going to do that bit yet. But Im sure Ill find out in time.
Appendix C
Notes: Borehole Installation in a Rural Community
Under the tight supervision of the project supervisors, the workers from the community lower the drill rig onto two long horizontal supporting bars. The drill rigs stands are then screwed and tightened into these bars successively according to a level on the drill. They are then locked into the bars with the aid of small rectangular shaped metal braces that swing into a locking position over the rigs stands. The fixtures are well oiled, so as to allow for the rigs smooth running. A hosepipe is attached to the drill rig and over to a pump. The pump is an air compressor. Two large electric cables relay the connection between the drill rig and a hydraulic generator. The drill rigs operator wears rubber boots, helmet, ear protection and gloves. Both air compressor and hydraulic generator are started up. The rigs operator runs a quick start up test of the drill and pump, emptying out any remaining water in the hosepipe. Various fixtures receive a little more oil before the work is actually begun. The community workers are set to the task of unscrewing the plastic caps from the 10cm diameter drill bit and those of the drill extensions, unloading them from the truck in the process. The drill bit is lowered into the earth; the air compressor propels the earth up the dug shaft and out the front of the drill. When the first drill bit has descended its full extent, the drill is momentarily stopped and a soil sample is collected from the ground. After each sample is taken and the drilling resumed, the earth deposited in front of the drill is removed with a hoe. If a more precise earth sample is required, a make shift tray, such as the shovels flat face, is placed before the drill during its operation and the extracted earth is deposited on it. To resume the drilling process, the drill is unscrewed from the drill bit still in the ground and a 2m steel extension is placed between the two extremities. The drill is then lowered onto the extension and screwed in. When screwing in each extension however, a heavy metal slab is slipped in around the protruding end of the previous extension, acting as a temporary lock while the drill screws itself into the top of the new extension, and only then continuing within the same motion to screw into the previous extension below it. As the drill encounters rock, it descends at a slower rate. Drilling time largely depends on the earths formation. The drill turns in the direction it is screwed in, so as to maintain a tight connection at all times. When unscrewing an extension from the next one still in the ground, the metal slab lock is attached to the lower extension so that it remains securely immobile while the upper is removed. To remove the extensions, the drill raises the shaft until the extension, beneath the one that one wishes to remove, is exposed. The lock is placed on the lower extension, while the drill reverses direction and unscrews from above. A large wrench is then used to unscrew the upper extension from the fixed lower one. The extension is removed and the drill is lowered onto the lower extension where it screws securely back into place before the lock is removed. The process is then repeated for all of the extensions.
When the soil samples begin to witness possible signs of water, the drill and its extensions are removed. As a small informal test, a small stone is dropped down the borehole shaft. The well construction supervisors listen for a resulting splash as the stone encounters rising water. It is a good sign, if one is heard. The extensions are returned to the borehole and the drilling resumed. On continuing to pump, definite signs of water are observed: the extracted soil is wet, being heavily water logged. As the drilling continues deeper, this formation is only temporary. Since it has been possible to flush out all of the water, the quantity of water is not yet sufficient, and only a small water pocket has been reached. The drilling will only stop once water pumps out freely at a steady rate. The water level must be relatively sustainable if the well is to be used to its full capacity. The drill rig can be operated with the aid of four levers. The first lever is the rotary, with only two positions, where forward is on. When the second lever is pulled forward, the drill rotates clockwise. This is the direction of tightening and drilling. When the second lever is pushed back, the drill rotates counter-clockwise. This is the direction of loosening the drill connection. When the third lever is pulled forward, the drill descends straight down without turning. This is done when lowering the drill to extract the next extension. When the third lever is pushed back, the drill raises straight up without turning. This is occasionally done when simply raising one of the extensions out of the ground. The fourth lever is the feed up (back) or down (forward) lever. This lever is used in conjunction with the first lever and exerts the power or pressure in the actual drilling process. A lever/handle on the back of the drill rig opens or closes the suction of the air compressors hosepipe. When after a certain depth, more water is not soon found, this usually implies that previously only a small water pocket had been reached and that the aquifer is too deep at that particular spot. It is often advisable at this point to abandon this borehole and to drill a new one in a fresh location, a relative distance away from where the first attempt was made. However, once a seemingly appropriate depth of approximately eight to ten meters containing constantly rechargeable water has been reached (i.e. water is constantly being pumped out), a second hole, dug by hand, is begun. This task is re-delegated to the community workers. It should remain two to three meters away from the borehole and have approximately a meters diameter and depth. All the extensions are removed from the well so as to allow for a larger drill bit, with a fifteen centimetre diameter head, to be screwed into the drill fixture. A hand held perforator is used to dig two holes to either side of the drill rig. Two welloiled supports are assembled to the sides of the drill rig and planted into the two holes in
the ground. The drill rig having been secured, the drilling is renewed with a widening of the borehole.
Figure 1: Hand held perforator
Figure 2: Extra drill rig supports
When the top of the water level is reached, the drill is momentarily stopped and the air compressor removed. It is replaced by a sludge generator with a hosepipe leading from it to the drill rig. A trench is dug from the borehole to the hand-dug hole. Water from a nearby stream is re-channelled into the hand-dug hole and a white powder known as polymer is added to the water. This polymer permits viscosity to occur in the water and is what helps the water in the water in the borehole to eventually surface. If no stream were in close proximity, water would need to be fetched from elsewhere in large plastic water recipients. A large pipe, with a filter at one end to prevent junk from entering it, relays the sludge generator to the hand-dug hole. The sludge generator operates in a similar way to the air compressor used previously. The main difference lies in that it flushes out the borehole with water as opposed to air. The generator is started and water from the hand-dug water hole is flushed up from the borehole, along the trench and back into the hand-dug hole. It is a cycle is kept in motion while the drill continues to dig. While an extension is being added to the drill, the water, instead of being pumped into the borehole, is pumped back into the hand-dug water hole. Occasionally, the trench must be re-excavated at this point as it has filled in considerably. Once the borehole has been widened, the extensions are removed and recapped for protection. The drill bit is removed and a steel cramp is fixed in its place. An elevencentimetre diameter plastic tube, three meters long, is slid down into the borehole and the cramp tightened around its protruding end. A second tube is screwed in firmly above it. These first two tubes have thin slits all along its sides so as to allow water to filter through. The initial tube is capped at the end so as to keep out any mud or debris. The tubes are slid down through the clamp and the next is screwed on over top. Two strong workers are needed to screw in the tubes and slide them down carefully so as not to loose them down the borehole shaft due to their additive weight. A third worker is required to operate the cramp. Once the tubes have settled down inside the borehole, the final one is left with a section exposed. This is required for the later mounting of the pump.
The pressure of the water filtering in through the sides of the tubes being strong, it flows freely out of the top. Sand of a thick grain is poured down between the tube casings and boreholes earthen sides. The sand fills up the empty space, but its thick grain acts as a good natural filtering system for clean water to penetrate through to the tubes. Earth is tightly packed around the top of the new wells casing. A tube from the air compressor pump is inserted into the borehole. The air compressor propels the water out. The strong air pressure also helps unblock the two lowest tubes of earth clogging its slits. This allows the heavier sand to settle further down to act as a filter. The water is allowed to return and is then flushed out several more times until the ground water is clear looking and unpolluted. The well is then temporarily capped until construction around it can be done. The community workers are in charge of disassembling and cleaning all the equipment for future use. Another smaller generator operates a power wash. Once the cement and concrete base is placed around the borehole, a chlorine treatment is issued and a steel hand pump is mounted, with the actual pump reaching down to just above the slit tubes. Should any residue accumulate in the filtration tubes over time, this last precaution is performed as a slight precaution to clean water.
Appendix D
Photos
Figure: Katchiungu Workers Residence (2003)
Figure: Mobiliser Team and Technical Supervisors
Figure: Chamuanga Community Meeting (2003)
Figure: Rio Kusse Early Stage Excavation (2003)
Figure: Chendi Small Tripod (2003)
Figure: Material Transport Truck Lunge
Figure: Unloading the Rings at Lunge (2003)
Figure: Santa-Reem Hand-Dug Well (2003)
Figure: Santa-Reem Excavation (2003)
Figure: Mathieu Working the Winch
Figure: Mathieu Supervising a Hand Dug Well
Figure: Cambuta Supervising at Chicala Velha (2003)
Figure: Excavating a Hand Dug Well
Figure: Dismounted Tripod and Winch (2003)
Figure: Digging a Borehole (2003)
Figure: Washing Up at Chicala Velha (2003)

Report - Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province Angola

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Faculty of Environmental Studies

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

7.0 8.0 15.0

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

1.0 Introduction and Approach

Figure 1: Huambo Province

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

End January 2002 435,138

End January 2003 113,000

End January 2004 21,490

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

2.0 Historical Context

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

3.0 Development Workshops Approach

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 2: Huambo's Municipalities

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 3: Damaged Well in Town of Catchiungo

Some significant population groups served by the project included:

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 4: Afridev Well Hand Pump (Lifewater Canada, 2005)

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

3.1 Training Exercises

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 5: Curious Children at the Village of Mombolo (2003)

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

3.2 Wider Impacts

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

4.0 Biophysical Assessment

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

4.2 Loss of Visibility

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 6: High Standing Colonial Pump

Figure 7: Low Standing DW Pump

4.3 Soil Stability and Quality

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

Figure 8: Good Drainage

Figure 9: Bad Drainage

ERS 339 Dec. 01, 2005 Mathieu Cain ID# 20069465

Social Impact Assessment of Improved Wells in Huambo Province, Angola

4.4 Air Quality