AASHTO Standard Specifications For Highway Bridge 16th

Vebemened TobaZ i STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS for HIGHWAY BRIDGES SIXTEENTH EDITION 1996 Adopted and Published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Inc. 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001 © Copyright 1996 by the American Association of State Highway and ‘Transportation Officials ne, All Rights Reserved, Printed inthe United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. ISBN 1-56051-040-4AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 1995-1996 VOTING MEMBERS Officers: President: Bill Burnet, Texas Vice President: Darrell Rensink, towa Secretary/Treasurer: Clyde E. Pyers, Maryland Regional Representatives: Regions: T Carlos I. Pesquara, Puerto Rico Hl Robert L. Robinson. Mississippi IM Patrick Nowak, Michigan IV Marshall W. Moore, North Dakota NON-VOTING MEMBERS Inmediate Past President: Wayne Shackelford, Georgia Executive Director: Francis B. Francois, Washington, D.C.HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES 1995 JAMES E. SIEBELS, COLORADO, Chairman G. CHARLES LEWIS, GEORGIA, Vice Chairman STANLEY GORDON, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary ALABAMA, William F. Conway ALASKA, Steve Bradford, Rey Shumway ARIZONA, William R. Bruesch, F. Daniel Davis ARKANSAS, Dale Loe CALIFORNIA, James E, Roberts COLORADO, Stephen Horton CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton DELAWARE, Chao H. Hu D.C, Jacob Patnaik, Luke DiPompo FLORIDA, Jerry Potter GEORGIA, Paul Liles HAWAII, Donald C. Omelias, IDAHO, Scott Stokes ILLINOIS, Ralph E, Anderson INDIANA, John J. White IOWA, William A. Lundquist KANSAS, Kennth F. Hurst, KENTUCKY, Richard Sutherland LOUISIANA, Norval Knapp, Wayne Aymond MAINE, Larry L. Roberts, James E. Tukey MARYLAND, Eatle S. Freedman MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow MICHIGAN, Sudhakar Kulkarni MINNESOTA, Donald J. Flemming MISSISSIPPI, Wilbur F. Massey MISSOURI, Allen F. Laffoon MONTANA, Joseph Kalman NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon NEVADA, Floyd I. Mareucci NEW HAMSPHIRE, James A. Moore NEW JERSEY, Robert Pege NEW MEXICO, Martin A. Gavumnick NEW YORK, (vacant) NORTH CAROLINA, John L. Smith NORTH DAKOTA, Steven J. Miller OHIO, Richard L. Engel OKLAHOMA, Veldo M. Goins OREGON, Terry J. Shike PENNSYLVANIA, (vacant) PUERTO RICO, Jorge L. Melendez, Hector Camacho RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Ferhournand SOUTH CAROLINA, Rocque L. Kneece SOUTH DAKOTA, John Cole ‘TENNESSEE, Clellon Loveall, ‘Ed Wasserman ‘TEXAS, Robert Wilson US. DOT, Stanley Gordon (FHWA), Nick E. Mpars (USCG) UTAH, Dave Christensen VERMONT, Warren B. Tripp VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley WASHINGTON, Myint Lwin WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods WYOMING, David Pope ALBERTA, Bob Ramsay BRITISH COLUMBIA, Peter Brett, MANITOBA, W. Saltzberg MARIANA ISLANDS, Elizabeth H. Salas-Balajedia NEW BRUNSWICK, G.A. Rushton NEWFOUNDLAND. Peter Lester NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, Jivko Jivkoy NOVA SCOTIA, Al MacRae ONTARIO, Ranjit S. Reel SASKATCHEWAN, Lorne J. Hamblin MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David Lenhardt NJ.TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Wallace R. Grant PORT AUTH. OF NY AND NI, Joseph K. Kelly NY STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William Moreau BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, ‘Wade Cosey USS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOREST SERVICE, Nelson Hemandez MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT COMMAND, Robert D. Franz U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS- DEPT. OF THE ARMY, Paul C, T. Tan iitPREFACE to Sixteenth Edition [Msjor changes and revisions to this eition are as follows: 1. The Interim Specifications of 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996 have been adopted and are in cluded, (Note the 1996 interim, with commentary, were never published as separate document.) "2 Entte Division f-8, Seismic Design, was revised. Entire section of Commentary snd Sup plemenis A & B of Division I-A were deleted. 3 Section 17, Soil Reinforced Conerete Structure Interaction Systems, of Division { was revised 4, Section 26, Metal Culvens, of Division I was revised 5. Section 27, Concrete Culver, of Division Il was revise. 6. Section 29, Embediment Anchors, was added to Division IINTRODUCTION ‘The compilation of these specifications began in 1921 with the organization of Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American Association of State Highway Officials. During the period from 1921, unti printed in 1931, the specifications wer> gradually developed, and asthe several divisions were approved from time to time, they ‘were made available in mimeographed form for use of the State Highway Departments and other organizations. A complete specifiéation was available in 1926 and it was revised in 1928. Though not in printed form, the specifications were valuable to the bridge engineering profession during the period of development. ‘The fist edition of the Standard Specifications was published in 1931, and it was foliowed by the 1935, 1941, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977, 1983, 1989, and 1992 revised editions. The present sixteenth edition constitutes re- vision of the 1992 specifications, including those changes adopted since the publico- tion of the fifteenth edition and those through 1995, The constant research and devel. ‘opment in stel, concrete, and timber structures practically dictates the necessity cf revising the specifications every few year, andthe 1996 edition coatinues this trend Interim Specifications are usually published in the middle ofthe calendar year, ant ‘revised edition of this book is generally published every 4 years. The Interim Speck fications have the same status as standards of the American Association of State High- ‘way and Transportation Officials, but are tentative revisions approved by atleast two- thirds of the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. These revisions are voted on bj the Association Member Departments prior to the publication of each new edition of this book, and if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are included inthe new edition as standards ofthe Association. Members of the Association are the 50 Staie Highway or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each member has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is 3 rronvoting member, ‘Annual Interim Specifications are generally used by the States aftr their adoption by the Bridge Subcommittee. Orders for these annuat Interim Specifications should sent to the Publication Sales Office of the Association at 444 North Capitol Stree’, NW. Suite 249, Washington, D.C, 20001, (202)624-5800. ‘The Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges are intended to serve as a standard or guide for.the preparation of State specifications and for reference by bridge engineers. Primarily the specifications set forth minimum requirements which are consistert with current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary to suit local conditions. They apply to ordinary highway bridges and supplemental specifications may be required for unusual types and for bridges with spans longer than 500 fect. ‘Specifications of the American Society for Testing and Materials, the Americar ‘Welding Society, the American Wood Preservers Association, and the National Forest Products Association are referred to, or are recognized. Numerous research bulletins are noted for references. ‘The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials wishes © express its sincere appreciation to the above organizations, as well as to those univer- sities and representatives of industry whose research efforts and consultations have ‘been most helpful in continual improvement ofthese specifications. Extensive references have been made to the Standard Specifications for Trans- portation Materials published by the American Association of State Highway and ‘Transportation Officials, including equivalent ASTM specifications which have been reproduced in the-Association’s Standard Specifications by permission of the Amer'- ccan Society for Testing and Materials. tention i also directed to the following publications prepared and published-by the Bridge Subcommittee:Construction Manual for Highway Bridges and Incidental Sructures—19T3 Edition Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Now Redundant Steel Bridge Mem- bers—1978 Edition, updated to 1986 Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges—1980 Edition, ‘updated to 1993, ‘Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges—1988 Edition Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires ‘and Traffic Signals—1985 Edition, updated to 1994 Guide Specifications for Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel Bean Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections—1991 Edition AASHTO Commentary on ANSUAASHTOMAWS Bridge Welding Code 01.5-88— 1991 Edition Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor Desigu}—1986 Edition Guide Specifications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges—1990 Edition Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steet and Concrete Bridges—1989 Edition Guide Specifications for Design and Construction and Segmental Concrete Bridges—1989 Edition Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings—1989 Edition Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barrters—1989 Edition AASHTO Guide Specificarions—Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Super- structure —1989 Eaition ANSUAASHTOIAWS Bridge Welding Code D1.S Foundation ts ssigation Manual—1978 Edition Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges—1991 Edition Guide Specification for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks—1991 Edition, Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems—1993 Edition Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges—1994 Edition Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges—1994 Edition Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges—1991 Edition Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design—1991 Edition Guide Specifications for Fatigue Design of Steel Bridlges—1989 EditionAASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications—1994 U.S. Units Edition, 1994 SI Units Edition Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Work—1995 Edition Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Work—1995 Edition Guide for Painting Steet Structures—1996 Edition ‘The following have served as chairmen of the Committee singe its inception in 1921. Messrs, ELF. Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Committee, Albin L. Gemeny, R. B. McMinn, Raymond Archiband, G. S. Paxson, E. M. Johnson, Ward Goodman, Charles Matlock, Joseph S. Jones, Sidney Poleynard, Jack Freidenrich, Henry W. Derthick, Robert C. Cassano, Clellon Loveall, and James E. Siebels, The Committee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those active members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the rll. ‘Suggestions for the improvement of the specifications are welcomed. They should be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001. Inquiries as to the intent or application ofthe specifications should be sent to the same aléress. ABBREVIATIONS AASHTO —American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials acl American Concrete Institute AITC —- —American Institute of Timber Construction ASCE —American Society of Civil Engineers ASTM — —American Society for Testing and Materials ANSI —American National Standards Instiate AWS —American Welding Society AWPA — —American Wood Preservers Association cs —Commercial Standards NDS —National Design Specifications for Stress Grade Lumber and Its Fastenings NFPA —National Forest Products Association SAE Society of Automotive Engineers WPA —Westem Pine Association WWPA — —Westem Wood Products AssociationAASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, DIVISION F DESIGN SECTION I—GENERAL PROVISIONS Ml 1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL, INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES Design Analysis Structural Integrity BRIDGE LOCATIONS WATERWAYS General Hydraulic Stu Site Data Hydrologic Analysis Hydraulic Analysis CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS ROADWAY DRAINAGE, RAILROAD OVERPASSES Clearances Blast Protection SUPERELEVATION FLOOR SURFACES UTILITIES, SECTION 2~GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN GENERAL, Notations ‘Width of Roadway and Sidewalk STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES—GENERAL, ‘Navigational Roadway Width Vertical Clearance Other ‘Curbs and Sidewalks HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES. Width Vertical Clearance HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES Width .. : Vertical Clearance Curbs HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS Roadway Width . Clearance Between Walls Vertical Clearance Curbs. HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS -Division 1 CONTENTS: 261 Roadway Width 7 262 ‘Clearance Between Walls . 263 Curbs 27 RAILINGS. 271 Vehicular Railing 271.0 General tee Geomeiry 2713 Loads . oy 272 Bieyele Railing... 272.1 General 2722 Geometry and Loads . ceecteteteeteeseeteess 273 Pedestrian Railing ........ fl 2731 General : 2732 Geometry and Loads | 274 ‘Structural Specifications and Guidelines SECTION 3—LOADS PART A~-TYPES OF LOADS 3a NOTATIONS 32 GENERAL 33 DEaD LOAD i 34 LIVELOAD ..... 35 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS 36 ‘TRAFFICLANES ..... 37 HIGHWAY LOADS . 321 Standard Truck and Lane Loads... 3.12 Classes of Loading... 373 Designation of Loadings Site 374 Minimum Loading ..... pasaeeee 375 HLoading . 7 3.76 HS Loading 38 IMPACT. 381 Application 38.1 Group A 3.8.12 Group B . i 382 Impact Formula... 39 LONGITUDINAL FORCES 3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES .. a 311 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD 3111 ‘Traffic Lane Units . : 312 ‘Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units . 3.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans 3.14 Loading for Maximum Stress... i 3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY 3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS een 314 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING 3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading. 3.142 Curb Loading - 3.143 Railing Loading ... 3.15 WIND LOADS ......3.23 3234 332 3.3.21 3.23.2. 323.23 3.23.23.1 323.232 3.23.23 324d 3242 3243, 3243.1 3.2432 3244 325 3245.1 B24S.L1 3245.12 CONTENTS Superstructure Design Group Il and Group V Loadings « Group II and Group Vi Loadings : Substructure Design ....0..p.c0ctceeeee 7 Forces from Supersinicture Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure «.....- Overturning Forées ‘THERMAL FORCES UPLIFT... FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT, FLOATING ICE, AND DRIFT CONDITIONS Force of Stream Current on Piers Stream Pressure Pressure Components Drift Lodged Against Pier Force of Tee on Piers General... fecteees : Dynamic lee Force Static Ice Pressure BUOYANCY EARTH PRESSURE EARTHQUAKES PART B—COMBINATIONS OF LOADS COMBINATIONS OF LOADS PART C—DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS Position of Loads for Shear a Bending Momento Stringers and Longitudinal Beams General... Interior Stringers and Beams Outside Roadway Stingers and Beams Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams . Concrete Box Girders Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLABS . are : Span Lengths Edge Distance of Wheel Loads Bending Moment Case A~Main Reinforeement Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) Case B—Main Reinforcement Para Shear and Bond .. Cantilever Slabs. Truck Loads Case A—Reinforcement Perpendicular Tealfic Case B—Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic 226 +26 126 26 27 2 27 21 28 31 2 32 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 34 35 35 35 38 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 Division 1Division 1 CONTENTS 32452 Railing Loads ‘ % 3.246 Stabs Supported on Four Sides 36 324.7 Median Slabs aes 3 3.248 Longitudinal Kage Beams 37 3.249 Unsupported Transverse Edges .. 3 3.24.10° Distribution Reinforcement... a) 3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER FLOORING . . 37 3.25.1 ‘Transverse Flooring a: - a 3252 Plank and Nail Laminated Longit 2 3.253 Longituc ey 3253.1 Bending Moment .........-- BD 3.2532 Shear 9 3.2533 Deflections i 240 32534 Stiffener Arrangement ry 3.254 Continuous Flooring 2 3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF ‘COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS 0 3.26. Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Moment and Shear ; 0 3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continous Spans 0 3.263 Design «..... ey 327 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEBL LOADS ON STEEL GRID FLOORS 40 327.1 General ... : tee sees AO) 3272 Floors Filled with Coverete |... ite PE eal 3273 Open Floors . 41 3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS at 3.28.1 Interior Beams - i 3.282 Exterior Beams 3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS .. 330 TIRE CONTACT AREA SECTION 4—FOUNDATIONS PART A—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 41 GENERAL. oe 42 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY .. 421 Selection of Foundation Type -..........2.0-..- 422 Foundation Capacity : 4221 Bearing Capacity . ‘ 4222 Settlement 4223 Overall Stability. feseee 423 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions... 7 a 43 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS .......... ‘ 43 43.1 General Regizements 243 432 jum Depth, aa 433 Mimo Coverage 245 434 Laboratory Testing ....... eves ce AS 435 * Scour aeiee feteaeceeeeee ee MS44 440 4ALd 44.12 44.13 44a 44.1 442 443 44a 445 445. 445.2 4453 4454 446 47 44.1 4ATLd AAT 4ATLL2 4ATA13 SATA 4aTLS 4AT1L6 AATAAT 4ATALS 4AT12 44.22, 4A 4a lL 412 CONTENTS: PART B—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD ‘ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SPREAD FOOTINGS General Applicability Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columas or Piess Footings in Fill Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments Distribution of Bearing Pressure . Notations Design Terminology Soil and Rock Property Selection Depth ‘Minimum Embedment and Bench Width ‘Scour Protection Footing Excavations Piping Anchorage . Geotechnical Design on Soil Bearing Capacity .. actors Affecting Bearing ad Eccentric Loading Footing Shape Inclined Loading Ground Surface Slope Embeciment Depth Ground Water Layered Soils Inclined Base . Factors of Safety Settlement ‘Stress Distribution Elastic Settlement Consolidation Settlement Secondary Seitlement Tolerable Movement Dyaamic Ground Stabitity Geotechnical Design on Rock. Foatings or Competent Rock . Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock Factors of Salty Settlement . Footings on Competent Rock . Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock “Tolerable Movement Overall Stability DynamioSeismic De Structural Design Loads and Reactions ‘Action of Loads and Reactions . Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions 237 45 4S 4S 45 48 45 45 45 48 48 4B 48 49 49 49 49 49 er) 50 30 ar 31 SI 31 35 35 37 37 7 38 38 61 261 61 6 62 62 262 3 8B 1B 83 “64 64 66 66 66 86 7 Division £Division T 44.112 44.21 4AN22 44.113 44.113.1 44.1132 4s 44Nad 44142 44.115 44.115.1 441152 44.11.53 44l1sa 4aMss 4ad1S6 445.7 4416 44.11.61 44.11.62 4S 451 43.11 45.42 45.13 4514 45.15 45.16 45.17 DRIVEN PILES CONTENTS: Moments i Critical Section . Distsibution of Reinforcement. Shear Critical Section... Footings'on Piles or Drilled Shafts Development of Reinforcement Development Length Critical Section . . ‘Transfer of Force at Base of Column ‘Transfer of Force Lateral Forces . een aaet Bearing ‘ 7 ‘i Reinforcement... Dowel Size Development Length . Splicing 7 Uneinforced Canceete Footings Design Stress . Pedestals General Application Materials Penetration : Lateral Tip Restraint... Estimated Lengths H Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation. Piles Through Embankment Fill ‘Test Piles ae Pile Types oo 2 ee eeeeeeee Friction Piles . End Bearing Piles. ‘Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles Batter Piles Notations : Design Terminology Selection of Soil and Rock Properties Selection of Design Pile Capacity Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity Factors Affecting Axial Capacity. ; 50 “Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils 6. e teen eee IO) ‘Axial Capacity in Cohesiontess Soils peered ‘Axial Capacity on Rock 0 Factor of Safety Selection iu Settlement : aT Group Pile Loading .. PE erie a Lateral Loads on Piles : Uplift Loads on Piles ay carted ‘Single Pile Pile Group Vertical Ground Movement ae "Negative Skin Frieti45.672 4568 437 4301 45.0.2 45.13 Asad 4575 438 459 45.10 43.11 45.12 A513 45.14 431d 45.142 45.143 4SIS 4515.1 4315.1 45.15.1 ASS. 45.16 45.161 45.162 43.163 43.164 45.165 45.166 45.167 45168 45.169 45.17 45171 45.172 45.173 45.174 45.175 45.176 45117 4S178 4518 43.181 45.182 45.183 45.184 45.185 45.19 4.19.1 45.192 45.193, 45.194 CONTENTS: Expansive Soil Dynamic/Seismic Design Structural Capacity of Pile Section Load Capacity Requirements 7 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface Allowable Stress in Piles . Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion Scour Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion ‘Wave Equation Analysis, Dynamic Monitoring i Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses Tolerable Movement Buoyancy Protection Against Dete ‘Steel Piles : Concrete Piles ee : Timber Piles Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment Pile Footings . Pile Spacing Minimaum Projection ito Cap Bent Caps Precast Concrete Piles Size and Shape Minimum Area Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles Driving Points Vertical Reinforcement Spiral Reinforcement Reinforcement Cover Splices . Handling Stresses Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Materials ‘Shape Minimum Area General Reinforcement Requirements Reinforcement into Superstructure Shell Requirements Splices i Reinforcement Cover Steel H-Piles Metat Thickness Splices : Caps Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers Point Attachments Unfilled Tabular Steel Piles Metal Thickness... Splices Driving Column Action “6B m2 B B TB B 33 B 4 mm m4 4 4 4 7 4 ry dS Eel 1B B 25 WB 18 73 5 75 B B 8 16 76 16 76, 16 76 76 76 16 16 16 76 16 76 16 7 n 1 11 n n 1 n Division |Division 1 CONTENTS xy 45.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles 45.201 Size and Shape 2.4... 45.202 Main Reinforcement . 45.203 Vertical Reinforcement .. 45204 Hollow Cylinder Piles . : 45205 Splices 7 452 ‘Timber Piles, 45211 Materials... 45212 Limitations on Untceated Timber Pile Use 45213 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use . 46 DRILLED SHAFTS 461 General 46.11 Applic 46.12 Materials 46.13 Construction 46.14 Embedment 4615 ‘Shaft Diameter 46.1.6 Batter Shafis 46.17 Shafi Through Embankment Fill. 462 Notations .... . 463 Design Terminology 464 Selection of Soll and Rock. Properties 464.1 Presumptive Values 4642 Measured Values 465 4651 ‘Axial Capacity in Soil i 465.11 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil. 46512 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil 46513 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil 465.14 ‘Tip Resistance in Cohesiontess Soil 7 4652 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil i 46521 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth 465.22 Ground Water .. 465.23 Enlarged Bases. 46524 Group Action 465.241 Cohesive Sol 465242 Cohesionless Soil. 465243 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil 46525 Vertical Ground Movement . : 46526 Method of Construction 4653 Axial Capacity in Rock . 4653.1 Side Resistance . 46532 Tip Resistance Factors Affecting Axial Consiy in Rock 3 Rock Stratification 465332 Rock Mass Discontinuties 465333 Method of Construction . 4654 Factors of Safety .... 4655 Deformation of Axislly Loaded Shafts 46551 Shafis in Soil. ‘ 4655.11 Cohesive Soil 4655.12 Cohesionless Soil 4655.13 Mixed Soil Profile46352 46353 4636 4656.1 4656.11 46.56.12 4656.13 4656.14 4656.15 465.6.16 4656.17 46562 4657 466 466.1 46.6.2 46621 466.2, 46623 46624 46.625 466.26 4663 4664 467 4671 461.2 46.03 47 48 49 4.10 4101 4102 4103 4.10 4105 4.106 al ata aud 4is2 4113 alia ALLS ALLE 4ALL7 4118 SHLL9 CONTENTS: Shafts Socketed into Rock Tolerable Movement Lateral Loadi Factors fetng Lately Loaded Shas Soil Layering : Ground Water Scour Group Action Cyclic Losding : Combined Axial and Lateral Loading Sloping Ground ‘Tolerable Lateral Movements Dynamic/Seismic Design Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions General Reinforcement Longitudinal Bar Spacing Splices . ‘Teansverse Reinforcement Handling Suesses .. Reinforcement Cover Reinforcement into Superstnucture Enlarged Bases ‘Center-to-Cenrer Shaft Soin Load Testing General Load Testing Procedures Load Test Method Selection tionally Not Used PART C--STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SCOPE DEFINITIONS LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND RESISTANCE FACTORS. General Serviceability it States States ment : Load Combinations and Load Factors Performance Factors SPREAD FOOTINGS . General Considerations General Depth Scour Protection Frost Action Anchorage Groundwater Uplit. Deterioration [Nearby Structures 289 31 87 88 88 88 88 88 88 39 89 0 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 91 91 91 91 91 a 92 92 2 m 2 3 983 93 93 9B 93 93 93 93 93 94 94 34 95 Division !Division | 412 413 4113.1 432 4133 434 411341 4113.42 4113.43 4a 414d 414d AMAL 41a 4a 41415 4114.16 4142 411421 411422 411423 4MA24 4142s 41143 alla 4s 4116 41161 4.11.62 4.11.63 412 4121 4122 4123 4123.1 4123.11 4123.12 4.12.3.13 4123.14 41232 4123.21 4123.22 4123.23 4123.23 4.123.236 4123.24 41233 4233.1 412332 412333 4123.34 412335 412336 412337 CONTENTS Notations Movement Under Serviceability Limit States General Loads... : ‘Movement Criteria Settlement Analyses Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils. Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils Settlement of Footings on Rock ... Safety Against Soil Failure : Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils... ‘Theoretical Estimation Semi-Empirical Procedures Plate Loading Test Presumptive Values Effect of Load Eccentricity . Effect of Groundwater Table Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock ‘Semi-Empirical Procedures ‘Analytic Method . . Load Test ..... oe Presumptive Bearing Values, Effect of Load Becentricity . Failure by Sliding 0.0.2.0... Loss of Overall Stability Structural Capacity Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations General Excavation Monitoring General . Notations Selection of Design Pile Capacity .. Factors Affecting Axial Capacity Pile Penetration Groundwater Table and Buoyancy. Uplift Movement Under Serviceability Limit State General ....e.e ees Tolerable Movement Settlement .. Cohesive Soil Cohesionless Soil Lateral Displacement... Resistance at Strength Limit States ‘Axial Loading of Piles Analytic Estimates of Capacity. Pile of Capacity Estimates Based on in Situ Tests Piles Bearing on Rock Pile Load Test ... oe Presumptive End Beng Casces ‘ Uplift Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces : 101 102 102 102, 102 102 103 103 103 103 103 103, 103 2103, 103, 103 104, 104 104 104 104 104CONTENTS 4.123.370 Single Pile Uplift Capacity 41233.76 Pile Group Uplift Capacity 412.338 Lateral Load faut 4.12339 Baiter ile 7 4.1233.10 Group Capacity 4.12.33.108 Cohesive Soil 4.12.3.3.10b Cohesionless Soil cevteseeseeeee 4.1233.102 Pile Group in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak ‘or Compressible Soil : 4233.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design Structural Design Buckling of Piles Construction Considerations DRILLED SHAFTS General . Notations Geotechnical Design Factors Affecting Axial Capacity 4133. Downdrag Loads 4133.12 Uplift 4133.2 Movernent Under Serviceability Limit State... 413321 General 4133.22 Tolerable Movement 4133.23 Settlement 4133.23 Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts 4.133.238 Group Seitlement 413324 Lateral Displacement 4.1333 Resistance at Strength Limit States 413331 ‘Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts 413332 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity in Cohesive Soils 4133.33 Estimation of Deilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils 413334 Axial Capacity in Rock 7 4.13335 Load Test .. 4.13336 Uplift Capacity 413.336 Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft 4.133.340 Group Uplift Capacity 7 4.13337 Lateral Load 4.13338 Group Capacity. 4.133380 Cohesive Soil 4.133380 Cohesionless Soil ceveeee fee 413.3.3.8¢ Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Compressible Soil. 4.13339 Dynamic/Seismic Design 4B Structural Design 4A Buckling of Drilled Shafts SECTION $—RETAINING WALLS PART A—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 3 GENERAL 52 WALL TYPE AND CAPACITY tot 108 tot los Loe toa = 105 105 105 105 105 105 +105 os 105 106 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 2107 107 108 108 108 108, 108, 108 108 108 108 108 108 109 ut MI Division fDivision 1 CONTENTS: xix $21 Selection of Wall Type al 5211 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls mmo Se ma BL om oy conn ARS ”18 HIGHWAY BRIDGES Bu Live load (Artile 322 span length (Anicle 3.23.4) LF = longitudinal fore from live loud (Articte = moment capacity of dowel (Anicle 3.25.14) primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3) total transterred secondary moment (Article 3.25.14 ‘numberof beams (Anite 3.28.1) ‘numberof teat lanes (Article 3.234) number of doxsels (Article 25.1.4) tive load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1) stream flow pressure (Aricle 3.18.1) total unitorm force required to cause unit horizontal deflection of whole structure toad on one rear wheel of tuck (Article 3.24.5) whee! load (Article 324.5) design whee! load (Article 3.25.13) 12.000 pounds (Article 3.24.3) 16.000 pounds (Article 3.24.3) fective ie strength (Amite 3.18.22.1) = proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1) dius of curve (Anicle 3.10.1) wrmalized rock response rib shortening (Article 3.22) hear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1) © primary shear (Aricle 3.25.13) = total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.14) lesign speed (Article 3.10.1) cil amplification spectral ratio. = shrinkage (Article 3.22) erage stringer spocing (Article 3.23, spacing of beams (Anicle 3.23.3) Width of precast member (Aisle 3.23.43) fective span length (Article 3.24.1) pan length (Anicle 3.24.8.2) ‘beam spacing (Article 328.1) fective deck span (Article 3.25.13) eam flow (Article eriod of vibration remparature (Article 3.22) hickness of ice (Article 3.18224) jek thickness (Article 3.25.13) ariable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.38) selocity of water (Article 3.18.1) combined weight onthe first wo axles ofa standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.7A) width of sidewalk (Anite 3.14.11) wind load on structure (Article 32) total dead weight of the structure width of exterior girder (Anticle 3.232. overall width of bridge (Anicle 3.23.4.3) roadivay width between curbs (Aricle 3.28.1) ind load on live load (Antele 322 ‘width of pier ordiamter of circular-shalt per atthe level of ice ation (Astcle 3.18. alistaace from toad to point of support article 3.24.5.1) subscript dencting direction perpendicular to longicudinal stingers (Anticle3.25.1.3) 8 ppm Re a0 ange von nwuaenng3 DIVISION I—~DESIGN 9 seduction for ductility and risk assessment (with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads for service load and load factor designs (Article 3.22) y= Toad factor (Article 3.22) proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article 3.25.1.4) : load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Asticle 3.22.1) Bc = load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article 3.22.1) oad combination coefficient for dead load (Anicle 3.22.1) Joad combination coefficient for earth pressure (Asticle 3.22.1) eo = load combination coefficient for earthquake (Asticle 3.22.1) Bice = load combination coefficient for ice (Article 3.22.1) = load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1) q = load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage, and temperature (Article 3.22.1) Joad combination coefficient for stream flow (Article 3.22.1) load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1) Bu. = load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article 3.22.1) bh = Poisson’s ratio (Antcle 3.73.4.3) 32 GENERAL 3.24 Structures shall be designed to carry the following Toads and forces Dead load, Live load. Impact or dynamic effect of the live load. ‘Wind Toads. Other forces, when they exist as follows: Longitudinal forces, centrifugal force, thermal forces, carth pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses, rib short ening, erection stresses, ice and current pressure, and earthquake stresses. Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces between the superstructure and substructure to reflect the effect af friction at expansion bearings or shear resistance at clastomeric bearings, 3.2.2. Members shall be proportioned either with reference to service loads and allowable stresses as provided in Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design) or, altematively, with reference to load factors and factored sirength as provided in Strength Design (Load Factor De- sign). 3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or notation of the assumed Jonds shall be shown and the siresses due tothe various loads shall be shown separately. 3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete placing sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the special provisions, 325 The loading combinations shall be in accordance ‘with Article 3.22, 3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces carried by the bridge through the dec.« system to pin connections and hangers shoula be resolved into vertical, lateral, and longitudinal force compo.ients to be considered inthe design 33 DEAD LOAD 33.1 The dead load stiall consist of the weight of the ‘entice structure, including the roadway, sidewalks, car tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility 3.3.2 The snow and ice load is considered'to be offset by an accompanying decrease in live load and impact and shall not be included except under special conditions. 3.3.24 If differential settlement is anticipated in a structure, consideration should be given o stresses resulting from this settlement. 33.3 Ifa separate wearing surface is tobe placed when the bridge is constructed, ori expected tbe placed in the Future, adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in the design dead load. Otherwise, provision for a future ‘wearing surface isnot required. 334 Special consideration shall’be given to the necessity fora separate wearing surface for those regions where the use of chains on tires or studded si0w tires can be anticipated.20 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 33s 5 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected, the traffic may bear directly on the concrete slab. If considered desirable, Y- inch-or more may be added to the slab for a wearing surface. 3.3.6 The following weights are to be used in computing the dead toad: leu. Steel or east steel ; we $90 Cast ion 450 Aluminum alloys 7 ve US “Timber (treated or untreated) 2 50 Concrete, plain or reinforced 150 ‘Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast 120 Loose sand, earth, and gravel 100 Macadam or gravel. rolled... 140 Cinder filing . © Pavernent, other than wood block . + 150 Railway rails. guardrails, and fastenings {per linear foot of tack) 200 Stone masonry i 70 Asphalt plank. 1 in. thick 9b. 59 34 LIVELOAD ‘The Hive load shall consist ofthe weight ofthe applied ‘moving load of vehicles. cats, and pedestrians. 3.8 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS 35.1 Forall loadings less than H 20, provision shall be rade for an infrequent heavy load by applying Loading Combination 1A (see Article 3.22), withthe live load assumed to be H of HS wuck and (0 occupy a single lane without concurrent loading in any other lane. The over Joad shall apply to all pars of the structure affected, except the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stif- ening ribs in the case of orthotropic bridge super- ‘Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is Selected by the operating agency in accordance with Loading Combination Group IB in Article 3.22 36 TRAFFIC LANES 3.6.1. The land loading or staridard qruck’shal) be assumed to cecupy a width of 10 Feet. Lane width 3.62 These losds shall be placed in 12-foot wide design 37.1_ Standard Truck and Lane Loads traffic tanes, spaced across the entire bridge ronlway ‘width measured between curbs. 36.3. Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used. Dut roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall have to de~ sign lanes each equal to one-half the roadway widtt 3.64 The (affic lanes shall be placed in such numbers and positions on the roadway, and the loads shall be placed in such positions within their individual waif lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the member under consideration, ene Twace\Vane 3.7_HIGHWay LOADS Sess 37.LL The highway live loadings on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard tmcks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck trains. Two systems of loading are provided, the H loadings and the HS toadiags—the HS loadings being heavier than the corresponding H loadings. 3.7.1.2 Bach lane load shall consist of « uniforn Toad per linear foot of traffic ane combined with a single concentrated load (or two concentrated loads in the case of continuous spans—see Article 3.11.3). so placed on the span as t© produce maximum stress. The concertrated load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over a 10-foot width on 2 Tine normat to the ‘centerline of the lane. 3.7.13 For the computation of moments and shears. different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in Figure 3.7.68. The lighter concentrated loads stall be used when the stresses are primarily bending stresses. and the heavier concentrated loads shall be used when the stresses are primarily shearing stresses. “Nowe: The system of lane loads deine here and iste 3:70) was developed in order to give a simpler method of eau ‘moments and shears than ha based one la ofthe trace “Appeal B shows the ick rain londings ofthe (935 Spoctetions of AASHO and the eoresponting lene lasing (94, the HS sre of tusks was developed. These =pprosieststhe fet of the soreegening 1935 tsk preceded and followed bate of trucks weighing weefounhs as mutha the Basie rat. BW32.2 DIVISION T--DESIGN 21 37.2 Classes of Loading ‘There are four standard classes of highway loading: H 20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15, Loading H 15 is 75 percent of loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75 percent of Loading HS 20. Ifloadings other than those designated are desired, they shall be obtained by proportionately changing the weights shown for both the standard truck and the corre- ‘sponding lane loads. 37.3. Designation of Loadings ‘The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify, them was instituted with the publication of the 1944 Eai- tion in the following manner: H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be designate HIS44 1120 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be designated, H20-44 H 15S 12 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be 2) 7\e + ‘(lransverse) 3233.1 In calculating bending moments in floor beams, no transverse distbuton ofthe whee! leads shall be assumed, 323.32 If longinudinal stringers are omitted aid the floor is supported directly on floor beams, the beams shall be'designed for loads determined in accordance with Table 3.233.1.4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘TABLE 3.233.1 - Distribution of Wheel Loads in Transverse Beams Fraction of Wheel Load 10 Each Floor Kind of Floor Beam Plane $ 7 ‘Nail aminate or glued laminates s “4 Toches i thickness, or multiple ayer? a3 floors mae than faces hick Nai laminate or ged laminated" s ‘ inches of moe in thickness z Concrete s s Se ri (less than inches thick) s 3 Seal gr ines or more) s Stel bridge corrugated plank (2 inches 8 minimum depth) 35 Nae 3 spacing of lor beams fe. “Fo fotnotes a theough ee Table 3.23.1 “4g excendsderorinsior. the fd on the Bean shall ete reaction of te whens loa astuming he flooring betizen beams fo aetasa simple beam, 3234 _ Precast Concrete Beams Used Tn Multi-Beam Decks 3.234.1 A muli-beam bridge is consuructed with precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are placed side by side on the supports, The interaction be- toween the beams is developed by continuous fongitudinat shear keys used in combination with transverse tie as- semblies which may, or may not, be prestressed, such as bolts. rods. or prestressing strands, or other mechanical means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to en sure proper load distribution for channel, single and ‘mulli-stemmed tee beams, 3.2342 In calculating bending moments in multi- beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or prestressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall be assumed. 3.3332 3.2343 The live load bending moment for euch see- 1 Shall be determined by applying to the beam the frac- of a wheel load (both front and rear} determined by the following equation Load Fraction =S. oan DB where, S_ = width of precest member: D = (5.75 ~ 05Ng + OTN — 02 when C= 5 G2) D =(5.75 —O5Ny when C > 5 G3) IN, = number of talc lanes from Anicle 3.6: C= KOWAL as) where, W = overall width of fridge measured perpendicular to the lovigitudinal girders in feet: L. = span length measured parallel to longitudinal dees in fee; for girders with cast-in-place end diaphragms. use the length between end dia- Phragms: K = (0+ lay If the value of VI exceeds 5.0, the five load distibution should be determined using a more precise metad. such as the Articulated Plate Theory or Grillage Analysis. where, 1 = moment of inertia; J = Saint-Venant torsion constant: = Poisson's ratio for girders In lieu of more exact methods, the following equations ‘may be estimated using For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee Beams: (CUCL ~ 0463000)) the length of each rectangular component within the section, the thickness of each rectangular component thin the section,an 3.23.43 DIVISION I_DESIGN 35 ‘The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are ‘considered as separate rectangular components whose values are summed together to calculate “", Note that for “Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids” the value of "J" ‘can usually be approximated by using the eguation above for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids. For Box-Section Beams: beta, where b = the overall width of the box, = the overall depth of the box, t= the thickness of either web, 1, = the thickness of either flange ‘The formula assumes that bot flanges are the same thick ness and uses the thickness of only one flange. The same is true of the webs. For preliminary design the following values of K may be used: ridge Dre Beam Type Maii-team Noovided recungularbeame oF Rectanguls beams wih ela voids os ‘Box sec beams 10 Channel, gle and muli-temimed tee beams 2.2 324_DISTI DS. 3.241 _Span Lengths (See Article 8.) 3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the distance center to center of supports but need not exceed clear span plus thickness of slab, Te sib -Westerzard” theory. Te following references a furished concern ing the sbjec of sl sin, ‘Public Roads, March 1930, "Compuaion of Suesss in Bdge Shibs srbution se forth herein i bad substantially on the angular Slabs Consus ver Penbl Sipprs” by Vernon P Jensen: Bullin 308, "A Diseibuton rocedue for the Aaal si of Slabs Con \Seuous over Flexible Beane.” by Nathan M. Newark: Bullets 315, “Moment in Simple Span Bridge Slbs with Sitfened Epes" by Ver. son P Jenteal Bulletin 34, “Highoray Slab Bridges with Cubs Labaratry Tess and Propaied Design Method: 32412. The following effective span lengths shall bbe used in calculating the distribution of loads and bending moments for slabs continuous over more than two supports: : (@) Slabs monolithic with beams of slabs monolith ‘with walls without haunches and rigid top flange pre stressed beams with top flange widh to minimum thickness ratio less than 4,0."S" shall ke the clear span. (b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs supported on thin top flange prestressed beams with top flange width to minimum thickness ratio equal 10 oF greater than 4.0. “S” shall be the dstance between edges of top flange plus one-half of stinger top flange width, 7 a (€) Slabs supported on timber stringers. S shall be the clear span plus one-half thickness of singer. 3.24.2 Kage Distance of Whee! Lv 3.2421 In designing siabs, the center line of the ‘wheel Toad shall be I fost from the face of the curb. If ‘curbs or sidewalks are not used, the wheel Joad shall be 1 © foot from the face ofthe ral, BMS Le ceeds 33422 In designing sidewalks, scbs and suppor ‘ing members, a wheel load located on te sidewalk shall bee I foot from the face ofthe rail. Inservice load design, ‘the combined dead, live, and impact stresses for this load ing shall be not greater than 150 percent of the allowable stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta factor in place of 1.67 foc the design of deck slabs. Wheel "ads shall not be applied on sidewalks protected by a ttaffie baer. ‘The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be calculated according to methods given under Cases A and BB, unless more exact methods are used considering tire ‘contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact meth- ‘ods is given in Article 3.30. In Cases A and B: = effective span length, in feet, as defined under “Span Lengths” Articles 3.24.J and 8.8; = width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is distributed; P= load on’one rear wheel of truck (Ps oF Pa): is = 12,000 pounds for H 15 Josding; ay = 16,000 pounds for H 20 loading, E36 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3243.4 Case A—Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) “The lve load moment for simple spans shall be determined by the follosing Formulas (impact not included: HS 20Loadings: (ZESANP || ean) S42 eth 2 ( +2 Je = Moment in foot ~ pounds” (3-18) per foot~ width of slab HS 15 Loading: S25 62 ed) (842) 4-78 Vio Gat) { 52 Jp = Momencin for pours 3-16) \2 per foot — width of slab In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a conti~ ruity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas for both positive and negative moment. 32132 _Case B—Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic a (Ae NAL 97 OS 8) (Fir west ots ne dton wih sal be (4 + 0.065) bur shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loses are distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinal reinforced slabs shall be designed forthe appropriate HS load For simple spans the maximim five load moment per foot width of slo. without impoct, 8 closely approxi mated by the following formulas: HS 20 Loading: ‘Spans up to and including 50 feet: LLM = 900S foot-pounds Spans 50 feet to 100 feet: LLM = 1,000 (1.308-20.0) {oot-pounds HS 15 Loading: Use 3/4 of the values obtained from the formulas for HS 20 loading Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane leadit 3244 Shear and Bond Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance with Anicle 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in bbond and shear 32431 3245 Cantilever Slabs 3245.1 Truck Loads Under the foflowing formilas for distribution of loads ‘on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to suppor the load independently of the effects of any edge support alone the tend of the cantilever. The distribution given includas the effect of wheels on parallel elements. 3245.1 Case A—Reinforcement Perpendicular to Trafic Each shel on the element perpendicular to attic shall be distributed over a width according to the following formula: eB T ANNSS E=08X + 3.75 ey ‘The moment per foot of siab shall be (P/E) X foot pounds, in which X is the distance in feet from lord to point of support 3,245.12 Case B—Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic ‘The distribution width for each whee! load on the ele- ‘ment parallel to traffic shall be as follows: E w 0.35X 4 3.2 but shall not exceed 7.0 feet 2o35K 4° Tne moment per Toot of slab shall be (PIE) X foot pounds oe) 2 Railing Loads Railing loads shall be applieg 7h accordance with Arti- cle 27. The effective length of fab esisting post loadings shal be equa to E = O.8X +3.75 feet where no perapet is used and equal toF = O.8X + 5.0 feet where a parapet is used, where X isthe distanée in fet from the cener of the post to the point undep investigation. Railing and wel loads shall not be apie smuitaneously. BSS BK +N 5th wy 3246 Slabs Supported on Four Sides 3.24.6.1Forslabs supported along fouredzes and re~ inforced in both directions, the proportion of the load car~ ried by the short span of the slab shall be given by te following equations: ot For uniformly distributed load, p = G19) e Pog For comeentrated load at center, p= Py 6-20) 08% SVS WH3246.1 where, 1p = proportion of load carried by short span; 8 = length of short span of slab; ’b = length of long span of slab. 3.246.2 Whore the length of the slab exceeds 17 times its width, the entire load shall be carried by the transverse reinforcement. 324.63 The distribution width, B, for the load taken by either span shall be determined as provided for other slabs. The moments obtained shall be used in designing the center half of the short and long slabs. The reinforce ‘ment steel in the outer quarters of both short and long spans may be reduced by 50 percent. In the design of the supporting beams, consideration shall be given tothe fact, that the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not ‘uniformly distributed along the beams. 324.7_Median Slabs Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so placed as to produce maximum stresses. Combined dead, live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150 percent of the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be designed without overstress. 3248 Longitudinal Bdge Beams 3.24.8. Bdge beams shall be provided for ll stabs having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam may consist of a slab section additionally reinforced, a ‘beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral reinforced section of slab and curb. 3.2482 Theedge beam ofa simple span shall be designed to resist alive load moment of 0.10 PS, where, 32483 For continuous spans, the moment may be reduced by 20 percent unless a greater reduction results from a more exact analysis. 3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges ‘The design assumptions of this article do not provide for the effect of loads near tinsupported edges. Therefore, DIVISION I-DESIGN 31 at the ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where ‘the continuity ofthe slab is broken, the edges shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable rmeans."The di- aplragms shall be designed to resist the full moment and shear produced by the wheel loads which can come on them. 324.10 Distribution Reinforcement 3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be placed ‘transverse to the main stee! reinforcement inthe bottoms of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where the depth of fill over the slab exceeds? feet. 324.102 The amount of distribution reinforcement shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel required for positive moment as given by the following formulas: For min reinforcement paral to afi, 300 5. Percentage = 1% Maximum 50% (= 6-2) For main reinforcement perpendicular to waffic, 22 0 121 Maximum o1%(24~) @-22) vs Mimi (ws) . s the efective span length inf Percenta, where, 324.103 For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic, the specified amount of distribution reinforcement shall be used in the midale alf ofthe sab span, and not Tess than 50 percent ofthe specified amount shall be used Jn the outer quarters of the stab span. 3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON ‘TIMBER FLOORING For the calculation of bending moments in timber ‘flooring each whee! load shall be distibuied as follows. 3.25.1 ‘Transverse Flooring, 325.141 In the direction of flooring span, the wheel Joad shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in Article 3.30 ‘Nontal to the direction of flooring span, the whee! load shall be distributed as follows PPank floor: the width of plank.38 HIGHWAY BRIDGES Non-interconnected nail laminated pane! floor: 15 inches, but not to exceed panel width ‘Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor: 15 inches plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel ‘widih, Continucus nail Laminated floor and interconnecied nail laminated panel floor. with adequate shear transfer between panels**: 15 inches plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width, Interconnected” glued laminated'panel floor, with ad- ‘equate shear transfer between panels*®, not less than 6 inches thick: 15 inches plus twice thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width. 3.25.12 For transverse footing the span shall be taken as the clear distance between stringers plus one-half the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the clear span plus the floor thickness. 325.13 One design method for interconnected glued laminated pane! floors is as follows: For glued lam= inated panel decks using vertically laminated lurnber with the panel placed in a transverse direction to the stringers and with panels interconnected using stee! dowels, the de termination of the deck thickness shall be based on the following equations for maximum unit primary moment and shear? The maximum shear is for a wheel position assumed to be 15 inches or les from the center line of the suppor. The maximum moment is fora wicel position assumed to be centered between the supports. M, = PCS logigs~K) G-23) R, =.034P -24) Thas, 3-25) te 2B whichever is greater (3-26) where, M, = primary bending moment inch primary shear in pounds per inch; inch-pounds per "The ce interconnected and nor iterconneced reer the jon ‘cence the indi eal laminated or sloedlamiated pars ‘This shear transfer ay’ be secomplished using mechanical fasten mciplnes or dowel ong the pal eit or other stable esas ‘The equations ae developed for deck pane! spss equal o ret than the with of thee ae specified im Artele 3.30), but nt greater than 200 neh x denotes direction perpendicular to lor stringers: P= design wheel load in pounds; fective deck span in inches: leck thickness, in inches, based on momest or shear, whichever controls: jesign constant depending on ‘desi follows: load as HIS K=047 H2 © K=051 = allowable bending stress, in pounds per scuare Inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide face ofthe laminations (see Tables 13.2.2Aand B), =.= allowable shear stress in pounds per square ch, ‘based on load applied parallel tthe wide faze of the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2A and B). we B.B] om Gm [Ro where, n= number of steel dowels required for the given spans; ‘on. = proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (os Douglas Fir or Souther pine, use 1,00¢ psi): = total secondary shear transferred, in pounds. determined by the relationship: 3P5/1,000 for s<50 inches (3-28) cb (s~20) for s> 0 inches (2-29) Wi, = total secondary moment transferred, in inch pound, determined by the relationship, wet Me ~10) for s€ 50 inches 3-30) 7 ggg On1O Fors G-30) Ps (5-30), 5 & for s> 50 inches 6-30 30 s=10) "5? aan hear and moment capacities, respectively, as given in the following table: Ro and MoSwear Moment SteelStess_ Dowel Diameter Capacity Capacty — Coetiiets Length efowel Rp Mp Ge Cy - Required Ee ee 05, oo “9 sas 5800 m3 471000 35 foo WB 111.50 7s 1360 ms 152 13.00 ro 1520 13 021450 Lips 1390 so TIS 15.50, 12s 200 49 sm 100 V37s 20 3m 32 180) S30 3302950 3.28.15 In addition, the dowels shall be checked 10 ‘ensure thatthe allowable stress ofthe sel is not exceeded using the following equation: CAR, +Cul) G32) where, o minimum yield point of steel pins in pounds per square inch (see Table —. 103214); 1n,R,M, = as previously defined; CaxCu "= stel stress coefficients as given in pre= ceding table, 325.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinat Flooring 3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load shall be considered a point loading. 3.25.22 Normal to the direction of the span the wheel load shall be distributed as follows: Plank floor: width of pl: ‘Nor-interconnected nail laminated floor: width of tire plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width, Continuous nail laminated floor and interconnected nail laminated floor, with adequate shear tuansfer between panels*, not less than 6 inches thick: width of tie plus twice thickness of floor. 3.2.2.3 For longitudinal flooring the span shall be taken as the clear distance between floor beams plus one~ half the width of one beam but shall not exceed the clear span plus the floor thickness. This shear vanser may be accomplished asing mechanical fens, ‘plies of dowels along the panel jon or spreader ears loeted tine ‘erals slong te panel reer salable meus. 3.253, Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks 3283.1 Bending Moment In calculating bending moments in glued laminated timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of wheel Toads shall be assumed, The lateral distribution shall be determined as follows. ‘The live load bending moment for each pane! shall be determined by applying to the panel toe fraction of a ‘wheel load determined from the followirg equations: ‘TWO OR MORE TRAFFICLANES wo Load Fraction» —“2>- or =e. 378+ 2 . whichever is greater. (ONE TRAFFIC LANE y, W, Load Fraction = ——2>~ or 2, whichever is C 4254= 28 greater, ‘where, W, = Width of Panel; in feet (3.5 SW, = 4.5) L = Length of span for simple span bridges and the length of the shortest span for continuous bridges in feet 7 3.2532 Shear ‘When calculating the end shears and end reactions for ‘each panel, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel Toads shall be assumed. The lateral disuibution of the ‘wheel load at the supports shall be that determined by the equation: ‘Wheel Load Fraction per Panel Wy fy but not less than. For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral distribution for shear shall be'determined by the method prescribed for moment.40 HIGHWAY BRIDGES. 33 3.3 Deflections ‘The maximum deflection may be calculated by applying to the panel the wheel load fraction deterrmined by the method prescribed for moment 3.26.34 Stiffener Arrangement ‘The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either steel plates. thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets, The stiffener spacing required will depend upon the spacing needed in order to prevent differential panel movement; however. a stiffener shall be placed at mid-span with additional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 10 feet. ‘The siffness factor Ef af the stiffener shall nor be less than 80,000 kip-in® 3.254 Continuous Flooring the flooring is continuous over more than two spans, the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being. 80 percent of that obtained for a simple span. 3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WoOD- CONCRETE MEMBERS 326.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Momtent and Shear 3.26.1. For freely supported or continuous slab spans of composite wood-concrete construction. as described in Article 20.19.1 Division Il, the wheel loads shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for bending moment and a width of feet for shear. 3.6.1.2 For composite T-beams of wood and con- ‘rete, as deseribed in Article 20.19.2—Division Il the ef= fective flange width shall not exceed that given in Article 10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting both sentical and horizontal movement. 326.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans 3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall bbe distributed in accordance with the following table: 3.2533 Maximurn Bending Moments—Pereent of Simple Span Alome Marae Uniform Maimum Lie Dead Loud Morente Lod Morente Weal Compose * Concentrated Uniforn Subdeck___ Shi bead Lae Span Pon Neg Pos, Nop Pos Neg fon Ne incor 50-0 SSS Ea 7 @ 7 6 8 30 & 6 25pent_ 6508S DDS "Continuous beam of2 equal span. 326.22 Impact should be considered in computing stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for wood. 3.263. Design ‘The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete ‘members shalt be based on assumptions that accoun, for the different mechanical properties of the componemis. A suitable procedure may be based on the elastic propeties| of the materials as follows: 1 for sab in which the net concrete thickness is E. Jess than half the overall depth of the compos ite section Er = 2 for slain which the nt concrete thickness at least half the overall depth of the composite section 18.75 (for Douglss fir and Southern pine) in which, E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete: E, = modulus of elasticity of wood: E, = modulus of elasticity of steel 3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON. ‘STEEL GRID FLOORS* 3271 General 3.27.1. The grid floor shall be designed as coniinu- ‘ous, but simple span moments may be used and reduced as provided in Article 3.2, “Provisions in this ace sal ot aply to ontop brie supercy 3271.2 327.12 The following rules for distribution of loads assume that the grid floor is composed of main elements ‘that span between girders, stingers, or cross beams, and secondary elements that are capable of transferring Toad between the main elements. 3.2713. Reinforcement for secondary elements shall ‘consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel. 3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete 3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall be as specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The following items specified in that anicle shall also apply to concrete filled ste! grid floors Longitudinal edge beams Unsupported wansverse edges Span lengths 327.22 Thestrength of the composite sieel and concrete slab shall be determined by means of the “trans- formed area” method. The allowable stresses shall be as set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1, and 10.32. 3273 Open Floors 3,273.1 A whec! load shall be distributed, normal to the main elements, over a width equal to 1¥4 inches per ton of axle load plus twice the distance center to center of main elements. The portion of the load assigned to each main element shall be applied uniformly over a length equal tothe tear tire width (20 inches for H 20, 15 inches for HS), 3273.2 The suength of the section shall be deter mined by the moment of inertia method. The allowable stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32. 3.27.33 Edges of open grid stee! floors shall be supported by suitable means as required. These supports may bbe longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be required... 10 suppor all edges properly. //~ “Ape prisons of Aree 3.12, Reduction ia Lad Inte DIVISION I—DESIGN 4 3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BE! 32 HOMERTINGPREAD BOX GHDERS Z eK 3261 Interior Beams 32S ‘The live load bending moinent for each interior beam in a spread box beam superstructure shal be determined by applying to the beam the fraction (DE) of the wheel oad (bath front and rear) determined by the following equation: aN. +e Ne Di @-33) number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6); number of beams (4 Np = 10); ‘beam spacing in feet (6.57 = S = 11.00); span length in feet; K = 007W—N,(O10N, ~ 634) W = numeric value of the roadway width between ‘curbs expressed in feet (32. W = 66). 26) ~ 0.20Ny ~ 0.12; 3.282 Exterior Beams ‘The live load bending moment in the exterior beams shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction Of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the flooring 10 actas.a simple span (of length S) between beams, but shall not be less than 2NJN. 3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS ‘Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given in tables, Appendix A, for H 15, H 20, HS 15, and HS 20 loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or the lane loading applied to a single lane on freely supported spans. It is indicated in the table whetter the standard tuck or the lane loadings produces the maximum stress. a4 330_TIRE CONTACT AREA “The tre contact area shall be assumed a a rectandle with an area in square inches of 001P, and a Leth in -. Direction of Traffic/Width of Tre ratio of 1/2.5, in which Pe whet lead peti ee : : iy. nerenot . 1g for fatigue, the mini-/'/ ppied'in te development of te provision presmted in 328-1 and mum eycles of maximum stress shall be used. / A 3382. / pee Eee eee eee eter -7. lie ave? iatSection 4 FOUNDATIONS Part GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 41 GENERAL Foundations shall be designed to suppor all live and ead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in accordance with the general principles specified in this section. The design shall be made either with reference to er vice loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE, LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN. 42 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY 42 FOUNDATION TYPE AND caPacr® 42.1 Selection of Foundation Type Selection of foundation type shall be based on an assessment of the magnitude and ditectiow of loading, depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous flooding, potential for Tiquefaction, undermining or scour, swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of| ‘construction. 22 Foundation Capacity Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable level of structural deformation is controlled by the type and span of the superstructure. 42.21 Bearing Capacity ‘The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated using procedures described in Anicles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for strength design, or other generally accepted theories. Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity may also be determined using load tests. 43 2 Settlement ‘The settlement of foundations may be determined using procedures described in Anicles 4.4.45, or 4.6 for service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for strength design, or other generally accepted methodolo- fies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters ‘measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ andlor laboratory tests 4223 Overall Stability ‘The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of foundations shall be considered as part of the design of foundations 42.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions Geologic and environmental conditions an influence the performance of foundations and may require special consideration during design. To the extent possible, the presence and influence of such conditions stall be evalu- ‘ated as part of the subsurface exploration pregram. A representative, but not exclusive, listing of problem condi tions requiring special consideration is presented in Table 423A for general guidance. ™ACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS ‘The elements ofthe subsurface exploration and testing programs shall be the responsibility ofthe designer based ‘on the specific requirements of the project and his or her experience with local geologic conditions. 43.1_General Requirements ‘As a minimum, the subsurface exploratien and testing ‘programs shall define the following, where applicable: «Soil stata —Depth, thickness, and variability4“ HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4a TABLE 423A. Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration Problem . Type Description Organic sot: highly plastic clay and high compressibility Sensitive elay Potentially large strength loss upon large staining Micaceous sal Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic) Soil Expansive clay/sits expansive slag Potentially large expansion upon wetting Liquefiable soil Complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake loading Collapsible soil Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche: Loess) Pyritc soit Potentially large expansion upon oxidation Laminated rock Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding Expansive shale Potentially large expansion upon weiting: degrades readi'y upon, exposure fo air/water Pyritie shale Expands upon exposure to air/water Rock Soluble rock Soluble in flowing and standing water (Limestone, Limeck. ‘Gypsura) Cretaccous shale Indicator of potenilly corrosive ground water Weak claystone (Red Beds) Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to as/water Gneissic and “chistose Rock Highly distorted with iregular weathering profiles and sieep discontinuities Subsidence ‘Typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water Sinkholes/solutioning Karst (opography: typical of areas underlain by carbonat: rock strata Condition Negative skin friction! Additional compressivefuplift load on deep foundations sue to expansion loading. Corrosive environments Permatrosv/frost Capitlary water seitlemenvuplift of soit Acid mine drainage: degradation of certain soil/ock types ‘Typical in northern climates Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss Identification and classification Relevant engineering properties (ie... shear stiffness. permeability. expansion or collapse potential. and frost suscep- strength, compressibi ibility) © Rock strata —Depth to rock —Identifcation and classification 4. and sample recovery and RQD for rock stata, The drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud. ype of SPT hammer (ie. safety. donut, hydraulic) or cone pen- cetrometer (12., mechanical or electrical). and any unusual subsurface conditions such as aresian pressures. boulders ‘oF other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the exploration logs Quality (ie.. soundness. hardness, jointing and presence of joint filing. resistance to weathering. if exposed, and solutioning) —Compressive strength (e.g. uniaxial compres sion, point foad index) Expansion potential © Ground water elevation + Ground surface elevation ‘* Lecal conditions requiring special consideration Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de setiptions, penetration resistance for soils (e-g.. SPT or 432 Minimum Depth, Where substructure units will be supported on spread footings, the minimum depth of the subsurface explo ration shall extend below the anticipated bearitg.leveba ‘minimum of two footing widths for isolated, iudividusl footings where L = 2B, and four footing widths for fo ings where L > SB. For intermediate footing lengths, the rminifnum depth of exploration may be estimated by li ear interpolation as a function of L between depths of 2B and SB below the bearing level. Greater depths may be required where warranted by local conditions.‘Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall ‘extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated pile or shaft ip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be used, the subsurface éxploration shall extend at least ‘wo times the maximum pile group dimension below the anticipated tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end ‘bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core shall be obtained at each exploration location to insure the exploration has not been terminated on 2 boulder. For shafts supporied on or ex= ‘ending into rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core, ora Jength of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter for isolated shafts or two times the maximum shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever is, ‘greater, shall be obtained to insure the exploration has not terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical ‘characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation influence for design. 43.3_Minimum Coverage Arminimumn of one soil boring shall be made for each substructure unit, (See Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit,) For substructure un‘:s over’ 100 feet in ‘width, a minimum of two borings shall be required 434 Laboratory Testing Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary {0 etermine engineering properties including unit weight, shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering properties may be estimated based on published test results or local experience. 438 Scour ‘The probable depth of scour shall be determined by subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer 10 Anicle 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hydraulic studies and design. Part B SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD “ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN 44_ SPREAD FOOTINGS 44.1 -General 4411 Applicability Provisions ofthis Article shall apply for design of isolated footings, and to combined footings and mats (foot- ‘ngs supporting more than one colurma, pier, or wall) 441.2 Footings Supporting Noo-Rectangular Columns oF Pers. Footings supporting circular or regular polygon- shaped conerete columns or piers maybe designed as- ‘ming thatthe columns or piers act ws squase members, withthe same ara for location of eitical sections for mo- ‘ment, shear, and development of reinforcement. 444.3 Footingsin Fil Footings located infil are subject to the seme bearing settlement, and dynamic ground stability con siderations as footings in natural soil in accordance with Articles 44.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The behavior of both the fill and underlying natural sol shall be consicered, 44.14. Footings in Sloped Portions of ‘Embankments ‘The earth pressure against the back of footings and ‘columas within the sloped portion of an embarkment shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in «ecordance ‘with Anicle 5.5.2. The resistance dve to the passive earth pressure of the embankment in front of th: footing shell be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of ‘3 feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action, and/or trench excavation in front of te footing, whichever is greater. 4.4.1.5 _ Distribution of Bearing Pressure Footings shall be designed to keep the maximurn soil and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent ‘unequal seitlement, footings shal be designed to Keep the bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For foot ings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacing between piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to ensure nearly equal loads on deep foundation elemerts as may be practical ‘When footings support more than one column, pier oF ‘wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with of the Foundation materials and the structure, and with the principles of geotechnical engineering. 442 Notations ‘The following notations shall apply for the design of ‘spread footings on soil and rock: A x Contict area of footing (ft?) Effective footing. area for computation of ‘bearing capacity of a footing subjected to ‘eccentric load (f2); (See Articl=44.7.1.1.1)46 baby by BT = Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article 4711.8) = Width of footing (fi); (Minimum plan dimension of footing unless otherwise noted) = Effective width for load eccentric in direction of shor side, L unchanged (ft) = Soil cohesion (ksf) Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf) HIGHWAY BRIDGES 442 E = Soil modulus (kst) F Talal force on footing subjected to an in- lined load (ky; (See Article 4.4,7./1.1) @ = Unconfined compressive strength of con rete (sf) FS. ‘= Factor of safery against bearing capacity. oveiturning or sliding shear Failure (dira) H = Depth from footing base to top of second = Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for punching shear (ks); (See Article 4.4.7.1) = Adhesion between footing and foundation soil or rock (ks; (See Article 44.7.1.1.3) = Coefficient of consolidation ((e/yr: (See Anicle 4.4.7.3) = Shear strength of upper cohesive soit layer below footing (ks: (See Article 447112) = Shear strength of lower cohesive soil layer- below footing (ksf}; (See Article 447..1.7) = Compression index (dim): (See Article 4.8.7.2.3) = Recompression index (dim); (See Article 447.23) = Compression ratio (dim): (See Article 4.47.23) = Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock (ksf) = Recompression ratio (dim); (See Anticle 44723) = Coefficient of secondary compression defined as change in height per log cycle of time (¢im); (See Anicie 4.4.7.2.4) = Influence depth for water below footing (fi); (See Amicle 4.4.7.1.1.6) = Depth to base of footing (f) Void ratio (dim) (See Anicle 4.4,7.2.3) = Void ratio at final vertical effective stress (dim); (See Article 44.7.23) = Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress (Gim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) = Void ratio st maximum past vertical effective stress (dim): (See Anicle $.4.7.2.3) = Eccentricity of load in the B direction measured from centroid of footing (ft); (See Ar- ticle 447.1.1.1) ‘= Eccentricity of loa in the L direction measured from centroid of footing (ft: (See _ Article 44.7.11.1) ‘Modulus of intact rock (ks) = Rock mass modulus (ks 44822) : (See Anicle cohesive soil layer for tworlayer 2ohesive soil profile below footing (fi): (See Acticle 442.117) He = Height of compressible soi ayer (ft) Hoa = Cfitieal thickness of the upper lyer of two-layer system beyond which tte under lying layer will have little effect onthe bear~ ing capacity of footings bearing inthe upper layer (fy, (See Article 4.8.7.1.1.7) Hy = Height of longest drainage path in compressible soil layer (ft) #, = Height of slope (f0; (See Article 44.7.1.1.4) i = Slope angle from horizontal of ground surface below footing (deg) = Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article 449.113) A = Influence coefficient to account for riigity and dimensions of footing (sim): (See Ani- cle $18.22) e = Center-to-center spacing between adjacent footings (0) L Length of footing (f) u = Effective footing length for load sccentric in direction of fong side, B unchanged (f) u = Length (or width) of footing having positive ‘contact pressure (compression) for footing loaded eccentrically about one axis (1). A = Exponential factor relating B/L or LB ra tios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article 447.113) N = Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft) N, = Standard penetration resistance corrected for effects of overburden pressure (blows! fy; (See Anicle 4.4.7.2.2) NN. Ny = Bearing capacity factors based onthe value of internal friction of the foundation soil (diem (See Anticle 4.4.7.1) Ne = Modified bearing capacity factor to account for layered cohesive soils below footing (dim); (See Article 44.7.1.1.7) Now’ = Coefficient factor to estimste qu for rock. (dim): (See Article 4.4.8.1.2) N, = Stability number (dim): (Sée_Anicle 447.114)rm aie % Qa o tt = Modified bearing capacity factors for ef fects of footing on or adjacent sloping ‘ground (dim); (See Article 44.7.1.1.4) ‘= Tangential component of force on footing w = Maximum resisting force betwees footing ‘base and foundation soil or rock for sliding failure = Effective overburden pressure at base of footing (ksA) = Normal component of force on footing (k) = Allowable uniform bearing pressure or contact stress (ksf) = Cone penetration resistance (ksf) = Maximum footing contact pressure (ksf) = Maximum normal component of load supported by foundation soil orrock a ultimate bearing eepacty (K) = Minimum magnitude of footing contact pressure (ksf) = Vertical stress at base of loaded area (ks); Gee Article 44.7.2.1) = Ultimate beering capacity for uniform bearing pressure (ksf) = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing supported in the upper layer of a two-layer system assuming the upper layer is infinitely thick (ks; Gee Antcle 44.7.1.1.7) = Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious footing of the same size and shape asthe ac- ‘wal footing, but supported on surface of the seconé (lower) layer of a two-layer system ksf); (See Article 44.7.1.1.7) = Resultant of pressure on base of footiig (k) = Radius of circular footing or B/2for square footing (fi); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2) = Rock Quality Designation (dim) = Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article 4471.12) = Undrained shear strength of soil (ksf) = Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article 44723) = Elastic or immediate settlement (f); (See Article 44.7.2.2) = Secondary setlement (f); (See Anicle 44724) otal settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2) = Time to reach specified average degree ‘of consolidation (yx); (See Article 44123) = Arbitrary time intervals for determination of S, (97) See Article 44.7.2) ‘= Time factor (dim), (See Article 4.4.7,2.3) = Depth from footing base down tothe highest anticipated ground water Ivel (0); See Asticle 44.71.16) = Angle of inclination of the footing base from the horizontal (radian) = Réduction factor (dim); (See Anicle 44822) = Length to width ratio of footing (im) = Punching index = BL/(2(B + L)H] (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) = Factar to account for footing, shape’ and Figiity (dim); (See Anicle 4.4.7.22) = Tota unit weight of soil or rosk (ke?) = Moist unit weight of soil cf) ‘Angle o ition between footing and foundation soil or rock (deg); (See Article 447.113) Differential settlement between adjacent foviings (); (See Article 4.7.2.5) Verical strain (dim); (See Anicle 4.4.7.2.3) Vertical strain at final vertical effective stress (dim); (See Article 44.7.2.3) Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article 44723) Vertical strain at maximum past vertical effective suess (im); (See Article 447.23) = Angle of load eccentricity (deg) = Shear strength ratio (ey) for wo layered cobesive soil system below footing (itn); Gee Anicle 447.1.1.7) = Reduction factor to account for three-dimensional effects in setlenent analysis (dim; (See Article 447.23) Poisson's ratio (dim) Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth interval below footing (ksf); (See Article 44723) = Initial vertical effective stress in soil at 5B): qn = CN. + OSYBN, + aN, 471-1) ‘The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined Qu = GalFS Refer to Table 4.4.7.1A for values of N..Ny. and Ne. focal or punching shear failure is possible, the value ‘of qa may be estimated using reduced shear strength pa~ rameters c* and 6* in 44.7.1-1 as follows: (47.1.2) ct = 067 4. 1-3) oF = ta Oi67an g)~. (4.4.7.1-4) + Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear strength parameters shall be.used to determine bearing ‘capacity factors for drained loading conditions inal soils. Additionally, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils shall50 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 442 TABLEAA7.IA Bearing Capacity Factors e Ne N Ny & Ne Ny Ny ° 5.14 1.00 0.00. 26 22.25 >. 1185 12.54 1 538 109 > 007 23.98 13.20 14.47 2 5.63 120 ois 25.80 14.72 16.72 3 5.90 131 024 27.86 16.44 19.34 4 6.19 143 03430 30.14 18.40 2.40 5 6.49 137 045 3 32.67 20.63 25.99 6 681 ina ost 32 35.49 23.18 30.22 7 716 1.88 on 3 38.64 26.09 35.19 8 753 2.06 0860-34 42.16 29.44 41.06 9 792 225 10335 46.12 33.30, 48.03, 10 8.35 247 1m 36 50.59 37.75 56.31 u 8.80 2a 144007 35.63 42.92 66.19 2 9.28 297 169 38 : 48.93 78.03 1B 9.81 3.26 19738 55.96 92.25 4 10.37 3.59 22 40 75.31 6420 109.41 15, 10.98 3.94 265 4 83.86 7390 130.23, 16 16 434 30542 93.71 95.38 155.55 " 12.34 477 35343 105.1 99.02 (186.54 18 13.10 53.26 407 4418.37 15.31 224.64 19 13.93 5.80 4684513388 1348.88 271.76 20 1483, 640 33946015210 1S8S1 330.35 rT 15.82 7.07 62000 4773.64 187.21 403.67 2 16.88 782 713 48 199.26 22231, 496.01 2 18.05 8.65 82049 29.93 65.51 613.16 4 19.32 9.60 944 50,266.89 319.07 762.89 25 20.72 1066 10.88 — - = — bbe checked for undrained loading conditions using bearing capacity factors based on undrained shear strength parameters 4A711 Factors affecting Bearing Capacity ‘A modified form of the general bearing capacity equation may be used to account for the effects of footing shape. ground surface slope. base inclination. and inclined loading as follows: Ga = Nbc + OSYBN,S bi, + ANSE aati Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account for the effecis of eccentric loading. ADIL: Eecentric Loading For loads eccentric relative tothe cesittoid of the foot ing. reduced footing dimensions (B" and L') shall be used to determine bearing capacity factors and modifiers (i.e. slope. footing shape. and load inclination factors), and to calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing. The re: duced footing dimensions shall be determined as follows Bi=Bo2 | ATID Lieeb-2q 9 G47) ‘The effective footing area shall be determined as follows: Ae BIL! (474.113) Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitons and footing dimensions. ‘The value of qa obtained tsing the reduced Foot mensions represents an equivalent uniform bear sure and not the actual contact pressure distribution be~ neath the footing. This equivalent pressure, may be multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimste load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bearing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e. trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a rigid4ATLAI footing and a positive pressure along each footing edge) ‘shall be used for structural design of the footing. ‘The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid footing with eccentric leading about one axis is shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B. For an eccentricity'(e,) in the L direction, the actual maximum and minimum. contact pressures may be determined as Follows: fore, < U6: Gon = OL + (Ge/LIVBL (4.4.7.1.1.1-4) QE = 6c IBL 4.47 On 1-5) for Li6 0) (4471.13-1) DIVISION I-DESIGN 31 (aPIBLEN, (for 6 = 0) (44711.13-2) i= 11 — PUQ+ Ble cous) 441.134) =U PQ + BLecogyers 447.0134) n= [2+ LBV + LIB}cos*® F1Q+ BALA + BIL)sin?s Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and footing dimensions. For cases in which the loading is ec~ ‘centri, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L' and B’, respectively, in the above equations. Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing the tangential component of force on the footing (P) 0 the ‘maximum resisting force (Pya.) by the following: Pru = QunB + BLe, (44.7.1.13-6) FS=Ppw/P21S 4.4.71.13-7) In determining Ppay the effect of passive resistance provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL shall represent the actual footing area in compression as, shown in Figure 4.4.7.1,1.1B or Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C. 447114 Ground Surface Slope, For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope crest, ga may be determined using the following revised version of Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1: 471141) cNasibde + 0.57 BN, Refer to Figure 44:7.1.1.4A for values f Na and Ny for fotings on slopes and Figures 44,7.1.1B for values Of Nand N,, for fotings at the top ofso2es. For footings in or above cohesive soil slopes, the stability number inthe figures, N, i defined as follows: N= Hye 491.142)" vera stability shall be evaluated for footings on or adjacent o sloping ground surfaces as described in Ari ded, 4 Embedment Depth ‘The shear strength of soll above the base of footings is: neglected in determining Ga using Equatien 4.4.7.1.1-1 If other procedures are used, the effect cf embedinent shall be consistent with the requirements ofthe procedure followed. *2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4a TALS FIGURE 4.47.1.1.1A_ Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads Modified after EPRI (1983) L us Th tae i |. + sant eu RESULTANT contact. prc ssune couracr_messune le) FOR es (py FOR $e ce, 0) GATL18-2) Bal(n + 2)] (for & = 0) (447.1.183) Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A for definition sketch. Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces, refer to Antcle 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements, Factors of Safety, ‘Spread footings on soil shall be desigaed for Group 1 loadings us‘ng a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 agzinst a bearing capacity failure. 442, Settlement ‘The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation, and secondary components and may be determined using, the following: DIVISION I—DESIGN 37 S848, 44721) Elastic setlement shall be determined usirg the unfactored dead Joad, plus the unfactored compenent of live and impact loads assured to extend tothe footing level Consolidation and secondary settlement may be deter- ‘mined using the fall unfactored dead load only. Other factors which can affect setlement (e.g. em- ‘bankment loading, lateral and/or eccentric losding, and for footings on granular soils, vibration loading from dy- ‘namic live loads or earthquake loads) shouldalso be considered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, 2. (1987) for general guidance regarding static loading conditions and Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance regarding dynamic/seismic leading conditions. 4AT21 Stress Di tribution Figure 4.4:7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distribution of vertical stress increase below circular (or square) and long rectangular footings (ise., where L > 5B). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and Davis (1974). ‘Some metliods used for estimating settlement of footings on sand include an integral method to account forthe effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to Gif- ford, et al., (1987) for guidance regarding ayplication of these procedires. GROUND SURFACE FIGURE 447.1..8A. Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination38 472.2 Elastic Settement The elastic, settlement of footings on cohesionless soils and stif cohesive soils may be estimated using the following = ladt - VVAVEB, (44.72.24) Refer 1o Table 44.7.2.2A for approximate values of E, and for various soil types. and Table 4.1.7.2.2B for vale tes of 8. for various shapes of flexible and rigid Footings. Unless E. varies significantly with depth. E, should be de he HIGHWAY BRIDGES 44.722 termined at a depth of about 7:10 ¥: of B below the footing. IF the soil modulus varies signiticuntly with depth. 2 weighted average value of E, may be used. Refer to Gifford, etal. (1987) for general guidance re- ‘garding the estimation of elas sand. 447.23 Consolidation Seuemes ‘The consolidation setlement af footings on saturated or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using bem 3 Hs ws Alls 0 SE fo : -- as 1 i ose tt ing Fain setae fonasen a @) FIGURE 44.72.14 Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings ‘Modified after Sowers (1979)447.23 DIVISION J—DESIGN 59 nate ari aal ara etal a edad ba ( Modi ater berm ofthe Rey OSE ed Bose (9) “Typical Range of Values, Estimating E, From NO roa Youngs Madle, = Rate a Soil Type, (ksf) im) ‘Soil Type. (ksf) oy, ‘Soft sensitive 50-300 Sits, sandy silts, slightly an? Mest soom0 chee ae oat 1 om2.o00 Chinfcomatimsands HN, Nery at oa gays sre Cauneansendanssih 20% little gravel Lees sovi300 0103 Saniypretandgren sn ‘0 03035 Fie sad : tose 10240 Bain Fem Netiaméee 240400 025 Seamtnechey A ty Sand: Medium stiff to stiff clay 1,50¢s,-2,400s,_ ‘Loose 200-600 0.20.35 Nery stiff clay 3,00C5u-4,0008 Matimdese 690,000 7 Dense 1,000-1,600 03-04 Estimating E Se ome Loose 600-1600 0.2-0.35 Sandy soils 440 Mettmdene ——1,890200 Dense 2,000-4,000 0.3-0.4 {On = Standard Peewation Test (SFT resistance {BY, = SPT comectd for depth 06! = Undraned shear erent (0). (ag, = Cane penetration resistance (ks). TABLE 447.228. Blastic Shape and Rigidity Factors EPRI 1983) & 8. LB Fenible (average) Rigid Circular 1.08 113 Y 1.06 Los 2 1.09 10 3 113 4s 5 122 124 . 10 Lat 14d60 HIGHWAY BRIDGES the following when laboratory test results are expressed in terms of void ratio fe): ‘* For intial overconsolidated soils (i.e, 0,’ > @y"): Sos LHI + e.](Cy log 50," + C.log(a,"/a,")) 447234) ‘© For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e. 6, on": ar. 2) (HLA + eaN{Calogier'/a,)) Ir laboratory test results are expressed in terms of ver~ tical strain (¢,)- consolidation settlement may be estimated using the following: ‘* For intial overconsolidated soils (i.e. 0,' > @4't: HAClogtay'/a,") + Cc logtar‘la I) 447233) * For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e. 0 Se HCulogtas'loy') (44.72.34) Refer to Figures 4.7.2.3 and 4.3.7.2.3B for the definition of terms used in the equations, ‘To account for the decreasing stress with increased depth below a footing. and variations in soil compressibility with depth. the compressible layer should be divided into vertical increments the...ypically 5 to 10 feet for most normal width footings for highway applications) and the consolidation settlement of each increment ana~ Jyzed separately. The ‘otal value ofS, isthe summation of S. for each inevement Ifthe footing width is small relative to the thickness of the compressible sol, the effect of three-dimensional 2-D1 loading may be considered using the following: Soro = WSwno — 4.7.2.3.5) Reter to Figure 4.1.7.2.3C for values of ‘The time (1) to achieve a given percentage ofthe total estimated 1-D consolidation setlement may be estimated using the following: = THY 447.236) Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See ‘Winterkorn and Fang (1975) for values of T for other ex- 48223 Vertical effective stresy, @ (log seote) FIGURE $4723A Typical Consolidation Compression Curve for Overeonsolidated Seil— ‘Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress EPRI 983) ae Wertcal affective svanaye” (og seal) FIGURE 422.38 Types! Conslidaton Compreston Curve for Overconsalidated Seil— No Strain Versus Vera Etetve Stress Overconsolidation ratio, oy / ay fees esas ios 2 Zoos zo FIGURE 4.47.23 Reduction Factor to Acccunt for Effects of Three-Dimensional Consolidation Seulement EPRI 1983)BSL 29 DIVISION 1-DESIGN 61 cess pressure distributions. Values of c, may be estimated from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of ‘undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements using devices such asa piezoprobe or piezocone. 447.24 Secondary Settlement. ‘Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may be estimated using the following: S.= CiHlogily) 447.241) 1s is the time when secondary settlement begins (typi= cally ata time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of consolidation), and tzis an arbitrary time which could represent the service life of the structure, Values of C., may be estimated from the results of consolidation testing of ‘undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory 44.725 Tolerable Movement Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal) for foosings shall be developed consistent with the function and type of structure, anticipcted service life, and ‘consequences of unacceptable movements on structure performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be based on the results of in-situ and/or Jaboratory testing to characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foun- ation soils. Displacement analyses should be conducted to determine the relationship between estimated settle ‘ment and footing bearing pressure to optimize footing size ‘with respect to supported loads. Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement shall be developed considering the angular distortion 616) between adjacent footings. 8 shall te limited to 0.005 for simple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous span bridges (Moulton, et al., 1985). These 8'€ limits are not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid ames shall be designed fot anticipated differentia settlements based ‘on the results of special analysis. ‘Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations 10 feet spart ‘Tightly interlocking, undisturbed rock with rough ‘unweathered joints spaced 3 10 10 feet apart Fresh to slightly weathered sock, slightly disturbed with Joints spaced 3 0 10 feet apart Rock with several sets of mod- ‘rately weathered joints spaced 103 feet apart Rock with numerous weathered jpints spaced I to 20 inches apart with some gouge Rock with numerous highly ‘weathered joints spaced <2 inches apart Very good Fir Poor Very poor RMR® Rating Rating 100 85 ‘Geomectancs Rack Mass Rating (RM) Syrem—Bieinvai, 198, ‘Norwepian Geotechnical Insite (NGI) Rock Mass Cassin System, Barton, ea, 1976 ‘Range of ROD vals provided fr general guidance oly; acu delereinson of rock rns quality shoud be base on RMR or NGI ratag ‘gens. NGI RQD® @_A 95-100 3.8 Na c 50 B 500 43 100° 9095 14 16 19 10 75.90 0.28 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.46 1 50:75 0.049 0.056 0.066 6.069 0.081 1 25-50 0.015 0.016 0.019 0.020 0.024 0.01 .<25 "Use qu: for an equivalet soil mass ‘ral 6 Nag 8s a function of rok ype; refer to Table 4.88 1.28 fr type ange of valves of Cfo diferent rock ype in each category448220) Values of I, may be computed using the B, values presented in Table 4.4.7.2.2B from Anicle 4.4.7.2.2 for rigid footings. Values of Poisson's ratio (v) for typical rock lypes are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A, Determination of the rock mass modulus (E,) should be based on the results of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of E, may be estimated by multiplying the intact rack modulus (E,) obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a feduc- tion factor (ae) which accounts for frequency of discontinuities by the rock quality designation (RQD), using the following relationships (Gardner. 1987): E, = ack. (448223) 6 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4482.2 TABLE4A8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (C.) as a Function of Rock Category and Rock Type Rock ce Category General Description Rock Type ast) ny A ‘Carbonate rocks with well- Dolostone 700- 6,500 4,800-45,000 developed erystal cleavage Limestone 500- 6,000 3,500-42,000, Carbonatite 800- 1,500 5,500-10,000 Marble 800- 5,000 5,500-35.000 Tactite-Skarn 2,700- 7,000 19,000-49,000 B Lithitied argillaceous rock argillite 600- 3,000 4,200-21.000 Claystone 30-170 200- 1.200 1,000- 4,000 7,600-28.000 Phy/lite '500- 5,000 3,500-35.000 Siltstone 200- 2,500 —1,400-17.000 ‘Shale 150-740 1,000- 5.100 Slate 3,000- 4,400 21,000.30.000 c Arenaceous rocks with strong, Conglomerate 700- 4,600 4,800-32.000 ‘erystals and poor cleavage Sandstone 1,400- 3,600 9,700-25 000 Quartzite 1,300- 8,000 9000.55.00 D Fine-grained igneous Andesite 2,100- 3,800 14,000.26 000 crystalline rock Diabase 450-12,000_3,100-83.000 E Coarse-grained igneous and Amphibolite 2,500- 5,800 17000-40000 metamorphic crystalline rock Gabbro 2,600- 6,500 18,000.45 000 Gneiss So 6.500 .50045.000 Granite 300- 7,000 2,100-49.000, Quartzdiorite 200- 2,100. _1,400-14,000 Quartzmonzonite —2,700- 3,300 19,000-23,000 Schist 200- 3,000 _1,400-21,000 Syenite 3,800- 9,000 26,000-62,000 ‘ange of alaxal Compresive Suengih values repored by various vestigations ‘Not inclsing ol stale in ( FPBI Eg, with I, = (LBB, a = 0.0231(RQD) — 1322015 48224) For preliminary design or when site-specific test data can- rot be obiained, guidelines for estimating values of E, (such as presented in Table 44.8,2.2B or 4.48.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for inal design when in-situ test results are not avcilable. a value of ag = 0.15 should be used to estimate E,, 448.23 Tolerable Movement Refer to Article 44.7.2. 449 Overall Stability The overall stability of footings, slopes. and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on449. 6s DIVISION I~DESIGN ‘TABLE 448.22A. Summary of Poisson's Rati for Intact Rock Modified after Kulhawy (1978) No. of : : No.of Rock - —.—_Poisson'sRationy __- Standard RockType _- Values __Types__—Maximum Minimum Mean—_Deviation Granite 2 2a 0.39 0.09 0.20 0.08 Gabbro 3 3 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.02 Diabase 6 6 0.38 0.20 0.29 0.06 Basalt n " 032 0.16 023 0.05, Quartzite 6 6 0,22 0.08 0.14 0.05 Marble, s 5 0.40 0.17 0.28 0.08 Guess uw n 0.40 0.09 on 0.09 Schist 12 0 031 0.02 12 0.08 Sandstone 2 9 0.46 0.08 0.20 ou Siltstone 3 3 0.23 0.09 0.18 0.06 Shale 3 3 0.18 0.03 0.09 0.06 Limestone 19 ote 0.33 0.12 0.23 0.06 Dolostone 5 5s 0.35 0.14 0.29 0.08 TABLE 448.228 Summary of Elastic Modul for Intact Rock Modified after Kulbawy (1978) Guta lastie Modulus, Ey Noof Rock «= si x10 Standard Rock‘Type _Values__—_Types_—“Maximum Minimum ‘Mean Deviation Granite 26 6 145 033 7.64 3.55 Diorite 3 3 162 2.48 145 619 Gabbro 3 3 122 9.80 10 097 Diabase 7 7 15.1 10.0 128 178 Basalt 12 12 12.2 4.20 B14 2.60 Quartzi 7 7 128 5.29 9.59 2.32 Marble 14 B 10.7 08 618 249 Gociss B B ng 413 8.86 231 Slate u 2 3.79 0.35, 139 0.95 Schist B 2 10.0 0.86 497 3.18 Phyllite 3 3 251 1.25 17h 0.57 ‘Sandstone 27. 19 5.68 0.09 213 119, Siltstone 3 5 4.76: 0.38 239 16 Shale 30 “4 5.60 O01. 1.42 145 Limestone 30 30, 13.0 0.65 5.70 3.73 Dolostone ” 16 4 083. 422 3.44 ‘yo 10 pa = Lae m1,66 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 449 VERY Low ‘srrenet Low Joutssinearion{ MeDiun: ioEeRe) nich 100 [verv mic pre AND IDOLE cwatx. 10 (W008) Zz 19) 5 2 oa 3 3 oo) aot ‘ar or) FIGURE 44 10 Too —7000 UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Co~psi x10" A. Relationship Between Elastie Modulus and Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rac Modified after Deere (1968) for neara slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analysis which employ the Modified Bishop. simplified Janbu, Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope stability analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and ‘ground water levels are based on in-situ andlor laboratory tests. the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5 \where abutments are supported above aslope). Otherwise, the minimum factor of Safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8 where abutments are supported above a retaining wall), 44,10. Dynamic/Seismie Design Refer to Division I-A—Seismie Design and Lam and Manin (1986a: 1986b) for guidance regarding the design ‘of footings subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. 44.11 Structural Design 44.111 Loads and Reactions 4A4ILLI Action of Loads and Reactions Footings shall be considered as under the acion of downward forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation msteri- als and distributed over the area of the footings as determined by the eccentricity of the resultant ofthe dowow ard forces. Where piles are used under footings. the upward reaction of the foundation shall be Considered as a series of concentrated loads applied at the pite centers. exch pile being assumed to carry the computed portion of the total Footing load.44.1111 DIVISION I~DESIGN 7 4411.12 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions ‘When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier ‘or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever. When footings support more than one column, pier, oF ‘wall, the footing slab shall be designed forthe actual con- sitions of continuity and restraint. 4411.2 Moments 44.11.2.1 Critical Section External moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through the foot ing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical plane. The eritcal section for bending shall be taken atthe face ofthe column, pier, oF wal. In the case of columns that are not square or rectangular, the section shall be taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent area, For footings under masonry wals, the eritical section shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge ofthe wal. For footings under metallic column bass, the critics section shall be taken halfway between the column face and the edge ofthe metalic base. 44.112, Distribution of Reinforcement Reinforcement of one-way and two-way square footings shall be distributed uniformly across the entie width of footing. Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing, in the long direction. In the shor direction, the portion of the total reinforcement given by Equation 4.4.11.2.2-1 shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered ‘on center line of column or pier) equal to the length of the shor side of the footing. The remainder of reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distibured uniformly outside the center band width of footing, Reinforcement in band width ___2. Total reinforcement in shon direction (+1) (44.11.2.2-1) B is the ratio of the footing length to width. 44.113 Shear 44.11.31 ° Critical Seetion ‘Compotation of shear in footings, and location of exit ical section, shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5,6 (0 8.36.6.6, Location of critical section shall be measured from the face of column, pier or wall, for footines supporting a column, pier, or wall. For footing: supporting a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical section shall be measured from the location defined in Anicle 4.4,11.2. 4431.32 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts ‘Shear on the critical section shall be in accordance with the following: + Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center is located 4,/2 oF more outside the critical section shall be considered as producing shear on that seetion. ‘* Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center is located d,/2 or mote inside the critical section shall be considered as producing no shear on that section. ‘* For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft ‘centers, the portion of the pile or shaft reaction to be ‘considered as producing shear on the crtcal section shall be based on linear interpolation eiween full Value at d,/2 outside she section and zero value at 4,/2 inside tie section. 44114 Development of Reinforcement 4A4I1A41 Development Length Computation of development of reinforcement in footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32, 44.1142. Critical Section Critical sections for development of reinforcement shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in Arti- cle 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes waere changes in section or reinforcement occur. See also Article 824.1.5, 4A4A1LS ‘Transfer of Force at Base of Column 4411.51 Transfer of Force All forces and moments applied at base af column or pier shall be transferred to top of footing ty bearing on concrete and by reinforcenient, 44.1152° Lateral Forces Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting foot ing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Arti= cles 8.15.5.4 oF 8.16.6.48 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 441153 Bearing Bearing on concrete at contact surface between sup: porting and supported member shall not exceed concrete bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles 8.15.2 0F 8.16.7. AAS Reinforcement Reinforcement shall be provided across interface be- ‘oven supporting and supported. memiber either by extending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be sutficient 10 satisfy all ofthe follow! ‘© Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force that exceeds concrete bearing strength in supporting or supported member. « If required loading conditions include uplift, total tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement. ‘Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 times gross area of supported member, with a mini mum of fourbars. FAIS Dowel Size Diameter of dowels. if used, shall not exceed diameter of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0.15 inch. 441156 Development Length For transfer of force by reinforcement. development of reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32. 4ALS.I Splicing ‘At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal reinforcement, in compression only. may be tap spliced with footing dowels to provide the required area. but not less than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.8, Dowels shall not be larger than No. 1] and shall extend ito the column @ distance of not less than the development length ofthe No. Mor 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels, whichever is greater: and into the footing a distance of not less than the development length of the dowels, 44.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings 4116.1 Design Stress Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals. shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution. For footings and pedesials cast against soil, effective thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the 42.1153 overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme fiber stress in tension shall not exceed that specified in Anicle 8.15.2.1.1, Bending need not be considered unless projection of footing from face to support member exceeds footing thickness 44.1162 Pedestals ‘The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3 4.5_DRIVEN PILES 45.1 General ‘The provisions of this article shall apply to the design of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or extending through soil to rock 1-1 Application Piling may be considered when footings carnot be founded on rock. of on granular or stiff cohesive soils within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil conditions would normally permit the use of spread footings but the potential for scour exists. piles may be used as & protection against scour. Piles may also be used where an unacceptable amount of settlement of spread footirgs may occur. 45.1.2 Materials Piles may be structural steel sections. steel pipe. precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed concrete, timber, ora combination of materials. Inevery case. ‘materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provisions of this Anicle, 45.1.3 Penetration Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical and lateral load capacities of both the pile and subsurface ‘materials. In general, the design penetration for any pile shall be not less than 10 feet into hard cohesive or dense granular material nor less than 20 feet into soft cohesive ‘loose granilar material. Where the depth to dense mi- terial or rock i less than 10 feet spread footings should be considered. Piles for trestle or pile bets shatl meet the above requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is en- countered, shall penetrate not less than the unsupported length ofthe pile4214 DIVISION I—DESIGN 9 4514 Lateral Tip Restraint 452. Pile Types No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or Toose upper stratum overlying a hard or firm stratum unless the ples penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a sufficient distance fo fix the ends against lateral movement of the pile tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to accom- plish this penetration, 45.1.5 Estimated Lengths Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful evaluation of available subsurface information, static and lateral capacity calculations, and/or past experience, 4.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each substructure should be shown on the contract plans. Esti- ‘mated pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation where the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained. Min- imum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration re- uired to support lateral pile ioads (including scour con- Siderations where appropriate) and/or penetration of overlying, unsuitable soil stra‘. 45.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill Piles to be driven through embankmients shall pene- ‘ate minimum of 10 feet through original ground unless refusal on bedrock or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration Fill used for embankment construction shall bea select material which shall not obstruct pile penetration to the required depth. The maximum size of any rock particles in the fill shall not exceed 6 inches. Pre- drilling oF spudding pile locations may be required, particularly for displacement piles. 451.8. Test Piles ‘Test piles shall be consi (See Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit) to determine pile installation characteristics, evaluate pile capacity with depth and to establish contractor pile order lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading, dynamic conducting driveability studies, or a combination ‘thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface conditions. The number of test piles se may be increased Piles shall be classified as “friction” or “end bearing ‘oF a combination of both according to the manner in which load transfer is developed. 45.21 Friction Piles A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the ‘major portion of support capacity is derived from soil resistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pi 45.22 End Bearing Piles A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if the major portion of support capacity is derived from the resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip resis. 45.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile materials, the bearing capacity of a pile ay be considered as the sum ofthe resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft and that developed atthe pile tip, even though the forces that are mobilized simultaneously are not necessarily maximum values. 452.4 Batter Piles When the lateral resistance of the soil surounding the piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces ‘transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be used in the foundation, Where negative skin fiction loads are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and'an aiter- nate method of providing lateral restraint should be used. 43. Notations ‘The following notations shall apply for the design of B,>025 (46.5.12-2) ‘The value of yj should be determined from measure- ‘ments from undisturbed samples along the length of the shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other in- situ test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer inside82 TABLES65.L1A Recommended Values of e and fy {or Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in ‘Reese and O'Neill (1988) ive Sol Value Transfer, fy Location Along Drilled Shaft ofa —_(ksf) From ground surface todepth 0 - along drilled shaft of 5 ft" Bottom I diameter of the ° - drilled shaft or 1 stem diameter above the top ofthe bell (if skin friction is being used) All other points along the oss 3.5 sides of the drilled shaft The deh of $temy need ajustment ihe dred hat is tsaled in expanive clays or if there is substantial groundine deflection iF Straight Shatt rosrve Feet ea pea ‘One Diameter Noncontabuting HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4851.2 resistance at any depth. fis equal tothe product of 8, and The limiting value off, for shafts in cohesiontess soit isa ksf. 465.13 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil For axially Idadéd shafis in cohesive soil subjected to undrained loading conditions. the ultimate tip resistance of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following: Qa GA ENA 46515-1) Values of the bearing capacity factor N, may be deter- ‘mined using the followi Ne = 6.0[1 + 0.2(D/B,)): N= 9 (465.13.21 ‘The limiting value of unit end bearing (qr = W.s.) is 80 ksf. ‘The value of sq should be determined from the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples Bottom One Diameter ™ of Stem Nonconteibuting Periphery of Belt Noneontnbuting Balled Shan * Two Diameters in Stitt Fissured Clay. FIGURE 465.114 Drilled Shaft Side Resist Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of ee in Cohesive Soil Reese and O° Neill (1988)46513 ‘obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft. If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the ‘value of N, should be reduced by one-third: IB, > 6:25 feet (75 inches) and shaft seitlements wilt not be evaluated, the value of gr should be reduced (0 dni as follows: gm = Far= (25aB/I2 + 25b)gr —(4.6.5.1.3-3) 0.0071 + 0.0021DB);a= 0015 (4.6.5.1.3-4) d= 04515.) 05 sb = 1.5 465.135) ‘The limiting value of gre is 80 ks. For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading conditions, Qr may be estimaied using the procedure described in Anticle 4.6.5.1.4. 46.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soit For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesiontess soils or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled ‘shafts in cohesive soil, 2 ultimate tip resistance may be estimated using che following: Qr= ark 465.1.4-1) ‘The value of gr may be determined from the results of standard penetration testing using uncorrected blow count readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft. Refer to Table 4.6.5.1 44 for recommended values of dr. If B, > 42 feet (50 inches) and shaft setlements will not be evaluated, the value of qr should be reduced t0 gre as follows: am = (SON2B)qr —(4.65.1.4-2) 4.65.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soit 465.21 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth ‘The design ofshafsin layered soil deposits or soil deposits having variable strength with depth requires evaluation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective layers or depths. Qsin such soil deposits may be estimated by dividing the shaft imo layers according to soil ype and properties, determining Q, for each layer, and summing Values for each layer to obtain the total Qs Ifthe soil ‘below the shaft tp is of variable consistency. Qr may be estimated using the predominant soil stata within 2B below the shaft tip, For shafts extending through soft compressible layers to tip bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be DIVISION I~DESIGN B TABLE 465.144 Recoinmended Values of :* for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistence in Cohesionless Soll afier Reese and O'Neill 1988) Standard : Penetration Resitanée N Blows!Foo1) Value of gT (uncorected) sh) 01075 1Z0N Above 75, 90 “tmae aloe or vale element ofS percent of be Samar given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article 4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils surrounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on a thin firm soit layer underlain by a softer sol uat, the shaft shall be extended through the softer soil unit :0 eliminate the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer deposit 46.5.2.2 Ground Water ‘The highest anticipated water level shall be used for design. 465.23 Enlarged Bases ‘An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used at the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase ‘he tip bearing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, oF 10 provide additional resistance to uplift loads. ‘The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be deter- ined assuming that the entire base area is effective in transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the ‘enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be ac- cceptably completed before concrete placement. 465.24 Group Action Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects ‘of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible. 465.241 Cohesive Soil Evaluation of group capacity of shafis in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a zap with the ‘ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafis. For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ‘ground, Qy, may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum Of the individual capacities of.each shaft in the group or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, thea4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES A641 shear stength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor {eg todetermine the Qs component of Quy. the total base area ofthe equivalent pier shall be used to determine the Q component of Qu. and the additional capatity of the cap shall be ignored ‘the cap is notin firm contact with the ground, oF if the soil atthe surface is loose or soft the individual eapacity of each shat should be reduced to { times Qy for an isolated shaft, where £ = 067 for a centerto-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and { = 1,0 for a CTC spacing of ‘68, For intermediate spacings, the valve of { may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum ofthe modified individual capacities ofeach shaft in the group. oF (2) the capacity of an equivaleat pier as described above. 465.242 Cohesionless Soil Evaluation of group capacity of shafis in cohesionless soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts Regardless of cap contact with the ground. the individual capacity of each shaft should be reduced 10 f times Qy for an isolated shaft. where { = 0.67 for a centerto-center (CTC) spacing of 38 and { = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of BB. For intermediate spacings, the value of { may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may bbe computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group. including resistance over the entire perimeter and base areas. 465.243 Group in Strong Seil Overtving Weaker Soil 1a group of shafts is embedded ina strong soil deposit which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohesive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. For this case. the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft (qe) may be determined using the following: = Go + HVIOBNGe — od avr (4.6.5.24.3-1) If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, caseful consideration shall be given tothe potential for large settlements in the weaker layer. 46.5.2.5. Vertical Ground Movement ‘The potential for extemal loading on a shaft by ve cal ground movement (i... negative skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift due toheave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a part of design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed that the full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground movement occurs. Evaluation of negative skin friction shail include a load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral point (Le., point of zero relative digplacement) and Iold distribution along shaft (c.g.. Reese and O'Neil. 1985 Due to the possible time dependence associated with ver: tical ground movement, he analysis shall consider the e fect of time on load transfer between the ground znd shaft and the analysis shal be performed forthe time period relating to the maximum axial load transfer to the shah Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil shall extend to a sufficient depth into moisture-steble sotls to provide edequate anchorage to resist uplift mevement. In addition. sufficient clearance shall be providedbetween the ground surface and underside of caps or bess connecting shafts to preclude the application of uplift toads at the shaf/cap connection from swelling ground conditions. Uplift capacity shall rely only on side resistance in conformance with Anicle 4.6.5.1. Ifthe shaft has an enlarged base. Qs shall be datermited in conformance witi Anicle 465.23 465.26. Meihod of Construction ‘The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled shafts con be greatly affected by the quality and methods) of construction. The effects of construction metiods are incorporated in design by application ofa factor of safety ‘consistent with the expected construction method(s} and level of field quality control measures (Article 46.5.4). Where the spacing between shafts in a group is restricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft construction operations on recently constructed shafts. 4.65.3 Axial Capacity in Rock Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit cxiat placements, increase load capacity and/or provide fixity for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with rack sockets. the side resistance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored. Typically, axial compression load is carried solely by the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a total shaft settlement (p,) on the order of 0.4 inches oc: curs. At this:displacement, the ultimate side resistance, ‘Qa. is mobilized and slip'occurs between the concrete and rock. As'a result of this slip, any additional toad is transferred to the tip. ‘The design procedures assume the socket is constructed in reasonably sound rack that is tittle affected by4653, construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excavation and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned prior to conerete placement (ce., fee of soil and other de~ bris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special ‘construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, ot reduced socket capacities sould be considered. 4653.1 Side Resisiance ‘The ultimate side resistance (Que) for shafts socketed {nto rock may be determined using the following: Qs = TBD, (0.14495) (4.6.5:3.1-1) Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1A for values of gse. For uplift loading Quy of a rock socket shall be limited t0 0-7Qsx- ‘The design of rock sockets shall be based on the unconfined compressive strength of the rock mass (Cy,) of concrete, whichever is weaker (6). Cy may be estimated using the following relationship: Cam aCe (4.653.1-2) Refer to Amtcle 4.4.8.2. fe. the procedure to deter- imine a 28 a function of ROD. 100 ROCK SOCKET UNIT SOE RESISTANCE, aan (ps) 3 200 ‘500 1000 2000 "5000 LUNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK OR CONCRETE, WHICHEVER. IS ‘WEAKERc¢(psl) DIVISION J—DESIGN 85, 46.5.3.2 Tip Resistance Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (Q-) for rock- socketed drilled shafts shall consider the infitence of rock discontinuities. Qra for rock-socketed drilled shafts may bbe determined using the following: Qm=NaCA (4653.21) Preferably, values of C, should be determined from the results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 2B of the base afte footing, Where rock stra within this interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity should be used to determine Qra. Alternatively, Table 44.8.1.2 may be used as a guide toestimate C,, For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of Gra cannot be less than the value of Qr for an equivalent soil 46.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock 46.53.31 Rock Stratification Rock stratification sh-il be considered in the design of rock sockets 2s follows: 10,000 20,000 FIGURE 4653.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth Wall Rodk-Socketed Suafts Horvath, etal (1983)86 HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘© Sockeis embedded in alternating layers of weak and strong rock shall Be designed using the strength of, the weaker rock. ‘© The side resistance provided by'soft or weathered rock should be neglected in determining the required socket length where asocket extends into more competent underlying rock, Rock is defined as soft when the uniaxial compressive strength ofthe weaker rock is less than 20 percent ofthat of the stronger rock. or weathered when the RQD is less than 20 percent. ‘© Where the tip ofa shaft would bear on thin rigid rock strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be extended into or through the weaker unit (depending ‘on load capacity or deformation requirements) 10 climinate the potential for failure due to flexural tension or punching failure ofthe thin rigid stratum. ‘* Shalis designed to bear on strata in which the rock surface is inclined should extend toa sufficient depth tocnsure thatthe shaft tip is fully bearing on the rock. ‘+ Shafts designed to bear on rock strata in which bedding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft axis shall extend a minimum depth of 2B into the dipping strata to minimize the potential for shear failure along natural bedding planes and other slippage surfaces associated with steatification, 46.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuiies The strength and compressibility of rock will be affected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and frac- tutes). The influence of discontinuities on shaft behavior will be dependent on their atitude, frequency and condition, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as nec- 465333 Method of Construction ‘The effect of the method of construction on the engineering properties of the rock and the contact between the rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design process 465.4 Factors of Safety Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be designed foF a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bearing capacity failure (end bearing, side resistance or combined) when the design is based on the results ofa load test, conducted at the site. Otherwise, shafts shall be designed for a minimum factor of safety 25. The minimusn récom- mended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal level of feld quality control during shaft construction. Ifa normal level of field quality control cannot be assured, higher minimum factors of safety shall be used. 465331 4.655 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts The seulement of axially loaded shafts at werking ot allowable loads shall be-estimated using elastic or loud transfer analysis mettods. For most eases, elusticanalysis will be applicable for design provided the stress levels in the shaft are moderate relative to Quy. Where sicess levels are high, consideration should be given to methods of lout transfer analysis. 46.5.5.1 Shafts in Soit Seitlements should be estimated for the working load. 465.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil ‘The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1A and 4.6.55.1.1B. The curves presented indicate the proportions ofthe ultimate side resistance (Qs) and ultimate tip resistance (Q,) mobilized at various magnitudes of seule ‘ment. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal tothe sum of the mobilized side resistance (Qs) and mobilized tip resistance (Q). The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.14 incorperates the effects of elastic shortening ofthe shaft provided the shaft is of typical length ic..D < 100 ft) For longer statis. the effects of elasti> shortening may be estimated asing the following: P.=PDIAE, — (4.6.5.5.1.1-1) Fora shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the diameter of the shaft at the base (B,) should be used in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B to estimate shaft setlement athe tip. Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures toest mate the ‘consolidation settlement component for shafts extending. into cohesive soil deps 46.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil ‘The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesion- Jess soil may be estimated using Figures 4.65.5.1.28, and 4.6.5.5.1.2B, The curves presented indicate the proportions of the ultimate side resistance (Qs) and tktimate tip resistance (Qz) mobilized at various magnitudes of seitlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to,the sum of the mobilized side resistence (Qs) and mobilized tip resistance (Q). Elastic stortening of the shaft shall be estimated using the following relationship: B= PDIAE, = (4.655.1.241)4655.12 10 os Sida Load Transtee ‘Wisse Sido Load Transler FIGURE 4655110 Load Transfer's Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesive Soit After Resse and O'Neil (1988) 465.513 Mixed Soil Profile ‘The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil profile may be estimated by surnming the proportional settle rent components from layers of cohesive and cohesionless soil comprising the subsurface profile 4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock Inestimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled shafis, the resistance to deformation provided by overlying soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load ‘wansfer to soil as a function of displacement may be esti- ‘mated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1 ‘The butt settlement (p,) of drilled shafts fully sock- ted into rock may be determined using the following, which is modified to include elastic shortening of the shaft P= QUp/B Eq) + (DAB) (4.6.5.5.2-1) Refer to Figure 4.65.24 to determine Ip. ‘The uplift displacement (p,) at the butt Of drilled shafts fully socketed into rack may be determined using the fol lowing which is modified to include elastic shortening of the shaft: DIVISION 1—-DESIGN 37 $6 6 & FIGURE 4655.18 Load Transfer ‘Tip Bearing Settiement Drilled Shat's in Cohesive Soil ‘After Reese and O'Neill (1988) 9. = QG,/B.E,) + DIAE)] (4.65.5.2-2) Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine hy ‘The rock mass modulus (E,) should be deter- ed based on the resus of in-situ testing (cg. pressure-mctes) or estimated from the results of Isbora- tory tests in which Eq i the modulus of intzct rock spec- mens, and (E,) is estimated in accordance with Article 48, For preliminary design or when site-specific test data cannot: be obtained, guidelines fer estimating values of E,, such as presented in Table 44.8.2.2B or Figure 4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses" cor for final design when in-situ fest results are not available, a value of a = 0.15 should be used to estimate E,. 46.553 Tolerable Movement ‘Tolerable axial displacement criteria, for drilled shaft ‘oundations shall be developed by the structural designer consistent with the function and type of structure, fxity of bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un acceptable displacements on the structure performance. Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be Based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing t> characterize88 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 46553 go Barat to ‘Detasten-totenng § ‘Sia Load Toaster ‘mat Si Load Transior 8 Deractonntererng Rescnat OO as te ee es ee Santament ameter FIGURE 465.5.124 Load Transferin Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesiontess Soil Afier Reese and O'Neill (1988) the load-detormation behavior ofthe foundation matecals. RefertoAnicle 44.7.2.5 for addtional guidance regarding. tolerable vertical and horizontal movement criteria, 46.5.6 Lateral Loading ‘The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction be- ‘oveen the shalt and ground (e.g.. Reese. 1984; Borden and Gabr. 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate capacity or deflection of laterally loaded shafts (e.g, Broms. 1964a.b: Singh. et al. 1971) may be used for preliminary design only as.a means to determine approximate shift dimensions. 4656.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts 465.611 Soil Layering The design of laterally joaded drilled shafts in layered soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters characteristic of the respective layers. 46.561.2 Ground Water ‘The highest anticipated water level shall be used for esi, ea We 5 End Beating imal ange of Fansts oT TS Setvament of Base, ‘iameter of Base FIGURE 4655.128 Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts Cohesionless Soil ‘After Reese and O'Neill (1988) 46.56.13 Scour ‘The potential for 1oss of lateral capacity due w scour shall be considered in the design: Refer to Antice 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hydraulic studies and design, If heavy scour is expected. consideration shall be given to designing the postion of the shaft chat would be exposed as a column, In all cuss. the shaft length shall be determined such that the design structural load can be safely supported entirely below the probable scour depth. 46.56.14 Group Action ‘There is no reliable rational method for evaluating the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded shafts, Therefore, as a general guide. drilled shatts in.a group may be considered to act individually when the center-to-center (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.5B, in the direction normal to loading, and CTC > 8B in the direction parallel 10 loading. For shaft layouts not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft interaction shall be considered in the design. As a general guide, the effects of group action for in-line CTC < $B may be considered using the ratios (CGS, 1985) appear- ing on page 89.4656.14 DIVISION DESIGN 29 eme025 Ec Py FIGURE 46.5524 Influence Coefficient for Blastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts ‘Modified after ells and Turner (1979) Ratio of Lateral CTC Shaft Spacing Resistance of Shaft in for In-line Loading Group to Single Shaft 8B 1.00 eB 0.70 4B 0.40 3B 0.25 465.615 Cyclic Loading ‘The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of laterally loaded drilled shafis shall be considered during design, Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic loading may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984).. 4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading Tie eects of later loading in combination with axial loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis of ) ‘The load test method specified imASTM D 1143-81 may be used 10 verify the pile capacity. TEHSiIE [ORM Test-_ ing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM D [3689-84 Lateral load testing of piles shall be dovie'in'ac- ‘cordance with ASTM D 3966-81. The performance factor for the axial compressive capacity. axial uplift capacity and lateral capacity obtained from pile load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6- 4123.36 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures given in Table 4.114.141 oa soil and rock shall be used only for guidance. preliminary design or design of temporary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be based on the resulis of subsurface exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing. 4123.3.7 Uplift Uplift shall be considered when the force effécts calculated based on the appropriate strength limit state toad combinations are tensile. 332 ‘When piles are subjected to uplift. they should be investigated for both resistance to pullout and structural ability to resist tension, 4.12.3.3.7a° Single Pile Uplift Capacity ‘The ultimate uplificapacity ofa single pile shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for estimating the skin friction resistance of piles in compression in Artic 4.12.3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and 4.12333 for piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors forthe up- life capacity of single piles shall be as provided in Table 4.10.62 412.33.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity ‘The ultimate uplifi capacity of a pile group shall be estimated asthe lesser of the sum of the individual pile uplift capacities. or the uplift capacity of the pile groap considered as a block. The block mechanism for cohesionless soil shall be taken as provided in Figure C4.12.3,7.2-1 and for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2 Buoy. nt unit weights shall be used for soil below the groundwater level The performance factor for the group up capac ‘calculated 2s the sum of the individual pile capacives shall be the same as those for the uplift capacity of single piles as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance factor forthe uplift capacity of the pile group considered as 1 block shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in clay and in sane, 4.12338 Lateral Load For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall be fixed into the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids ere ated from the driving of the piles shall be replaced with compacted granular material ‘The effects of soil-structure of rock-structure interac tion between the piles and ground, including the number ‘and spacing of the piles in the group, shall be accounted for in the design of laterally loaded piles. 4123.39 Barer Pile ‘The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter piles may be estimated by treating the baer piles as vertical piles, 412.3310 Group Capacity 4.12.33.10a Cohesive Soit IF the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of4.12.3.3.10A each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor 7, where 1 = 0.7 for a center-to-center spacing of three di- ‘meters and n = 1.0 for a center-to-center spacing of six diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of 3 may bee determined by linear interpolation. Ifthe cap is not in firm contact with the ground and if the soil is sti, then no reduction in efficiency shall be required. Ifthe capis in firm contact with the ground, then no reduction in efficiency shall be required. ‘The group capacity shall be the lesser of: —the sum of the modified individual capacities ofeach pile in the group, or —the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by the ples. For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil shall be ussd to determine the skin friction resistance, the total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to de termine the end bearing resistance, and the additional capacity ofthe eap shall bei nored. ‘The performance factor forthe capacity of an equiva- lect pier or block failare shall be as provided in Table 4,10.6-2. The performance factors for the group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual pile capacities, axe the came as those for the single pile capacity as given in Table 4.10.6-2. 4123.3.106 Cokesionless Soil ‘The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohesionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the piles in the group. The efficiency factor, », shall be 1.0 where the pile cap is, or isnot, in contact with the ground. ‘The performance factoris the same as those for single pile ‘capacities as given in Table 4.10.6-2. 4.12.3.3,10¢ Pile Group in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak or Compressible Soil Ifapile groupis embedded in strong soil deposit overlying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given tothe potential for a punching failure of the pie tips into the ‘weaker sol sranum. Ifthe underiying soi stratum consists ‘of aweaker compressible sil, consideration shal be given to the potential for larg seticinents in that weaker layer. 4.12.33.11 Dynamie/Seismic Design Refer to Division I-A, Seismic Design, of these specifications and Lam end Martin (1986a, 1986b) for guid- DIVISION I—DESIGN 305 ‘ance regarding the design of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. 4.12.4 Structural Design ‘The structural design of driven piles shall be in aécor- dance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was developed for allowable stress design procedares. To use load factor design procedures for the structural design of | driven piles, the load factor design procedures for reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections 8,9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place ofthe al- owable stress design procedures. 412.41 Buckling of Piles Stability of piles shall be considered whenthe piles extend through water or air for & portion oftheir lengths. 4125 Construction Considerations Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from construction considerations. Factors such as piledriving, pile splicing, and pile inspection shall be done ir accordance ‘withthe provisions of this specification and Division TI 413 DRILLED SHAFTS 413A General ‘The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1 through 4.6.7 with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of drilled shafts, and shall be Feplaced by the anicles in this section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless oth- cerwise stated. ‘The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply to the design of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with continuous flight augers that are concreted as the auger is being extracted, 413.2. Notations = parameter used for calculating F = area of base of drilled shaft = surface area ofa drilled pier = cross-sectional area of socket annular space between bell and stat perimeter used for calculating F, oie penetration test = dimensionless depth factor for-estimating tip capacity of dried shafts in rock ogrpree106 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 443.2 D diameter of drilled shaft Qu = total ultimate bearing capacity D ‘embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro- «R= characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys vides support diameter of base of a drilled shaft diameter ofa drilled shaft socket in rock = Young's modulus of concrete intact rack modulus ‘Young's modulus of a drilled shaft ‘= modulus of the in situ rock mass soil modulus reduction factor for tip resistance of large diameter drilled shaft H depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed into rock § moment of inertia of a drilled shaft 1 influence coefficient (see Figure C4133340 1 = influence coefficient for settlement of drilled shafts socketed in rock k= factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so as to limit the shaft settlement to t inch, K = coefficient of laterat earth pressure or load transfer factor K dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for rilled shafts socketed in rock using pressuremeter results Ke ‘modulus modification ratio Ky dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient (see Figure C4.133.3.4-4) LL = liquid limit of soit N= uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count N, = bearing capacity factor Ne = corrected SPT-N value N. uplift bearing capacity factor pl = limit pressure determined from pressuremeter tests within 2D above and below base of shaft P, =a rest horizontal stress measured at the base of drilled shaft Pp = unfactored dead load PL = plastic limit of soil q = ltimate unit tip resistance Qw ——-™ Feduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled shafts q. -= ultimate unit side resistance 4q bell = unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft uniaxial compressive strength of rock core Qu ultimate bearing capacity himaté load carried by tip of drilled shaft Ikimate load carried by side of drilled shaft Qin = ultimate side resistance of dritled shafts sock- ted in rock tenvin cohesive soils Rock Quality Designation pacing of discontinuities RQD 8 SPT "= Standard Penetration Test Ss indrained shear strength & ith of discontinuities T = characteristic length of soildrilled shat system in cohesioniess soils 2 = depth below ground surface 2 = tolal embedded length of drilled shaft Greek « sion factor applied 10S, 8 coefficient relating the vertical effective stress and the unit skin friction ofa driled snaft YS effective unit weight of soil 8 angle of shearing resistance between soil and died shaft ‘1 = filled shaft group efficiency factor Pax = settlement of the base ofthe drilled shaft ® lastc shortening of drilled shaft Pat olerable settlement ©, = vertical effective stress (otal vertical stress working load at top of socket = performance factor angle of internal friction of soil performance factor for the total ultimate bearing capacity ofa drilled shaft bs performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity of a drilled shaft be performance factor forthe ultimate tip capac ity of a drilled shaft 4.13.3 Geotechnical Design Drilled shafts shal be designed to have adequste bearing and structural capacities under tolerable Seitements ‘and tolerable lateral movernents ‘The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be estimated by static analysis methods (analytical methods based on soil-tructure interaction). Capacity may be verified with load test results, ‘The method of construction may affect the drilled shaft capacity and shall be considered as part of the design process. Drilled shafis may be constructed using the dry. ‘casing or wel method of construction, or a combination of methods. In every ease, hole excavation. coricrele place- ‘ment, and all other aspecis shall be performed in conformance: with the provisions of this. specificalion and Division I4433.1 4133.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Art cle 4.6.5.3. for drilled shafts in rock., The following sub-articles. shall supplement Antcles 4.6.5.2 and 4653.3. 4133.11 Downdrag Loads Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate, 4s indicated in Article 4123.13. 413.3.1.2 Uplift ‘The provisions of Amticle 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as applicable. ‘Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Suffi- cent clearance shall be provided between the ground surface and underside of caps or beams connecting shafis 10 preclude the application of uplift loads at the shafveap ‘connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift ca- [pacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely caly on side resistance in conformance with Article 4.13:3.3.2 for drilled shafts iz conesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. I the shaft has an enlarged base, Q, shall be determined in conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.6 41332 Movement Under Serviceal Limit State 4133.21 General ‘The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as applicable, ‘In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However unfactored live Toads must be added to the permanent loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular soil 413.322. Tolerable Movement ‘The provisions of Article 4.12.3.22 shall apply as applicable. 4133.23 Settlement ‘The setilemeni ofa drilled shaft foundation nivolving either single drilled shafis or groups of drilled shafts shall not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according toAnicle 4.13.3.2.2 DIVISION I—DESIGN 107 4.133.234 Setlement of Single Drilled Shafts The settlement of single drilled shafts siall be estimated considering short-term settlement, consolidation settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial ‘compression of the drilled shaft, 413.323 Group Setilement ‘The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be estimated using the same procedures as desctibed for pile sroups, Article 4.12.3.2.3. —Cohesive Soil, See Anicle 4.12.3.2.3a —Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4,12.3.23b 4133.24 Lateral Displacement ‘The provisions of Article 4.123.244 shall apply as applicable. 4.1333 Resistance at Strength Limit States ‘The strength limit states that must be considered include: (1) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift eapacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled shafts bearing in strong soit into 2 weaker layer below. 4.13331 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts ‘The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.1 shall apply as applicable. 413332 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity in Cohesive Soils Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate the ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive soils. The performance factors for side resistance and tip resistance for three analytic methods shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is used, application of the performance factors in Table 4.10.6-3 may ‘not be appropriate. 4133.33 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils ‘The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable meth- cols, and the factored capacity selected using judgment, and any available experience with similar conditions. 413334 ,Axial Capacity in Rock In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side resistance from over'ying soil deposits shall be ignored.108 HIGHWAY BRIDGES the rock is degradable, consideration of special construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re duced socket capacities shall be considered, ‘The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in rock shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. 4IZB35 Load Test Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be ‘conducted on a drilled shai or shafts to confirm response ta load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts constructed in a manner and of dimensions and materials identical to those planned for the production shafts. Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed written procedures which have been developed from accepted standards and modified, as appropriate, for the ‘conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing procedures developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials as specified in Anicle 4,12.3.3.5 may be modified for testing drilled shafts. ‘The performance factor for axial compressive capacity, axial uplift capacity, and loweral capacity obtained From load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. 41333.6 Uplift Capacity Uplift shall be considered when (i) upward loads act on the drilled shafis and (i) swelling or expansive soils act, fon the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift fotees shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout and for their structural strength. 413,3.3.64 Uplift Capacity ofa Single Drilled Shaft ‘The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided deiled shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts in compression (Anticles 4.13332, 4.13333, and 4.13.3.3-4 ‘The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assuming thatthe bell behaves as an anchor, ‘The performance factor for the uplift capacity of Grilled shafts shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. 413.3.3.60 Group Uplift Copacity See Anicle 4.12.3.3.7b. The performance factors for uplif.capacity of groups of drilled shafts shal be the same a5 those for pile groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3. 413337 Lateral Load ‘The design of laterally loaded drilled shatis is usually govemned by lateral movement eriteria (Article 4.13,3.2) 4133.34 or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design of laterally loaded dritled shafts shall account for the e fects of interaction between the shaft and ground. including the ‘number of piers in the group. 413338 Gioup Capacity Possible reduction in capacity from group effezis shall be considered. 413.338a Cohesive Soil ‘The provisions of Anicle 4.12.3.3.10a shall apply. The performance factor forthe group capacity af an equivalent pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6- 2 for both cases ofthe cap being in contact. and natin con- ‘act with the ground. The performance factors for the ‘group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual drilled shaft capacities are the same as those for the single drilled shaft capacities. 4.13,3.3.86 Cohesionless Soil Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of cap contact with the ground. the individual ‘capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor 7 for an isolated shaft, where 1 = 0.67 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of three diameters and 9 = 1.0 for acen- lerto-center spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of 1 may be determined ty linear interpolation. See Article 4.13.3.3.3 fora discussion on the selection of performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in cohesionless soils. 4133.3.8¢ Group in Strong Soil Overtying Weaker Compressible Soil ‘The provisions of Amticle 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as applicabte. 413.3.3.9 Dynamic(Seismic Design Refer to Division I-A, Seismic Design for guidance regarding the design of drilled shafts subjected 10 dynamic and seismic loads. 4.13.44 Structural Design ‘The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in accordance the provisions of Article 4.6.6, which was developed for allowable stress design proce:4134 DIVISION J—DESIGN 109, dures. In order to use load factor design procedures for 4.13.41 Buckling of Drilled Shafts the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor ‘design procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete ‘Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the shall be used in place of the allowable stress design _shafis extend through water or air for a portion of their Procedures. length.Section 5 RETAINING WALLS Part A GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS, SA GENERAL Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral ‘earth and water pressures, including any live and dead Toad surcharge, the self weight of the wall, temperature and shrinkage effects, and earthquake Toads in accordance ‘with the general principles specified in this section. Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life ‘based on consideration of the potential long-t2rm effects of corrosion, seepage, stray currenis and other potentially dcleterious environmental factors on each of the raaterial ‘components comprising the wall. For most applications, permanent retaining walls should be designed for a mi ‘mum service life of 75 to 100 years. The quality of inservice performance shall be an important consideration in the design of permanent retaining walls. Permanent ‘walls shall be designed to retain an aesthetically pleasing, appearance, and be essentially maintenance free through- ‘out their design service life. Retaining walls for temporary applications are typically designed for a service life of 36 ‘months oF less. 5.2 WALLTYPEAND CAPACITY 521 Selection of Wall Type Selection of wall type shall be based on an assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading, depth to suitable foundation suppor, potential for eartiquakeload- ing, presence of deleterious environmental factors, proximity of physical constraints, tolerable and differential settlement, facing appearance, and ease and cost of construction. 52.11 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls Gravity and semi-gravity walls detive their capacity through combinations of dead weight and structural resistance. Gravity walls may be constructed of stone masonry and/or unreinforced concrete. Semi-gravity cantilever, counterfort, and buttress walls are constructed of reinforced concrete, Rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining ‘walls may be reinforced concrete. Rigid gravity and se ‘gravity retaining walls may be used for bridge substruc- ‘ures or grade separations. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls are generally used for permanent wall applications. 5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls ‘Nongravity cantilevered walls derive lateral resistance through embedment of vertical wal elements and support retained soil with facing elements. Vertical wall elements may consist of discrete vertical elements (e.g. piles,caissons, drilled shafts or auger cast piles) spanned by a structural facing (e.g., wood or reinforced concrete lagging, precast or cas-in-place concrete panels, wir or fiber reinforced shoterete, or metal elements such as sheet pile). ‘The discrete vertical elements typically extend deeper into the ground than the facing to provide vertical and lateral support. Alternately the vertical wall elemenis and facing are continuous and, therefore, also form the smuctural fec~ ing. Typical continuous vertical wall elements include piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall panels, tangent piles, and tangent caissons. Permanent rongravity cantilevered walls may be constructed of reinforced concrete and/or metals. Temporary ‘nongravity cantilevered walls may be constructed of reinforced concrete, metal and/or timber. Suitable metals generally include steel for components such as piles, brackets and plates, lagging and concrete reinforcement, Nongrav~ ity cantilevered walls may be used for the same applications as rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, as well as temporary or permanent support of eat slopes, excava~ tions, or unstable soil and rack masses. Nongravity cantilevered walls ae generally limited toa maximum height of approximately 15 feet, unless they are provided with additional support by means of anchors.2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES S213 $2.13 Anchored Walls Anchored walls are typically composed of the seme-el- ‘ements as nongravity cantilevered walls (Article 5.2.1.2). but derive additional lateral resistance from one of more tiers of anchors. Anchors may be prestressed or deadman type elements composed of stand tendons or bars (with corrosion protection as necessary) extending from the wall face to a grouted zone or mechanical anchorage 1o- cated beyond the zone of soil applying load to the wall. Bearing elements on the vertical support elements or facing of the wall transfer wall loads to the anchors. In some ‘cases, a spread footing is used at the base of the anchored, ‘all facing in lew of vertical element embedment to provide vertical support, Due to their flexibility and method ‘of suppor, the distribution of lateral pressure on anchored walls is influenced by the method and sequence of wall construction and anchor presttessing. Anchored walls are applicable for temporary and permanent suppon of stable and unstable soil and tock masses. Anchors are usually requited for support of both temporary and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls higher than about 15 feet, depending on soil conditions. ‘Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situa~ tions, in which construction occurs from the top down to the base of the wall. Anchored walls have been success- fully used to suppor fills: however, certain difficulties in il wall applications require special considers. tion during desiga. In particular. there isa potential for anchor damage due to seitlement of backfill and underlying soils or due to improperly controtled backfilling procedures, Also. there is a potential for undesirable wall deflection if anchors are too highly stressed when the backfill is only partially complete and provides limited passive 5 4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ‘Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) systems. whose elements may be proprietary. employ either metallic {strip- or grid-type) or polymeric (sheet, strips. or grid- type) tensile reinforcements in the soil mass, and a facing clement which is vertical or near vertical MSE walls may be used where conventional gravity. cantilever. or counterforted concrete retaining walls are considered, and are panicutarly well suited where substantial total and differential settlements are anticipated. The allowable settlement of MSE walls is limited by the longitudinal deformability of the facing and the ultimate purpose of the structure. Limiting tolerable differential settlement for systems with panels less than 30 square feet in size and a minimum joint width of 3/4 inch are presented in Table $.2.1.44, TABLES2.14A Rel snship Between Joint Width and Limiting Differential Settlement for MSE Walls Limiting Joint Width Differential Settlement 3/4 inch, 1100 V2 inch 17200 V4 inch 17300 ‘Where foundation conditions indicate large dita settlements over a short horizontal distance.a ver height slip joint shall be provided, MSE walls should not be used under the following conditions: ‘© When utilities other than highway drainage must be constructed within the reinforced zone. + With galvanized metallic reinforcements exposed t0 surface or ground water contaminated by acid mine drainage or other industrial pollutants as indicated by low pH and high chlorides and sulfates. ‘© When floodplain erosion may undermine tne reinforced fll zone, oF where the depth of scour cannot be reliably determined, MSE walls may be considered for use under the following special conditions: ‘¢ When two intersecting wallé form an enclosed angle ‘of 70° of less, the affected portion of the wall shall be designed as an internally tied bin structare with at-rest earth pressure coefficients. # Where metalic reinforcements are used in areas of anticipated stray currents within 200 fee, of the sructure, a corrosion expert should evaluate the potential need for corrosion control requirements. 5.2.18 Prefabricated Modular Walls Prefabricated modular wall systems, whose elements may be proprietary, generally employ interlock ng soil- filled ceinforced concrete or steel modules or bins. which resist earth pressures by acting as gravity retaining walls. Prefabricated modular systems may be used where con~ ventional gravity, cantilever or counterfort concrete retaining walls are considered, Prefabricated modular systems shall not be us:d under the following conditions: + On curves with a radius of less than 800 feet, unless the curve can be substituted by a series of chords5215 + When calculated longitudinal differential setlements along the face of the wall are greater than 17200, + Sccel modular systems shall not be used where the ground water or surface runoff is acid contaminated or where deicing spray is aiicipated. 5.2.2 Wall Capacity Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to walls. ‘The tolerable level of structural deformation is controlled by the type and location of wall structure and surrounding, facilities. 52.2.1 Bearing Capacity ‘The bearing capacity of wall foundation support systems may be estimated using procedures described in Ar- ticles 4.4,4.5,0r 46, or other generally accepted thearies. ‘Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mea- ‘sured by in-situ and/or laboratory tests. 52.2.2 Settlement ‘The settlement of wall foundation support systems ray be estimated using procedures described in Articles 4.4,4.5, 01 4.6,0r other generally accepted methods. Such methods are hased on soil and rock parameters measured directly or inferred from the results of in-situ and/or lab- ‘oratory test. 5223 Overall Stability ‘The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls shall be considered as part of the design of retzining walls. ‘The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis ‘which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or ‘Spenser methods of analysis. A minimum factor of safety (of 1.3 shall be used for walls designed for static loads, except the factor of safety shall be 1.5 for walls that support bridge abutments, buildings or critical utilities, or for ‘other installations with alow tolerance for failure. A minimum factor of safety of 1-1 shall be used forall walls designed for seismic loads. In all eases, the subsurface conditions and soilfrock properties of the wall site shall be: adequately characterized through insita exploration and testing and/or laboratory testing as described in Article ‘53. Itmust be noted that, even if overall stability is satis- DIVISIONI—DESIGN 13 factory, special exploration, testing and analyses may be requised for bridge abutments or retaining walls constructed over soft subsoils where consolidation and/or Iat- eral flow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable Tong- term settlements or horizontal movements. 52.24 Tolerable Movements ‘Tolerable mavement criteria for retaining walls shall be developed based on the function and type of wall, an- \icipated service life, and consequences of unacceptable movements. Where 2 wall is used to suppor a structure, tolerable movement criteria shall be established in accordance with Anicles 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of wall movements and associated back Al setle- ‘ment on the adjecent structure should be evaluated. 5.23 Soll, Rock, and Other Problem Canditions Geologic and environmental conditions ca the performance of retaining walls and thir foundations, ‘and may require special consideration during design. To the extent possible, the presence and influence of such ‘conditions shall be evaluated as part ofthe subsurface ex- poration program. A representative, but rot exclisive, listing of problem conditions requiring spec al considera tion is presented in Table 4.2.3A for general guidance. 53 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND ‘TESTING PROGRAMS ‘The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing programs shall be the responsibilty ofthe Designer based ‘on the specific requirements of the project and his or her ‘experience with local geological conditions 5.3.1 General Requirements ‘As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing ‘programs shall define the following, where applicable: * Soil surat: —Depth, thickness, and variability —Identification and classification Relevant engineering characteristics (Le. natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear strength, * compressibility, stifiness: permeability, expansion or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility) “Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resistivity, and sulfide coitent ‘+ Rock strata: —Depth to rockut HIGHWAY BRIDGES 53.1 —Identitication and classitication. Quality (ie., soundness, hardness. jointing and presence of joint filling resistance to weathering. if ésposed. and solutioning} Compressive strensth (e.g sion. point load index Expansion potential ++ Ground water elevation, chemical composition and pH (especially important for anchored. nongravity cantilevered, modular. and MSE walls for which corrosion potential is an important consideration) + Ground surface topography ‘+ Local conditions requiring special consideration (eg. presence of stray electrical currents). uniaxial compres Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de- scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g.. SPT or q.)- and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The drilling equipment and method. use of drilling mud. type ‘of SPT hammer (i... safety. donut. hydraulicy'or cone: penetrometer (ie.. mechanical or electrical). and any’ unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures. boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted ‘on the exploration logs. 53.2. Minimum Depth Refer to Anticle 4.3.2 regarding the selection of minimum depths of exploration for retaining walls supported ‘on various types of foundations. Minimum Coverage ‘A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each retaining wall. For retaining walls over 100 feet in length. the spacing between borings should be no greater than 100 feet. In planning the exploration program. consideration should be given to placing borings inbourd and outboard of the sal line (0 define conditions in the scour zone at the toe of the wall and in the zone behind the wall to exti- rate lateral loads and anchor capacities, 5.3.4 Laboratory Testing Laboratory testing shall be performed a8 necessity (0 determine “e characteristics including unit ‘weight, natural moisture content. AUerberg litnits. sheat strength. compressive sirengih and compressibility In the absence of laboratory testi wgering characteristics ‘may be estimated bused on published test results or local experience. 538 Scour The probable depth of scour shall be determired by subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Referto Ar- ticle 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for genefal guidance re: ‘garding hydraulic studies and design. 5.4 NOTATIONS ‘The following notations shall apply for design of retaining walls: A. = Acceleration coefficient (dim): (See Anicle 3.2. Division I-A} Ax = Surface area of transverse reinforcement in bear: (diameter times length) ((0): (See Article 585) Ay = Maximum wall acceleration coefficient at the centroid (dim (See Article 5.8.10.1) Total surface area of seinforcement beyond fait- ure plane (ft): (See Anicle 5.8.5) b = Width of bin module or width of diserae vertical wall element (fi: (See Anticles 5.6.2 and 59.4) by = Reinforcement width for layer i (fi: ‘See Anicle 58.102) B= Width of retaining wall foundation (ft B, = Width of excavation perpendicular to wall «ft (See Anicle 5.7.5) € = Cohesion of soil (ksf) © = Combined response coefficient at ground level (dim); (See Articles 3.21.2.1 or 3212.2) €, _ = Adhesion between cohesive soil and concrete (ks) C, = Uniaxial compressive sirengih of inact rock tks) D_ = Design embedment depth of vertical wall element (fi) D, = Embedment of continuous vertical wall element required for equilibrium of overturning and resisting moments (ft); (See Article 5.6.2) E, = Thickness of metal reinforcement at end of service life (mil) (See Anicle 5.8.6.1) Nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at construction (mity: (See Article 5.8.6.1) E, = Sacrificed thickness of metal expected to be lost by uniform corrosion during service life of siruc ture (mil): (See Article 5.8.6.1) T = Coefficient of friction between wall and soil oF rock (dim): (See Article 5.5.2) F jum of forces resisting sliding (Wt): (See Anite 35.54 f= Apparent coefficient of friction at each reinforee- sent level (dim): (See Anite 5.8.5)54 DIVISION I—DESIGN us FC = Factor of safety for polymeric reinforcements ‘with respect to construction damage (dim); (See Amicle 5.8.7.2) fy = Coefficient of resistance to direct sliding of reinforcement (dim); (See Article $8.5) FD = Factor of safety for polymeric reinforcements with respect to environmental and aging losses (Girmy; (See Anicle 5.8.72) actor of safety (dim) Equivalent height of sil representing surcharge pressure or effective total height of soil at back of reinforced soil mass (ft; (See Article 5.8.2) = Design wall height (f) H, = Equivalent wall height (f); (See Anicle 5.8.4.1) H, = Effective wall height (ft; (See Article 5.8.10.1) H, = Surcharge height (f of soil (See Article 5.5.2) H, = Height of water in backfill above base of wall (f) K- = Earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Anicle FS fy 55.2) K, = Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar- ticle $.5.2) K, = At-rest earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar- ticle 5.5.2) K, _ = Passive earth pressure coefficient for curved fail- ‘ure surface (dim); (See Antcte 5.5.2) Kj} = Passive earth pressure coefficient for planar fail- ture surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) 1 = Length of mat beyond failure plane (fi); (See Ar- ticle 5.8.5) L__ = Length of soil reinforcing elements (ft); (See Ar- ticle 5.8.2) 2 = Center-to-center spacing of discrete vertical wall ‘elements (1); (See Article 5.6.2) La = Effective reinforcement length for layer i (60 (See Article $8.10.2) m = Ratio of horizontal distance between surcharge load and wall to vertical wall height (dim); (See Anticle 5.5.2) m = Reduction factor for active earth pressure on ‘walls with more than one row of anchors (dim); (See Article 5.7.2) Ma = Maximum bending moment in vertical wall clement or facing (k-fUft) n= Ratio of depth below top of wall to total vertical ‘wall height (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) n= Number of transverse beating members behind failure plane (dim); (See Article 5.8.5) N__ = Sisbility number im); (See Anicle 5.6.2) N, = Passive resistance factor, (See Antcle 5.8.5) Pe esign lateral pressure’at any depth (kf) PL = Resultant of active earth pressure (K/f0) Py =Net unbalanced horizontal force below base of ‘the exposed wall resulting from an unstable excavation base acting inwardly at the mid-height Of the embedded length of wall (Wl); (See Asti- cle 5.7.5) Py, = Pullout capacity developed by passive resistance per grid (k); (See Anticle 5.8.5) Py = Pullout capacity per strip (k); (See Amticle 5.8.5) Py. = Resultant of lateral pressure due to line surcharge Toad Guft); (See Article 55.2) Py ~ Horizontal component of earth pressure resultant (kif; (See Anticle 5.5.2) P, = Pressure inside bin module (ksf); (See Article 59.4) Py = Resultant of lateral pressure due tc point surcharge toad (ky; (See Antcle 5.5.2) Py = Normal component of earth pressure resultant ft); (See Article 5.5.2) P, = Resultant of atest earth pressure (W/t); (See Ar- ticle 5.5.2) = Resultant of passive earth pressure (Wt); (See Amticle 5.5.2) P, = Resultant of form pressure distribution on wall due to uniform surcharge loading (k): (See Article 5.5.2) Py = Tangential component of earth pressure resultant kif; See Article 5.5.2) Py = Verticat component of earth presstse resultant (ut); (See Anicle 55.2) P, = Resultant of hydrostatic pressure dv: to water in ‘backfill (kif); (See Antcle 5.5.3) q. = Surcharge pressure (ksf): (See Article 5.8.2) Q._ = Line surcharge load (4); (See Article 5.5.2) Q, = Point surcharge load (K): (See Antic 5.5.2) qe = Unconfined compressive strength of soil (ksf) R_ = Resultantof foundation bearing pressare (kor k/) RY = Distance above wall base to resultant of lateral pressure due to surcharge (fi); (See Article 5.5.2) RF = Reduction factor applied to Coulomb passive ‘earth pressure coefficient to account for effects of wall frieion and failure surface curvature (dim); (Gee Aricle 55.2) s of rock (hs) Sw. = Horizontal reinforcement spacing for layer (fi); (Gee Article 5.8.10.2) S, = Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil (ks!) T= Period of reinforced soil structure subjected 10 seismic loading (sec); (See Article 5.8.10.1) Ty = Allowable long-term reinforcement tension Toad for limit state (ky; (See Anicle 5.8.7.2) Ta = Allowable long-term reinforcement tension load for serviceability state (ky; (See Article 5.8.7.2) ‘Ty = Limit state reinforcemem tension (k); (See Arti- cle 5.8.6.2) ‘Tea = Ineremenial dynamic-inertia force at level i (ft of structure); (See Article 5,8.10.2)6 HIGHWAY BRIDGES : 34 T. = Serviceability state reinforcement tension (k): (See Article 5.8.7.2) Weight of reinforced soil mass (Wit: (See Article 58.2) of sloping soil surcharge on top of te forced soil mass (Wt): (See Anicle 5:8.2) w= Width of mat (fo: (See Anicle 5.8.5) Z = Depth below effective top of wall orto reinforce- sment (0; (See Anicle 58.5) B= Inclination of ground stope behind wall measured counterclockwise from horizontal plane (deg) Gee Article 55.2) 8’ = Inclination of ground slope in oat of wall measured counterclockwise from horizontal plane (degy: (See Article 56.2) y= Soil unit weight chet) Y= Effective unit weight of sol or rock (ket) Ye = Unit weigh of water chef) 5 = Friction angle batween two dissimilar materials (deg): (See Article 55.2) A= Maximum horizontal wall deletion (ft) Y= Soil esinforcement angle of friction (deg): See Anicie 58.5) © = Inclination of back of wall measured clockwise fiom horizontal plane (dee: (See Anicle 5.5.2) & = Friction angle of soil 6° = Effective stress friction angle of internal frition (eg) ©, = Active earth pressure fksf}; (See Asticle 5.5.2) oy = Magnitude of lateral pressure due to surcharge ksfi: (See Amticle 5.5.2) o, = Passive earth pressure (ksf); (See Article 5.5.2) ‘The notations for dimension units include the following: deg = degree: dim = dimensionless; ft= pt: ksf = kiplht?: kef = pound: mil = 0.001 in.; and psi = pounds per square inch, ‘The dimensional units provided with each notation are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct combination of units forthe wall design procedures presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional ‘correctness of the equations should be confirmed. Part B SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN 53. RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN A Design Terminology Réfer to Figure 5.5.1 for terminology used in the design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls. 5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings Earth pressure loading on rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls is a function of the type and conditioy of soil backfill, the slope of the ground suéface behind he wall. the friction between the wall and soil. and the ability of the wall :o translate or rotate in response to loading. Yield- ing walls are free to translate or rotate about their base. Restrained walls are fixed or partially restrained against translation and/or rotation, For yielding walls, lateral earth pressures shallbe computed assuming active stress conditions and wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding defined by Coulomb The cory. Development of an active site of stres inthe soil behind a rigid wall requires an outward rotation of the wall about its toe. The magnitude of rotation required to develop active pressure isa function ofthe soil type anc conditions behind the wal, as defined in Table 5.5.2. Refer to Figure 5.5.2B for procedures to determine the magnitude and location of the earth pressure resultant ‘or grav ity and semi-gravity retaining walls subjected ‘o active earth pressures. For restrained or yielding walls for which the tilting or eftection required to develop active earth pressure is not tolerable (i.e. yielding walls located adjacent to sirucwures sensitive to settlement), lateral earth pressures shal be cor- puted assuming at-rest conditions using the relationships PL= CY HQIKY K, = sind" When traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the top of the wall equal to one-half the wall height. the lateral earth pressure for design shall be increased by a minimum surcharge acting on the backslope equivalent to that applied by 2 feet of soil as described in Article 3.20.3, The surcharge will result in the application of an additional uniform pressure on the back of the wall having a resultant magnitude: 55.23) (Hyy’K acting at the mid-height ofthe wall where K is equal to K, or K, depending on wall restraint. If the surcharge is greater than that applied by 2 feet of soil. the design earth pressures shall be increased.by the actual amount of the surcharge. Unless actual data regarding the magnitude of anticipated surcharge loads is available. assime a mini- ‘mum soil unit weight of 0.125 kef in determining the surcharge load. The effects of permanent point or line surchayge loads (other than normal walfic live toads) on backslo3es shallBASE, BASE SLAB OR FOOTINS BASE SHEAR KEY FIGURE S5.1A_ Terms Used in Design of Rigid Retaining Walls TABLESS2A Relationship between Soil Backfill Type ‘and Wall Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth Presaures Behind Rigid Retaining Walls ‘Soil Type and ‘Wall Rotation, A/H Condition Ketive Passive ‘Dense Cohesionless. 0.001 0.020 Loose Cohesionless 0.004 0.060 ‘Stiff Cohesive 0.010 0.020 Soft Cohesive. 0.020 0.01018 HIGHWAY BRIDGES TABLE $5.28. Ultimate Friction Factors, Friction Angles and Adhesion for Dissimilar Materials, After US, Department of the Navy (1982) Friction Factor. f Friction” tan Angle, 3 Interface Materials om Degrees) “Mass concrete on the following foundation materials: — Clean sound rock 0.70 35 — Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 0.55 1000.60 29103 — Clean fine to medium sand, siky medium to coarse sand, silty or 0.45 100.55 241029 clayey gravel — Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sond 0.35 100.45 191028 — Fine sandy silt, nonplastic sit 0.30100.35 171019 — Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 0.40 100.50 20% — Medium stiff and stiff clay and sity clay 0.30 100.35 17019 (Masonry on foundation materials has same friction factors) ‘Steel sheet piles against the following soi — Clean gravel, gravelsand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with 0.40 2 spalls : : — Clean sand, sity sand-gravel snxture, singlesize hardrock fill 0.30 u — Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with sil or lay 0.25 14 — Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 020 n Formed concrete or concrete shect piling against the following sols: — Clean gravel, gravelsand mixture, well-graded rock fill with 0.40 100.50 210% spalls — Clean sand, sity sand-gravel mixture, single size hardrock fill 0.3010 0.40 171022 — Silty sand, gravel or sand mized with silt or cléy 0.30 7 — Fine sendy silt, nonpastic silt 0.25 4 Various structural materials: — Masonry on masonry, igneous and metamorphic rocks: + Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 0.70 35 * Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 0.65 33 + Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 0.35 29 — Masonry on wood (cross grain) 0.50 6 — Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 0.30 7 Soil Cohesion, ¢ ‘Adhesion, ¢ interface Materials (ost) es!) ‘Very sat cohesive soil (- 250) 0-250 Soft cohesive soil (250-500) 250-500 Medium stiff cohesive soi (500 - 1,000) 300-750 Suff cohesive soil (1,000 - 2,000) 750-950 Very stiff cohesive soil £2,000 4,000) 950 - 1,300 8 = freon angle beeen dissimilar materials55.2 DIVISION DESIGN 19 sint (6+) sin'6 sin(@—é) [' sin(@d)sin(ee) “sin(6=6)sin(OrA) Tae | () om EFFECTIVE UNIT WEIGHT @’m EFFECTIVE ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION 6 = ANGLE OF WALL FRICTION(SEE TABLE 5.5.28) FIGURE 55.28 Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures Coulomb Analysis, also be considered in developing the design earth pressures, See Figure 5.5.2C to estimate the effects of perma- ‘ent point and line surcharge loads. ‘The effects of compacting backfill in confined areas ‘behind retaining walls may result in development of lat- ‘eral pressures greater than those represented by active or at-rest conditions. Where use of heavy static and vibratory compaction equipment within a distance of about 0.5H behind the wall is anticipated, the effects of backfill compaction should be considered in estimating the lateral ‘earth pfessure distribution used for design In addition to the earth, surcharge and water pressures, the backwalls of abutments shall be designed 10 resist loads ‘due to design live and impact loads. For design purposes, it shal be assured that wheel loads are positioned to gen- fate the maximum tensile stresses at the back of the back- ‘wall when combined with stresses caused by the backfill. “The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types of disturbance (eg. utility trench excavation in front of wall). Where passive earth pressure in front of a wall can bbe considered, refer to Figures 5.5.2D and 5.5.2E for procedures to determine the magnitude and ocation of the passive earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi- gravity walls. Development of passive earth pressure in the soil in front ofa rigid wall requires ar outward rotation of the wall about its toe or other movement of the ‘wall into the soil, The magnitude of movement required to mobilize passive pressure is a function af the soil type ‘and condition in front of the wall as defined in Table 5.5.24. 553 Water Pressure and Drainage ‘Walls shall be designed to resist the maximum ant pated water pressure, For a horizontal, statc ground water120 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 553 (une toad SECTION LINE LOAD SECTION POINT LOAD PLAN Volue of ae 1 02 078 Os9H Qs ofa O3aH LINE LOAD Os oss cca | | as 35 2 elu tne POINT LOAD FIGURESS.2C Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due fo Point and Line Loads Modified after Terzaghi (1954) lable. the total hydrostatic water pressure shall be deter- ‘mined using the following relationship: P, Ht 653-1) Ifthe ground water levels differ on opposite sides of a \wall the etfecis of seepage forces on wall stability or piping potential shall be considered. Seepage forces may be determined by low net procedures of various analytical ‘methods, Hydrostatic pressures and seepage shall be controlled by providing free-druining granular backfill and weep holes through the wall. Weep pipes shall be placed ‘through the wall at the lowest elevation that will permit gravity drainage. Portions of walls below the level of ‘weep pipes shall be designed for full hydrostatic pressure unless a deeper drainage pipe is provided behind and at the base of the wall 854 Seismic Pressure Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A—Seismic Design for guidance regarding the lateral earth pressure on grav-554 DIVISION I—DESIGN 121 20 0 ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, sf,OEGREES: FIGURES5.2D Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Staping Wall ‘with Horizontal Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis) Modified after the US. Department of Navy (1982)HIGHWAY BRIDGES ren Ae Aibreacy ny Afgeer yee ! | Alpen? i Alben iz rat an T T ares Fa | f i 3 3 Abed 7 Lt | “ | LT | Ty gigs ‘3 — t 7 ses to 0 20 40 “ss ANGLE OF INTERNAL rmerions DEGREES FIGURE 55.2E Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical watt ‘with Sloping Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis) Modified after the US, Department of Navy (1982)554 DIVISION I—DESIGN 123 ity and semi-gravity retaining walls subjected to seismic loading. In general, the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and Okabe may be used to estimate the ‘equivalent static forces for seismic loads. The estimat of seismic design forces should account for wall inertia forces in addition to the equivalent static-forces. Where a ‘wall supports a bridge structure, the seismic design forces should also include seismic forces transferred from the bridge through bearing supports which do not slide freely (eg. elastomeric bearings). 555. Structure Dimensions and External Stability Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against possible failure modes by satisty- ing the following factor of safety (FS) criteria: « Sliding -FS = 15 = Overtuming - FS = 2.0 for footings on soil FS = 1.5 for footings on rock + Bearing Capacity -for static loading See Article 4.4.7 for footings on soit ‘See Article 4.4.8 for footings on rock ‘© The Factors of safety against sliding and overtuming failure under seismic loading may be reduced to 17156 of the factors of safety listed above. Bearing capacity for seismic losding FS = 1.5 for footing on soil or rock Refer to Figure 5.5.5A for computational procedures to determine the factors of safety for sliding and overturning, failure modes using the Coulomb analysis. ‘Unfactored dead and live loads shall be used to deter- rine the FS against sliding and overturning. In determining the FS, the effect of passive soil pressure resistance in front of wall should only be considered when competent soil or rock exists which will not be removed or eroded during the structure life. Table 5.5.2 may be used for gen- ‘eral guidance in selecting coefficients of sliding friction ‘between the wall base and foundation soil or rock. For static loading the location of the bearing pressure resultant (R) on the base of the wall foundation shall be within B/6 of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil and ‘within B/4 of the center of the foundation for foundations fon rock where B is the width ofthe wall base or footing. For seismic loading, the location of R shall be within ‘B/S of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil and rock, See Anicle 4:45 for procedures to determiné the re- ‘quited embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles 44.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design spread footings on soil and rock; and Anicles 45 and 4.6, respectively, for procedures to design pile and drilled shaft foundations 55.6 Structure Design ‘Structural design of individual wall elemests shall be by service load or load factor design methods in confor- ‘mance with Article 3.22, 5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs ‘The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be designed to suppon the entire weight of the superimposed materials, unless a more exact method is used. The base slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers ‘supported by the wall. The base slabs of counterforted and ‘buttressed walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous bbeams of spans equal tothe distance between counteriorts or buttresses. ‘The critical sections for bending moments ‘a footings shall be taken atthe face and back of the stem. The critical ‘sections for shear in footings shall be taken ata digance d (d= effective depth) from the face of the stem for the toe section and atthe back of the stem for the heel section. 85.6.2 Wall Stems ‘The upright stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported at the base. The upright stems or face walls of counterfort and buttress walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous beams. The faze walls (or ‘stems) shall be securely anchored to the supporting counterforts or butresses by means of adequate reinforcement. ‘Wall stems shall be designed for combined axial load including the weight of the stem and friction due to backfill acting on the stem) and bending due to eccentric vertical loads, surcharge loads and earth pressure. 7 $563 Counterforts and Buttresses ‘Counterforts shall be designed as T-beams. Buttresses shall be designed as rectangular beams. Ir connection ‘with the main tensioi reinforcement of counterforts, there shall be a system of horizontal and vertical bas or stirrups to anchor the face walls and base slab to the counterfor. ‘These stirrups shall be anchored as near te the outside faces of the face walls, and as near to the bottom of the! base slab as practicable,ia HIGHWAY BRIDGES 53.63 TYPE OF WALL LOAD DIAGRAM ESIGN FACTORS GRAVITY SEMI~ GRAMTY CANTILEVER 2a a eee mt) Pagan) a ICoUNTERFORT| ae ta eat ners (2 # ob Prietegie tery BASE SHEAR KEY FIGURE SSA Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls Coulomb Analysis5564 556.4 Reinforcement Except in gravity walls, mot less than 1/8 square inch ‘of borizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be pro- vvided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks. ‘The reinforcement in each construction panel (ie. between vertical construction joints) of wall with height varying uniformly from one end to another, shall be designed for the loading condition acting at one-third of the panel length from the high end of the panel. If practical, the thickness of footings shall be maintained constant in ‘each pane! or in each group of panéls. The width of footings, however, may vary according tothe height of wall as required by design. “Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel shall be provided if required during the construction stage prior to wall backfill. The adequacy of reinforcement shall bbe checked due to the dead load of the stem and any other vertical loads applied to the stem prior to backfilling. ‘Reinforcement in wall and abutment stems shall be extended a minimum distance equal to the effective depth of the section or 15 bar diameters, whichever is greater, but rot less than 3 foot beyond the point at which computations indicate reinforcement is no longer needed to resist stress. 55.65 Expansion and Contraction Joints ‘Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not ex- ‘ceeding 30 feet and expansion joints at intervals not ex- ‘ceeding 90 feet for gravity or reinforced concrete walls. AN joints shall be filled with approved filling material to ensure the function ofthe joint. Joins in abutments shall be located approximately midway between the longitudinal members bearing on the abutments. 55.7 Backfill ‘Tas backfill material behind all retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive material and shall be drained by weep holes with French drains, placed at suitable intervals and elevations. In counterfort walls, there shall be atleast one drain for each pocket formed by the courterforts. Silts and clays shall not be used for backfill unless suitable design procedures are followed and construction. control measured are-incorporated in the ‘construction documents to account for their presence. 55.8, Overall Stat ty Refer to Article 5.2.2.3. DIVISION DESIGN 125 5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN 5.6.1 Design Terminology ‘A nongravity cantilevered wall includes a1 exposed design height (H) over which soi is retained by the vertical and facing elements, and a vertical elemeat embed- ‘ment depth (D) which provides lateral support to the vertical wall elements. 5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings Lateral earth pressures shall be estimated assuming wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding defined by Coulomb theory. For determining lateral earth pressures on permanent walls, effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear strength parameters for soil shall be used. For permanent walls and for temporary walls in granular soils, the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.28, or other suitable cearth pressure distributions, may be used. If walls will ‘support or are supported by cohesive soils fortemporary applications, walls may be designed based on ‘otal stress ‘methods of analysis and undrained shear stength parameters. For this latter case, the simplified earh pressure distributions shown in Figures 5.6.2C and 5.6.20, or other suitable earth pressure distributions, may be used withthe following restrictions: ‘© The ratio of overburden pressure to undrained shear strength (ic., stability number N = yH/-) must be <3. ‘+ The active earth pressure shall not be less than 0.25 times the effective overburden pressure atany depth. ‘Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for sup- [port the width of each vertical element shall te assumed ‘toequal the width ofthe flange or diameter of the element for driven sections and the diameter ofthe concrete-filed hole for sections encased in concrete. ‘The magnitude and location of resultant louds and resisting forces for permanent walls with discrete vertical clements embedded in soil and rock for late) support may be determined using the earth pressure distributions presented in Figures 5.6.2 and 5.6.2C, or other earth pressure distributions developed for use in the design of such walls. The procedure for determining the resultant passive resistance of a vertical element embecded in soil assumes that net passive resistance is mobilized across ‘a maximum of thrée times the’ element width.or meter (reduced, if necessary, to account for soft clay oF126 FimisneD Rave. HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.62 soit ty} tS Koy rd Of 9 EMBEOMENT IN SOIL Genenet nates ano cecenD FIGURES. Pagt | SK qq BOI2y| H+ yO 20. Pe ane (oot b, EMBEOMENT 18 ROCK plified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls ‘with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements ‘©. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (2) fceces mae axe rem vents FOOT OF" wERTiEAL LL etecmine the active eaeth prestute on te SSIT‘Sie" a sarenacge Loudest eet ae the oeedge line teeter te table S624 for Shetinluan'ot i! etermine the aagnitue of active puessuce CHE dtedge Tine (Pet averse mutt ge oedo, cctatoed soit ana uittecantsel eee ‘restices using the earun pressure Reetticiee ny for the distribution of net sett 7 Eee eee See a fim sements shout the point of actin of F {2 ercecaine the esuecbent (9.)"for sich ‘he nat puceive pecesute fe sutltctet plovige Equitvocten, Resrin be alh eee iets Gite fesleting peensere diageens re cueatend: Caloulete the eosin tenting essen: at the oine of see shear Calculate the design depth, 0» 1:20, 20 Bie Tore eatety factor of LSE 2.0 b, SIMPLIFIED DESIGN PROCEDURE FIGURE 5.6.28 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent Flexibie ‘Cantitevered Walls with Continuous Vert fall Elements Modified after Teng (1962)562 DIVISION DESIGN 127 EMBEOMENT iN COHESIVE SOW. ‘RETAINING EOMESIVE SOK FIGURE 56.2C Simplified Barth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls ‘with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements128 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.65 eT, ne OTB CRNA resin seit sole rape % eS) Ee conesiye cones ty ca st | | ite “Ve sur cyt 4 ugeouen w cones son. > eaeoucnt w conesive sox. Retains Ghana Soe Aan chee SoC FIGURE 5.4620 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cuntilevered Walls ‘with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements Modified after Teng (1962) TABLES.62A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent and, ‘Temporary Flesible Cantilevered Walls with Diserete Vertical Wall Elements LEGEND: Y= Effective unit weight of soil b= Vertical element width € = Spacing between vertical wall elements (c/c) S, = Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil 5 Shear suengh of rock mass Py = Pusiverestance per vertical val element Pr = Active earth presse per vertical val element B= Ground surface slope behind wall {- fa te Reet } B= Ground surface slope infront of wall | forslope down fom wall Ky = Active earth resure coefficient; Refer to Figure 5.5.28 KG, Passive earth pressure coeicient; Refer to Figures 5.5.20 and 5.5.26 o Effective angle of soil friction (OTES: (0 For tetporaty walls embeded in granular silo cock, refer to Figure 5.6.24 to determin pasive resistance and use diagrams on, Figure 566.2C te determine ative earth pressure of rained si. (2) Sarenirge and waerpessures must be aed othe ince earth pressures (3) Fores shown are per verte! wal ment 4) Prescuredstributions below te exposed portion of the wall are based on an effective element width of 3b, whic is valid for = 9b, For < 5b, tele Figures 5.6.28 an 5.6.20 for coainsus wall elements to determine presi dstibtions on embedded portions of the wal.565 DIVISION J—DESIGN 129 clements. In determining the depth of embedment to m0- bilize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to planes of weakness (ey slickensides, bedding planes, and joint sets) that could reduce the strength ofthe soil or rock determined by field or laboratory tests. Embedment in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed sock which should not fail through a joint surface, should be based on an allowable shear stength of 0.10C, to 0.15C, of the intact rock. 546.6 Structure Design ‘Structural design of individual wall elements may be performed by service load or load factor design methods in conformance with Article 3.22. “The maximum spacing between vertical supporting el- cements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical el- ‘ements and facing, and the type and condition of soil 10 be supported. Ma in a 1-foot height of wall facing at any level may be determined by the following, or other ac- ccepiable design procedures: + Simple span ‘no soil arching) Mex = pe 666-1) + Simple span (soil arching) Maas = pieli2 666-2) ‘© Continuous (no soil arching) Mau = pseM10 666-3) ‘+ Continuous (soil arching) Maus = pyE/2 666-4) Equation 5.6.6-1 is applicable for simply supported facing behind which the sol will not arch between vertical supports (e.g, in Soft cohesive soils or for rigid concrete facing placed tightly against the in-place sol), Equa- tion 5.6.6-2 is applicable for simply supported fecing behind which the soil will ach between vertical supports (eg, in granular or stiff cohesive soils with flexible facing or rigid facing behind which there is sufficient space to permit the in-place soil to arch). Equations 5.6.6-3 and 5.6.64 afe applicable for facing which is continuous over several. vertical supports (e.g., reinfotced shotcrete or concrete). ‘Timber facings should be constructed of stress-grade lumber in conformance with Article 132.1. If timber is used where conditions are favorable for the growth of decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure treated with 2 wood preservative unless the Feartwood of | naturally Gecay-resistant species is available and is considered adequate with respect to the decay hazard and expected service life ofthe structure. 5.6.7 Overall Stability Refer to Anicle 5.2.2.3. 56.8 Corrosion Protection Refer to Anticle 5.7.8. 5:7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN 5.1.1 Design Terminology Refer to Figure 5.7.14 for terminology used forthe de sign of anchored retaining walls. 8.7.2. Earth Pressure and Surcharge Losdings ‘The development of lateral earth pressures for desi shall consider the method and sequence of construction, the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the paysical characteristics and stability of the ground mass to be supported, allowable wall deflections, the space between an- ‘chars, anchor prestress, and the potential for anchor yield. For stable ground masses, the final distribution and ‘magnitude of lateral earth pressure on a completed an- cchored wall with two or more levels of anchors constructed from the top down may be computed using the apparent earth pressure distributions shown in Figure 5.7.24 ot any other applicable earth pressure distribution developed for this purpose. For unstable or marginally stable ground masses, the design earth pressure may exceed those shown in Figure 5.7.2A and loads should be esti- ‘mated using methods of slope stability analysis which in- corporate the effects of anchors or which consider inter- slice equilibrium and provide information on interstice forces. In developing the design earth pressure for a particular wall section, consideration shall be given to wall displacements that may affect adjacent structures or underground utilities. Very approximate estimates of setle- ‘ments adjacent to braced or anchored flexible walls can be ‘made using Figure 5.7.2B. If wall deflecticns estimated using Figure 5.7.28 are excessive fora pantcilar appli tion, a more detailed analysis using beam onelastic fou dation, finite element or other.methods of analysis which consider the soil-structure interaction effects of anchored walls may be warranted.130 HIGHWAY BRIDGES $12 BEARING PLATE “ANCHOR HEAD WAU BEARING ELEN WALL (yermicaL i ELEMENTS. wit FaCNC) ———>] Desion NEIGH (H) ‘ANSHED GRADE TNE veRuICAL exeuenr ASEH PRIMARY GROUT % shes | eee aig SEs ZS Je & ge J esciton wewnatox [eS eeaane FIGURE 571A. Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design “Anchored walls with one level of anchors may be designed using a triangular earth pressure distrioution in ec~ cordance with Article 5.6.2 or using another suitable earth pressure distribution consistent with the expected wall de- Fiection. For the case where excavation has 1.0 TSF) LESS THAN 0.25 m= | FOR OVERCONSOLIOATED clays me 0.4 FOR NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY (3) VALUE OF 0.4 SHOULD BE USED FOR LONG-TERM EXCAVATIONS; VALUES BETWEEN 0.4 ANO 0.2 MAY BE USED FOR SHORT-TERM CONDITIONS. SURCHARGE ANO WATER PRESSURES MUST BE ADDED TO THESE EARTH PRESSURE DIAGRAMS, THE TWO LOWER DIAGRAMS ARE NOT VALID FOR PERMANENT WALLS OR WALLS WHERE WATER LEVEL LIES ABOVE BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION. “ FIGURES.72A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with Two or More Levels of Anchors ‘Constructed from the Top Down Modified after Terzaghi and Peck (1967) 5.1.4 Seismic Pressure Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A—Seismic Design for guidance regarding the design of anchored retaining ‘walls subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and ‘Okabe may be used to estimate the equivalent static forces provided the maximuin lateral earth pressuie be computed tusing 2 seismic coefficient ky=1.5A, Forces resulting ‘from wall inertia effects may be ignored in estimating the seismic lateral earth pressure. 5:15 Structure Dimensions and External Stability ‘The design of anchored walls includes d:termination ‘of the following: ize, spacing, and depth of embedment of verticat wall elements and facing; Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclinaion and corrosion protection of anchors; and ‘© Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall foundation, and surrounding soil mass for all inter ‘mediate and final stages of construction12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.25 oo 03 os SETTLEMENT DEPTH OF EXCAVATION y 5 0.0 51.0 2.0 3.0 DISTANCE FROM EXCAVATION ‘DEPTH OF EXCAVATION CURVE = Sand CURVE E Stiff to very hard clay CURVE IT = Soft to medium clay, fector of Safety againat besa! heave(.. 81.54 Equa to 20 wee CURVE IZ = Soft to medium clay, foctor of Sofety against bosct heave (4 SS Equa td #%) FIGURE 5.7.28 Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls ‘Modified after Clough and O*Rourke (1990) ‘The bearing capacity and settlement of vertical wal el cements under the vertical component of the anchor forces and other vertical loads shall be determined in accordance With Anicles 4.4. 4.5, 0 4.6. For walls supported in or through soft clays with S,< 0.37'H, continuous venical elements extending well below the exposed base of the wall may be required to prevent heave in front ofthe wall. Otherwise. the vertical el- cements are embeded several feet as required for stability ‘or end bearing. (Where significant embedment of the wall is required to prevent bottom heave, the lowest section of wall below the lowest row of anchors must be designed to resist the moment induced by the pressure acting between the towest row of anchors and the base of the exposed wall, and the force Pb = 0.7(7HB, ~ lel ~ peB) acting atthe midheight of the embedded depth of the wall.) The required embedment depth (D or D,).may be determined in accordance with Article 5.6.2. Refer to Article 5.7.2 for general guidance regarding wall deflections. 5.7.6 Structure Design Depending on the characteristics of the wall, the wall ‘components shall be designed by service lead or load fac~ tor methods in conformance with Article 3.22, 5.16.1 General ‘The procedure for anchored wall design depends on the number of anchor rows and the construction sequence, For a typical wall with two or more rows of anchors. constructed from the top down, the procedure requires ‘design for the final structure with muttiple rows of anchors and checking the design for the various stages of wall construction57.6.1 ‘The required horizontal component of each anchor force shall be computed using the apparent earth pressure distributions in Figure 5.7.2A, or other applicable earth pressure distributions, and any other borizontal water pressure, surcharge or seismic forces acting on the wall ‘The total anchor force’ shall be determined based on the anchor inclination. The horizontal anchor spacing and anchor capacity shall be selected to provide the required total anchor force. ‘The vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure, anchor and seismic loadings as well as the vertical component of the anchor loads and any other vertical loads. Supports may be assumed at each anchor location and at the bottom of the wall ifthe vertical element is extended below the boctom of the wal "The stresses in and the design of the wall facing shall ‘be computed in accordance with the requirements of Ar- ticle 5.6.6. ‘All components of the anchored wall system shall be checked for the various earth pressure distributions and ‘other loading conditions which will exist during the course of construction, 5.1.6.2 Anchor Design ‘Anchor design shall include an evaluation ofthe feasibility of using anchors, selection of an anchor system, estimates of anchor capacity, determination of unbonded length, and determination of corrosion protection require- ‘ments. In determining the feasibility of employing an- ‘hors at particular location, consideration shall be given to the avallability or ability to obtain underground ease~ ‘ments, proximity of buried fecilities to anchor locations, and the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions ‘within the anchor stressing zone. ‘The required anchor forces shall be determined in accordance with Antcle 5.7.6.1. Te ultimate anchor capacity per unit length may be preliminarily estiriated using the guidelines presented in Tables 5.7.6.2A and 5.7.6.2B for soil and rock, respectively. These guidelines are for preliminary design of straight shaft anchors installed in small diameter holes using alow grout pressure. Other anchor types and installation procedures could provide other estimated ulate anchor apacities. Final determination ‘of the anchor eSpacity and required bond length shall be the responsibility ofthe anchored wall specialty contrac tor. The allowable anchor capacity for small diameter anchors may be-estimated by multiplying the uhitate anchor eapacity per unit length times the bonded (or stressing) length and dividing by a FS of 25 for anchors in Soil and 3.0 for anchors in rock. Bearing elements for anchors shall be designed to maintain shear stresses in the DIVISION DESIGN 133 vertical wall elements and facing within allowable values. “The eapacity of each anchor shall be verified as part of stressing and testing program. (See Division TL.) Determination of the unbonded anchor length shall ‘consider the location of the critica failure surface farthest from the wall, the minimum length required insure min- imal loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground movements, and the depth to adequate anchoring strata ‘As shown in Figure 5.7.1, the unbonded (ot free) anchor Jength should not be less than 15 fect and stould extend ‘beyond the critical failure surface in the soil mass being reiained by the wall. For granular soils or rained cohe~ sive soils, the critical faifure surface is typically assumed tobe the active failure wedge which is defined by a plane extending upward from the base of the wall at an angle of 45 + 6172 from the horizontal. Longer free lengths may ‘be required for anchors in plastic soils or where critical failure surfaces are defined by planes or discontinuities with other orientations. ‘Selection of an anchor inclination shall censider the location of suitable soil orrock strata, the presence of baried uilities or other geometric constraints, and constructabil- ity of the anchor drill holes. The component of vertical load resulsing from anchor inclination shall be included in ‘evaluating the end bearing and settlement of vertical wall ‘elements. ‘The minimum horizontal spacing of anchors should be either three times the diameter of the bonced zone or 4 feet, whichever is lager. If smaller spacings are required, ‘consideration can be given to differing anchor inclinations between alternating anchors. 5.1.7 Overall Stability Refer to Anicle 5.2.2.3. 5.7.8 Corrosion Protection Prestressed anchors and anchor heads shall be protected against corrosion consistent with the ground and ground water conditions atthe sit, The level and extent of corrosion protection shall be a function of the ground cenvironment and the potential consequences of an anchor failure. Corrosion protection shall be applied in accordance with Section 6 of Division TI—Ground Anchors. 5.79 Anchor Load Testing sind Stressing’ All anchors shall be tested in accordanc> with Se 6 of Division I—Ground Anchors, Article 65.5, Testing and Stressing,34 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 519 TABLE 57.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Soil Modified after Cheney (1982) Estimated Relative Density ‘Ulimate Transfer Load Soil Type Consistency ‘ipstineal foot) Send and Gravel Loose 10 Medium dense 5 Dense 2» Sand Loose 7 Mediuin dense 10 Dense 3 Sand and Silt Loose 5 Medium dense 7 Dense 9 Silvclay Mixture with Minimum suitt 2 LL, Pl, and LI Restrictions, oF Hard 4 Fine Micaceous™ Sand orSilt _ Mixtures © Values corrected for overburden pressure. ©The presence of mica tends to increase the volume and compressibility of sand and soft deposits due to bridging action and subsequent flexibility under increased pressures. TABLE 5:76.28 Presumptive Ukimate Values of Load “Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock Modified after Cheney (1982) Estimated ‘Ultimate Transfer Load Rock Type (kips/lineal foot) Granite or Basalt 50 Dolomitic Limestone 40 Soft Limestone 30 Sandstone 30 Slates and Hard Shales 25 Soft Shales 10 58 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN 58.1 Structure Dimensions MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the minimum factors of safety required by Article 5.5.5 are safety shall be satisfied: Factor Criterion of Safety Pullout resistance 2 Ubtimate bearing capacity =20 Soil reinforcement length should be as a minimum approximately 70 percent of the wall height (as measured from the leveling pad) and not less than 8 feet “or both strip- or grid-type reinforcement. The reinforcement length shonld be uniform throughout the entire height of the walt, unless substantiating evidence is presented to dicate that variation in length is satisfactory. External losis such as surcharges will increase the forcement length. ‘Toe minimum embedment depth of the botion of the reinforced soil mass, which is the same as the top of the leveling pad, shall be based on bearing capacity, settlement, and stability requirements determined in accor dance with Antcles 5.2.2.1, $22.2, 5.223, 555. and pertinent portions of Section 5.8, including the eTects of frost heave, scour, and proximity to slopes ‘A minimum horizontal bench 4 feet wide shall be provided in front of walls founded on slopes. For walls constructed along rivers and streams. foundation depths must be established at a minimum of 2 feet below potential scour depth as determined in accordance with Anicle 5.3. $8.2 External Stability Stability computations shall be made by assuming the reinforced soit mass tobe a rigid body. The coefficient of active earth pressure, K,, used to compute the herizontal force resulting from the random backfill bebind he rein-582 DIVISION I—DESIGN 135 forced zone and other loads shall be computed on the basis of the friction angle of the random backfill. In the absence of specific data, a maximum friction angle of 30 degrees should be used, The limitation also applies when determining the coefficient of sliding friciion atthe. ‘wall base. Passive pressures shall be neglected in stability computations. ‘The active earth pressure coefficients forrandom backfill shall be computed as shown in Figure 5.5.2B, with 8=8. Figures 5.8.2A, 5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C illustrate extemal stability equations for walls with horizontal tackslope and inclined backslope, respectively. ‘Theequivalent height, H,, of an MSE stracture with in- ‘extensible: reinforcements supporting a slope shall be taken as the height ineasured to the point where the potential failure plane (line of maximus tension) intersects the ground surface, as shown in Figure 5.8.4.1. Ifa break in the slope behind the wall facing is located horizontally within two times the height of the wall (2H), a broken Horizonte! Gocislooe With Trotfic Surcharge ‘ASSUuED FOR nea ¢ COODEITIT TTT ITTTD satan smess a oveun, L207 SraBiury, ASSIMED FOR OVERTURWING «COTTE shonce Paaur Resiance ‘COMPS. SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST OVERTURNING (MOMENTS ABOUT POINT Ol: _ E Moments Resting (We) ol ‘TE Moments Overrurning (Mo) SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST SLIDING: 4, EHorontol Ressting Forcets) S88)+ E RSaee Dany PE) ac) Fievas aoe yee0 (Tens 315 Fit Fe ‘$ *Frletion Angle of Backfill or Foundation, whichever Is lowest. ani egtgss La Rey it Mee (ea oot) Rev byt it Npe(VePEL) & (iad lod + ivelbed sureherge) FIGURE 582A Horizontal Backslope with Traffic Surcharge136 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 58.2 SLOPNG BACKRLL CASE aH SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST OVERTURNING (MOMENTS ABOUT POINT 0): EMements Resisting (Me) SF (O)T Maments Ovarturning (MoT SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST SLIDING: René E Horzentol_Resstn Shs E patent Sg eee _MUL1e 221 SFI) 59 Futna) us A 2 $+ Friction Angle of Backilll or Foundation, whichever Is lowest. oh Meas - = R s wheres e+ Eccentricity Re Resuttent of vertical forces Vi + VatFy FIGURE 58.28 Sloping Backfill Case back slope design (A.R.E.A. method) may be used. as il- lustrated in Figure 5.8.2.C. “The minimum L/H ratio for reinforcement shall be 0.7. For calculations of mass stability the continuous traf fic surcharge loads shall be deemed tact at thé end of the reinforced zone. For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, general stability aalyses should be performed in accordance with Anicle 5.2.2.3. 583 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability Allowable bearing capacities for MSE walls shall be computed using a minimum factor of safety of 2.5 for Group I loading applied tothe calculated ultimate bearing capacity. A lesser ES, , of 2.0, could be used if justified by a geotechnical analysis: The width of the footing ‘or ulti- ‘mate bearing capacity calculations shall be the length of forcement calculated st the foundation level. The583 DIVISION I-DESIGN 137 L074 Fy = Fr cos @) Fy = Fr ain Q) FOR INFINITE SLOPE I = 8 Ky FOR RANDOM FILL (SEE FIGURE 5.5.28) SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST OVERTURNING (MOMENTS ABOUT POINT 0): E MOMENTS RESISTING (Mr) __ | Mi (L/2) + Wo(2L/3) + F(t) SF. (©) = TGowENTS OVERTURNING (Mo) Fe (h/3) co SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST SUDING: E_ HORIZONTAL RESISTING FORCE(s) | _R tan ¢ SF. (S) = “[FORIZONTAL DRIVING FORCE(s) ~~ Fax 215 @ = FRICTION ANGLE OF BACKFILL OR FOUNDATION, WHICHEVER IS LOWER. ete 2 t R T=2e e= & oe = a WHERE: @ = ECCENTRICITY; R = RESULTANT OF VERTICAL FORCES-W + V2 + Fv FIGURES82C Broken Back Backill Case138 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 83 location of the resultant center of pressure shall be as slated in Anticle 5.5.5. Bearing pressures shall be computed using the Meyerhof distribution, which considers a uniform base pressure distribution over an effective width of footing B’ = L ~ Overall stope stability factors of safety. of whicti the retaining wall may only be part, shall conform to the re- {quirements of Anicle 5.2.23, $8.4 Internal Stability S841 Inextensible Reinforcements Internal stability of structures constructed with metal- lie stip or grid reinforcements shall be analyzed by considering that the in-situ reinforced zone can be divided in O34, {wo zones, the active and resistant zones. The failure surface shall be assumed tobe bilinear as shown ir Figure SB4IA The horizontal stress, sy. at each reinforcement level shall be computed by multiplying the vertical stes.s,.by an ean pressure coefficiem, K. The yerial sues. S.-at each level of reinforcemerit shall consider the local equilibrium of all forces to that level only, and shal be computed using a uniform base pressure distribution over an effective width, as specified in Anicle 5.8.3. Scuctures shall be designed using K = K, atthe top ofthe structure and decreasing linearly to K = K, at 20 feet (Figure 584.14), Below a 20-foot depth. K = K, shall be use. “Assume the earth pressure coefficients of K, and K, remain the same regardless ofthe external loading conditions. The values of K.and K, stall be computed as Follows: }—Potential Failure Plane HA = sen 0 x_3if Hy SH + “Gy ean a) 1 FIGURE 584.14. Determination of Failure Plane Location and Earth Pressure Coefficients for extensible ReinforcementsS841 K,= tans — 612) .B4.1-1) K,=1-sing 684.1-2) Alternately, the horizontal stresses at each reinforcing, ‘ level may be coriputed using structure stiffness concepts as outlined in FHWA-RD-89-043, ‘The maximum friction angle used for the computation ‘of horizontal force within the reinforced soil mass shall be 34°, unless the specific project select backfill is tested for frictional strength by triaxial or direct shear testing meth- ‘ods, AASHTO T 234-74 and T 236-72, respectively. Live Toads shall be treated as uniform surcharge loads acting Jjust beyond the reinforced soil mass for stability calculations and extending over the reinforced mass for maxi- ‘mum stress calculations 584.2 Extensible Reinforcements Internal stability for structures constructed with polymeric reinforcements shall be analyzed using a tie-back wedge method approach. Its assumed thatthe full shear surength of the reinforced fill is mobilized and ective lateral earth pressures are developed. The assumed failure plane is defined by the Rankine active earth pressure zone defined by a straight line passing through the wall te and oriented at an angle of 45° + 672 from the horizontal for both horizontal and sloping backfill conditions. ‘The tensile force in the reinforcement isa function of the vertical stess induced by gravity, uniform normal surcharge and active thrust multiplied by K,, Reinforcement tensions induced by vertical or horizontal line loads, orby point loads shall be added by superposition tothe tensile forces induced by the reinforced wall fil soil andthe retained backfill. The method of computation shall assume sn unyielding rigid wall rotating about its toe. ‘The value of K, in the reinforced soil mass is assumed tobe independent of all extemal loads except sloping fills. ‘The maximum friction angle used forthe computation of horizontal stress within the reinforced soil mass, composed of select backfill, shall be 34° in the absence of, backfill specific tests. Where site-specific tests are performed, the soil strength shall be evaluated at residual stress levels. 5.88 Pullout Design Parameters ‘The ultimate pullout capacity of ribbed or smooth steel reinforcing strips shall be calculated using the following, relationship: 851) DIVISION I-DESIGN 139 In the absence of pullout test data for ribhed reinforc~ ing strips in backfill materials conforming to Division H, MSE backiills, a maximum value of the apparent coefficient of friction, f, of 2.0 or less shall be used at ground level, decreasing linearly to-a value equal to tan , ‘depth of 20 feet; where & is the friction angle of the backfill within the reinforced volume. For smooth stes! reinforcing strips, the apparent coefficient of friction shal be constant at all depths and can be evaluated by the following relation: f= anys 04 685.2) For grid steel reinforcing systems with transverse bar spacings of, or greater than, 6 inches, the generalized re~ Iation for ultimate pullout capacity is: P= Np vZnAy 685.3) Inthe absence of pullout data for site specific backfill, the factor N, shall de taken as a function of depthas shown in Figure 585A, . For grid sieel suinforcements with transverse spacing less than 3 inches, the ultimate pullout capacity shall be caleulated using the following expressi Py = QwhyZiandfy (85-8) ‘The coefficient of resistance to direct sliding, fy is 2 function ofthe open area ofthe grid. The vale off, varies from 0.45 for continuous sheets to 0.8 and must be deter- ‘ined experimentally for each grid geomeny. For polymeric reinforcement, equation 5.8.5-4 is applicable when f, is developed for a range of normal sizesses in accordance with GRI-GG-5. The coefficient fy obtained experimentally, may be limited by the Limit ‘State Tensile Load (T,) for the product, as defined in Ar- ticle 5.8.7.2. ‘The pullout resistance shall be checked at each level ‘against pullout failure. Only the effective pullout length ‘which extends beyond the theoretical failuresurfaces shall be used in this computation, ‘The minimum length in the resistant zene shall be 3 feet. The reinforcement length at all levels shall be equal. Minimum total length shall be 8 feet. 58.6 Design Life Requirements 5.861 Steel Reinforcement ‘Stee! reinforcement elemenits in MSE walls shall be de signed to have a corrosion-resistance duratility to ensure a minimum design life of 75 years for permanent structures, Designated critical structures should be designed140 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 586. Np PASSIVE RESISTANCE FACTOR 0° 8 20 30 40 ° H ri 10 20 30° | | | DEPTH TO REINFORCEMENT IN FEET (2) 40 $0) NOTE: Valid for backfill soils with c minimum (}) angie of 34 aegrees. FIGURE $8.54 Mesh Reinforcement Pullout Factors for a 100-year service life, The allowable reinforcement tension should be based on maintaining allowable material stresses to the end of the 75- or 100-year service life. ‘The required sacrificial thickness must be provided in addition 1 the required structural reinforcement thickness to compensate forthe effects of corrosion. ‘The structural design of galvanized steel soil reinforcements and connections shall be made on the basis of thickness. E. defined as follows: B= E— 686.1-1) For structural design, sacrificial thicknesses shall be ‘computed for each exposed surface as follows: Gatvanization loss = 15 pvyear for first 2 years = 4 ym/year for subsequent years 2 wmfyear after zinc depletion Carbon stee! loss Corrosion-resistant coatings, if specified, shall be of the electro-statically applied, resin-bonded epoxy type, ‘with minimum application thicknesses of 16 mils in conformance to the requirements of AASHTO M 281. They can be considered ia lieu of galvanization. 5.8.6.2 Polymeric Reinforcement ‘The durability of polymeric reinforcements is influenced by time, temperature, mechanical damage. stress levels, microbiological attack and changes in the molecu- Jar structure by r ‘or chemical exposure. The effects of aging, chemical and biological exposure are highly dependent on material composition, including resin type, grade and additives, manufacturing process, ‘and final product physical structure. Product-specifie studies to determine the effects of these durability factors shall be carried out prior to use, Studies should include an evaluation of. but not be limited to, he effects of aging of the microstructure; chemical attack. microbiological attack, environmental stress cracking, hydrolysis. tenipera- ture effects, plasticization, and any possible synergism between individual factors. Results from these studies shall be incorporated into.durability reduction factor: to the Limit State Tensile Load.5862 ‘The effect of construction damage on the reinforcement shall be determined from the results of full-scale construction damage tests using fill materials and construction procedures representative of the site conditions. ‘The effect of construction damage tests shall be incorporated into an additional construction damage reduction factor to the Limit State Tensile Load Ty. For these evaluations, the specified design life shall be ‘a minimum of 75 years and the assumed in-ground service temperature shall be 70°F. Designated critical structures shall be designed for a 100-year service life. 58.7 Allowable Stresses 587.1 Steel Reinforcements “The allowable tensile stress for ste! reinforcements and ‘connections shall be in accordance with Article 10.32. For sid reinforeing members, the allowable tensile sess shall be reduced to O.48R,. Transverse and longitudinal grid ‘members shall be sized in accordance with ASTM A-185. “The horizoutal force used to design the connections to the panels may be taken as no less than 85 percent of the smaximvia ealevated force, except forthe lower one-half ofthe structure where it shall be 100 percent. $87.2 Polymeric Reinforcements Polymeric materials exhibit creep (time and temperature dependent) behavior. Long-term stress-strain-time ‘behavior of the reinforcement shall be determined from results of controlled laboratory ereep tests conducted for ‘@ minimum duration of 10,000 hours for a range of load levels on samples of the finished product in accordance ‘with ASTM D 5262-92. Samples shall be tested in the direction in which the load will be applied in use in either a ‘confined of unconfined mode. Results shall be extrapolated to the required design life using procedures outlined in ASTM D 2837 (ASTM, 1989). From these tests the following shall be determined: ‘# The highest load level at which the log time creep- strain rate continues to decrease with time within the required lifetime and no failure either brittle or duc- tile can occur. This value shall be termed the Limit State Tensile Load, designated as Ty «© The tension level at which total strain is not expected to exceed 5 percent within the design lifetime. This value of Toad shall be designated T., the Service- ability State Tensile Load. ‘Theeffects of aging, chemical and biological exposure, environmental stress cracking, stress relaxation, hydroly- DIVISION I—DESIGN a1 sis and variations in the manufacturing process as well as the effects of construction damage shall be evaluated and ‘extrapolated fo the required design life ‘The allowable reinforcement tension T, shall be the Jesser ofthe following two determinations: ‘Limit state determination: ‘The allowable long-term reinforcement tension ‘based on limit state criteria is: Ty =TVED-FC-FS) 6872-1) where FS is an overall factor of safety toaccount for uncertainties in structure geometry, fill properties, reinforcement manufacturing variations and externally applied loads. The minimum FS stall be taken as 1.78. FD and FC shall be determined by tests. + Serviceability state determinations: ‘The allowable Jong-term reinforcement tension based on serviceability state criteria Ta TYEC “FD (68.7.2.2) 588 Drainage MSE walls in cut areas ind side-hill fills with estab lished ground water levels shall be constructed with ‘drainage blankets in back of and beneath th: reinforced zone. Internal drainage measures shall be considered for all structures to prevent saturation ofthe reinforced backfill orto intercept any surface flows containing aggressive elements such as deicirig chemicals. For MSE walls supporting roadways which are chem- ically deiced in the winter, an impervious membrane shall ‘be placed below the pavement and just above the first row of reinforcements to intercept any flows conizining deicing chemicals. The membrane shall be sloped to drain away from the facing to an intercepting longivudinal drain ‘outletted beyond the reinforced zone. 589 Special Loading Conditions ‘Concentrated line loads shall be incorporated into the {internal design by using a simplified uniform vertical distribution of 2 vertiga to 1 horizontal to determine the vertical component of stress with depth within the reinforced soil mass, ‘Traffic loads shall be considered in accordance with the eriteri‘outlined in Article 3.203. Pr structures along rivers and canals, a minimum differential hydrostatic pressure equal t03 feet of water shall, be considered for design. This load shall be applied atthe high-water level Effective unit weights still be used in12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.9 the calculations for internal and external stability begin- ning a levels just below the application ofthe differential hydrostatic pressure. | Parapets and traffic barviers, constructed over orin line ‘with the front face ofthe panels shall be designed toresist overturning moments by their own mass. Base slabs shall not have any transverse joints except construction joints. ‘The upper row of soit reinforcement shall be structurally sized 10 resist an additional horizontal load of 2,000 pounds per linear foot of wall. A minimum junction slab length of 20 feet shall be used. joined to adjacent stabs ‘with shear dowels. The full reinforcement length shall be considered effective in resisting the 10 kip impact hori- zontat load and shall be distributed to the reinforcement vera 20-foot junction slab length. Parapet reinforcement shall be in accordance with Ar- licle 2.7. The anchoring slab shall be strong enough to re~ sist the ultimate strength of the standard parapet. Flexible post and beam barriers, when used, shall be placed at a minimum distance of 3 feet from the wall face, driven 5 feet below grade, and spaced to miss the reinforcements. The upper two rows of reinforcement shatl be designed for an additional horizontal load of 300 pounds per linear foot of wall $8.10 Seismic Design 58.10.1 External Stability Stabitity computations shall be made by considering. in addition to static forces. the horizontal inertia} force (Pq) acting simultaneously with SO percent of the dynamic horizontal thrust (Py). The dynamic horizontal thrust Pye shall be evaluated using the pseudo-static Mononsate-Okabe method and shal be applied tothe back surface ofthe reinforced fill ata height of 0.6H [rom the base and the horizontal inertial force at the mid-height of the structure. Values of Pe and Py for structures with horizontal backfill, may be determined using the following: Ag= (145 — AJA (58.10.1-1) Pre O375AqyH —— (5.8.10.1-2) P= O.SASYHE (58.10.1-3) For siructures with sloping backiills, the inestiat force (Py) shall be based.on an effective mass having height Hy and a base width equal 100.5 H, determined as follovis: Ten 8x05 H s (05 Tan) (5.8.10.1-4) The inertial force (Pix) shall be taken to act simultane ‘ously with one-half the dynamic horizontal thrust Pac, ‘computed using the pseudo-static Mononabe-Okabe ‘method, and applied at 0.6 H, above the base On the back surface of the effective mass. Faciors of safety.against sliding and overtuering fuil- ure under combined loading may be reduced to 75 percent of the factors of safety defined in Article 5.5.5. 5.8.10.2 Internal Stability Reinforcements shall be designed to withstond horizontal forces generated by the internal inertia force (P,) in addition to the static forces. The total inertial fore P, per unit length of structure shall be considered equal to the ‘mass of the active zone times the maximum wall acceleration coefficient Ax. This inertial force shall be distributed to the reinforcements proportionally 10 their resistant areas as follows: (bfLg Sw) Seita/Su) 1, ($£102-1 For seismic loading conditions, values of f*, Nand f, may be reduced up to 80 percent of the values used for static design, Factors of safety under combined static and seismic loads for pullout and breakage of reinforcement ‘may be reduced to 75 percent ofthe factors of safety used for static loading, S.8.11 Structural Requirements Panels shall be designed to resist the horizon'al forces calculated according to Articles 5.8.4.1 oF 5.8.4.2. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the aver oading conditions for each panel. As 2 minimum, temperature and shrinkage steel shall be provided. Epoxy coating for corrosion protection of panel reinforcement where salt spray is anticipated is recommended. 5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN 891 Structure Dimensions Prefabricated modular walls shall, bé dimensioned to ensure that the applicable factors of safety outlined in Anticle 5.5.5 are satisfied.59.1 DIVISION J—DESIGN 143 ‘Minimum embedment and scour protection shell satisfy the requirements of Article 5.8.1, $92 External Stability ‘Stability computations shall bé made by assuming that the system acts as 2 rigid body. Lateral pressures shall be computed by wedge theory using a plane surface of sliding (Coulomb theory). Where the rear ofthe prefabricated modular systems forms an irregular surface (stepped modules), pressures shall be ‘computed on an average plane surface drawn from the ower back heel of the lowest module to the upper rear heel of the top module, as shown in Figures 5.9.24 and 59.28, ‘The following wall friction angles, 8, shall be used unless more exact coefficients are demonstrated: ‘Wall Friction Case Angie (8) (Significant vibrations of backfill or modules setting more than backfill 0 (©) Continuous pressure surface of precast concrete (uniform ‘width modules) 26 (©) Averaged pressure surface (stepped modules) 34 ‘Computations for stability shall be made at every module level. At each level, the required factors of safety with respect to overturning shall be provided. The value of K, used to compute the lateral thrust resulting from the random backfill and other loads shall be computed on the basis of the friction angle of the backfill behind the modules, If sufficient amounts of structural backfill are used behind the prefabricated modules, a value of 34° may be used for In the absence of specific data, 2 maximum friction angle of 30° shall be used. The coefficient of slid ing friction at the wall base shall be the lesser of the coef ficients ofthe backfill or the foundation soil. Passive pres- ‘sures shall be neglected in stability computations. ‘Computations for overturning stability shall consider that only 80 percent of the soil-fill uit weight inside the modules is effective in resisting overturning moments. In the absence of specific data, a total-unit weight of 110 pounds per cubic foot shall be assumed, ‘Compatations for sliding stability may"consider that 100 percent of the soil-fill weight inside the modules is effective in resisting sliding motion. The value of of the foundation sols shall be used in these computations. For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, refer to Anticle 52.23 regarding overall stability analysis of slopes 5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability Allowable bearing capacities for concrete modular systems shal be computed using a minimum factor of safety of 3 for Grovp I loading applied to the ultimate bearing capacity or toa bearing eapacity obtained ir accordance With Anicles 4.4.7 and 4.4.8. Footing loads shall be computed by assuming that dead loads and earth pressure loads are resisted ty point supports per unit length tthe rear and front of te modules for atthe location ofthe bottom legs For modules supported on integrally cast legs, the reactions shall be similarly calculated. For this computation, a minimum of 80 percent of the soil weight inside the modules shall be considered effective, If foundation conditions require a footing und tne total area ofthe module, 100 percent ofthe soil weight inside the modules shall be considered, ‘The overall slope stability condition, of hich the retaining wall may only be part, shall be evaluzted in accordance with Article 5.2.2.3. 5.9.4 Allowable Stresses ‘Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for developed earth pressures behind the wall and from pressures developed inside-the modules. Rear ‘ace surfaces shall be designed forthe difference of these pressures. Al- lowable stresses and reinforcement requirerrents for concrete modules shall bein accordance with Section 8. Inside pressuses (bin) shall be the same far cach mod- ‘ule and shall not be less than as follows: Rew Concrete modules shall be designed for bending in both vertical and horizontal directions between their supports. Steel reinforcing shall be symmetricalon both faces unless positive identification of each face can be ensured to preclude reversal of units. Corners shall be adequately reinforced. Allowable stresses for steel module members shall bbe in accordarice with Article 10.32. The he: section used for design shall bé reduced in accordance with Article 5861 F 694-1)ht HIGHWAY BRIDGES 595 FIGURE 59.24 Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls ‘Case I—Continuous Pressure Surfaces Drainage Prefabricated modular units in cut and side-hill fll areas shall be designed with a continuous subsurface drain placed at, oF nea. the Footing grade and out-letted as required. in cut and side-hill ill areas with established or potential ground water levels above the footing grade, a continuous drainage blanket shall be provided and con: nected to the longitudinal drain system. For systems with open front faces, a surface drainage system shall be provided as needed above the top of the wall to collect and divert surface runoff and prevent erosion ofthe front face. Part C STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD LOAD FACTOR DESIGN 5.10 SCOPE, ‘The provisions of this Part shall apply for the cesign of rigid gravity and semi-rigid gravity walls, and-nan-gravity cantilevered walls ‘The probabilistic LFD basis of these specification’ which produces an inter-related combination of toad. load factor, and statistical reliability shall be considered when selecting procedures for calculating resistance. The pro-50 DIVISION DESIGN 145 ant (+4) ainta-2) [144/22 ‘ante FIGURES9.2B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls ‘Case H—Irregular Pressure Surfaces ‘cedures used in developing values of performance factors contained in this Part are summarized in Appendix A of the Final Report for NCHRP Project 24-4 (Barker, et a., 1991). Other methods may be used ifthe statistical nature, of the factors given above are considered, and are approved by the owner. 5.11 DEFINITIONS ‘Only terms relating to retaining walls are provided in this Section. Definitions for terms relating to foundation types and LFD design are given in Article 4.8. ‘Cantilever Walls—Walls that resist the forces exerted ‘on them by flexural strength. These walls consist ofa concrete wall stem, a concrete slab, and posstly a shear key. Gravity Walls—Massive stone or conzrete masonry walls which depend primarily on their weights to maintain stability. Only a nominal amount of ste! is laced near the exposed faces ofthese walls fo prevent surface cracking 4 to temperature changes ~. Retaining Walls—Strictures that provide lateral sup- ort fora mass of soil and that owe ther silty primarily to their own weights and tothe weights of any soils o- cated direcly above its base146 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.1 Semi-gravity Walle—These walls are somewhat more stender than gravity walls and require reinforcement consisting of vertica! bars along the inner face and dowels continuing into the footing. 5.12 NOTATIONS F, = sliding resistance H = height of retaining wall 1H, = factored horizontal load = coefficient of earth pressure = coefficient of earth pressure at rest factored bearing pressure resultant = lateral earth pressure active earth load lateral earth toad vertical earth load factored bearing capacity ‘maximum bearing pressure calculated using factored loads surcharge loading ‘ultimate bearing capacity R, = reduction factor due to load inclination effect nominal resistance factored vertical load y =distance to the point of action for lateral earth pressure load factor coefficient (see Article 5.13.4) quivalent fluid pressure ingle of shearing resistance between wall and soil A = wall displacement .erformance factor 5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design to-ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. $13.1 Setviceability Limit States Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and rongravity cantilever walls shall consider the following serviceability limit states: . —txcessive movements of retaining walls and their foundations, excessive vibrations caused by dynamic loadings, and deterioration of elements) of retaining structures. ‘The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride. ability, and economy. The cost of limiting founcation movernents shall be compared tothe cost of designing the superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements. or, of correcting the consequences of movements through maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More sisingent criteria may be established by the owner 5.13.2. Strength Limit States Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilever walls shall be checked against the strength limit states of: beating cepacity failure, lateral sliding. excessive loss of base contact overall instability, and —struetural failure ‘The limit state which governs ihe design depends on: type and function of retaining structure, "earth pressures exerted on the wall by the reisined, backiill, geometry of the ground and the structure, —strength of the ground, ground deformability, groundwater. and swelling pressure in clay backfils. 5.133 Strength Requirement Retaining walls and their foundations shall be proportioned by the methods specified in Article 5.14 so that their design strength exceeds the required strength. ‘The required strength is the combined effect of fac: tored loads for each applicable load combinstion stipulated in Anticle 322. The design strength is calculaed for each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance. Ry. ‘multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance) factor, &. Procedures for calculating nominal resistance are provided in Anticle 5.1, and values of performance fac~ tors are given in Anicle 5.13.5, 5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors Retaining structures and their foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely all load combinations stip5.13.4 lated in Article 3.22 which are applicable to the particular site or wall/foundation type. Impact forces shall nat be included in retaining wall design. (Refer to Article 3.8.) ‘Values of y and B coefficients for load factor design, as given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state considerations; while those for service load design (also given in Table 3.22.1) shall apply to servicesbility considerations. $13.8 Performance Factors ‘Values of performance factors for geotechnical design of foundations are given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through '4.10.6-3, while those for structural design are provided in Aniicle 8.16.1.22. If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the performance factors chosen shall provide the same relis- bility as those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3. 5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL, DESIGN, AND CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN 5.4.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill ‘The provisions of Article 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 shall also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi- ‘gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls respectively; with the exception that the loads shall be factored according to the bottom half of Table 3.22.1A when checking wall stability against bearing capacity, sliding and overtuming. Vertical earth pressure due to the dead load of the backfill shall have an overall load factor, Br. of 1.0y. Lateral earth pressures on walls backfilled with cohesionless soils shall be designed using effective stresses. Walls backfilled with cohesive soils shall be designed using equivalent fluid prescures. The backfill, whether cohesionless or cohesive, shall be well drained, so that no ‘water pressures act on the wall, and no significant pore pressures act in the backfill. The load factor for lateral ‘earth pressures calculated using equivalent fh shall be the same as those calculated using effective stresses (7Be = 1.39). ‘The +y and Bg coefficients specified for earth pressure. in Table 3.22.1A are applicable directly to active or at rest earth pressures, The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall ‘extends well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types of disturbance. Where passive pressure is assumed to provide resistance, the performance factor ($) shall be taken as 0.6. DIVISION I—DESIGN 147 5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge In the design of retaining walls and abutments where trafic can come within a horizontal distance frem the top cof the wall equal to one-half the wall height, the lateral ‘earth pressure ’shail be increased by a liye load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of earts (Article 3.20.3). Impact loads shall not be included in the de of abutments (Article 3.8.1). Vertical earth pressure induced by live load surcharge and dead load surcharge ‘shall have overall load factors of 1.67 and 1.3y,respectively. Lateral earth pressure induced by live load and dead load surcharge shall have an overall loa factor of 13. Where heavy static and dynamic compaction equip- ‘ment is used within a distance of one-half the wall height boing the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that may be induced by compaction shall be taken into account. The load factor for eompaction-induced sath pressures shall be the same as for lateral earth pressures, (98e= 1.39) 5.143. Water Pressure and Drainage ‘The provisions of Articles 5.5.3 an? £63 shall also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls, respectively ‘The backfill, whether cohesive or cohesionless, shall ‘be well drained so that no water pressures act on the wall and no significant pore-pressures actin the backfill. If = thorough drainage system is not provided to dewater the failure wedge, or if its adequate performance cannot be guaranteed, walls shall be designed to resist the maximum anticipated water pressure. For walls backfilled with cb- hesiotiless soils, the literal earth pressure shall be calculated using buoyant unit weights below the groundwater level and multiplied by the load factor for lateral earth pressure. The wall shall be designed for these factored lat- ral earth pressures (8) plus factored hydrostatic water presse (1.07). In the case of an undrained analysis of cobesive backfils, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated using equivalent fluid pressure, which inherently includes water pressure effects, The calculated lateral earth pressure shall then be multiplied by 1.3. If the groundwater levels differ on oppositesides of the wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the potential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures be~ hind the wall can be determined by flow'net procedures or various analytical methods, and shall be added to the ef= fective horizontal stresses when calculating total lateral earth pressufes on the wall. The effective lateral earth148 pressure shall be multiplied by yB¢ (obtained from Table 3.22.1) and the hydrostatic pressure shall be factored by Gy, when designing the wall 5.144 Seismic Pressure ‘The provisions of Article 5.6.4 shall apply to the load factor design of walls when considering earthquakes Toads. 5.145 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States ‘The movement of wall foundation support systems shall be estimated using procedures described in Anicle 4.11.3, 4.12.3.2.2, oF 4.13.3.2.2, for walls supported on spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts, respec tively. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ andor laboratory tests Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall bbe developed based on the function and type of wall an ticipated service life, and consequence of unacceptable movements. Tolerable movement criteria shall be established in accordance with Anticles 4.11.3.5, 4123.23, and $.13.3.2.3, Gna || i FIGURE 5.14.6-1 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.1463 5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure Gravity and semi-gravity walls, and cantilever walls shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against bearing capacity failure. overturning. and sliding. Where a wall is supported by clayey foundation, safety against deep-seated foundation failure shall also be investigated. Stcbility criteria for walls with respect to various modes of failure shall bbe as shown in Figures 5.14.6-1 through 5.14.63 5.1461 Bearing Capacity Failure ‘The safety against bearing capacity feilure shall be investigated: (1) by using factored soil pressures which are uniformly distributed over the effective base area. if the wall is supported by a soil foundation (see Figures 5.14.61 ‘and 5.14.6-2); oF (2) by using facored soil pressures which vary linearly over the effective base area, if the wall is supported by a rock foundation (see Figure 5.14.63) Retaining walls and their foundations are considered to bbe adequate against bearing capacity failure ifthe factored bearing capacity (taking into consideration the effect of load inclination) exceeds the maximum soil pressure (Goue) determined using factored loads. Methods for aed or berry eapacty chek _ Factor Boeing Capacty a ORL ae Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey Solls in the Backfill or Foundation (After Duncan et a, 1990)54.6.1 DIVISION DESIGN 19 Foon Pad Pycataiad vay Cour ave eat presse ery or Pe etait sig aspera wih whowance for movement of back lative wa, yeoaH ‘Stabity Cetra steae tou TIT semen nN 4 BRL ay FIGURE 5.14.62 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backgfils ‘and Foundations on Sand or Gravel (After Duncan et al. 1990) Earth Loads Py based on atest pressure estimated wag adgrent yeaa Crheria FIGURE 5.14.63 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfils ‘and Foundations on Rock (After Duncan et al, 1990)150 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5146.1 calculating factored bearing capacity are provided in Ar- ticle 4.114 for walls founded on spread footings. and in Atticles 4.12.3.3 and 4.13.3.3 for walls supported on driven piles or drilled shafts, respéctively. 5.14.62 Sliding ‘Where the retaining wall is founded on a spread footing. safety against sliding shall be investigated using the procedures specified in Antcle 4.11.43, 51463 Overturaing ju “The safety against overuming shall be ensured by tim iting the locaton of the factored bearing pressure reslant {N)on the wall base, For walls supported by soll founds tons location of the factored Bearing pressure resultant onthe base ofthe wall ourdatin shal be within th middle hafof the base. For walls supponed by rock founda: tions location ofthe factored bearing pressure resultant on thebase ofthe wall foundation shal be within the mid- fle tree quarters ofthe base 5.14.64 Overall Stability (Revised Article 5.223) ‘The overall stabil shall be considered. The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis. ‘The Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spence methods of analysis may be used. Special exploration, testing and analyses may be required for bridge abutments or re~ taining walls constructed over soft deposits where consolidation and/or lateral flow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable long-term settlements or horizontal movements. iy of slopes in the vicinity of walls 5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure ‘The structural design of individual wall elements and. wall foundations shall comply to the requirements given in Section 8. In the structural design of a footing on soil and rock at ultimate Timit states a linear contact pressure distribution determined using factored loads, as shown in Figure 5.14.7-1, shall be considered, The maximum pressure for Structural design may be greater than the factored bearing capacity. Face eel at Fare Vr one Saas I acne ero vy Facer onct Lond Sas Facere Beatin Dnecty ae BR aa Note: msn 8 YAS a HER ie acored brn es. 8 FIGURE 5.147-1 Contact Pressure Distribution for Steuctural Design of Footings on Soil and Reck ‘at Strength Limit States $.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs See Article 5.5.6.1. $147.2 Wall Stems See Anticle 5.5.62. 5.1473 Counterforts and Buttresses See Article 5.5. 5.14.74 Reinforcement See Anticle 5.5.64. 5.14.75 Expansion and Coritraction Join's See Article 5.5.6.5.5148 DIVISION I—DESIGN 151 5148 Backfill Where possible, the backfill material behind all retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive and shall be drained by weep-holes and French drains placed at suitable intervals and cleva- tions. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts. Silts and clays shall, if possible, be avoided for use as backfillcodes ade 3-30 Tht 4 Section 6 CULVERTS 64 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND forced floor sll be used to distribute the pressure over WATERWAY OPENINGS the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any location ‘subject o erosion, aprons or cutoff walls shall be used at both ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire floor area between the wing walls shall be paved, Baffle ‘walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of acalvert barrel shall notbe used where the stream bed is subject toero- ee sion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall be Vertical and horizontal earth pressureson culverts may reinforced longitudinally. bbe computed by recognized or appropriately documented ‘analytical techniques based on the principles of soil me- 4 _ DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS chanics and soil structure interaction, or design pressures ‘THROUGH EARTHFILLS shill be calculated as being the result of an equivalent fluid weight as follows. 64.1 When the depth of fills 2 feet or more, concentrated loads shall be considered as uniformly distributed 62.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on over a square with sides equal to 1-3/4 times the depth of Recommendations on culvert location, length, and ‘waterway openings are given in the AASHTO Guide on Hydraulic Design of Culvert, yielding foundation ie A. Rigid culverts except reinforced concrete boxes: (1) For vertical earth pressure—120 pef 64.2. When such areas from several concentrations over- For lateral earth pressure— 30 pef lap, the total load shall be uniformly distributed over the (2) For vertical earth pressure—120 pef area defined by the outside limits of the individual areas, For Iateral earth pressure— 120 pof but the total width of distribution shall not exceed the total B. Reinforced concrete boxes: ‘width of the supporting slab. For single spans, tne effect of (() For vertical eath pressire—120 pof live load may be neglected when the depth of fil is mare For lateral earth pressure— 30 pef than 8 feet and exceeds the span lengt; for mutiple spans (2) For vertical earth pressure—120 pef itmay be neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the dis- Forlatera earth pressure 60 pef tance between faces of end supports or abutments. When C. Flexible Calvens: the depth of fill is Iess than 2 fect the whee! lead shall be For vertical earth pressure—120 pet distributed as in slabs with concentrated loads. When the For lateral earth pressure 120 pef ‘calculated five load and impact moment in conzrete slabs, ‘When concrete pipe culverts are designed by the Indirect based on the distribution ofthe whee! load through earth Design Method of Article 17.45, the design lateral earth fills, exceeds the lve load and impact momen. caleulated pressure shall be dctermined using the procedures given to Amticle 3.24 the later moment sal be used. in Anicle 17.4.52.1 for embankment installations and in ‘Ariicle 17.45.22 for trench installations, 65. DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT 62.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation Where the depth of fill exceeds 2 feet, reinforcement Fcieerar arias provide for the lateral distribution of concentrated loads is. pecial analysis is requitéd rei 63 FOOTINGS 66 DESIGN Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation sufficient to secure a firm foundation, or a heavy rein- ‘For culvert design guidelines, see Section 17 153 or Box Cul SeeSection 7 SUBSTRUCTURES PartA, GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 7 GENERAL, TAA Definition ‘A substructure is any structural, load-supporting component generally referred to by the terms abutment, pier, retaining wall, foundation or other similar terminology. 74.2 Leads Where appror ate, piers and abutments shall be designed t withstand dead load, erection loads, live loads ‘on the roadway, wind loads on the superstructure, forces ‘due to stream currents, floating ice and drifi, temperature and shrinkage effects, lateral earth and water pressures, scour and collision and earthquake loadings. 74.3. Settlement ‘The anticipated settlement of piers and abutments should be estimated by appropriate analysis, and the ef fects of differential settlement shall be accounted for in the design of the superstructure. 71.4 Foundati yn and Retaining Wall Design Refer to Section 4 for the design of spread footing, driven pile and drilled shaft foundations and Section 5 for the design of retaining wall. 72 NOTATIONS ‘The following notations shall apply for the design of pier and abutment substructure units: B_ = Width of foundation (10, © = Eccentricity of load from foundation centroid in the indicated direction (f}) H = Height of abutment ¢f Coefficient of earth pr suse varying from K, at surface to K, at 20 feei Jim); (See Article 7.5.4.) K, = Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Anti- e774) Vertical soil sess (ksf); (See Antcle 7.5.4.) Vertical stress duc to footing load (ksf); See Arti- cle 754) oy = Supplementary earth pressure (ksf); (See Article 754) ‘The notations for dimension units include the following: dim= dimensionless; ft= foot; and ksf = kipl/tt. The dimensional units provided with each notation are pre~ sented for illustration only to demonstrate dimensionally correct combination of units for the design procedures presented herein. I other units are used, the dimensional ‘correctness of the equations should be ccnfirmed, Part B SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD 155 2.31_Pier Types 31.1 Solid Wall Piers ‘Solid wall piers are designed 2s columns for forces and ‘moments acting about the weak axis and as piers for those ‘acting about the strong axis, They may be pinned, fixed or free at the top, and are conventionally fixed at the base. Short, stubby types are ofien pinned at the base to eliminate the high moments which would develop duc to fixity. Earlier, more massive designs, were censidered gravity types. 731.2 Double Wall Piers More recent designs consist af double walls, spaced in the direction of tafe, to provide supper at the continu‘us soffit of concrete box superstructure sections. These ‘walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be designed for the supersteyeture moments which develop from live loads and erection conditions Bent type piers consist of two or more transversely spaced columns of various solid cross sections. and these types are designed for frame action relative to forces act- Wg bout the strong axis ofthe pier. They are usually fixed atthe base of the pier and are either integral with the su- persiructure or with a pier cap at the top. The columns ‘may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported footing, ‘or asolid wall shaft, or they may be extensions ofthe piles ‘or shatt above the ground line. 7.3.14 _Single-Columa Piers Single-column piers. often refered to as “T" or “Ham- merhead™ piers. are usually supported at the base by a spreud- or pile-supponed footing, and may be either inte- aval with, ot provide independent suppor for, the superstructure. Their cross section can be of various shapes and the column ean be prismatic or flared to form the pier cap or to blend with the sectional configuration of the super: structure cross section. This type pier can avoid the com- plexities of skewed supports if integrally framed into the superstructure and their appearance reduces the macsiv> ness often associated with superstructures, 732 _Pier Protec 732.1 Collision Where the possibility of collision exists from highway or river traffic, an appropriate risk analysis should be made to determine the degeee of impact resistance t0 be provided and/or the appropriate protection system. 732 Collision walls extending 6 feet above top of rail are required between columas for railroad overpasses, and similar walls extending 2.35 feet above ground should be considered for grade separation structures unless other protection is provided. Sco ‘The scour potential must be determined and the design must be developed to minimize failuge from this condition, 6 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 23.1.2 7324 Facing Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed to effectively break up of deflect floating ice or dri t. 0 ‘hese situations, pier life can be extended nosing with steel plates or angles, and by fs with granite. 7A _TUBULAR PIERS 741 Materials ‘Tubular piers of hollow core section may be of steel. reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross section to suppor the forces and moments acting on the elements ‘The configuration can be as described in Article 7.3.1 and, because of their vulnerability to lateral loadings. ‘hall be of sufficient wall thickness to sustain the forces and moments forall loading Situations as are appropriate Prismatic configurations may be sectionaily precast or prestressed as erected 25_ABUTMENTS 7.3.1_Abutment Types 78.11 Stub Abutment ‘Stub abutments are located at or near the top af approach fills. with a backwall depth sutficient to accom- ‘modate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the bearing seat 75.2 Partial-Depth Abutment Partil-depth abutments are located approximaely at smid-depth ofthe front slop# ofthe approach embankment “The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain fil mate- fial, or the embankment slope may continue behind the backwall Inthe latter case, a structural approach slab ot cend span design must bridge the space over the fill slope. ‘and curtain walls are provided to close off the open are. Inspection access should be provided for this situation. 1 3. Foll-Depth Abutment Full-depth abutments are loeated at the approcimate front toe of the approach embankment, restricting the ‘opening under the structure.714 Integral Abutment Integral abutments are rigidly attached 10 the superstructure and are supported on a spread or deep foundations capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements. 782_Loadi ‘Abutiments shall be designed to withstand earth pressure as specified in Article 5.5 and 5.6, the weight of the abutment and bridge superstructure, live Joad on the superstructure or approach fill, wind forces and longitudinal forces when the bearings are fixed, and longitudinal forces ‘due to friction or shear resistance of bearings. The design shall be investigated for any combination of these forces Which may produce the most severe condition of loading, Integral abutments must be designed for forces generated by thermal movements of the superstructure. 752.1 Stability ‘Abutments shall be designed for the loading combination specified in Article 3 ‘© Abutments on spread footings shall be designed to resist overturning (FS 2.0) and sliding (FS = 1.5). Dead and live loads are assumed uniformly distributed over the length of the abutment between expan sion joints ‘* Allowable foundation pressures and pile capacities shall be determined in accordance with Articles 4.4 and 4.3, ‘* The earth pressures exerted by fill in front of the abutment shall be neglected ‘* Earthquake loads shall be considered in accordance with Article 3.21. ‘© The earth pressures exerted by the fll material shall bbe calculated in accordance with Antcles 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 © The cross section of stone masonry or plain concrete abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the intro- duction of tense stress in the materia 7.52.2 _ Reinforcement for Temperature Exceptin gravity abutments, not Tess thas 1/8 square inch of horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced (0 re sist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks. 7523 Drainage and Backfilling ‘The filing material behind abutments shall be. free draining, nonexpansive soit, and shall be drained by weep DIVISION I~DESIGN 1st holes with French drains placed at suitzble intervals and elevations. Sits and clays shall not be used for backfil 7.3 Integral Abutments Integral abutments shall be designed to resist the forces generated by thermal movements of tie superstructure ‘against the pressure of te fill behind the abutment, Integral abutments should not be constructed on spread footings founded or keyed into rock. Movernent calculations shall ‘consider temperature, creep, and long-term prestress short- ‘ening in determining potential movements of abutments Maximum span lengths, design considerations, details should comply with recommendations outlined in FHWA Technical Advisory T 5140.13 (1980) except where substantial local experience indicates otherwise. To avoid water intrusion behind the abutment, the approach slab should be connected directly to the abutment (not to wingwalls), and appropriate provisions should be made to provide for drainage of any entrapped watcr. 7.54_Abutments on Mechanically Stabili Earth Walls Design of bridge abutment footings and connecting back wall, shal be based on bridge loading developed by service load methods and earth pressures on the back wall. Abutment footings shall be proportioned to meet the overturning and sliding criteria specified in Anicle 5.5.5 and for maximum uniform bearing pressures using an effective width of foundations (B 2e). The maximum aliow- able bearing pressure shall be 4.0 ks. The mechanically stabilized earth wall below the.abutment footing shall be designed for the adlitional loads imposed by the footing pressure and supplemental eat pressures resulting from horizontal loads applied atthe bridge seat and from the back wall. The footing load is assumed to be uniformly distibuted over the effective width of foundation B ~ 2e) atthe base of the footing and is dispersed with depth, using a slope of 2 vertical to horizontal. The supplemental loads are applied as shears along the bottom of the footing, uniformly diminishing wih depth toa point cn the face of the wall equal 1 twice theeffective width of the abutment footing (B — 2e). Horizontal stresses in abutment reinforced zones are calculated by superposition as follows and as shown in Figure 754A Hox =6V.K #OVAK, +04 (754-1) “The effective length used fot calculations of intemal ta- bility under the abutment footing shall always be the length158 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 154 SOiL_LOADS [Mex yar Courcharse A by ~~ B=26 ze oysoL = BH2e Where ¢ = eccentricity ( Dig) SUPPLEMENTAL LOADS ee afk, ee eis PS FOOTING LOADS B (iv-(yexbegxl) z YE _+oistrivution of cdl u| Se vertical prigge reed loads COTTE ovBRIDGE, H mox, = oy (soit foods) - K + oy (footing loads)-Ka + a4 (supplemental loacs) FIGURE 7.544 Abutment Loads beyond the end of the footing or beyond a distance of ‘0.3(H-+d) from the facing, whichever isles. ‘The minimum distance from the center line of the bear~ mn the abutment to the outer edge of the facing shall be 355 feet, The minimum distance betweea the back face of the panel snd the footing shall be 6 inches, “The abutment footing should be placed on abed of compacted course aggregate 3 feet thick when significart frost ‘penetration is anticipated. ‘Abutments shall not be constructed on mechanically stabilized embankments if anticipated differential setle- ‘ments betiveen abutments or between piers and abu:ments are greater than one-half the limiting differential setle~ ments as shown in Figure 7.5.4B. This figure should beTSA DIVISION IDESIGN 159 LIMITING DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT BETWEEN SUPPORTING ELEWENTS (01) o sO 73200 100 125 ‘SPAN LENGTH (FT) FIGURE 75.4B Limiting Values of Differential Settlement Based on Field Surveys of Simale ‘and Continuous Span Structures of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, etal (1985) used for general guidance only. Detailed analyses wil stil be required to adress differential setlement problems. For structures supporting bridge abutments, the maxi- ‘mum horizontal force shal be used for connection design throughout the height ofthe structure. “The density, length, and eross section of the soil reinforcements designed for suppor of the abutiment wall shall be caried on the wing walls fr a minimum horizontal distance equal o 50 percent ofthe height of the abutment wall In pile-supported abutments, the horizontal forces transmitted to the piles shall be resisted by their own Tat- eral capacity or by additional reinforcement inthe upper portion ofthe structure. A minimum clear distance of 15 Feet shall be provided between the facing and piles. Piles shall be driven prior to wall construction and cased through the lif necessary. ‘Abutments seats constructed on modular units stall be designed by considering, in addition to earth pressures, the supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat beam and earth pressures on the back wall. The top module shall be proportioned to be stable, with he required factor of safety, under the combined actions of normal and supplementary earth pressures. Minimum iop module width shall be 6 fect. The centerline of bearing shall be located a ‘minimum of 2 feet from the outside face ofthe top precast ‘module. The abutment beam seat shall be supported and cast integrally to the top module. The front face thickness of the top module shall be designed for bending forces de- ‘veloped by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam- ‘seat loadings shall be carried to foundation level and shall ‘be considered in the design of footings. Differential settle ‘ment restrictions in Article 7.5.4. shall apply. 75.6 _Wingwalls is. Length ‘Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment tothe required extent and to furnish160 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 736.1 protection against erosion, The wingwall lengths shall be computed using che requiced roadway slopes. 2. Reinforcement Reinforcing bars or suitable rolled sections shall be spaced ueross the junction between wingwalls and abut- ‘ments 10 tie them together. Such bars shall extend into the masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop the strength of the bar as specitied (or bar einforcement, ‘and shall vary in length so as to avoid planes of weakness in the concrete at their ends. If bars are not used, an expansion joint shall he provided and the windwall shall be keyed into the body of the abutment. Part C STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD LOAD FACTOR DESIGN 7.6 -GENERAL, ‘The provisions of Anicle 71 through 7.5 stall apply to the load factor design of abutments with the exception that: (1) Article 7.5.2 on loading shall be replaced by the articles for loads, earth pressures and water pressures in Sections 5.13 and 5.14 for retaining walls, and (2) Article 7.5.2.1 shall be replaced by the articles for stability in See: tions 5,13 and 5.14. Abutments shall be designed to with stand earth pressures. water pressures and other loads sim- ilae to the design of retaining wallsSection 8 REINFORCED CONCRETE* area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting moment, sq. in, (Artcles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.68) [gross area of section, sq, in Part GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 8.1 APPLICATION . A 8.1.1 General A ‘The specifications of this section are intended for de- Ay sign of reinforced (non-prestressed) concrete bridge members and structures. Bridge members designed as, prestressed concrete shall conform (o Section 9. Ae 84.2 Notations a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block Al (Article 8.162.7) Ae a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block for balanced strain conditions, in. (Article 8.16.4.2.3) An shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support (Articles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8) Ay A = effective tension area, in square inches, of concrete surrounding the flexural tension re- Ay inforcement and having the same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of Ay boars or wires, When the Mexural reinforce- ‘ment consists of several bar or wire sizes, the A number of bars or wires shall be computed as the total area of reinforcement divided by the area of the largest bar or wire used. For cal- Ay ‘culation purposes, the thickness of clear con- A; crete cover used to compute A shall not be taken greater than 2 in, Ay =atea of an individual bar, sq. in, (Article 825.1) a A = area of core of spirally reinforced compres- by sion member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, sq. in. (Anticle 8.18.2.2.2) b Aa = area of Concrete section resisting shear trans- fet, sq. in, (Article 8.16.6.4.5) ‘area of shear reinforcement parallel to flex- ‘ural tension reinforcement. sq, in. (Articles 8.15.58 and 8.16.68) ‘area of reinforcement in brecket or corbel resisting tensile force N. (Nad, 89-in. (Articles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8) area of tension reinforeement, 59. in. area of compression reinfoxcement, sq. in. area of reinforcement to develop compressive strength of overhanging flanges of T- and ‘Bseations (Amticle 8.16.3.32) ‘area of skin reinforcement per unit height fone side face, sq. in, per ft. (Article 8.17213), total area of longitadina! reinforcement (Articles 8.16.4.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.1) = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s = area of shear-friction reinforcement, 59, in (Aniicle 815.5.4.3) = area of an individual wire t> be developed or spliced, sq. in 8302) loaded area (Articles 8.15.21.3 and 8.16.7.2) ‘maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is gcometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2) ‘width of compression face of member perimeter of critical section for slabs and Footings (Articles 8.15.5.62 and 8.16.6.6.2) = Width of cross section at contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear ( ele 8.15.55.) “The apscfcations of Section 8 ae patemed after and arc in generat conformity withthe provisions of ACI Standard 318 for winforée concrete de: sign andie commentary, ACI 318 B published s "> ncrican Coperete Instat 161162 b cs ae HIGHWAY BRIDGES = web width, or diameter of circular section (Article 8.15.5.1.1) distance from extreme compression fiber to. reyteal axis (Article 8.16.2.7) factor relating the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram (Anticle 8.16.5.2.7) “ distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, in. For computing shear strength of circular sections, 4 need not be less than the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement in opposite half of member. For computing horizontal shear strength ‘of campasite members, d shall be the distance from extreme compression fiber to cen. roid of tension reinforcement for entice composite section distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement. in. distance from centroid of gross section, ne lecting the reinforcement. to centroid of tension reinforcement, in nominal diameter of bar or wiee, in distance measured from exireme tension fiber to center of the closest bar or wire in inches, For calculation purposes. the thickness of clear concrete cover used to compute d, shall ‘not be taken greater than 2 in ‘= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article 87.1) = Hlexural stiffness of compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.7) = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi (Article 8.7.2) = average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.1) = extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1) = specified compressive strength of concrete, si square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, psi erage splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi fatigue stress range in reinforcement, ksi(Ar~ ticle 8.16.8.3) gebraic minitriam stress level in reinforce: ment (Article 8.16.8.3) jodulus of rupture of concrete, psi (Article 8152.1.) 12 = tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads, psi (Amicle 8.15.22) = stress in compression reinforcement at balanced conditions (Articles 8.16.3.4.3 and 816.423) = extreme fiber tensile stress ti concrete atser- vice loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1) = specified yield strength of reinforcement. psi verall thickness of member, in compression flange thickness of {+ and T- sections joment of inestia of cracked section trans formed t0 concrete (Article 8.13.3) Frective moment of inertia for computation of deflection (Article 8.13.3) ‘moment of inertia of gross concrete section ‘about ceniroidal axis, neglecting reinferce~ = moment of inertia of reinforcement avout centroidal axis of member cross section fective length factor for compression mem bers (Antcle 8.16.5.2.3) 1dditional embedment lengit at support ar at point of inflection, in. (Article 8.24.2.3) = development length, in. (Articles 8.24 through 8.32) jevelopment length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical section to out side end of hook (straigi embedment length between critical section and start of hook (point of tangeney) plus radius of bend and ‘one bar diameter), ir. (Article 8.29) 4, applicable modification factor basic development length of standard hook in ‘unsupported length of compression menber (Article 8.16.5.2.1) Ccompisted moment capacity (Article 8242.3) maximum moment in member at stage for which deflection is being computed (Anicle 8.13.3) = nominal moment strength of a section a! balanced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3) = moment to be used for design of compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.7) cracking moment (Asticle 8.13.3) ‘nominal moment strength of a section = nominal moment strength of a section in the direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.31 = nominal moment strength of a section n the isection of the y axis (Anicle 8.16.4.31 = factored moment at sectionMa, DIVISION I_DESIGN = factored moment component inthe direction ofthe x ais (Article 8.16.43) = factored moment component in the direction of the y axis (Asticle 8.16.4.3) > value of smaller end moment of compression ‘member due to gravity loads that result in no appreciable sidesway calculated by conventional elastic frame analysis, positiveif member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature (Article 8.16.5.2.4) = value of larger end moment on compression member due to gravity loads that result in no appreciable sidesway calculated by conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive (Article 8.165.2.4) = value of larger end moment on compression member due to lateral loads or gravity loads that result in appreciable sidesway, defined by a deflection A, greater than €/1500, calculated by conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. (Article 8.16.5.2) = modular ratio of elasticity = EVE, (Article 8.1534) = design axial load normal to ross section oc- curing simultaneously with V tobe taken as positive for compression, negative for tension ‘and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep (Articles 8.15.5.2.2 and 8155.23) = design tensile force applied at top of bracket ‘of corbel acting simultaneously with Vo be taken as positive for tension (Article 8.15.5.8) = factored axial load normal tothe cross section occurring simultaneously with V, to be taken as positive for compression, negative for tension, and to include the effects often sion due to shrinkage and creep (Anicle 8.16622) = factored tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultancously with Vo, to be taken as postive for tension (Arti- cle 8.1668) = nominal axial load strength ofa section at bal: anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3) = critical Toad (Anticle 8.165.2.7) = nominal axial load strength of a section at zero eccentricity (Anicle 8.164.2.1) = nominal axial load surengih at given eccentricity = nominal axial load strength corresponding to My with bending considered inthe direction of the x axis only (Article 8.16.43) Pay Pray (alpha) 163 = nominal axial load strength corresponding to My, With bending considered inthe direction of the y axis only (Article 816.43) = nominal axial load strength vith biaxial loading (Antcle 8.16.4.3) = factored axial load at given eccentricity = radius of gyration of cross section of a compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.2) spacing of shear reinforcement in parallel tothe longitudinal reinforcement, in. spacing of wires to be developed or spliced, span length, ft design shear force at section (Article 8.15.5.1.1) sign shear stress at section (Article 8.15.5.1.1) jominal shear strength provided by concrete (Anticle 8.16.6.1) = pennissible shear stress carried by concrete (Anicte £.15.5.2) = design horizontal shear stress at any cross section (Article 8.15.55) = permissible horizontal sheer stress (Article 8155.5.) jominal shear strength (Article 8.16.6.1) jominal horizontal shear strength (Article 8.16653) jominal shéar strength provided by shear reinforcement (Article 8.16.6.1) factored shear force at section (Article 8.1661) ight of concrete, Ib per ex ft stance from centroidal aris of gross scc- tion, neglecting reinforcement, 0 extreme fiber in tension (Article 8.15.3) = quantity limiting disteibution of flexural reinforcement (Article 8.16.8.4; angle between inclined shear reinforcement and longitudinal axis of member = angle between shear-fietcn reinforcement and shear plane (Articles 8.15.54 and 8.1664) Bs (beta) = ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total Be ‘area of reinforcement at the section (Article 8.24.1.4.2) = ratio of long side to shor side of concentrated load or reaction area; for a cireular concentrated load or reaction area, 8, = 1.0 (Articles 8.15.5.63 and 8.16.6.6.2)164 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 812 Be = absolute value of ratio of maximum dead load nioment to maximum total load aio- ment, always positive. Be = eatio of depth of equivalent compression zone o depth from fiber of maximum compressive strain to the neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7) X correction factor celated 10 unit weight for ‘concrete (Articles 8.15.5.4 and 8.16.64) (mu) = coefficient of friction (Article 8.15.5.4.3) pitho) = tension reinforcement ratio = AMo,d. Abd a ‘compression reinforcement ratio = A./bd Pe reinforcement rato producing balanced strain conditions (Article 8.16.3.1.1) PB. = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of 8 spirally reinforced compression member (Article 8.18.2.2.2) p. reinforcement ratio used in Equation (8-4) and Equation (8-48) 8 moment magnification factor for members traced against sidesway to reflect effects of member curvature between ends of compression member 5 joment mageification factor for members aot braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral and gravity loads (phi) = strength reduction factor (Amticle 8,16.1.2) 8.13. Definitions The following terms are defined for general use in Section 8, Specialized definitions appear in individual icles. Bracket or corbel—Short (hatutched) cantilever that projects from the face of a column or wall to support a ‘concentrated load or beam reaction. See Articles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.68. Compressive sirength of concrete (f2}—Specified ‘compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square inch (psi Concrete, structural lighnweight—& concrete contain= ing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight as determined by “Method of Test for Unit Weight of Struc- tural Lightweight Concrete” (ASTM® C 567), not exceeding 115 pef. {n this specification, a lightweight concrete without natural sand is termed “all-Tightsei and one in which all fine aggregate consists of nocmat ‘weight sand is termed "sand-lightweight concrete” Deformed reinforcement—Deformed reinforcing bars, deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded doformed wire fabric. ‘American Sess for Teng and Maer Design foad—All applicable toads and forces or their related internal moments and forces used to proportion members. For design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN’ design load refers to loads without load factors. For desi by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD, design load refers to loads multiplied by appropriate toad factors. Design strength—Nominal strength multiplied oy a strength reduction factor, . ‘Development length—Length of embedded reinforce- rent required to develop the design steength of the ~ein- Forcement ata critical section. Enibedment length—Length of embedded reinorce- ‘ment provided beyond « critical section. Factored load—Load, multiplied by appropriate load Factors, used to proportion members by the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD. ‘Nominal strength—Sweength of a member or cross sec: tion calculated in accordance with provisions and assumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD before application of any strength reduction factors. Plain reivforcement—Reinforcement that dost not ‘conform to the definition of deformed reinforcemen Required strength—Strength of a member or cross sec: tion required to resist factored loads or related intemal moments and forces in such combinations as are stipulated in Article 3. Service load—Loads without load factors. Spiral reinforcentenst—Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix. ‘Splitting tensile strength (f.)—Tensile strength ol concrete determined in accordance with “Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete AASHTO M 195°" (ASTM C 330). Stirrups or ties—Lateral reinforcement formed 3f individual units, open or closed, or of continuously sound reinforcement. The term “stirups” is usually appl ed to lateral reinforcement in horizontal members and the term ties" to those in vertical members. Tension tie member—Member having an axial tensile force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross sec~ tion and having limited conerete cover on all sides. EX- amples include: arch ties, hangers carrying load to an ovethead supporting structure, and main tension elements ina truss, Vield strength or yield point (f,) —Specified minimum yield strength oF yield point of reinforcement in pounds per square inch. 8.2 CONCRETE ‘The specified compressive strength, {!, of the concrete for each part of the structure shall be shown on Samar Specicevins fr Teonaportavion Materials ene Mets of Sampling id ese82, the plans. The requirements for f! shall be based on tests of | cylinders made and tested in accordance with Section 4— Division I 83 REINFORCEMENT 83.1 The yield strength or grade of reinforcement shall bbe shown on the plans. 83.2 Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be specified. DIVISION DESIGN 165 833 Designs shall not use a yield strength f, in excess ‘of 60,000 psi 834 Deformed reinforcement shall be used except that ‘plain bars of smooth wire may be used for spirals and ties 8.3.5 Reinforcement shall conform to the specifica. tions listed in Division Il, Section 5, except that, for reinforcing bars, the yield strength and tensile strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-sized bars. Part B ANALYSIS 84 GENERAL All members of continuous and rigid frame structures shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads specified in Articles 3.2 through 3.22 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, 85 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION 85.1 In general, provisions for temperature changes shall be made in simple spans when the span length exceeds 40 feet 85.2 Incontinuous bridges, the design shall provide for thermal stresses or for the accommodation of thermal movement with rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, or other means. 85.3 The coefficient of tion for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006 perdogE, = 0-ce00\o& 854 "The cooficint of shinkage for normal weigh angst maybe ten 8 0002, _ 85.5 ‘Thermal and shrinkage coefficienis for light- wweight concrete shall be determined fr the type of ight sveight aggregate vsed ON Come. 86 STIFFNESS 8.6.1 Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for ‘computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of continuous and rigid Frame members, The assumptions ‘made shall be consistent throughout the znalysis. 86.2. The effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design of members. 81 MODULUS oF ELAsTIcrTyann 2° YY! ‘POISSON'S RATIO VS cee Weloote8) fe 8.7.1 The modulus of elasticity, E,, for concrete may be taken as wis 33 VEC in ps for values of w, between 90." N55 pounds per eubie fot. For nornal weight eon- crete (w, = 143 pe). E,may be considered as 57,000. Tae. Te (Wh 8.72 The modus of elasticity, E, for non-presressed steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,0000 psi. Wha 8.7.3 Poisson's ratio may be assumed as 0.2. §8_SPAN LENGTH ‘88.1 - The span length of members tha: are not builtin: tcgrally with their supports shall be considered the clear span plus the depth of the member but né2d not exceed the distance between centers of supports.166 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 88.2 _In analysis of continuous and rigid frame mé bers, distances to the geometric centers of members shal! be used in the determination of moments. Moments at faces.of support riay be used for member design. When filets making an angle of 45 degrees or more withthe axis with the member and suppor, the face of support shall be considered at a section where the combined depth of the thickness of the member. No portion of a fills “Considered as adding othe effective depth 8.8.3. The effective span length of slabs shall be as spec ifled in Article 3.24.1 89_CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS __ 894 General Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stifiness to limit deflections or any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or servicenbility of the structure at service load plus impact 89.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations ‘The minimum depths stipulated in Table 8.9.2 are rec~ ‘ommended unless computation of deflection indicates that lesser depths may be used without adverse effects. 89.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations When making deflection computations. the following criteria are recommended. 89.3.1 Members having simple or continuous spans preferably should be designed so thatthe deflection due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1/800 of the span. except on bridges in urban areas used in partby pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed 1/1000. 8.9.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due 10 service live load plus impact preferably should be limited to 1/300 of the euntilever arm except for the case including pedestrian use. where the ratio preferably should be 1/375, 8.10_COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH 8.10.1 T-Girder 8.10.11 The total width of slab effective as aT. girder Mange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the girder. The effective flange width overhanging on each side of the web shall not exceed six times the 882 TABLE 892 Recommended Minimum Depths fer Constant Depth Members ‘ini Depth inFeet Superstuciue Type” Simple Spans~ Continuous Spans [Big sab th main teinorcemen! pall toate Las +1180 ( + 19)80 20.52 Gide 0.0705 0.0655. BocGinder 0.0608 0.0555 Pedestrian Stvctre Gieders 0.0838 0.0338 7 When variable dopth members are wed, valves may be dea to account for change in reaive sfless of postive and nepare > ‘S= spn length 2 ened in Arle 8.8 in ee thickness of the slab or one-half the clear distance to the next web. 8.10.12 For girders having a slab on one side only. the effective overhanging flange width shall aot exceed Yi: of | the span length of the girder. six times the thickness ofthe slab, or one-half the clear distance tothe next web, 810.13 Isolated T-gieders in which the T-shpe is used to provide a flange for additional compression area shall have a lange thickness not less than one-half the width of the girder web and an effective flange width not ‘more than four times the width of the girder web, 8.10.14 For integral bent caps, the effective lange \width overhanging each side of the bent cap web stall not exceed six times the least slab thickness, or Ys the span length ofthe bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span Jength shall be taken as two times the length of the cantilever span. Box Girders 8.10.21 The entire slab width shall be assumed «effective for compression. 8.10.2.2 For integeal bent caps, see Article 8.10.14 8.11_SLABAND WEB THICKNESS, 8.11.1 The thickness of deck slabs shall be designed in accordance with Article 324.3 but shall not be less than specified in Article 8.9. BA1.2. The thickness of the botiom slab of a box girder shall be not less than Yu of the clear span between girder82 ‘webs or 5 % inches, except thatthe thickness need not be {greater than the (op slab unless required by design. 8.11.3 When required by design, changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness. 812 DIAPHRAGMS. 8.12.1 Diaphragms shall be used at the ends of T-girder ‘and box girder spans unless other means are provided to resist lateral forces and to maintain section geometry. Diaphragms may be omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate suength. 8122 In Tegirder constuction, one intermediate di phragm is recommended at the point of maximum positive moment for spans in excess of 40 feet. 8123. Staightbox girder bridges and curved box girder bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater do not require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder bridges having an inside radius less than BOO feet, inter= mediate diaphragms are required unless shown otherwise by tests or structural analysis. For such curved box gird ers, a maximum diaphragm spacing of 40 feet is recom- ‘mended to assist in resisting torsion. 8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS 8.13.1 Computed deflections shall be based on the cross-sectional properties ofthe entire superstructure sec~ tion excluding railings, curbs, sidewalks, or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure section before falsework removal. 8.13.2 Live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act (0- gether and have equal deffection. The live loading shall consist ofall traffic lanes fully loaded, with reduction in load intensity allowed as specifiedin Article 3.12. The live DIVISION DESIGN 167 loading shall be considered uniformly cistibuted to all longitudinal flexural members. 8.13.3 Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by the usual methods or formulas for elastic deflections. Unless stiffness values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, immediate deflections shall be computed taking the modulus of elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 8.7 for normal weight or lightweight concrete and taking the mo- ‘ment of inertia as either the gross momert of inertia, I, oF the effective moment of inertia, as follows: ™,,) ie (aera where: dy @2 modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Arti- cle 8.15.2.1.1 For continuous members, effective moment cf inertia may be taken as the average of the valus obtained from Equation (8-1) for the critical positive and negative mo- ‘ment sections. For prismatic members, effective moment of inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Eq, (8-1) at midspan for simple or continuous spans, and as the value at the support for cantilevers. 8.13.4 Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, the long-time deflection for both normal ‘weight and lightweight concrete flexural members shall be the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load considered, computed in accordance wih Article 8.13.3, ‘multiplied by one ofthe following facto (a) Where the immediate deflection tas been based on Ij, the multiplication Factor for the long-time deflection shall be taken as 4, (b) Where the immediate deflection tas been based on ‘hall be taken as 3 ~ LAVA) = 16. pueednsias Fone debbie een Pate | Long Tee SOR 814 GENERAL 8.14.1_Design Methods 8141.1 The design of reinforced concrete members shall be made either with reference to service loads and ( 2 ei- W)4) allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DE- SIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and strengths as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN, 8.14.12 All applicable provisions of this specification shall apply to both methods of design, except Articles \ Je the multiplication factor forthe long-time deflection,”168, HIGHWAY BRIDGES 435 and 3.17 shall not apply for design by STRENGTH DESIGN, B.LLL.3 The strength and serviceability requirements of STRENGTH DESIGN may be assumed to be satisfied for design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN if the service I6ad stresses are limited to the values’ given in Aniicle 8.15.2, 3.14.2_Composite Flexural Members 8.14.2.1 Composite flexural members consist of pre~ cast and/or cast-n-pluce conerete elements constructed in separate placements but so interconnected that ull elements respond to superimposed loads as aunit. When con sidered in design, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design propesties required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking. 8.14.22. The entire composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and moment ‘The individual elements shall be investigated forall critical stages of loading and shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior tothe full development of the design strength of the composite member. Reinforcement shall be provides as necessary to prevent separation ofthe individual elements 8.14.23 If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various elements are different, the properties of the individual elements, or the most critical values, shall be used ia design. 8.14.24 Incolculating the flexural strength of a composite member by strength design. no distinction shall be made between shored and unshored members. 8142.5 When an entire member is assumed to resist the vertical shear the design shall be in sccordance with the requirements of Amticle 8,15.5 or Article 8.16.6 as for ‘a monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional shape. 8.14.26 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored into the interconnected elements in accordance with Arti- cle 8.27. Extended and anchored shear reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear. 814.2.7 The design shall provide for full transfer of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of intercon 4.2 rected elements, Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Acticle 8.15.3.5 oF Article 8.16.65. 8. 3 Concrete Arches. B.143.1 The combined flexure and axial foud steength of an arch ring shall be in accordance with the provisions of Anicles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5. Slenderness ef= fects in the vertical plane of an arch ring. other thay tied arches with suspended roadway. may be evaluated by the approximate procedure of Anticle 8.16.5.2 with the unsupported length. ¢,, taken as one-half the length of the arch ring, and the radius of ayration. ¢. taken about 11 axis perpendicular to the plane of the arc at the quarter point fof the arch span, Values of the effective lenath factor. k. given in Table 8.14.3 may be used. In Equation (S41). Cy shall be taken as 1.0 and ¢ shall be taken as 0.85, 8143.2 Slendemess effects between points of lateral support and between suspenders in the vertical plare of @ tied arch with suspended roadway. shall be evaliated by @ fational analysis taking into aceount the requirements of Article 8.16.5.1.1 8,14.3.3 The shape of arch rings shail conform. as carly asi practicable. to the equilibrium polygon tor full dead load 8.14.34 Inarch ribs and bartels. the longitudinal re inforcement shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area at least equal 100.01. divided equally between the inteados and the extrados. The longitudinal reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties in accordance with Article 8.18.2. In arch barrels, upper and lower levels of transverse reinforcement shall be provided that are designed for transverse bending due to loads from columns and spandrel walls and for shrinkage and temperature stresses 8143.5 If transverse expansion joinis are not pro vided in the deck slab, the effects of the combined action of the ach cib, columns and deck slab shall be cons dered. ‘Expansion joints shall be provided in spandeel walls TABLES.3 Effective Length Factors, k Rieie-Spon— SHinged Fred ato. Arch anh 1-02 ite 0» 02-03 ity on 03-038 16 on8.14.36 8143.6 Walls exceeding 8 feet in beight on filled spandrel arches shall be laterally supported by transverse diaphragms or counterforts with a slope greater than 45, degrees with the vertical (o reduce transverse stresses in the arch barrel. The top of the arch barrel and interior faces of the spandrel walls shall be waterproofed and a drainage system provided for the fil. (ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN) 8.15.1 General Requirements BISA Service load stresses shall not exceed the values given in Article 8.15.2. 8.18.12 Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required in Articles 8.24 through 8.32. 8.15.2_Allowable Stresses 8.18.2.1_Concrete ‘Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: BIS21.J_ Flexure Extreme fiber stress in compression, f, Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain concrete f oor, 02, Modulus of rupture, f, from tests, or, if data are not available: uwieight” concrete 22529 (FE "Allslightweight" concrete . ¢:4S2 Fas 8.15212 Sh For detailed summary of allowable shear stress, ve, 88 Amticle 8.15.5.2. 8.15.2.13 Bearing Stress “The bearing sues, f, on loaded area shall not exceed 0.30%) ‘When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on the Teaded area may be multiplied by VAJA, but aot by more than 2, ‘When the supporting surface is sloped or sipped, As may be taken as the area ofthe lower base ofthe largest frastcum of the right pyrafnid or cone contained wholly DIVISION I—DESIGN 169 within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having side slopes of I vertical to 2 horizontal. When the loaded area is subjecied to high-edge stresses {due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including any increase due tothe supporting surface being larger than the loaded area, shall be multiplied by a feetor of 0.75. ‘The tensile stress in the reinforcement, f, shall not exceed the following: Grade 40 reinforcement. ronnn-nnnnene20,000 psi Grade 60 reinforcement In straight reinforcement, the range tetween the max- {imum tensile stress and the minimum stress caused by live load plus impact shall not exceed the value given in Arti cle 8.16.83. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high-stress range. 8.153 _Flexure 8153.1 For the investigation of suresses at service loads, the straight-line theory of stress cnd strain in flex: ure shall be used with the follawing assamptions. 8.15.32 The stain in reinforcement and concrete is directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, except that for deep flexural members with overall depth to span ratios greater than % for continuous spans and 75 for simple spans, 2 nonlinear distributior of strain shall be considered. 8153.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete resists no tension. 8153.4 The modular ratio, n = EE,, may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for deflections, the value of n for light- ‘weight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal weight concrete of the same strength. 8.15.35 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2E/E, shall be used to trans- form the compression reinforcement for stress computa~ tions. The compressive siress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the allowable tensile stress. “The combined flexural and axial loae capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35 percent of thatMeyks Loewe wot) Vee eels {RE (bet) o i Se ee 0-919 (Se Se 10 (yt) YG o-B5 yee __- ‘HIGHWAY BRIDGES sss ‘computed in accordance with the provisions of Article 8.16.4. Stendermess effects shall be included decording to the requirements of Anicle 8.16.5. The term P, in Equa- sion (&-41) shall he replaced by 2.5 times the design axial load. in using the provisions of Articles 8.16.4.and 8.16.5, & shall be taken as 1.0. 8.15:5_Shear 8. ‘Shear Stress SUSS.I by Des shear stress, v shall be computed B- where V is design shear force at section considered, b, is the'widih of web and d is the distance from the extreme compression fiber t6 the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of torsion’ shall be included. BL For a circular section. by shall be the diameter and d need not be less than the distance from the exiceme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu: dinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member. 8155.13 For tapered webs, b, shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller 8.15.5.14 When the resetion. in the direction of the applied shear, introduces compression into the end re- ‘gions of a member, sections located fess than a distance & from the face of support may be designed for the same shear, V, as that computed at a distance d, An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the face of suppor. In that case sec: tions closer than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance d plus the major concentrated loads. 8155.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete (Ve. 8153.21 Shear in Becmns an One-Way Slabs and / Footings For members subject to shear and flesure only the l- \wable shear steess carried by the concrete, y, may bE nam ar genta “Betng Ce Re ska Conse nan 3 Blain cee Keer Rone ivg seo taken as 0.95 Viz. A more detailed calculation of the al- Towable shear stress can be made using’ 209 +1 1000,(22) <1.6.% we Note: (a) Mis the design moment occurring simuttanecusly with V atthe section being considere: (b) The quantity Vea/M shall not be taken greater than 10. $.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members For members subject to axial compression, the allow able shear stress carried by the concrete. v,..may be ken as 0.95 VEZ. A more detailed calculation can be made G5) N\e {some} all be expressed in pounds per square The quantity NIA, inch. $155.23 Shear in Tension Members. For members subject to axial tension, shear ceinforce- iment shall be designed to carry total shear. unless amore detailed calculation is made using of rome |e J Ne 8-6) for tension, (by The quantity N/A, shall be expressed in pounds per square inch. 8155.24 Shear in Lightweight Concrete “The provisions for shear stress. ve, carried by the concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight Fe concretes are used, one of the following nodi- fications shall apply: (a) When-f, is specified, the shear stress. v., shall be mvifed by substiating £6. for VE. bat he vale orty6-7 used shall not exceed VEE {b) When fisnotspeifid the shear tess. sal be trolplied by O15 for “alldightweigh™ concrete, and ce Feshing, one 2d shagy seq B-\G1 S07 BATHS S Wr” 2207 Vfe + 7-58 3,(28)q 083 Ee8155.24 (0185 for “sand-lightweight” concrete. Linear imerpola- tion may be used when partial sand replacement i used. 815.53.) ‘Where design shear stress v exceeds shear stress carried by concrete, ¥., shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with this Article. Shear reinforcement shall alse conform to the general requirements of Article 8.19. 8,15.5.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is used: pw ltzvebbas 8-7 ate 6-7 815.533 When inclined stirups are used: Aya athe 6-8) Rina + cosa) 815.534 When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single gsoup of parallel bars all bent up at the same distance from the support (vedbwd A Fina 8-9) to ahead apace 15 VE COS ES) 815.5.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent- up bars at different distances from the support, the re- uired area shall be computed by Equation (8-8). 8,/55.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the i clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered effective for shear reinforcement. 8.5.3.7 Where more than one type of shear seinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the rember, the required area shall be computed asthe sum of the values computed for the various types separately. In such computations, shall be inluded only once. 8.15.53.8 When (v ~ v9 excels 2 VEE the maximum spacings given in Article 8.19 shall be reduced by one-halt. Sreraeaet eee DIVISION DESIGN m 815539 The lle of ~ v1) sal not exceed AME 8155.30 When flexural reinforcement located ‘within the width of a member used to campute the shear strength is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce- ‘ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4, 8155.4 Shear Friction 8,15.5.4.1_ Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, oF an interface between two concretes cast at different times. 8.15.54.2 A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required areaof shear-frition reinforcement Aw across the shear plane may be designed using either Art. 8.15.5.4.3 oF any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of paragraph 8.15.5.4.4 through 8.15.5.4.8 shall apply forall calculations of shear transfer strength. 815.543 Shear-friction Design Method (a) When shear-frition reinforcement is perpendicu- Tr to the shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforce- ‘ment A, shall be computed by: 8-10) where pis the coefficient of friction inaccordance with Art. 8.15.5.4.3(0. (b) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to the shear plane such that the shear force produces ten sion in shear-friction reinforcement, the area of shear- friction reinforcement A,¢ shall be computed by: v — 8-11 Au = 7 Gsina, +6050) eae where a; is the angle between the stear-friction reinforcement and thé shear plane. (©) Coefficient of friction y in Eq, (8-10) and Eq. (8- 11) shall be: ‘concrete placed monolithically ......-..+2<14R concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as specified in Art 815547... cee LON,2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened 6A. ‘concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel bby headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Art 815548 ‘| OI where A= 1,0 for normal weight concrete: 0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete: and 0.75 for “all light- \weight” concrete, Linear interpolation may be applied when partial sand replacement is used, S1S.3.44 Shear stress v shall aot exceed 0.09%! nor 360 pi S15.54.5 _Nettension across the shear plane shall be sesisted by additional reinforcement, Permanent net com pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-Irietion reinforcement Af. when caleulating required Ay. 8.15546 Shear-rietion reinforcement shatl be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks. or welding to special devices. SJSS-47 For the purpose of Article 8.15.5.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete the interface for shear transier shall be clean and ree of | Iaitance. If is assumed equal to 1.0. the interface shall be roughened to full amplitude of approximately ¥ in. S.15348 When shear is transferred between steel beams or girders and concrete using headed studs or ‘welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint. 8.15.55 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members 8.15.5.5.1 Ina composite member, full transfer of borizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected elements 8.15.5.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori= zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Paragraph 8.15.5.5.3 or 8.15.5.5.4 of any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests, 8.15.55.3 Design horizontal shear stress vy at any ‘ecoss section may be computed by: 8.15543 yv vy = (811A meg c where V is the design shear force atthe section considered and dis For the entire composite section. Horizontal shear ‘yy hall no exceed permissible horizontal shear ine cordance with the following: (a) When the contact surface is clean. fee of laitance. and intentionally roughened, shear stress v, shal not exceed 36 psi (b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with paragraph 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surliee is clean and free of luitanee. but not inteationally rough ened, shear stress vy shall not exceed 36 psi (¢) When minimum ties are provided in aceordance with paragraph 8.15.5.5.5. and the contact surface is, clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughered to ‘full magnitude of approximacely ¥ in. shear steess shall nat exceed 160 psi (d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum recuired by $155.55. permissible yy may be increased by 72,450.00 pai 8.15534 Horizontal shear may be investigated by ‘computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual change in compressive or tensile loree to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible horizontal shear stress. vy, in accordance with paragraph 8.15.5.5.3 815.53.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear (0) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce ment shall be provided between interconnected ele ‘ments, Tie area shall not be less than SOb,s/f,.and tie spacing s shall not exceed four times the leust web width of support element, nor 74 in. (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars ‘of wire, multiple leg stirups, or vertical legs of welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be ad equately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks. 8.15.5.6 - Special Provisions for Slabs and [Row Ay s) me. Footings 8.15.5.6.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footing: in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall b: cemed by the more severe of «wo conditions’onde 15561 DIVISION 1—DESIGN 3 (2) Bean ston forth sab fooling wth ea ve section extending ina plane cross the entre wath and VE +2.200(%2) 44 located ata distance 6 from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance’ with Articles, 8.15.5.1 through 8.15.5.3, except at footings supported cn piles, the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with Anicle 44.11.3. ) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the member and located so that its perimeter by is a minimum, bat not closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6.2 and 8.15.5.63. 815.562 Designshear stress, v, shall be computed by: net ba (8-12) where V and b, shall be taken atthe critical section defined inB.15.5.6.100). 8.15.5.6.3 Design shear stress, v, shall not exceed v. given by Equation (8-13) unless shear reinforcement is provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.6.4. v-(o 3} s+ Ve sisle (8-13) =(o-066 tHe] Fe Sonayfe fic is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated Toad or reaction area, 8.15.5.64 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance with the following provisions: (a) Shear stresses computed by Equation (8-12) shall be investigated at the critical section defined in 8.15.5.6.1(b) and at successive sections more distant from the suppor. (b)_Shear stress ve at any section shall not exceed 0.9 “Viz and v shall not exceed 3VE. () Where v exceeds 0.9 Viz, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.3. 8.15.7 Special Provisions for Stabs of Box Culverts For slabs of box culverts under 2 {eet or more fil, shear stress ve may be computed by: @EL DESIG bbut ve shall not exceed 1.8 V{Z. For singlecell box culverts ‘only efor slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken Jess than 1.4, and ve for slabs simply supported need not be taken less than 1.2 VE. The quantity VaM sal nat be taken greater than 1.0 where M is the moment cccuring simultaneously with Vat the section considered. Forsabs of box culverts under less than 2 feet of fill, applicable pro- 4 8.15.58.1 Provisions of paragraph 8.15.5.8 shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio a/4 not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force N, not larger than V. Distance d shall be ‘measured at the face of support. 8155.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels* 8155.82 Depthat outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.54, 8.15.5.8.3 The section atthe face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment [Va, + Ne(h ~ d)], and a horizontal tensie force N.. Dis- tance h shall be measured atthe face of support. (a) Design of shear-friction reinforcement, Ay, 10 resist shear, V, shall be in accordance with Article 8.15.54. For normal weight concrete, shear stress ¥ shall not exceed 0.094! nor 360 psi. For “all lightweight” or “sand-lightweight” concrete, shear stréss ¥ shall not exceed (0.09-0.03a/4)f! nor (360~126a/é) psi. (0) Reinforcement Ato resist moment [Vay Nh — )] shall be computed in accordance with Articles 8.15.2 and 8.153. (©) Reinforcement Ato resist tensile force N, shall be computed by A, = Nuf,. Tensile force N, shall not be taken less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. @ Area of primary tension reinforcement, A, shall be made equal tothe greater of (ArFA.) oF (2AW3+A,)- 8.15584 Closed stisrups or tes parallel (0 A,, with f total area Ay not less than 0.5(A,—A,), shall be wni- heroin dogo py on edges. The PA publi “ots of ACL aTe-83 cons sn expe Sdn a er ees Pari, cxanple 163, Se, Qerinane sted ngreshee | (AF t ha)or at ® closed Aufrag) et (Kg vw Keeney Aistrloahed, J Look (t/t) stireups An) XOv7 Fommly distributed within wo-thieds of the effctive depth adjacent 10 A, SIFSBS than .0541,719. Ratio p, = AJtid shall now be taken less 815.586 At the front face of @ bracket or corbel primary tension reinforcement. A., shall be anchored by fone of the following: (a) a structural weld to 2 transverse bar of at least equal size: weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength f, of A, bars: b) bending primary tension bars A back to form a brorizontat loop: or {c) some other means of positive anchorage. 8.15.5.8.7 Bearing area of load on a bracket oF cor bel shall not project beyond the straight portion of primary tension bars A., nor project beyond the interior face of a transverse anchor bar (if one is provided). a Ne fMiocenent) ae t TI ni | 1 i i ; 1 fea. seas FIGURE 81558 8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (LOAD FACTOR DESIGN) 8.16.1 Strength Requirements 8.16.1.1 Required Strength ‘The required strength of a section isthe strength nec ceésary 10 resist the factored loads and forces applied to HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8155 Ba the structure if the combinations stipulated in Article 43.22. All sections of structures and structural members shall have design strengths at least equal to the required strength, 8.16.1.2_Design Steenath (vt. Design) S1G 12 Besiea Sireneth 8.16.1.2.1 The design strength provided by a men ber or eross section in terms of load. moment. shear. oF stress shall be the nominal strength cafeutated in wxeor- dance with the requirements and assumptions of the strength-design method, multiplied by a strength-reJuc- tion factor 6." 8.16.1.2.2 The strength-teduction factors. shall be as allows: (ay Flexare 0.90 (b) Shear =0.85 e) Axial compression with— Spirals = 075 Ties. 4 =070 (4) Bearing on concrete w= 0.70 The value of ¢ may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for lextre as axial fond strength, dP, decreases from 0.101! whichever is smaller. 0 zero. 8.16.1.2.3 The development and splice le inforcement specified in Articles 8.24 through 8.32 do not equire a strength-reduction factor. 8.16.2 Design Assumptions 8.16.2.1 The strength design of members for flexure and axiat loads shall be based on the assumptions given in this Amie, and oa the satisfaction ofthe applicable conditions of equilibrium of internal stresses and compstibil- ity of steains. 8.16.22. The strain in reinforcement and concrete is directly proportional tothe distance froma the neutral axis 8.16.23 The maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003. ~The coeticin b rovies forthe possibility that small alee va aiios in matesalsrengt, workmanship and Seasons. whle ind ‘iually within acoptable olerance nd iis of good pace. may Combine to uli anderseasth816.24 8.16.24 The stress in reinforcement below its spoci- fied yield strength, f, shall be E times the steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding tof, the stess in the reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal tof, 8.16.25 The tensile stength of the concrete is ne- lected in flexural calculations, 8,162.6 The concrete compressive stress/strain distribution may be assumed to be a rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape that results in prediction of ‘strength in substantial agreement with the results of comprehensive tests 8162.7 A compressive stessstrain distibution, which assumes a concrete stress of 0.85 f: uniformly di tributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a line parallel (o the neu tral axis at a distance a = B,c from the fiber of maximum, ‘compressive strain, may be considered to satisfy the requirements of Article 8.16.2.6. The distance ¢ from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis, The factor Br shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengtbs, {.', up (0 ‘and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, Bs shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1,000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi bot B, shall not be taken less than 0.65. 8163. Flexure 8,163.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members 816.3.1.1 The eatio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio p, that would produce balanced strain conditions for the section. The portion of px balanced by compression reinforcement necd not be te- duced by the 0.75 factor. .16,3.1.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at across, section when the tension reinforcement reaches the strain corresponding to its specified yield strength, f,, just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. 8163.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension ‘Reinforcement Only 816.321 The design moment strength, &M,, may ‘be computed by: DIVISION I—DESIGN 15 Asgd{t-08 | (8-15) a =e[an(a-3)} 616) where, Ad, fs 8-17 os ee 8.163.2.2 The balanced reinforcenent ratio, py, is given by: Pe 8163.3 Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only 8.16.3.3.1 | When the compression fange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rec- ‘angular stress black, a, the design moment strength, My, ‘may be computed by Equations (8-15) and (8-16), 8.16.3.3.2 When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength may be computed by: aM, BIA ALdh(d—a22) + Aaf, (6-05), 819) where, O.85f; (b- bu hy Ags 7 (8-20) (Apr Aulh, 085K, @-2) 8.16.2.3.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, py, is given by: ou=(2e} {ose srs). Ag, ART.000+5, were, A Ae os) Pr bad 8-23)116 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8.16.3.3-4 For Tgitder and box-girder construction the width of the compression face. b, shall be equi to the effective slab width as defined in Article 8.10. 8163.4 Rectangular Se Reinforcement as with Compression 8.15.34,1 The design moment strength. bM,, may bbe computed as follows (ea _é7000__) 0 ossp, | 87.000 ) (i le 30-7) 8.29) fs OMe = OA, Anta = 99) + AK (a= 2) 25 ee (AL~ ADT, a 0.85 fb i 8.16.3.4.2 When the value of (A, — Alyfod is less than the value required by Equation (8-24), so that the stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the th, f oF when elfects of compression reinforcement is less than the yield strength, {or when ef fects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the de~ sign moment strength inay be computed by the equations in Article $.16.3.2. Alternatively, a general analysis may bbe made based on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Article 8.16.2 $.16.3.43 The balanced reinforcement ratio py for rectangular sections with compression reinforcement is siven by pond (# (PMNs, am d 87.000 JJ? a 8.16.35 Other Cross Seetions For other cross sections the design moment strength, 4M, shall be computed by a general analysis based on 816.234 stress and strain compatibility using assumptions given ia Article 8.16.2. The requirements of Article 8.16.3.1 shall also be satisfied, 8.16.4 Compression Members 8164.1 General Requirements 8164.11 The design of members subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial loud shall be based fon stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions wen in Article 8.16.2. Slenderness effects shall be ia luded according to the requirements of Anicle 8.165. 8.16.4.1.2 Members subject to compressive axial load combined with bending shall be designed for the maximum moment that can uecompany the axial loud, The factored axial load, P, ata given eccentricity shall not exceed the design axial load strength Pyas Where (a) For members with spiral reinforcement contocm- ing to Article 8.18.22 Pama = OSS(085 {Ay AI* HAL] $=0.75 () For members with tie reinforcement conform Article 8.18.23 18-29) Pamne = O:8010.85 (A, -AD*LAad = 0.70 (8-30) ‘The maximum factored moment, Mu. shall be magaified for slenderness effects in accordance with Article 8.16.5. 8.16.42 Compression Member Strengths ‘The following provisions may be used as a guide i define the range ofthe load-moment interaction relationship for members subjected to combined flexure and axial toad, 8.1642.1 Pure Compression “The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity. bP.. may be computed by oP, SOS (AL AD TAG] G31 For design, pure compressive strength is a hypottetical condition since Anicle 8.16.4.1.2 limits the axia load strength of compression members t0 85 and 80 percent of the axial load at zero eccentricity.8164.22 8.16422 Pure Flewre ‘The assumptions given in Anicle 8.16.2 or the applic able equations for flexure given in Article 8.16.3 may be used t0 compute tie design moment strength, &M,, in pure flexure. 816423 Balanced Strain Conditions ‘Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 8.16.3.1.2. For a rectangular section with reinforcement in one face, or located in two faces at approximately the same distance from the axis of bending, the balanced load strength, Py, and balanced moment strength, My, may be computed by: PL = 10850 ba, + AL — AG] 6-32) and, My = [0.85fcbay(d ~ d”* — a/2) FAs d'— 4") + A001 33) os) HB *6 leg as 8:16.4.2.4- Combined Flexure and Axial Load ‘The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension when the nominal axial load strength, P, is less than the balanced load strength, P,, and is controlled by compression when P, is greater than Py, ‘The nominal values of axial load strength, P,, and mo- ‘ment strength, M,, must be multiplied by the strength reduction factor, for axial compression as given in Art cle 8.16.1. 8164.3 Biaxial Loading In iew of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility, the design strength of noncircular ‘members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed by the following approximate expressions: 8-36) DIVISION I—DESIGN 7 ‘when the factored axial load, PEO A, 637) M, My May si 8-38) Max My i when the factored axial losd, PL, shall be equal to one 8.16.5.2.9 In sicuctures that are aot braced against sidesway, the flexural members framing into the compression member shall be designed for the total magnified fend moments of the compression member atthe joint. $.165.2.10 When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be magnified by 8. computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis. $.165.2.11 When a group of compression members ‘on one level comprise a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the same superstructure, and collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of 8, shall be computed for the member group with SP, and SP. equal to the summations forall columns in the group. 8.16.6 Shear 8.16.6.1 Shear Strength 8.16.6.1.1 Design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on! VS oVe 8-46)816.6.1.1 DIVISION I—DESIGN. 179 ‘where Vs isthe factored shear force atthe section consid- cred and V, is the nominal shear strength computed by. VERVE 47) Where Ve is the nominal shear streagth provided by the ‘concrete in accordance with Article 8.16,6.2, and V. is the nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforce- ‘ment in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. Whenever applicable, effects of torsion* shall be included, 8.166.1.2 When the reaction, in the direction of applied shear, introduces compression into the end regions ‘of a member, sections located less than a distance d fromm the face of support may be designed for the same shear, Vj, 86 thal computed ata distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer than d tothe support shall be designed for V ata distance d plus the maiar concentrated loads. 8.16.62 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete 8.1662.) Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings For members subject to shear and flexure only, V shall bbe computed by, Y (19. +2.5000, Mga 6-48) or, Ve=2-VEbd (8-49) where b isthe width of web and d isthe distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, Whenever applicable, effects ‘of torsion shall be included. Fora circular section, by shall bbe the diameter and d need not be less than the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member, For tapered webs, b, shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller. Note: (@) Ve shall not exceed 3.5°VEZ bad when using more etailed calculations. “he design criteria fr combined torsion and shear given in “Build ing Code Roguirement or ReiforentConcree” ACT18 may be used (b) The quantity VJd/M, shall not be greater than 1.0 ‘where M, i the factored moment occurting simultané- ‘ously with V, at the section being considered. 8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members For members subject to axial compression, Ve may be computed by. N, V,=2/1+ ie 7 le t vax | Fe tod) (8-50) Ve = 2-V Ed 8-51) Note: ‘The quantity NVA, shall be expressed in pounds per square inch. 8.16.62.3 Shear in Tension Members For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce- ‘ment shail be designed to carry total shear, unless a more detailed calculation is made using: fs Ny ee (8-52) 300A, Note: (@) Nyiis negative for tension. (b) The quantity NYA, shall be exptessed in pounds per square inch, 816.624 Shear in Lighnweight Concrete ‘The provisions far shear stress, vq, carted by the concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply: (@) When fais specified, the shear srength, Ve shall be modified by substituting {6.7 for VE, but the value of f6.7 used shall not exceed VEZ. (&) When fis nat specified, V,shaltbe multipied by 0.15 for“all lightweight” concrete, and 0.85 for “sand lightweight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be used when partial sand replacement is used. 8.16.63 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement 8.16.63.1 Where factored shear force V, exceeds shear strength ¥,, shear reinforcement shall be provided180 HIGHWAY BRIDGES to satisfy Equations (8-86) and (8-47), but not less than that required by Article 8.19. Shear strength V, shall be computed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.3.2 through 8.16.6.3.10. §.16.6.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular tothe avis of the member is used: 8-53) where A. is the atea of shear reinforcement within distance s. 8.16.6.3.2 When inclined stirrups are used: Asf, (sinae+ cosayd (8-54) 8.16.63.4 Whenasingle bar ora single group of parallel bars all bent up atthe same distance from the support is used Afsina=3VEbd 655) 8.16,6.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent- up bars at different distances from the suppor', shear strength V, shall be eomputed by Equation (6-54). 8.16.6.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered effective for shear reinforcement. 8.16.5.3.7 Where more than one type of shear ceinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, shear strength V, shall be computed as the sum of the V, values computed for the various types. 8.16638 When shear strength V, exceeds 4 VE ba spcing of shea enforcement stall ao exceed one- half the maximum spacing given in Article §.193. 8.16.6.39 Shear sitengih Y_ shall not be taken greater than 8 bud 8166.32.10 When flexural reinforcement, located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength, is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Anicle 824.14. 8.1663.1 8.16.64 Shear Friction 8.16.64.1 Provisions for shear-Iriction are to be ap plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane, such as: an existing or potent crack, an interface bexween dissimilar materials, ora interface between two coneretes cast at different times 8.16.6.4.2 Design of cross sections subject «6 shear transfer as described in Article 8.16.6.4.1 shall be fused fon Equation (8-46), winere shear strength V, is calew ated in accordance with provisions of Article 8.16.643 or 8.16.64. the shear plane considered, Required area of sheat-frition reinforcement A, across the shear plane may be designed using either Adicle 8.16.64. or any other shear transfer design methods that result in prediction of stcength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of Article 8.16.64.5 through 8.16.6.1.9 shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength 816.644 Shear-friction Design Method (a) When the shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to the shear plane, shear strength, Vn. shall be computed by Aut 8561 whace pis the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article (¢). (b) When the shear-frition reinforcement is inclined to the shear plane, such that the shear force preduces tension in shear-friction reinforcement, shear suength Vz shall be computed by: Vara, (usin ay + cosa) (856A) where ay is the angle between the shear-frietion reinforcement and the shear plane. (c) Coe'ficient of friction p in Eq, (8-56) and Equation (8-56A) shal be: Concrete placed monolithically ..... Lan Concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as specitied in Ar- ticle 8.16648 -l.OR Concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened 0.6 Concrete anchored to as-colled structural ste! by headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article 816.64.9) : 7 Om8.16644 where A = 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for “sand lightweight” concrete; and 0,75 for “all lightweight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied ‘when partial sand replacement is used. 8.16.64.5 Shear strength V, shall not be taken ‘greater than 0.21! Ac, nor 800 A. in pounds, where Ax is the area of the concrete section resisting shear transfer. 816.646 Net tension across the shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across the shear plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement, Avy, ‘when calculating required Ay. 816647 Shear-fiction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shal be anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices. 8.16.6.4.8 For the purpose of Article 16.6.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free ‘of laitance, If pis assumed equal to 1.0A, the interface shall be roughened to a fu] amplitude of approximately 4 inch, 8.16.64.9 When shear is wansferred between as- rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint 8.16.65 Horizontal Shear Strength for ‘Composite Concrete Flexural Members 8.16.6.1 In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected elements. 8,16.65.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of paragraph 8.16.6.5.3 oF 8.16.6.5.4, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests 8.16.6.5.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be based on: Wes OV est where V.is the factored shear force atthe section considered, Va is the nominal horizontal shear strength in ac- DIVISION I~DESIGN 181 cordance with the following, and where dis for the entire composite section, (a) When contact surface is clean freeoflatance, and intentionally roughened, shear srengtt Va shall not be taken greater than 80b44, in pounds () Whon minimurn ties are provided in accordance ‘with paragraph 8.16.6 5.5, and contact surface is clean and free of lntance, bot no intentionally roughened, shear strength Vj shall not be taken greater than 80 bd in pounds. (©) When minimum tes are provided in accordance with paragraph 8.16.6.5.5, and conzact surface is clean, fre of laitance, and intentionally roughened to 4 fll amplitude of approximately Yin, shear strength Vg hall not be taken greater than 350b.4, in pounds B For each percent of te reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess ofthe minimum required by 8.166.5.5, shear strength Via may be increased by (1605 40,000). in pounds. 8.16.6.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer thar force as, horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon- lal shear strength Va, in accordance with paragraph 8.16.6.5.3, except that the length of the segment considered shall be substituted ford. 8.16.65.3 Tes for Horizontal Shear (@) When required, 2 minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected ele- ‘ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50b,s/f,, and tie spacing, s, shall not exceed four times the least web ‘width ofthe support element, nor 24 in. (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars ‘or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks. 8.16.66 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings 8.16.6.6.1 Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vieinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov- cemed by the more severe of two conditions (a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical section extending in a plane'across the entire width and located at a distance d from the face ofthe concentrated182 HIGHWAY BRIDGES load or reaction area. For this condition. the siub or footing shall be designed in accordance with Anicles 8.16,6.1 through 8.16.6.3 except at footings supported ‘on ites. the shear on the critical section shall be de~ termined in accordance with Article 44.113 (b Two-way action for the slab or Tooting, with @ cttical section perpendicular to the plane of the member and located so that its perimeter b, is a minimum, but need aot approach closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated loud or reaction area. For this con dition, the slab or Footing shall be designed in accor dance with Articles 8.16.6.6.2 and 8,16.6.6.3 8.16.6.6.2 Design of slab or footing for wo-way action shall be based on Equation (8-46), where shear strength V, shall not be taken greater than shear strength YV. given by Equation (8-58), unless shear reinforcement is provided in accordance with Article 8.16.6.6.. v. (+g )Wenasnena 6-58) 8: is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated Toad or reaction area. and b, is the perimeter of the erti- cal section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1(b). 8.16.6.6.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance \with the fllowing provisions: (a) Shear strength V, shall be computed by Equation (8-47), where shear strength V, shall be in accordance ‘with paragraph (0) and shear strength V, shall be in a cordance with paragraph (e). (by Shear strength shall be investigaied atthe critical section defined in 8.16.6.6.1(b), and at successive sections more distant from the support (cy Shear strength Vp shall not be taken greater than 6 Vb, where b, is the perimeter ofthe critical section defined in paragraph (b) (a) Shear strength V, at any section shall not be taken greater than 2 Vf?b,d, where b, is the perimeter of the critical section defined in paragraph (b). fe) Where the factored shear force V, exceeds the shear strength Vas given in paragraph (d}, the required area ‘A. and shear strength V. of shear reinforcement shall be in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. calculat 8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts 8.16.6,7. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or ‘more fill, shear strength V may be computed by: 8.16.6.6.1 =[214 E4009 0 (8-39) My but V, shall nbt exceed 4 VF bd: For single cell box cul- vers only Vf sab monothie with walls ee be taken les than 3 VE bd and Vo fr slabs simply sup ported need not be taken less than 2.5 Vf bd. The cuan- ty Vid, shall no be taken greater than 0 where M, isthe factored moment occurring simultaneously wih atthe section considered For sabs of box culverts der Tes than? fect of Fil applicable provisions of Ailes 324 and 64 should be used 8.16.68 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels* 8.16.6.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.16.6.8 shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio Jd not greater than unity. and subject to a horizontal tea~ sile force N.. not larger than V,. Distance d shall be measured at the Face of support 8.16.6.8.2 Depth at the outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.54. 8.16.6.8.3 The section atthe face of the suppor shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V,,a moment Cia, + Nuc (hr = d), and a horizontal teasile fore: Ny. Distance h shall be measured at the face of support. (@) In all design calculations in accordance witk Ari- cle $.16.6.8, the strength reduction factor o sill be taken equal to 0.85, (b) Design of shear-friction reinforcement A, toresist shear V, shall be in accordance with Article §.16.6.4 For normal weight concrete, shear strength V, shall not be taken greater than 0.2fbad nor 800b,d in pounds. For “all lightweight” or “sand-lightweight” corerete, shear strength V, shall not be taken greater than (. 0.07aJU)feb.d nor (800 ~ 280a,/d)b.d in pounes. (e) Reinforcement A, to resist moment (Wyo. + Nosh = €)) shall be computed in accordance with Ar- ticles 8.16.2 and 8.16.3. (4) Reinforcement A. 10 resist tensile force Na shall bbe decermined from Nu. = GA,G. Tensile forte Ny. shall not be taken less than 0.2V, unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces, Tensile force Nu “These provisions dono apply wo beam ledges. The FCA putin, ‘oes on ACL 318-85" contains an exariple desig of beat Iges— Part 16, ample 163.8.16683 shall be regarded as a live load even when tension results from creep, shrinkage, or temperature change. (@) Area of primary tension reinforcement A, shall be made equal to the greater of (A,+ A,) or: BAe ga, 3 8166.84 Closed stirrups or ties parallet (0 A,, with a tolal area Ay not less than 0.5(A,~ A,), shall be uni formly distributed within two-thirds ofthe effective depth adjacent to A,, 8166.85 Ratio p = A/od shall not be less than 0.0446). 8.16.6.8.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement A, shall be anchored by one of the following: (@) a structural weld to 2 transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develoy spcitied yield suengthf of Asbars, (©) bending primary tension bars Ay back to form @ horizontal loop, oF (©) some other means of postive anchorege. 8.16.6.8.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars Ay, nor project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided), ue A ‘ty TTR rT i | 4s A 1 (os asiripa ores) Framing bar to anchor 2 lirrupa or tes FIGURE 81668 DIVISION I~DESIGN 183 8.16.7 Bearing Strength 8.16.7.1. “The bearing stress, f,, on concrete shall not exceed 0.856 I! except as provided in Articles 8.16.72, 8.16.73, and 8.16.74. 8.16.7.2 When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area may be multiplied by VAy/Ay, but not by sore than 2. 8.16.73 When the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, Ay may be taken as the area of tae lower base of the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone.contained ‘wholly within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal 8167.4 When the loaded area is subjected 10 high edge stresses due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including, any increase due to the supporting surface being larger than the Toaded area, shall be multiplied by a factor of 015. 8.168 Serviceability Requirements 8.16.81 Application For flexural members designed with -eference to load factors and strengths by Strength Design Method, stresses at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Article 8.16.8.3, and for dietribution of reinforcement in Article 8.16.8.4. The requirements for con- tuol of defiections in Article 8.9 shall also be satisfied. 8,168.2 Service Load Stresses For investigation of stresses at service loads to satisfy the requirements of Articles 8.16.83 and 8.16.8.4, the straight-line theory of sess and strain in flexure shall be used and the assumptions given in Aricle 8.15.3 shall apply. 8.1683 Fatigue Stress Limits ‘The range between a maximum tensile stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement ccused by live load plus impact at service load shall not exceed: f= 21 ~ 03 3faae + 8(6H) (6-60)13 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8.1683 f, = stress range in kips per square inch: braie minimum stress level, tension positive, jpression.negative in kips per square inch: rihy = ritio of base radius to height of rolled-on trans verse deformations: when the actual value is not known, use 0.3 Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range. Fatigue stress limits ned not be considered for concrete deck slabs with primary reinforcement perpendicu- tar to traffic and designed in accordance with the approx imate methods given under Article 3.24.3. Case A. 8.16.84 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement To contro! Rexural eracking ofthe concrete, tension reinforcement shall be well distributed within maximum flexural zones. When the design yield strength. f. for ten sion reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi. the bar sizes and spacing at maximum positive and negative moment sections shall be chosen so thatthe calculated stress inthe reinforcement at seevice load f,. in ksi does not exceed the value computed by: ay 506 f, = 8-61 al Ceeead where: A. = effective tension area, in square inches. of con= crete surrounding the flexural t ‘ment and having the same centroid as that reins forcement, divided by the number of bts or wires, When the flexural reinforcement comnts ‘of several bar or wire sizes, the number of bur \wires shall be computed as the total area of ‘cin- Torcement divided by the area of the lunges: bar ‘oF wire used, For calculation purposes. the thick: ness of elear concrete cover used to compute A shall not be taken greater than 2 in, 4d, = distance measured from extreme tension fiber 10 center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For calculation purposes, the thickness of clearcon- ‘erate cover used to compute d, shall not be ken greater than 2 inches. asion reinferce: ‘The quantity z in Equation (8-61) shall not exceed 170 kips per inch for members in moderate exposure conditions and 130 kigs per inch for members in severe exposure conditions. Where members are exposed to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments such as deicer chemicals, protection should be provided by incteasing the denseness or imperviousness 10 water or furnishing other protection such asa waterproof ing protecting system, in addition to satisfying Equa- tion (8-61), Part D REINFORCEMENT. 8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL, MEMBERS S.17L_Mi wum Reinforcement, 8.7.1.1 At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the ceinforcement provided shall be adequate to develop a mo- reat at least {.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1 6M, 2 12M, 6-62) B.ITL.2 The requirements of Article 8.17.1.t may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at a section is atleast one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the loading combinations specitied in Article 3.22. 7.2__ Distribution of Reinforcement 8.17.21 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of Maximum Tension BIT21.1- Where flanges of T-girders and bos-yird- ‘ers are in tension, tension reinforcement shall be distcib uted over an effective tension flange width equal to ¥ the girder span length or a width as defined in Article 8.10.1, whichever is smaller. Ifthe actual slab width, cen tee-to-center of gitder webs, exceeds the effective tension817211 flange width, and for excess portions of the deck slab ‘overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement with area not less than 0.4 percent of the excess slab area stall be provided in the excess portions ofthe slab, 8,17.2.1.2. For integral bent caps of F-girder and box- sirder construction, tension reinforcement shall be placed within a width not to exceed the web width plus an over~ hanging slab width on each side of the bent cap web equal to one-fourth the average spacing of the intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 8.10.14 for integral bent caps, whichever is smaller. 8,172.13 Whe depth of the side face of a member exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be ‘uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement Ay per foot of height, fon each side face shall be = 0.012 (d — 30). The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed’ the lesser of #/6 and 12 inches. Such reinforcement may be included in strength computations if « strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the indiv'sual bbars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin rein-, forcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of “he required flexural tensile reinforcement. 8.17.2.2_ Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in “T-Girders and Box Girders, ‘Atleast one-third of the bottom layer ofthe transverse reinforcement in the deck sleb shall extend tothe exterior face of the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90-degree hook. Ifthe slab extends beyond the last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into the slab overhong and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the girder web not Tess than that provided by a standard hook. 817.23 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box. Girders 8.17.23.1 Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4 percent of the flange, area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed 18 inches. 817.2.3.2 Minimum disuibyted reinforcement of 0.5. percent ofthe cross-sectional area of th slab, based on the Teast slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab trans verse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be dis DIVISION I—DESIGN 185 twibured over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 inches. All ransverse reinforcement in thebottom slab shall ‘extend to the exterior face of the outside gder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90-cegree hook. 8,17.3__Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members 8173.1 Compression reinforcement used 10 increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups which shall be at least No. 3 in size for Tongitudinal bars that are No. 10 or smiles, and at least No, 4 in size for No. 11, No. 14, No. 18, and bundied lon sgitudinal bars, Welded wire fabric of equivalent area may be used instead of bars. The spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be provided throughout the distance where the compression reinforcement is required. This paragraph does not apply to reinforcement located in compression zone which has not been considered as compression reinforce- ‘mont in the design of the member. 81732 Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall consist of closed stimups, closed tes, or spirals, combined with longitudinal bars. See Article 8.15.5.1.1 or 8.16.6.4.1. 817.33 Closed stirrups or ties maybe formed in one piece by overlapping the standard end hooks of ties orstr- rips around a longitudinal bar, or may pe formed in one ‘or two pieces by splicing with Class C splices (lap of 1:79). BA7.34 In seismic areas, where an earthquake that could cause major damage to construction has a ‘igh probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be: ‘designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and ductility to resist expected seismic movements, 8.18_REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION ‘MEMBERS 8.18.._Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal ‘Reinforcement 8.8.1.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement for compression members shall not exceed 0.08 times the gross area, A;, of the section, 8.18.12 The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0,01 times the gross area, ‘Ag of the section. When the cross section is larger than that required by consideration of load.ng, a reduced ef-186 HIGHWAY BRIDGES fective area may be used. The reduced effective area shall not be less than that which would require 1 percent of fongitudinal reinforcement.to carry the loading. The minimum nurmber of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be si for bars-in circular aerangement and four for bars in a rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bars shall, be No. 5. Lateral Reinforcement 8.8.2.1 General In a compression member that has a larger cross sce tion than that required by conditions of loading. the lateral reinforcement requirements may be waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate strength and feasibility of construction. 8.18.2.2 Spirals Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall ‘conform to the followis 18.2.2.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wice, with a minimum diameter of Y inch, 8,18.2.2.2. The ratio of spiral reinforcement t0 total volume of core, p., shall not be less than the value given by: (Az os] 2-1 Ae Ih where f is the specitied yield strength of spiral reinforeement but not more than 60,000 psi 8-63) 8.18.2.2.3 The clear spacing between spirals shall rot exceed 3 inches or be less than 1 inch or 14 times the maximum size of course aggregate used, 8.18.2.24 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1/extra tums of spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral unit, 8.18.2.2.5 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or other support to the level of the fowest horizontal rein forcement in members supported above. 8.18.2.2.6 Splicesin spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48 bar or wire diameters but not fess than 12 inches, or shall be welded. 88.1.2 818.2.2.7 Spirals shall be of such size and se as- sembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed dimensions. 8182.28 Spirals shall be held fiemly in place by at- tachment to the longitudinal reinforcement and true tine by vertical spacers. 818.23 Ties Tie reinforcement for compression members shallcon- form to the following: 8.18.2.3.1 All bars shall be enclosed by laters ties which shall be atleast No. 3 in size for longitudinal bars that are No, 10 or smaller, and atleast No. 4 in size For No. U1, No. 14, No. [8, and bundled longitudinal bars De- Formed wire or welded wire fabric of equivatent area may bbe used instead of bars, 8.18.2.3.2 The spacing of ties shall not exceed the least dimension of the compression member or | inches. When twa or more bars larger than No, 10 are bundled to- ‘gether, tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above. 8.18233 Ties shall be located not more than half a tie spacing from the face of a footing or from the nearest longitudinal reinforcement of a eross-framing member. 6.18.2.3.4 No longitudinal bar shall be more than 2 feet, measured along the tie, from a restrained bar on either side. A restrained bar is ore whic has lateral support provided by the comer of a tiz having an included angle fof not more than 135 degrees. Where longitudinal bers are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete cir- ccular tie may be used. 8.18.24 Seismic Requirements In seismic areas, where an earthquake which could ‘cause major damage to construction has a high probability of oceurrence, lateral ceinforcement for columr. piers shall be designed and detailed 10 provide adequate steength and ductility to resist expected seismic nove- ments, 8,19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 8.19.1_Minimum Shear Reinforcement 8.19.11 A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all Nexural members, except slabs and footings, where:819.11 (@) For design by Strength Design, factored shear force V, exceeds one-half the shear strength provided by concrete V. (b) For design by Service Load Design, design shear stress v exceeds one-half the permissible shear stress carried by concrete v.. 19.1.2 Where shear reinforcement is required by Article 8.9.1.1, orby analysis, the area provided shall not be less than: 8-64) ue : 4475 bes where ands are inches, = tide f2t DIVISION I-DESIGN 189 8.2422 Whena flexural member is part of the lateral load resisting system, the positive moment reinforcement requited to be extended into the surport by Article 8.24.2. shall be anchored to develop tx specified yield strength, f, in tension atthe face of the ‘upport. 824.23 At simple supports and at points of inflection, postive moment tension reinforcement shal be limited toa diameter such that &, computed for f, by Article 8.25 satisfies Eq. (8-65); except Eq. (865) need not be ‘satisfied for reinforcement terminating beyond center line (of simple supports by a standard hook, or 2 mechanical anchorage at least equivalent toa standa‘d hook. asttey ee ‘where M is the compated moment capacity assuming all positive momen tension reinforcement athe section tobe {ally suesced. V isthe maximum shear force atthe sec~ tion. ata suppor shall be tlie embedment length beyond the center ofthe support. Ata paiat of inflection, ¢, shall bbe limited to the effective depth of the member or 12 dy. whichever is greater. The value M/V in the development length limitation may he irereased by 30percent when the ‘ends ofthe reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction. 824.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement 8.2431 Negative moment reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be anchored in or through the supporting member by embedment lengih, hooks, or me- ‘chanical anchorage. 8.2432 Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as required by Article 8.24.1 8.2433 At least one-third of the total tension reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length beyond the point of in- fleotion not less than the effective depth ofthe member, 12- bar diameters or Ys ofthe clear span, whichever is greater. 825 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS (go, ANDDEFORMED.WIREINTENSION 7, Se "The de lopment length, é in inches shall be com puted as the product of the basic development length finan Aticle 85.1 and the applicablemodificationLAP splicgy 83% 190 === _ HIGHWAY BRIDGES 825) tor or factors defined: in Article 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but Cy shall be nat less than that specified in Aticle 8.25.4 1. The basic development length shall be: No. U1 bars and smaller = © ve put not ess than «zp -23:78.4B... / 0.000%, o.08st, No. 14 bars No. 18 bars deformed wire 8.25.2 The basic development length shall be multiplied by the following applicable factor or factors: 825.21 Top reinforcement so placed that more than [2 inches of concrete is cast below the reinforcement 1a Lightweight aggregate concrete when fy is specified but not less than 10 When fis not specified all lightweight" concrete... 1.33 ~sand lightweight” concrete 11g Linear interpolation may be applied when partial sand replacement is used, 8.25.23 Bars coated with epory with cover less than 3d, or clear spacing between bars Tess than 6d, as All other cases 115 The product obtained when combining the factor for top reinforcement ‘with the applieable factor for ‘epoxy coated reinforcement need rot be taken greater than 1.7 Tension Ld: 2h AS vote fy AS /sta, \ 8.25.3 The basic development length, modified by th appropriate factors of Article 8.25.2, may be multiplied by the following factors when: 8253.1 Reinforcement being developed in the length under consideration is spaced Ister= ally at least 6 inches on center with a ksast 3 inches clear cover measured in the direc: tion of the spacing 08 Anchorage or development for reinforce: ‘ent strength is not specifically required or reinforcement in flexural members is it ex cess of that required by analysis (Acrequited A, provided) 825.33. Reinforcement isenclosed within a spiral of not less than 1/4 inch in diameter ané not more than 4 inch pitch «2... .--.0.75 8.25.4 Thedevelopment length, fy, shall not be fessthat 12 inches except in the computation of lap splices by Article 8.32.3 and development of shear reinforcement by Article 8.27, 8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION ‘The development length, ¢,, in inches. for deformed bars in compression shall be computed as the product oF the basic development length of Article 8.26.1 and applicable modification factors of 8.26.2, but (, shall rot be less than 8 inches. 8.26.1 The basic development length shall be. 0.024, Vt but not less than = 0.00034, 8.26.2. The basic development length may be multiplied by applicable factors when: j2.1 Anchorage or development for rein’orce- ‘ment stcength isnot specifically requited. oF reinforcement is in excess of that required by analysis. (Actequicedy (A, provided) 8.26.2.2 Reinforcement is enclosed in a spiral of not less than 1/4 inch in diameter and not more tha d-inch piteh wees OTS BUS827 DIVISION I~DESIGN 191 827 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 8.27.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend at least to the centroid of the tension reinforcement, as close 10 the compression and ten: ‘member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement permit. Shear reinforcement shall be an- ‘chored at both ends for its design yield suength. For composite-flexural members, all beam shear reinforcement shall be extended into the deck slab or otherwise shall be adeguately anchored to assure full beam design shear capacity. 8.272. The ends of single leg, single U, or multiple U- stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means: 8.27.21 A standard hook plus an embedment of the: stirrup leg Tength of at least 0.5 €4 between the mid-depth of the member d/2 and the point of tangency of the hook, 8272.2 An embedment length of C,above or below the mid-depth of the member on the compression side but rot less than 24-har or wire diameters or, for deformed bars or deformed wire, 12 inches. 8.27.23 Bending around the longitudinal reinforcement through at least 180 degrees. Hooking or bending, stirrups around the longitudinal reinforcement shall be considered effective anchorage only when the stirrups make an angle of atleast 45 degrees with the longitudinal reinforcement, 8.27.24 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric forming single U-stirrups, either: 8.27.24.) Two longitudinal wires at 2-inch spacing along the member a the top of the U. 8.27.24.2 One longitudinal wire located not more than 4/4 from the compression face and a second wire ‘closer to the compression face and spaced at least 2 inches from the first wire. The second wire may be located on the stirrup leg beyond a hend or on a bend with an inside diameter of bend of not less than 8-wire diameters. 827.25 For each end of a single-leg stiup of welded smooth or welded deformed wire fabric, there shall be two longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of 2 in, and with the inner wire atleast the greater of d/4 or in. from mid-depth of member d/2. Outer longitudinal ‘wire at the tension face shall not be farther from the face than the portion of primary flexural reinforcement closest to the face. 8.27.3. Pairs of U-stirrups.or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the laps are 1.7 be 8274 Between the anchored ends, cach bend in the continuous portion of a single U- or multiple U-stirrup shall enclose a longitudinal bar 8.275 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear einforce- ‘ment, if extended into a region of tension, shall be continuous with the longitudinal reinforcement and, if extended into a region of compression, shall be anchored beyond the mid-depth, d/2, as specified for development length in Article 8.25 for that part of the sess in the reinforcement required to satisfy Equation (8-8) or Equa- tion 6-54). 8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS ‘The development length of individual bars within a bundle, in tension or compression, hc! ¥e that forthe in- vidual bar, increased by 20 percent for athree-bar bundle, and 33 percent for 8 four-bar bundle 8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS INTENSION 8.29.1 Development length &y in inches, for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article 8.23.1) shall be computed 2s the product of the basic development length €,s of Anicle 8.29.2 and the applicable ‘modification factor or factors of Article 8.29.3, but fa, shall not be less than 84, oF 6 inches, whichever is greater. 829.2 Basic development length tw for a hooked bar with equal 10 60000 pl stall be : woneee 200 VEE 8.293 Basic development length €y shall be multiplied by applicable modification factor or factors for: 8293.1 Bar yield suength Bars with f ther than 60,000 psi : £460,000 8293.2 Concrete cover For No. 11 bar and smaller, side cover (nor- ‘mal to plane of hook) nct less than 2/4 in.,192 HIGHWAY BRIDGES and for 90-deg hook, cover on bai extension beyond hook not fess than 2 in o7 8.29.33. Ties or stirrups: For No. 11 bar and smaller, hook enclosed. vertically of horizontally within ties or sti rup-ties spaced along the full development length (4 not greater than 3d, where dy is diameter of hooked bar 08 8.2934 Excess reinforcement: Where anchorage or development for f, is, not specifically required, reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis... required\(A, provided) Lightweight aggregate concrete 3 Epoxy-coated reinforcement hooked bars with epoxy coating .. 12 8.29.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or bottom) cover over hook less than 2 in., hooked br shall be enclosed within ties or stioups spaced along the full development length Cz, not greater than 3d, Cries! 2, Section 4d, | #9 through #8 9, #10 and #11 en rand ne FIGURE 8.29.1 Hooked-Bur Details for Development of ‘Standard Hooks 8,293.2 pe TF fess than Sin FIGURE $.29.4 Hoaked-Bar Te Requirements where dy is the diameter of the hooked bar, For this ease the factor of Article 8.29.3.3 shall not apply. 8.29.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in davel- ‘oping bars in compression. 830 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION 830.1 Deformed Wire Fabric 8.0.1.1 The development length. (4. in inches of welded deformed wire fubric measured from the point of critical section to the end of wire shall be computed 2s the product of the basic development length of Aricle 5.30.1.2 or 8.30.1.3 and the applicable modification fac- toror factors of Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3 but {, shall not be less than 8 inches except in computation of lp splices by Article 8.32.5 and development of shear reinforcement by Aticle 8.27, 8.30.1.2 The basic development length of welded deformed wie fabric, with at least one cross wire within the development length not less than 2 inches from the point ‘of critical section, shall be: 0.034, (f,- 20.0000 (8-66), ‘but not tess than, (8.67) 8.30.13 The basic development length of we ded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the development length, shall be determined as for deformed wire in accordance with Article 8.25. The 20000 has wns ofp830.2 830.2 Smooth Wire Fabric ‘The yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall bbe considered developed by embedment of two cross Wwires with the closer cross wire not less-than 2 inches from the point of critical section. However; development length €, measured from the point of critical section to ‘outermost cross wire shall not be less than: oa7 As. Sw yfe 8-68) modified by (A, required)/(A, provided) forreinforcement in excess of that required by analysis and by factor of Ar- ticle 8.25.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete, but é,shall not be less than 6 inches except in computation of lap splices by Article 8.32.6. 831 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE 8.31.1 Any mechanical device shown by tests to be capable of developing the strength of reinforcement without damage to concrete may be used as anchorage. 8.31.2 Development of reinforcement may consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional em- bbedment length of reinforcement between point of maxi: ‘mum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage. 8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown, lon the design drawings or as specified or as authorized by the Engineer. 832.1 Lap Splices 8.32.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than No. 11, except as provided in Antcles 8.32.4.1 and 44.1141 8.32.1.2 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based ‘on the lap splice length required for individual bars within a bundie. The length of lap, as prescribed in Article 832.3, cor 8.32.4 shall be increased 20 percent forathree-bar bundle and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle. Individual bar splices within the bundle shall not overlap. 832.13 Bass spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall ot be spaced transversely father apart than Ys the required length of lap or 6 inches. DIVISION I~DESIGN 193 8.32.14 The length, f4, shall be the development Tength for the specified yield strength, f,,as given in Artis cle 8.25. 8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections 8322.1 Welded splices or other mechanical connec- | tions may be used Except as provided herein, all welding. | Shall conform othe latest eiton of the American Weld: | i \ ing Society publication, “Structural Welding Code Rein- forcing Steel.” \ 8322.2 A fullwelde splice shat have bars buted | and welded to develop in tension atleast 125 percent of | the specified yield stength ofthe bar. of the specified yield strength of the bar. 8323. Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension 8.32.3.1 The minimum length of lyp for tension lap ‘splices shall be as required for Class A. B, or Csplice, bat not less than 12 inches. Class A splice . v1.06 Class B splice . 136 Class C splice 17 832.32 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed ‘wire in tension shall conform to Table 832.3.2. 83233 Welded splices or mecharical connections used where the area of reinforcement provided is ess than twice that required by analysis shall meet the requirements of Anite 832.2. or 832.23 TABLE 832.32 Tension Lap Splices ‘Maximam Percent of Ay Spliced within Required Lap Length Acprovidern(As resus 50158100 Elio orGreaerthan? -~-GlassA Clas Chis Lass than? Glass B ClaeC Class “Rail of aes of relnercement provided to area of relaforcerent, sequired by analysis at splice letion.194 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8.32.34 Welded splices or mechanical connections used where the area of reinforcement provided is at feast ‘vice that required by analysis shall meet the following: 8.32.34. Splices shall be’ staggered at feast 24 inches and in such manner as to develop at every section atleast wiee the calculated tensile force at that section but rot less than 20,000 psi for the total area of reinforcement provided. 8.32.34.2 In computing tensile force developed at each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the specified splice strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall bee rated at that fraction of f, defined by the ratio of the shorter actual development length to C, required to de velop the specified yield strength f, 8.32.2.8 Splices in tension tie members shall be made ‘witha full-welded splice or a full-meckanical connection in accordance with Angle 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3 Splices in adjacent bars shall be staggered atleast 30 inches. 8.324 Splices of Bars in Compression 8324.1 Lap Splices in Compression ‘The minimum length of tap for compression tap splices shall be 0.0005f,¢4 in inches, but not less than 12 inches. When the specified concrete strength. f'. is less than 3,000 psi. the length of lop shall be increased by one-third, ‘When bars of vifferent size are lap spliced in compres sion, splice length shall be the larger of: development length of the larger bar. or splice length of smaller bar. Bar sizes No, 14 and No. 18 may be lap spliced to No. I and smaller bars. In compression members where ties along the splice have an effective area not tess than 0.0015hs, the lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but the lap length shall not be less than 12 inches. The clfective area of the ties shall be the area of the legs perpendicular 10 dimension h In compression members when spirals are used for lateral restraint along the splice, the lap splice length may be ‘multiplied by 0.75, but the lap length shall not be less than 12 inches, 8 2 End-Bearing Splices Inbars required for compression only, the compressive siress may be transmitted by-benring of square cut ends 83234 held in concentric contact by a suitable device. Bar ends shall terminate in fat surfaces within IY: degrees of aright angle tothe axis ofthe bars and shall be fited within 3de. ‘grees of full bearing after assembly. End-bearing splces shall be used only iti members containing closed ties. closed stirrups. or spirals. 8.32.43 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connections Welded splices or mechanical connections used in compression shall meet the requirements of Aricle 832,22 0f 832.23, 8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in ‘Tension 8.32.5.1 The minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric measured betweer the ends of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.7 ‘or 8 inches, and the overlap measured between the outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 2 inches. 8.32.52 Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric. swith no crass wires within the lap splice length, shall be determined as for deformed wire in accordance with Arti- ele 8.32.3.1. 8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabri Tension ‘The minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the fol lowing: 8.32.6.1 When the area of reinforcement provided is, less than twice that required by analysis at the splive fo- cation, the length of overlap measured between the outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be fess than one spacing of cross wires plus 2 inches or less thon 1.5 4, 0F 6 inches, 8.32.6.2 When the area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis atthe splice location, the length of overlap measured between the outer- ‘most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than L5 €or? inches.Section 9 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PartA GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS 9.1 APPLICATION d= distance from extreme compressive fiber 10 centroid ofthe presessing fore, orto cen 944 General old of negative omer tenfccng for pre Scere cast de rds unde contnaoas J specifications ofthis secon ae intended for de- gm ara CE a mS aber sign of presuessed coneree bridge members. Members tothe centroid of the non-pestressed tension designed as reinforced concrete, excep for a percentage tenforeoment Articles 91 and 9.17919) Bese eine eeeeteta rn eee ce conform io the applicable sperifeations of Secon weet ey eure oe eee ee ee cece ree cree ote aries cee ‘may have been assigned arbitrary values. of the prestressing steel under full dead load (arte 16) 9.1.2 Notations fate = average concrete stress at the c.g. of the pre~ Suessing see time of lease (Atle 9.3) AS = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement fe = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (Amicles 97 and 9.19) = compressive strength of concrete at time of ‘AL = area of compression reinforcement (Article initial prestress (Article 9.15) O19) fa -=amenge opltiog enale szeegth of Tighe At = aeaofpresuessng sel (Anil 9.17) Weigh ggrpate concrete, ps an cl area required to develop the compressive fe = sues due to unfactored dea load, at extreme fees fe once peru ort fiber of teaton where nae swe is cnaed fang tance) byexteralyaplied oats "Arele 9.20) Au =stelaresrequiedtodevelopthecompressve fe =compressve sues in conercte (after al- strength ofthe web ofa flanged section (Art lowance fr all prestres losses) at cenroid of ee ecieeeestaag cerrratepeeaet rane A rea of web reinforcement (Article 9.20) loads or at junction of web and flange when” b /idth of flange of flanged member or width of | the centroid lies within the flange (In a com- rectangular member posite member, fis resultant compressive b = width of cross section at the contact surface stress at centroid of composite section, or at Being avestgned for borizotal shear (ARI. junction of web and flange when tbe centroid cle 9.20), lies within the fange, due to both prestess We widiofa web ofa fanged member Gee eeceratie eessceeese a eee oer ae eee ing lone \Ariele 9.20) tile 9.16) Fe ee ee CR, loss of presuess de io relaxation of pre- prestess forces only (ter alowanoe fo ll stressing steel (Article 9.16) D —_ = nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Arti- cles 9.17 and 9.27) 195 prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally ‘applied loads (Article 9.20)196 HIGHWAY BRIDGES: One fh ‘guaranteed ultimate tensile strength of the SH = foss of presiress due 10 concrete shrinkage presteessing set, AST. (Acticle 9.16) the modulus of fuplure of conerete, as defined —s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement in Anicle 9.15.2:3 Article 9.18) (Article 9.20) Me otal presiress loss, excluding friction (Article Sy "= noncomposite section modulus for the ex 9.16) treme fiber of section where the tensile ress f. elfeetive steel prestress after losses is caused by externally appliod loads (Article Be erage stress in prestressing steel at ultimate 9.18) toad S. = composite section modulus for the extreme f= ukimate stress of prestressing steel (Articles fiber of section where the tensile sires is 9.15 and 9.17) caused by externally applied loads (Article yield steess of aon-prestressed conventional 9.18) reinforcement in tension (Articles 9.19 and = average thickness of the Mange of & Manged K L M, Me Mac Marc 9.20) = yield Stress of non-prestressed conven: tional reinforcement in compression (Anticie 9.19) : = yield stress of prestressing steel (Article 9.15) 0.90 F. for low-relaxation wire or strand 0.35 F. for siress-relieved wire or strand = 085 f for Type I (smooth) high-strength bar 0.80 £ for Type Ul (deformed) high-strength bar = overall depth of member (Article 9.20) = moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross section (Article 9.20) = Triction wobble coetficient per foot of pre slressing steel (Article 9.16) Jength of prestressing steel element from jack end to point x (Article 9.16) moment causing Mexural cracking at sec~ tion due to externally applied toads (Article 9.20) cracking moment (Article 9.18) composite dead lead moment at the section (Commentary to Aicte 9.18) = non-composite dead load moment atthe sec tion (Amticle 9.18) ‘maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads (Article 9.20) = nominal moment strength of a section = factored moment at section S dM (Articles 9.17 and 9.18) = AJod, ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (Articles 9.7 ant 9.17-9.19) = Aufod. ratio of prestressing steel (Articles 9.17 and 9.19) = Allbd, ratio of compression reinforcement (Anticle 9.19) = factored tendon force = statical moment of cross-sectional area, above fr below the level being investigated for shear, about the centroid (Article 9,20) member (Articles 9.17 and 9.18) steel stress ot jacking end (Anicle 9.16) = steel stress at any point x (Article 9.16) = permissible horizontal sheur stress (Aricle 9.20) = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Article 920) = nominal shear strength provided by conerete when diagonal cracking results from con bined shear and moment (Acticle 920) = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal eracking results from exces sive principal tensile stvess in web (Aniele 9.20) hear force at section due to untactored deat load (Anicle 9.20) juciored shear force at section due to ester= rally applied loads occurring simultanecusly ith My (Article 9.20) = nominal horizontal shear strength (Awicle 9.20) ‘component of effective prestress ‘nee at section (Article 9.20) nominal shear strength provided by shect r inforcement (Article 9.20) = factored shear force at Section (Article 920) istanee from centroidal axis of gross seution, neglecting reinforcement, to extrome tier in tension (Article 9.20) rietion curvature coefficient (Article 9.16) (otal angular change of prestressing stee! pro file in radians From jacking ead to point xr ticle 9.16) Factor for concrete strength. as defined in Ar ticle 8.16.2.7 (Articles 9.17-9.19) factor for (ype of prestressing steel (Article 917) = 0.28 for fow-relaxation steel 0.40 for stress-rolieved steel 0.55 for bars943 DIVISION I~DESIGN 197 91.3. Definitions ‘The following terms are defined for general use, Specialized definitions appear in individual articles, ‘Anchorage Device—The hardware assembly used for transferring a posttensioning force from the tendon ‘wires, strands or bars to the concrete. ‘Anchorage Seating—Deformation of anchorage ‘or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing force is transferred from jack to anchorage device Anchorage Spacing —Center-to-center spacing of an- ‘chorage devices. Anchorage Zone—The portion of the structure in which the concentrated prestressing foree is transferred from the anchorage device into the concrete (Local Zone), and then distributed more widely into the strmcture (Gen- eral Zone) (Article 9.21.1). Basic Anchorage Device—Anchorage device meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness requirements of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.24; no acceptance test is required for Basic ‘Anchorage Devices. Bonded Tendon—Presiressing tendon that is bonded to conerete either directly or through grouting. Coating —Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and duct or to debond prestressing tendons. ‘Couplers (Couplings)—Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing tendon to another. Creep of Concrete—Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load. Curvature Friction—Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile. Debonding (blanketing)—Wrapping, sheathing, or coating prestressing strand to prevent bond between strand and surrounding concrete Diaphragm —Transverse stiffener in girders to maintain scetion geometry. ‘Duct—Hole or void formed in preprned member to accommodate tendon for post-tensioning. Edge Distance—Distance from the center of the anchorage device to the edge of the concrete ‘member. Effective Prestress—Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing afterall calculated losses have been de- ducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load. Elastic Shortening of Concrete—Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by pre- swessing. End Anchorage—Length of reinforsement, or mechanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof, beyond point of zero stress in reinforcement. End Block—Enlarged end section of member designed to redace anchorage stresses. Friction (post-tensioning}—Surface resistance be- ‘ween tendon and duct in contact during stressing. General Zone—Region within which the concentrated prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress distribution over the cross section of the member (Saint Venant Region) (Article 9.21.2.1) Grout Opening or Vert—Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-lensioning duct for grout, water, oF ar Iniermediate Anchorage—Anchorage not located at the end surface of a member or segmert; usually in the form of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess pockets Jacking Force—Temnporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons. ‘Local Zone—The volume of concrete surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to high local bearing stresses (Article 9212.2) Loss of Presiress—Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effécts of strains in concrete and steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of stec! stress, and for post-tensioned members, friction and anchorage seating. Post-Tensioning—Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened, Precompressed Zone—Portion of flexural member ‘cross section compressed by prestressing force. Prestressed Concrete—Reinforced concrete in ‘hich internal stresses have been intrcduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from Toads. Pretensioning—Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed. Relaxation of Tendon Stress—Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain, ‘Shear Lag—Nonuniform distributionof bending stress over the cross section, Shrinkage of Concrete—Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hy- ration process). ‘Special Anchorage Device—Aitchorage device whose adequacy must be proven expecimentally in the standardized acceptance tests of Division Il, Section 103.23.198 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 913 Tendon —Wire, strand, or bar. or bundle of such ele- seats, used {© impart prestreys «0 concrete. Trunsfer—Act of teansferring stress ia prestressing tendons from jacks or preteisioning -bed to concrete member, Transfer Length—Length over which prestressing force is transferred tw concrete by bond in pretensioned members. Wobble Friction Friction caused by unintended devi ation of prestvessing sheath or duet from its specified pro file or alignment. Wrapping or Sheathing Enclosure around a presessing tendon (0 avoid temporary or permanent ond between prestressing tendon and. surrounding concrete, 92 CONCRETE The specitied compressive strength. fof the concrete for each part of the structure shall be shown on the plans. “The requitements for f, shall be based on tests of eylini- ders made and tested in accordance with Division I, Sec: tion 8, "Concrete Structures.” 9.3_REINFORCEMENT 9.3.1_Prestressing Steel Wire, strands, oF bars shail conform to one of the‘folx owing specifications. “Uncoated Siress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Con: crete,” AASHTO M 204, “Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Pee- siressed Concrete.” AASHTO M 203. “Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete,” ASTM A T: Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in AASHTO M 204, AASHTO M 203, or ASTM A 722 may be used provided they conform to the minimum requiremeats of these specifications. 9.3.2 _Non-Prestressed Reinforcement, Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conforma to tne requirements in Article 8.3 Part B ANALYSIS 94 GENERAL, ‘Members shall be proportioned for adequate strength, using these specifications as minimum guidelines. Con- linuous beams and other statically indeterminate structures shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfactory behavior, Behavior shall be determined by elastic analysis. taking into account the reactions. moments. shear, and axial forces produced by prestressing. the ef- Feets of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axiat deformation. resteaint of attacked structural efements, and foundation settlement 9.8.1 In all bridges. provisions shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided for movement caused by temperature changes, 955.2 , Movements not otherwise provided for, including shortening during stressing. shall be provided for by means of hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates, elas tomerie pads, or other devices. 9.6_SPAN LENGTH ‘The effective span lengths of simply supported bears shall not exceed the clear span plus the depth of the beam. ‘The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and beams shall be the clear distance between faces o° sup port. Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the axis of a continuous or restrained stab are built ‘monolithic with the slab and support, the span shall be measured from the section where the combined death of the slab and the filet is atleast one and one-half times the thickness of the slab, Maximum negative moments are to be considered as existing atthe ends of the span, asabove defined. No portion of the fillet shall be conside-ed as adding to the effective depth. 9.7_ FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS ‘CONSTRUCTION The effect of secondary moments du 1 prestssing Shall be included in ses eaulations st working load In calculating ulimate strength moment and shear require tment, the secondary moments or shears induced by pre-924 DIVISION IDESIGN 199 suressing (with a load factor of 1.0) shall be added alge: braically to the moments and shears due to factored or ultimate dead and live loads. 9.1.2 Bridges’ Composed of Simple-Span Precast 2 prestresed Girders Made Continuous 9721 General ‘When structural continuity is assumed in calculating live loads plus impact and composite dead load moments, the effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered in the design of bridges incorporating simple span precast, prestressed girders and deck slabs continuous aver twa or more spans. 91.2.2. Positive Moment Connection at Piers 9.7.2.2.1 Provision shall be made in the design for the positive moments thet may develop in the negative moment region due to the combined effects of creep and shrinkage in the girders and deck slab, and due to the effects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage and elastic shortening of the pier shall be considered when significant. 9.72.22 Non-prestressed positive moment connection reinforcement at piers may be designed at a work ing stress of 0.6 times the yield strength but not to exceed 36 ksi 9.7.2.3 Negative Moments 9.7.2.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement shall be proportioned by strength design with load factors in ac- ‘cordance with Article 9.14. 9.72.32 "The ultimate negative resisting moment shall be calculated using the compressive strength of the ‘girder concrete regardless ofthe suength of the diaphragm concrete. 9.73 Segmental Box Girders 973A General 9,7.3.1.] Elastic analysis and beam theory may be used in the design of segmental box girder structures. 9.7.3.1.2 In the analysis of precast segmental box sirder bridges, no tension shall be pefmitted across any joint between segments during any stage of erection or service loading, 9.7.3.1.3 “In addition to the usval substructure design considerations, unbalanced cantilever moments due 10 segment weights and erection loads shall be accommo- dated in pier design or with auxiliary struts. Erection equipment which can eliminate these unbalanced mo- ‘ments may be used 97.3.2. Flexure ‘The transverse design of segmental box girders for flexure shall consider the segments as r gid box frames. ‘Top slabs shall be analyzed as variable depth sections considering the fillets between top slab and webs. Wheel Toads shall be positioned to provide maximum moments, and elastic analysis shall be used to determine the effective longinudinal distribution of whee! Iouds for each load location. (See Article 3.11.) Transverse prestressing of top slabs is generally recommended. 33 Torsion In the design of the ross section, consideration shall ‘be given to the increase in web shear resulting from eccentric loading or geometry of structure 98 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH 93 SEC 9. TH 98.1.1 For composite prestressed construction where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the beam, the effective flange width shall conform to the provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 8.10.1. 9.8.1.2 For monolithic prestressed construction, with normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange ‘width shall be the distance center-o-certer of beams. For very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessive, an- lytical investigations shall be made to determine the anticipated width of flange acting with the beam. 93.1.3 For monolithic prestressed design of isolated beams, the Range width shall not exceed 15 times the web ‘width and shall be adequate forall design loads. 9.82 Box Girders 2EE Box Cinders | 9.8.2.1 For _cast-in-place box girders with normal _ slab span and girder spacing, where the slats are consid- cred an integral pari of the girder, the entire slab width shall be assumed to be effective in compression. 98.2.2. For box girders of unusuel proportions, in cluding segmental box girders, methods of analysis which200 HIGHWAY BRIDGES consider sheur lug shall be used to determine stresses in the cross section due to longitudinal bending 98.2.3 Adequate fillets shull’be provided at the in= tersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box gider except atthe junction of web and botiom flange where one are cequired Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams ‘Wide Top Flanges 9.8.3.1 For composite prestressed concrete where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally withthe pre~ cast beam, the effective web width of the precast beam shall be the lesser of (1) six times the maximum thickness lof the Mange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web plus the web and fillets, and (2) the total width of the top fa 2 The elective Range width of the composite section shall be the lesser of (1) one-fourth of the spon length of the gitder, (2) six (6) times the thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web width as determined by Article 9.8.3.1 plus the effective web width, and (3) one-half the clear distance on each side of the effective web width plus the effective web wiih, ‘GIRDERS: 991 Top Flange The minimum top lange thickness shall be Yath of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6 inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast. pretensioned elements to 9.9.2 Bottom Flange The minimum bottom Mange thickness shall be Yo1h of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 5V inches, except the miaimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast. pretensioned elements to 5 inches, 993 Web ‘Changes in gitder stem thickness shall be tapered for 8 minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness 9.10 DIAPHRAGMS 9.10.1 General Diaphragms shalt be provided in secordance with Ar- ticles 9.10.2 and 9.19.3 except that diaphragms many be omitted where tests or siructural analysis show adequate slrengit Diaphragms or other means shall be used at spanends to steengthen the free edge of the slab and to tram at- eral forces to the substructure, Intermediate diaphragms shall be placed between the beams atthe points of easi« ‘mum moment for spans over 40 feet Box Girders 9.10.31 For spread box beams. diaphragms shall be placed within the Box and between boxes at spariends and at the points of maximum moment for spans over 80 feet 9.10.32 For precast box multi-beam bridges. ui aphragms are required only if necessary for shab-ead Support or ro contain or resist transverse tension ties. 9.10.33 Forcastin-place hos girders. diaphragms or ‘ther means shall be used at span ends to resist fateral forces and maintain section geometry, Intermediae diaphragms are aot required for bridges with inside radius of curvature of 800 feet or greater. 9.10.34 For segmental box girders, diapha be placed within the box at span ends. Intermediate ui- aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius of curvature of 800 feet or greater. 9.10.3.5 Forall .ypes of prestressed boxes in bridges swith inside radius of curvature less than $00 feet, incer~ mediate diaphragms may be eequired and the spacirg and strength of diaphragms shall be given special considera~ tion in the design of the structure. 9.11_DEFLECTION: 9.111 General Deflection calculations shall consider dead load, live load. prestressing, erection loads. concrete ereep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation.ALD DIVISION I—DESIGN 201 11. ental Box Girders Defiections shall be calculated prior to casting of seg- ‘ments and they shall he based on the anticipated casting. and erection schedules. Calculated deflections shall be used as a guide against which actual deflection measure ‘ments are checked, 9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations ‘When making deflection computations, the following criteria are recommended. 9.11.31 Members having simple or continuous spans preferably should be designed so thatthe deftection ‘due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed Ys ‘of the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part by pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed Yose 9.11.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to service live load plus impact preferably should be limited to 11300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be Ym. 212_DECK PANELS. 9.121 General 9.12.11 Precast prestressed deck panels used as permanent forms spanning between stingers may be designed compositely with the cast-in-plaze portion of the slabs to support additional dead loads ard live loads. 9.12.12 The panels shall be analyzed assuming they support their self-weight, any construction loads, and the weight ofthe castin-place concrete, and shall be analyzed ‘assuming they act compositely with the cast-in-place con- ‘rete to support moments due to additional dead loads and live loads. 9.12.2 Bending Moment 9.12.24 Live load moments shall be computed in accordance with Article 3.24. 9.12.22 In calculating stresses in the deck panel due to negative moment near the stringer, nocompression due ‘o prestressing shall be assumed to exist. Part DESIGN 93 GENERAL 9.131 Design Theory and General Considerations. 9.13.11 Members shall meet the strength requirements specified herein, 9.43.1.2 Design shall be based on strength (Load Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions (Al- lowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be critical during the life of the structure from the time pre- suessing is frst applied. 9.13.13 Stress concentrations due tothe prestressing, shall be considered in the design. 9.13.14 ‘The effects of temperature and shrinkage shall be considered 9.13.2 Basic Assumptions ‘The following assumptions are made for design purposes for monolithic members. 9.13.2.1 Strains vary linearly over the depth of the ‘member throughout the entire load range. Pt 9413.22 Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain. 913.23 After cracking, tension in the concreteis ne- lected. 9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members Composite flexural members consisting of precast ‘and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so interconnected that all elements respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall conform to the provisions of Articles 8.14.2.1 through 8.14.2.4, 8.14.2.6, and the following. 9.13.3.1 Where an entire member is assumed to 1e~ sist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance ‘with the requirements of Articles 9.20.1 through 9.20.3. 9.13.32. ‘The design shall provide for full transfer Cf horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of inter- ‘connected elements. Design.for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirenents of Article 9.20.4. Bde ghsae Sess. ed HIGHWAY BRIDGES cat loge 7 9293 9.13.33. In sirvcwres with a castin-place slab on [Atthe end ofthe seating loss zone 083 if precast beams. the differential shrinkage tends to cause tensile stresses in the slab and inthe bottom of the beams, Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended time period, the effect dn the beams is reduced by ereep. Differemial shinkage niay influence the cracking load and the beam deflection profile. When these factors are particularly significant, she effec of cifferential shrinkage should be added to the etivet of loads. 9.14_LOAD FACTORS. ‘The computed strength capacity shall not be less than the largest value from host factor design in Avticle 3.22, For the design of post-tersioned anchorage zones a load factor of 1.2 shall be applied tothe maximum tendon jack~ ing force, The following strength capacity reduction factors shall be used: Por factory produced! precast prestressed concrete members = LO For post-ensioned cxst-insplace concrete members & = 0.95 For shear = 0.80 For anchorage zones «h = 0.85 for normal weight con crete and & = 0.70 far lightweight concrete. ALLOWABL STRESSES, ‘The design of precast prestressed members ordinarily shall be based on {2 = 5.000 psi. An inevease to 6,000 psi is permissible where, in the Engineer's judgment. it is reasonable to expect that this strength will be obtained consistently. Still higher concrete strengths may be considered on an individual area basis, {n such cases, the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the controls over materials and fabrication procedures will provide the required sivengihs. The provisions of this Section are equally applicable to prestressed concrete structures and components designed with lower concrete strengths, 9.15.1 _Prestressing Steel fess 2 to Ri Pretensioned members: Stcess immediately prior to transter— Low-relasation sirands 20.75 € Stress-relieved strands .. 0.706 Post-iensioned members ‘Suess immediately after seatin ‘At anchorage o70t, 2 ~NBEZ Now Tensioning to 0.90 fF for short periods of time prior to seating may be permitted to offset seating and friction losses provided the stress at the anchorage does not exceed the above val adyen ad Stress a service loud afer tosses oso rae ai Assy yt adatd¥ Wy 9152 conerte TY 7S Syeey 9.15.2.1_Tempor esses Before Losses Dac To Cree and Shrinkage Compression: Pretensioned members 000, Post-ensioged members 035 Tension: Precomptesed tensile one ......No emparary allowable stresses ae specitied. See Anicle 9.15.2. for allowable stresses ater losses Otter Areas grea PsA bo ge o2kg YRS In tension areas with jea7g int 26 2 AHO YRS no bonded reinforcement... ..200 psi or © Where the calculated tensile sivess exceeds this valuiébonded reinforcement shall be provided to resis the total tension force in the concrete computed on the assumption ‘of at uneracked section, The maximum tensile stress shall not exceed ... 13¥ 9152.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses os Have Occurred Compression: (a) The compressive stresses under all load combina tions, except as stated in (b) and (), shall not exceed 0.608 (b) The compressive stresses due to effective presteess plus permanent (dead) loads shatl aot exceed 0.10; (e) The compressive siress due (0 live Toads plus one~ half ofthe sum of compressive siresses due to prestress ‘and permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.431 ‘Tension in the precompressed tensile zone: (a) For members with bonded reinfore ment zl For severe corrosive exposure conditions, peecoumlece a BF = ong [IE 2: 498 [Re “includes tondes pesvese stands Stoves tu consis fal ads conned in Ait 3.2 but des aot ince overtad provisions Bonded) Sa ps ee Aoubiae cote~ 9.1522 DIVISION DESIGN 203 (© Formers wa boned ifr: ment de phe cel) | oP nazar, 0 Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary stresses specified in Article 9.15.21 9.15.23 Cracking Stress Modulus of rupture from tests o¢ if not available. For normal weight concrete ©: 13VE For sand-lightweight concrete 21:22 YF2. 6a, Focal! other lightweight conerte 2.432.102 5 5VEE 24 Anchorage Bearing Stress Post-tensioned anchorage at service toad (but not to exceed 0.9 £2) 3,000 psi 9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS Friction losses in post-tensioned steel shall be based on. experimentally determined wobble and curvature coefficients, aad shall be verified during stressing operations. ‘The values of coefficients assumed for design, and the acceptable ranges of jacking forces and steel elongations shall be shown on the plans. These friction losses shall be calculated as follows: T.= Tete 1 When (KL + pa) is not greater than 0.3, the following equation may be used: T= 7.14 KL + pa) 02) ‘The following values for K and 4 may be used when experimental data for the materials used are not available: ‘hye of Seat Teobe Wire or ungalvoried) Bright metal shrshing 0.0020—-0.30 strand Galroized metal ‘beating 0.0015 0.25 Greed or asphalt costed ‘sed wrapped 020 Galvanized gid ‘0.0002 Highstreagth bars Brigitta sheathing 0.0003, Galanized metal ‘Seating .0002 Friction loses occur prior to anchoring but should be estimated for design and checked uring sessing oper *Referto Article 918. = 20, 6B Niwa” tions. Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to maintain their correct alignment without visible wobble during placement of concrete. Rigid ducts may te fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Gelvanizing of the welded seam will not be required. 916.2 _Prestress Losses 9162.1 General Loss of prestress du to all causes, excluding friction, may be determined by the following method.* The ‘method is based on normal weight concrete and one of the following types of prestressing steel: 250 or 270 ksi, seven-wite, sress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 240 4a stress relieved wes; or 145 10 160 si smooth or deformed bars. Refer to documented tests for data regarding the properties and the effects of lightweight aggregate concrete on prestress losses ‘TOTALLOSS AG=SH+ES+CR+CR \ 03) a - where: Af, = total loss excluding friction in pounds per square inch; SH = loss due to concrete shrinkage in pounds per square inch; ES loss due to elastic shortening in pounds per square inch; CR, = loss due to éreep of concrete in pounds per square inch; CCR, = oss de to relaxation of prsressing sel in pounds per square inch, 9162.11 Shrinkage frstensioned Member: a WT 24 \ SEN 47,000 ~ 150 RH 04) SH Post-tensioned Members: SH 1.80 (17,000 ~ 150 RH) (9-5) mo-B (NFU 084 RH) “Should mere eat pretest dese dt epesnting otras to bs ured the meted ing te ene seie cond onan any pene vac dy shel eset fre ‘SSloeaet tv's med of ealelaing peso lees th 00. ered by spose ach nts See so FHWA Repo AWARD Tis este jor Degen Lighigh Conte Bdge208 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 9.162.101 where RH = meun annual ambient ceative humidity in 16.2.3 Creep of Conerete percent. (See Figure 9.16.2.1.1.) Pretensioned and post-tensioned members: 9.162,1.2 Elastic Shortening cabaret aaa Protensioned Members 9-6) Sar dette whee AE E, = modulus of elasticity of presiressing steel strand, which ean be assumed ta be 28 % 10 psi; Se NAS 208 Wiad Says.) nodulus of elasticity of conecete in psi at transfer of stress, which can be calculated from By 330 ys 8 ae ours) Ww VRes wet in which w iS the concrete unit weight in pounds per cubic foot and fis in pounds per square inch acre stress atthe center of gravity of the prestessing steel due to presttassing Force and dead load of beam immediately after transfer: fshall be computed at the section or sections of maximum moment. (At this stage. the in- vial stess in the tendon has been reduced by (Ag it'd) + (A Ryo" ate) ~ ATMEL) OF, (9-25) Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on Eg, (9-[3a) or Eq. (91a) if these values are met, and on Eq, (9-22) or Eq, (9-23) if these values are exceeded, 20_SHEAR* 9.20.1 General 920.t.1 Prestressed concrete flesural members. ex- ‘cept solid slabs and footings. shall be reinforced for shear ‘and diagonal tension stesses. Voided slabs shall be inves tigated for shear, bur shear reinforcement may be omitted if the factored shear foree, Vj, is less than half the shear strength provided by the concrete & V,. 9.20.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded ‘wire Fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to a distance d frort the exireme compression fiber end shall be carried a8 close to the compression and tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other eeinforcement permit. Web reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its desis yield strength in accordance with the provisions of Anticle 8.7. 0.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be desi sothat: VSO + V0 926) swhere V, is the factored shear force atthe section consid cred. Ve is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vis the nominal shear strength provided by web aforcement, 20.1.4 When the ceaction to the applied foads introduces compression into the end regions of the member, “Ths method for design of web reinforcement peste in he 1979 Inter AASHTO Stade Specfsions for ighwas Bridger 890 axcepabl aerate sections located at a distance less than bv? from the fuee ff the support may be designed for the same shear Vs that computed at a distance bv2, 9.20.15 Reinforced keys shall be provided in the vwebsof precast sezmenel bor grders transfer erest.on Shear. Possible reverse shearing stresses in the shear kos Stall be investigated, particularly in segments ner a pice. [At time of erection, the shear sress carried bythe sur key sll no exceed 2 VE 9.20.2 Shear-Strength Provided by Concrete 1. The shearsirength provided by conerete.V shall be taken as the lesser of the values V., or V., 9.20.2.2.. The shear sirength, Vu, shall be computed by: eouta Fe bo 4 Va + VE Vii, 6 {ibid + vy + Me fi m3 owt fer bL but need not be less than 1.7 VF bd and d need not be taken less thang0.8h. ‘The moment eWiSing flexural cracking atthe s. dive 1 extemally applied toads, M,. shall be computed by: NL SAAB? SAE TBA ON “Test ye Me EOE hy) 8:28) %, Lewaelfc +hpe— Fe) “The mex fctored moment and factored shes 3 the setion due to ental applied Hods, Man and V, Shall be computed from the loud combination cain maximum moment at he section 9. by ‘The shear strength, Vu. shall be computed Vey 285 YF +03 GIG, 19-25) =b-29 fe + oaheg) ea + YP bout d need not be taken less than 0.8h, 9.20.24 For a pretensioned member in which the section at a distance h/2 from the face of support is closer to the end of the member than the transfer length of the prestrassing tendons, the reduced prestress shall bbe considered when computing Ve... The presicess force may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of the tendon {0 a maximum at a distance ‘tom the end of the tendon equal to the transter length assumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100 diameters for single wireSe eee eee EL DIVISIONI—DESIGN 9.2025 Seen t a = com posite ae e 209 9.20.25 The provisions for computing the shear strength provided by concrete, Va and Vow, apply to nor- ‘ma} weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concretes are used (see definition, concrete, structural light- ‘weight, Article 8.1.3), one of the following modifications shall apply: (@) When f. is specified, the shear strength, V.; and ‘Vow shall be modified by substituting f./6.7 for VE, but the value of £,/6.7 used shall not exceed Vz. (©) When fq isnot specified, Vand Va, shall be mod- iffed by multiplying each term containing VEZ by 0.75 for “all lightweight" concrete and 0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be used ‘when partial sand replacement is used. 9.203 Shear Strength Provided by Web. Reinforcement 9203.1 The shear strength provided by web reinforcement shall be taken as @-30) here Ass the area of web reinforcement within a dstance. V, shall ot be ten rete than 8 VEZ and need not be taken less than © 8h 92032 The spacing of web reinforcing shall notexceed 0.75h oF 24 inches. When V, exceeds 4'VF5 bd, this ‘maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half. 9.2033 The minimum area of web reinforcement shall be— 5 sob's_o3Us DS 5b A @.31 a Foy OD where b’ and s are in inches and f, isin psi. 9203.4 The design yield strength of web reinforcement, fy shall not exceed 60,000 psi 9.204 Horizontal Shear Design—Compasite “~ _FlexuralMembers 9.2041 Inacomposite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected elements. 9.20.42. Design of cross seetions subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 9.20.43 or 9.20.44, or any other shear transfer design ‘method that results in prediction of streagih in substantial ‘greeiicat with results of comprehensive tests sgretmient with results sive tests, 92043 Design of cross sections wbjéct to horizontal shear may be based on: Ves Vu 31a) where V, is factored shear force at section considered, Vx is nominal horizontal shear strength ix accordance with the following, and where dis forthe enire composite seo- bits Vaya coufosite see. & QC) When contact surfaces clean fe of litanee, and intentionally roughened, shear sength Vg shall ot be taken greater than 806d, in pounds. (3) t) When minimum 825 ae provided in accordance with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean and Fre of latance, bt not intentionally roughened shear Surength Vy shall not be taken greter than 80h, in pounds. — (By) When minim ties ae provided in accordance —with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free of tance, and intentionally roughened toa full a= plitude of approximately +n, shea srength Vy shall fot be taken greater tan 3508.4, impound (@) For each percent of de Feinfeement crossing the contact surface in excess ofthe mitimum requted by Article 9204.5, shear strength Va may be increased by (1608/40,000)b.A, in pounds. 9.20.44 Horizontal shear may be investigated by ‘computing, in any segment not exceeding ané-tenth of the _span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be ‘wansférred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizontal shear strength $V in accordance with Article 9.20.4.3, except that length of segment considered shall be substituted ford 9.20. (@) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce- ‘ment shall be provided between interconnected ele- ‘ments. Tie area shall not be less tha 50 bysif, and tie spacing “s” shall net exceed four times the least web ‘width of support element, nor 24 in. (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars ‘or wite, multiple leg stirups, or vert.cal legs of welded ‘ire fabric, All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.Ais Crause no / # 921 _POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 921.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone 9.21.11 The anchorage zone is geometrically defined as the volume of concrete through which the Gon- centrated prestressing foree at the anchorage device spreads transversely 10 a linear stress distribution across the entice crass section, 9.21.12 For anchorage zones at the end of a member or segment. the cransverse dimensions may be taken asthe depth and width ofthe section. The longitudinal extent of the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead of the anchorage) shall be taken as not fess than the lerger twansverse dimension but not more than 1: times that dimension 9.21.1.3 For intermediate anchorages in addition to the length of Article 9211.2 the anchorage zone shall be considered to also extend in the opposite direction for a distance not less than the larger transverse dimension. 9.21.14 For multiple slab anchorages, both width and length of the anehorage zone shall be taken as equal to the center-to-center spacing between stressed tendons. but not more than the length ofthe slab ia the direction of the tendon axis, The thickness ofthe anchorage zone shall bbe taken equal tothe thickness of the stub. 9.21.18 For design purposes, the anchorage zone shall be considered as comprised of two regions: the gen= eral zone as defined in Atticle 9.21.2, and the focal zone as defined in Article 9.21.2.2 9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone 9.21.21 General Zone 9,212.11 The geometric extent of the general zone is identical to that ofthe overall anchorage zone as defined in Article 9.21.1 and includes the local zone. 9.21.2.12 Design of general zones shall meet the quirements of Amticles 9.14 and 9.21.3, 9.21.22 Local Zone 9.21.2.2.1 ‘The local zone is defined as the rectangular prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or oval anchorages) of concrete surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral confining reinforcement, The dimensions ofthe local zone are Gefined in Article 9.21.7. AS Complerely “Wews HIGHWAY BRIDGES 921 9.21.2.2.2 Design of local zones shall meet the ce ‘quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.7 or shall be based fon the results of experimental tests requised in Ariicle 9.21,7.3 and described in Article 103.2.3 of Division th Anchorage devices based on the acceptance test of Divi= sion 11, Article 10.3,2.3, are referred to as special autor age devices, 9.21.23 Responsibilities 9.21.2.3.1 The engineer of record is responsible for the overall design and approval of working drawings for the general zone, including the specific location of the tendons and anchorage devices. general zone reinforcersent, and the specific stressing sequence. The engineer of record is also responsible for the design of local zones based on Article 9.21.7.2 and for the approval of special anchorage devices used under the provisions of Section 9.2.7.3. All working drawings forthe focal zone must 2 approved by the engineer of record 9.21,2.3.2 Anchorage device suppliers are respynsi= ble for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the anchor efficiency requirements of Division Il, Anicle 10.3.2 In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the an cchorage device supplier is responsible For furishi ‘chorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test recuire- ments of Article 9217.3 and of Division IL. Article 10.3.2.3. This acceptance test und che anchor efficiency test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency ‘acceptable to the engineer of record. The anchorage device supplier shall provide records of the acceptance test in conformance with Division If, Article 10.3.2.3.12 0 the engineer of record and ‘0 the constructor and shall spec- ify auxitiary and confining reinforcement, minimumed: distance, minimum anchor spacing. and minimum ‘concrete strength at time of stressing required for proper performance of the local zone. 9,21.2.3.3 The responsibilities of the constructor are specified in Division Il, Anicle 104. 9.21.3.1__Design Methods ‘The following methods may be used forthe des; ‘general zones: (1) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie models) (see Article 9.21.4) (2) Elastic siress analysis (finite element analysis o equivalent) (see Article 9.21.5)9213.1 (3) Approximate methods for determining the compression and tension forces, where applicable. (See Anicle 9.21.6.) Regardless of the design method used, alf designs shall conform to the requirements of Antcle 9.21.3.4 ‘The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimensional effects shall be considered in the design. When these three dimensional effects appear significant, they may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis procedures or may be approximated by considering two or more planes. However, in these approximations the interaction of the planes’ models must be considered, and the model Joadings and results must be consistent 9. Nominal Materi Strengths 9.21.3.2.1 Thenominal tensile strength of bonded reinforcement is limited to fy, for non-prestressed reinforce iment and to f, for prestressed reinforcement. The nominal tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is limited 10 f+ 15,000 psi. 9.21322 ‘The effective nominal compressive strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of confined concrete, is limited 100.7 {The tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected 9.21.3.2.3 The compressive strength of concrete at transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construc tion drawings. If not otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by ‘methods identical with the curing of the member, is at Teast 4.000 psi 9.21.3.3_Use of Special Anchorage Devices Whenever special anchorage devices which do not ‘meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 are to be used, reinforcement similar in configuration and at least equivalent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin reinforcement permitted under the provisions of Division Il, Anicle 10.3.2.3.4 shall be furnished in the corresponding regions of the anchorage zone. 9.21.34 General Design Principles and Detailing Good detaiting and quality workmanship are essential for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones. Sizes and details for anchorage zones shiould respect the ‘need for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and place- DIVISION I-DESIGN 2u ment of reinforcement, the size of aggregate and the need for placement and sound consolidation ef the concrete. 9.21.3.4.1 Compressive stresses nthe concrete ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the require- ‘ments of Article 9.21.7.2. 9.21342 Compressive stresses nthe concrete ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a distance measured from the concrete-bearing surface equal to the smaller of: (1) The depth to the end of the local confinement reinforcement. (2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage de- ‘These compressive stresses may be determined according to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4, from an elastic stress analysis according co Article 9.21.5.2, of by the approximate method outlined in Arti- cle 9.21.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed 07 fe. 9.21.34.3 Compressive stresses shall also be ‘checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within ‘or ahead of the anchorage zone may cause stress concentrations, 9.21.3.4.4 The bursting force is the tensile force in the anchorage 2one acting ahead of the anchorage device and transverse to the tendon axis. The magnitude of the Dursting force, Ty, and its corresponding distance from the Ioaded surface, days, can be determined using the strut-and:-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4, from an clastic suess analysis according to Article 9.1.5.3, or by the approximate method outlined in Anticle 9.21.63. ‘Three-dimensional effects shall be considered for the de~ termination of the bursting reinforcement requirements. 9.21,3.4.5 Resistance to bursting forces, A. and/or AST, shall be provided by non-prestressed oF prestressed reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed hoops, or well-anchored transverse ties. This reinforce- rent is to be proportioned to resist the tctal factored burst ing force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting reinforcement shall satisfy the following: (1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the. full width of the member and must be anchored as close to the outer faces of the member as cover permits. (2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon212 HIGHWAY BRIDGES throughout a distance of 2.5 dj. forthe plane consid- ‘red, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lat- ‘eral dimension ofthe section. The centeoid of the bursting reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dyn used for the design. 7 (3) Spacing of bursting seinforcenient shall exceed neither 24-bar diameters nor 12 inches. 9.21.34.6 Edge tension forces are tensile forces in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to the transverse edge and longitudinal edges of the member. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the anchors, The tensile force along the transverse edge is referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the longitudinal edge is referred to as longitudinal edge tension force. 9.21347 Spalling forces are induced in con- centtically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded anchorage zones, and anchorage zones for multiple anchors, Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced when the resultant of the anchorage forces considered causes eccenitic loading of the anchorage zone. The edge tension forces can be determined from an elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in accordance with the approximate methods of Article 9216.4, 921.348 In no case shall the spalling force be taken af less than 2 percent of the total factored tendon force. 9.21.3.49 Resistance to edge tension forces, bAdty ‘and/or @AZfp, shall be provided in the form of non-pre- stcessed or prestressed reinforcement located close to the longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrange- ment and anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement shill satisfy the following: (1) Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Arti- cle 9.21.3.4.8 shall extend over the full width of the member. 2) Spalling teinforcement between multiple anchorage devices shall effectively tie these anchorage devices togerber. (3) Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices shall be continuous. The reinforcement shall extend along the tension face over the full length of the anchorage zone and shall extend along the loaded face from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the eccentric anchorage device or group of anchorage devices. 92135 Intermediate Anchorages, 9.21.3.5.1 Intermediate anchorages shall not be ased in regions where significant tension is generated behind the anchor from other loads. Whenever practical blisters shall be located in the comer between flange and wets, or shall be extended over the full lange width or web height to Form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used ‘on a flange or web, local shoar, bending and direct force effects shall be considered in the design 9.21,35.2 Bonded reinforcement shall be provided to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate anchorage unfactored stressing force into the concrete section ‘behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforce nent are limited to a maximum of 0.6, oF 36 ksi. The arrount of tie back reinforcement may be reduced using Equation (9-32), if permanent compressive stresses are gene:ated bochind the anchor from other loads. fr. 0257, ~ fade (9-32) where, T,, = the tie back tension force at the interme ate anchorage: Pi the maximum unfactored anchorage stressing force: the compressive stress in the region behind the anchor; the area of the continuing cross section within the extensions of the sides of the anchor plate or blister. The area of the blister or rib shall not be taken as part of the eross section fee 9.21.3.5.3 Tie back reinforcement satisfying Anicle 9.21.3.5.2 shall be placed no further than one plate width from the tendon axis. It shall be Fully anchored so thatthe yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate ‘width or half the length of the blister or rib ahead of the anchor as well as at the same distance behind the archor. ‘The centroid of this reinforcement shall coincide wilh the tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the re: inforcement shall be placed in the continuing section near that face ofthe Mange or web from which the blister or rib is projecting. 9.21.3.54 Reinforcement shall be provided throuzh- out blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel action, bursting forces, and deviation forces duc to tendon curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties fo U-stirrups which encase the anchorage and ti it ffec- tively into the adjacent web and flange. This rein‘orce-921354 ‘ment shall extend as far as possible into the flange or web and be developed by standard hooks bent around trans- ‘verse bars or equivalent. Spacing shall not exceed the smallest of blister or rib height at anchor, blister with, or 6 inches. 9.21.3.5.5 Reinforcement shall be provided to resist local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the tendon force and to resist lateral bending in ribs due to tendon deviation forces. 9.21.35.6 Reinforcement required by Article 9213.44 through 9.21.3.4.9 shall be provided to resist tensile forces due to transfer of the anchorage force from the blister or rib into the overall structure. 9213.6 Diaphragm: 9.21.3.6.1 Fortendons anchored in diaphragms, concrete compressive stresses shall be limited within the diaphragm in accordance with Anticles 9.21.3.4.1 through 3.4.3. Compressive stresses shall also be checked ot the transition from the diaphragm to webs and anges of the member. 9213.62 Reinforcement shall be proviied to ensure full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges ‘and webs of the girder. The more general methods of Ar- licle 9.21.4 or 9.21.5 shall be used to determine this reinforcement. Reinforcement shall also be provided to tie back deviation forces due to tendon curvature 9213.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages 9.21.3.7.1 Minimum reinforcement mecting the requirements of Articles 9.21 3.7.2 through 9.21.3.7.4 shall bbe provided unless a more detailed analysis is made. 9.21.3.7.2 Reinforcement shall be provided for the bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab and normal tothe tendon axis in accordance with Articles 9.21.3.44 and 9.21.3.4.5, This reinforcement shall be anchored close to the faces of the slab with standard hooks bent around horizontal bars, of equivalent, Minimum re- inforcementis two #3 bars per anchor located atadistance equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor. 921.3.7.3 Reinforcement inthe plane of the slab and normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge tension forces, T,, between anchorages (Equation (9-33)) and bursting forces, T, ahead of the anchorages (Equation (9-34)). Edge tension reinforcement shall be placed in: DIVISION I~DESIGN 213 ‘medictely ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie adjacent anchors together. Bursting reinfercement shall be distributed over the length of the anchorage zones, (See Atticle 9.21.14) 1 sono 6) neome(i-t) 035 where T) = the edge tension force; Ty = the bursting force Py the factored tendon load on an individual anchor; the anchor plate width; the anchorage spacing. 9.21,3.74 For slab anchors with an edge distance of Tess than two plate widths oF one slab thickness, the edge tension reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist 25 pereent of the factored tendon load. This rein forcement shall preferably be inthe form of hairpins and shall be distibuted within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The leps ofthe hairpin bars shall extend from the edge ofthe slab past the adjacent anchorbut not less than a distance equal to five plate widths plus development length. 9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the jesign of Anchorage Zones 92144 General 9214.1. The flow of forces in the anchorage zone may be approximated by a series of straizht compression ‘members (struts) and straight-tension members (ties) that are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression forces are carried by concrete compressin struts and tension forces are carried by non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement, 9.214.1.2 The selected stretand-tie model shall follow a load path from the anchorages to the end of the an- cchorage zone. Other forces acting on the anchorage zone, such as reaction forces, tendon deviatior forces, and applied toads, shall be considered in the selection of the sirut;and-tie model. The forées at the end of the anchorage zone can be oblained from an axial-lexural beam analysis24 HIGHWAY BRIDGES th meet the provisions of Article 9.21.7 of Division II, Article 10.3.2.3 are. considered as properly detailed, adequate nodes. The other nodes in the anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete stresses in the struts meet the requirements of Article 9.21.43 and the tensfon ties are properly detailed to develop the full-yield strength of the reinforcement 921.4, Struts 9.2143. The effective concrete compressive strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to 0.76 Ey In areas where the concrete may be extensively cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large plastic rotations are required, the effective compressive strength shall be limited t0 0.66 fs 9.214,3.2 In inchorage 2ones the critical section for compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface withthe local zone node. IF special anchorage devices are used, the eritical section af the strut can be taken as that section whose extension intersects the axis of the tendon at a depth equal to the smaller-of the depth of the focal confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension of the anchorage device, 9.21433 For thin members with a ratio of member thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the dissension of the strut in the direction of the thickness of the member can be approximated by assuming that the thickness of the compression strut varies linearly from the transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at a ddepth equal to the thickness ofthe section. 9.21.4.3.4 The compression stresses can be assumed as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly distributed over its cross section. 921.64 Tes 9.21.44.1 ‘Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-pre- swressed or prestressed reinforcement. Tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected. 9.21.44.2 Tension ties shall be property detailed and shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension tie force at the. node, The ‘einforcement layout must closely fallow the directions ofthe tes in the strut-and.tie rode, 92142 9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis 9.21.5.1 Analyses based on assumed elastic material properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are acceptable for analysis and design of anchorage zoses. 9.21.82 Wf the compressive stresses in the coxerete ahead of the anchorage device are determined froma lin- earelastic stress analysis, local stress maxima may 2e av ceraged over an area equal to the bearing area of the an- ‘chorage device. 9.21.8.3 Location and magnitude of the bursting force may be obisined by integration of the comespending tensile bursting stresses along the tendon path. 9.21.6 Approximate Methods 9.21.61 Limitations In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete ‘compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, toca- tion and magnitude ofthe bursting force, and edge tension forces may be estimated by Equations (9-35) through (9-38), provided that: (1) The member has a rectangular cross sectionand its Tongitudinal extent is at Teast equal to the largest trans verse dimension of the cross section. 2) The member hes ws discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage zone. (3) The miniaium edge distance of the anchorage in ‘the main plane of the member is at least LY times the ‘corresponding laterat dimension, a, of the anchorage device. (4) Only one anchorage device or one group of closely spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage zone. Anchorage devices can be treated as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing does notexceed 1, times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered (5) The angle of inclination of the tendon with espect to the center line of the member is not Irger han 20 degrees if the anchor force points toward the centroid ‘of the section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger than 5 degrees if the anchor force points away from the centroid of the section. 9.21,62 Compressive Stresses 9.21.6.2.1 No additional check of concrete ccmpres- sive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devizes satisfying Anite 9.21.7.2.921.622 9,21.6.2.2 The concrete compressive stresses ahead of special anchorage devices atthe interface between local zone and general zone shall be approximated by Equa- tions (9-35) and (9-36). «el fors = 2a where: fo, = the concrete compressive tess ahead ofthe anchorage device; = acorrection factor for closely spaced anchor- ‘Ag = an effective bearing area as defined in Anicle 921.623; aur =the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured paralle! tothe larger dimension of the eross section or in the direction of closely spaced anchors: the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel tothe smaller dimension of the cross section; the longitudinal extent of confining reinforce- ‘ment for the local zone, but not more than the larger of 1.15 ay or 1.15 bast the factored tendon load the thickness of the section; the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchor- the number of anchorages in a row. & Ifa group of anchorages is closely spaced in two directions, the product ofthe correction factors, x, for each di rection is used in Equation (9-36). 921.623 Effective bearing area, Ay, in Equation (9-35) shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing, plate area, Aja, OF the bearing area of the confined concrete in the locel zone, Arye, with the following Timi tations: (1) Wj COntFOIS, Ap Shall not be taken larger than A Bat DIVISION I—DESIGN 2us 2) Ag controls, the maximum dimension of As shall not be more than twice the max:mum dimension Of Ayan OF three times the minimum dimension of Ape. f any of these limits is violated the effective-bearing area, Ay, shall be based 07 Ayu (3) Deductions shall be riade for the area of the duet in the determination of Ay. a1, Bursting, Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Trans and for its distance from the loaded surface, dyn shall be estimated by Equations (9-37) and (9-381, respectively. In the application of Equations (9-37) and (9-38) the speci fied stressing sequence shall be considered if more than ‘one tendon is present. where, 2P, = the sum of the total factored tendon loads for the stressing arrangement considered, = the lateral dimension of the anchorage device or group of devices in the direction considered: © = the eccentricity (always taken as positive) of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to the centroid of the cross section; 1 =the lateral dimension of the cross sec ‘on in the direction considered: a = the angle of inclination of the resultant of the tendon forces with respect 10 the centerline of the mermber, 9.21.64 Bdge-Tension Forces 9.21.64.) For multiple anchorages with a center-to- center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the section, the spalling forces shall be given by Article 9.21.3.4.8. Forlarger spacings, the spalling forces shall be determined from a more detailed analysis. such as strut- and-tie models or other analytical procedures. 9.21642 I the centroid of all tendons considered is located outside of the ker of the secton both spalling forces and longitudinal edge tension forces are induced, ‘The longitudinal edlge-tension force shall be determined from an axial-fexural bear analysis ata section Tocated al one-half the depth of the section away from the loaded216. HIGHWAY BRIDGES surface, The spalling force shall be taken as equal to the longitudinal edge-tension force bat not less than specified in Article 921.3.4.8, 9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone 9.21.7.1_Dimensidns of the Local Zone 9.21.7.1.1 When no independently verified manufacturer's edge-distance recommendations for particular anchorage device are available the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the larger of: (1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice the minimum concrete cover required for the particular application and environment. (2) The outer dimension of any required confining re~ inforcement plus the required concrete cover over the confining reinforcing steel for the particular applica tion and environment. 9.21.7.12 When independently verified manufac turer's recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and ‘edge distances for a particular anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each Girection shall be taken as the smaller of: (1) Twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage device supplier. (2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the an- cchorage device supplier. ‘The manufacturer's recommendations for spacing and edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum values. 9.21.7.1.3 The length of the local zone along the tendon axis shall be taken as the greater of: (1) The maximum width of the local zone. (2) The length of the anchorage device confining reinforcement. 3) For anchorage devices with multiple-bearing surfaces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to the bottom of each bearing surface plus the maximum ‘dimension of that bearing surface In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as igreater than LY: times the width ofthe local zone. 921,7.14 For closely spaced anchorages an en~ Iarged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall also be considered. 921.642 9.21.72 Bearing Strength 9.21.7.2.1 Anchorage devices may be either basic anchorage devices meeting the beating compressive strength limits of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9:21.7.24 ot special anchorage devices mecting. the requiremen's of Section 9.21.7.3. 9.21,7.2.2 The effective concrete bearing compres sive strength & used for design shall not exceed that of Equations (9-39) or (9-40). f, <0.76f% ATA, 9-39) but, 5225 $f (9-40) where: the maximum factored tendon load, P., divided by the effective bearing area Axi = the concrete compressive strength at stressing: A’ the maximum area of the portion of the support ing sueface that is geometrically similar to the loaded area and concentric with it the gross area of the bearing plate if the recuire- ments of Amicle 9.21.7.2.3 are met, or isthe area caleulated ia accordance with Article 9.21.7.2.4 he effective net area of the bearing plate calculated as the area A, minus the area of openiags in the bearing plate AL Equations (9-39) and (9-40) are oniy valid if general zone reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.34 is provided and If the extent of the concrete along the tendon axis shead of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the Jocal zone as defined in Article 9.21.7.1.3 9.21.7.2.3 The full bearing plate area may be used for A, and the calculation of Ay ifthe anchorage device is sufficiently rigid. To be considered sufficiently rigid, the slenderness of the bearing plate (w/t) must not exceed the value given in Equatin (9-41). The plate must also be c’cheeked to ensute thatthe plate material does not yield, ans 0.08 VEE ony where: no =the Jargest distance from the outer edge af the wedge plate to the outer edge of the bearing plate, For rectangular-bearing plates this distance is measured parallel to the edges af the bearing plate. Ifthe anchorage has no separate921.223 wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be taken as the distance between the extreme wedge holes in the corresponding direction, = the average thickness ofthe bearing plate. E, = the medulus of elasticity of the bearing-plate material 9.21.7.24 For bearing plates that do not meet the stiffness requirements of Article 9.21.7.23, the effective ross-bearing area, A,, shall be taken as the area geometrically similar to the Wedge plate (orto the outer perimeter of the wedge-hole pattern for plates without separate ‘wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load spreading at a 45-degree angle. A larger effective-bearing area may be calculated by assuming an effective area and checking the new f, and wt values for conformance with Articles 9.21.7.2.2 and 9.21.7.2.3 9. ‘Special Anchorage Devices Special anchorage devices that do not meet the require- ‘ments of Article 9.21,7.2 as well as other devices that do meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 but which the en- sgineerof-record requires to have tested may be used pro: vided that they have been tested by an independent testing ancy acceptable 1othe engineer of recard according tothe procedures described in Division Il, Anicle 10.3.2 (or equivalent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Di vision Il. Article 10.3.2.3.10. For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests ae only requited for representative samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are required by the engineer of record, 9.22 _PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES. 9.22.1 In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at ‘a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist atleast 4 percent of the DIVISION I-DESIGN 217 {otal prestressing force shall be placed within the distance of d/4 of the end of the beam. 9.22.2 For at least the distance d from the end of the bbeam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose the prestressing steel in the bottom flange. 9.22.3. For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the ‘web of the girder. 922.4 Unless otherwise specified, sess shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by meth- ‘ods identical with the curing of the member, is at least 4,000 ps ‘STRESS TRANSFER Unless otherwise specified, stress stall not be trans ferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods identical with the curing ofthe members, is at least 4,000 psi for pretensioned members other than piles) and 3,500 psi for post-ieusioned members and pretensioned piles. 9.24 DECK PANELS 924.1 Deck panels shall be prestressed with pretensioned strands. The strands shall be in a direction transverse to the stringers when the panels are placed on the supporting stringers. The top surface ofthe panels shall be roughened in such a manner as to ensure composite action between the precast and cast-in-place concrete. 9.24.2 Reinforcing bars, or equivalent mesh, shall be placed in the panel transverse to the strands to provide at least 0.11 square inches per foot of panel.218 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 925 Part D DETAILING _ FLANGE REINFORCEMENT 9263 funding Bar reinforcement for castin-place T-beam and. box airder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles 8.17.2.2 and 8.17.2.3 except that the minimum reinforcement in bottom flanges shall be 0.3 percent of the flange section. 9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL, 9.26.1_Minimum Cover ‘The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing and conventional steel: 9.26.1.1 Prestressing Steel and Main Reinforcement .- Lone 1% inch 1.2 Slab Reinforcement 9.26.12] Top of Slab When deicers are used Se.te « Bean 9,26.1.2.2 Bottom of Slab ...... 2H 9.26.13 — Stirrups and Ties 2S. 9.26.14 When deicer chemicals are used, drainage details shall dispose of deicer solutions without constant ‘contact with the prestressed girders. Where such contact cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are exposed to salt water, salt spray, oF chemical vapor, additional cover should be provided. 9.262 Minimum Spacing 9.26.21 The minimum clear spacing of prestressing steel at the ends of beams shall be as follows: Pretensioning steet: three times the diameter of the steel or 17s times the maximum size ofthe concrete ag- _aregate, whichever is greater. Post-tensioning steel: UY: inches or 1% times the ‘maximum size ofthe concrete aggregate, whichever is greater, 9.26.2.2Prestressing strands in deck panels shall be spaced symmetrically and uniformly actoss the width of | the panel. They shall not be spaced farther apart than 1¥= times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18 inches. 9.26.3.1. When post-tensioning steel is draped orde- fected, post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups of three maximum, provided thatthe spacing specified in Article 9.26.2 is maintained in the end 3 feet of the member. 9.2632 Where pretensioning steel is bundled. all bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam length and the deflection points shall be investigated for secondary stresses. 9.264 Size of Ducts 9.2641 For tendons made up of a aumber of wires. bars, or strands, duct area shall be at least twice the net ‘agen of the prestressing steel 9.26.42 For tendons made up of a single wire, bar, or strand, the duct diameter shall be at least Ys inch larger than the nominal diameter of the wire, bar, or strand. 9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND. ‘COUPLERS. 9.27 Anchorages, couplers, and splices for beaded, post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop atleast 95 per- ‘cent of the minimum specified ultimate strength o” ihe prestressing stel, tested in an unbonded state withoutex- ceeding anticipated set. Bond transfer lengths between an- ccharages and the zone where full prestressing force is re- Aquited under service and ultimate Loads shall normaliy be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate srength of the prestressing stecl. Couplers and splices shall be placed in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in a housing long enough to permit the necessary movements, When anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the ult- ‘mate capacity of the tendon assembly, including Cchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state. 9.27.2 The anchorages of unbonded tendons shail de- ‘velop at least 95 percent of the minirum specified alti- mate strength of the prestréssing steel without exceeding anticipated set, The (otal elongation under ultimate load ‘of the tendon shall not be less than 2 percent measuied in a minimum gauge length of 10 feet.9.223 9.27.3 For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be performed on a representative specimen and the tendon shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60) percent to 66 percent of its minimum specified ultimate srength, and also 50 cycles from 40 percent to 80 percent ofits minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the change from the lower stess level to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The speci men used for the second dynamic test need not be the same used for the first dynamic test, Systems utilizing multiple strands. wires, or bars may be tested utilizing atest tendon of smaller capacity than the full size tendon, The test ten don shall duplicate the behavior of the fullsize tendon and ‘generally shall not have less than 10 percent of the capac: ity of the fullsize tendon, Dynamic tests are not required ‘on bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used in such manner that repeated load applications can be ‘expected on the anchorage 9.27.4 Couplings of unbonded tendons shall be used ‘only at locations specifically indicated and/or approved by the Engineer, Couplings shall not be used at paints of ‘sharp tendon curvature. All couplings shall develop at Teast 95 percent of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel without exceeding anticipated set, The coupling of tendons shall not reduce the elongation at rupture below the requirements of the ten- on itself. Couplings and/or coupling components shall be enclosed in housings long enough to permit the necessary movements. All the coupling components shall be completely protected with a coating material prior to final DIVISION I-DESIGN 218A, 9275 Anchorages, end fitings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be permanently protected agains! corrosion. 9.28 _EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED. 9.28.1 Three- or seven-wire pretensioring strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length in inches not less than (&-F ep where D is the nominal diameter in inches, f% nd fare in kips per square inch, and the parenthetical expression is considered to be without units. 9-32) 9.28.2 Investigations may be limited to those cross sections nearest each end of the member which are required {o develop their full ultimate capacity 9.28.3 Where strand is debonded st the end of a mem beer and tension at service load is allowed in the precompressed tensile zone, the devetopment length required ‘above shall be doubled. 9.29 BEARINGS Bearing devices for prestressed corcrete structures shall be designed in accordance with Amicle 10.29 and Section 142188, HIGHWAY BRIDGES (THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEET BLANK]Section 14 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS 14.1 GENERAL Fp Feld strength of the steel girder (psi) ¢ hear modulus of elastomer (psi) at 73°F ‘An elastomeric bridge bearing is @ device constructed Design shear force on bearing (Ib) = GA partially or wholly from elastomer, the purpose of which Aube is to transmit loads and accommodate movements be- hg otal elastomer thickness of the bearing (in.) tween a bridge and its supporting structure. This section hy of the Specification covers the design of plain pads (con- fh, = Thickness of elastomer layer number i (in.) sisting of elastomer only) and reinforced bearings (Con- h, == Thickness of one steel reinforcement Jayer sisting of alternate layers of steel or fabric reinforcement Gn) and elastomer, bonded together). Tapered elastomer lay- = Constant dependent on elastomer hardness cr in reinforced bearings are not permitted. In addition to (See Table 14.31 for values) any internal reinforcement, bearings may have extemal |-—=—_= Gross dimension of rectangilar bearing par- sieel load plates bonded tothe upper or lower elastomer allel to the longitudinal axis (n.) layers or both. P “ompressive load on the bearing (Ib) Two design procedures are provided in this Section. Shape factor of one layer ofa bearing Bearings reinforced with steel may be designed cither by Plan Arca the procedure defined in 14.4.1 or the one in 144.2. Bear- =p “Soe ings with fabric reinforcement or unreinforced pads shall relics eerie be designed by 14.4.1, Both design procedures are based Lw fon service laads, and require that no impact fraction be Fert Fw Lot rectangular bearings with. added to the live load. The materials, fabrication, and in- habbcanel stallation ofthe bearings shall be in accordance with the D for circular bearings without holes requirements of Section 18.2 of Division Il of the Speci- 4h fication « ‘Thickness of flange of steel girder W = Gross dimension of rectangular bearing parallel to the transverse axis 142. DEFINITIONS B = Modifying factor having a value of 1.0 forin- temal layers of reinforced bearings, 14 for Longito- = The axis ofthe bearing parallel to the cover layers, and 1.8 fr plein pads: If slip is inal longitudinal axis of the bridge girder(s) prevented from occurring st the surfaces of Axis plain pads or outer layers of reinforced bear- Lot =A group of bearings made from the same ings under al) circumstances, 8 factors batch of materials smaller than those defined above may be used ‘Trans- = The axis ofthe bearing perpendic- atthe discretion ofthe Engineer. B shall never verse aro the longitudinal axis, be taken as less than 1.0 Axis AL = Instantaneous compressive deflection of A Gross plan area of bearing bearing Go.) by © = Width of flange of stel girder (in) A, = Total horizontal movement of superstnicture, D ross diameter ofa circular bearing (in) measured from state at which bearing is un- E, = Effective compressive modulus of the clas- ‘deformed (in.) tomer, taking account of restraint of bulging A, == Shear deformation of the bearing in one di- = 3G + 2154 (ps) “eld strength of the steel reinforcement (psi) 343 rection from the undeformed state, account- ing for support flexibility in.)3a HIGHWAY BRIDGES 142 cq = Instamaticous complessive strain in clas: TABLE 143.2. Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer tomer layer number i change in thickness di- Grades vided by the unstressed thickness) Low Temperre Zone AUe © 0 © © © = Relative rotation of top and bottom surfaces of bearing radians) SoitarLow Tape =O 20-30 aS A : (eryees 7) tes ‘Subseripts: Maximum Namie 2007 NA wa Conese Day When the i total load Temperature docs ot ie i ve Toad ‘ove 52 Depes F X= about transverse axis MisimumLowTempeate 0 9238S 2 tudinal axis snomer Grade Withos & 1A = average compressive stress on the SPs Provsons bearing caused by the dead and live load, excluding impact, M3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES ‘The shear modulus at 73°F shall be used as the basis for design. If the material is specified explicitly by its shiear modulus, that value shall be used in design and the other properties shall be obtained from Table 14.3.1. Ifthe material is specified by its hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken asthe value from the range for that hardness given in Table 14.3.1, which is most conservative for each partof the design. Intermediate values shall in all cases be obtained by interpolation. Material with a shear modulus greater than 200 psi or 1 nominal hardness greater than 60 shall not be used for reinforced bearings. Under no conditions shall the nomi- ral hardness exceed 70 or the shear modulus exceed 300 psi For the purposes of bearing design, all bridge sites shall be classified as being in temperature zone A. B, C, . or E. The zones are defined by their extreme love tem- peratures of the largest number of consecutive days for which the temperature has ever remained below 32°F, whichever gives the more severe condition. Values are given in Table 14.3.2. In the absence of mote precise in- ormation, Figure 14.3.1 may be used as a guide in selecting the zone required for a given region. SG TABLE 1434. Elastomer Propertis at Different roe) oe 8 hear Modus (6)(p) 95-190 50-209 300.300 Suet ies) 066-093 .om-ies LS-2te | | ‘Creep defection at 25 years 25% 35% 45% i Testun dtecten | E O7s 06 i Minimum towTempentre @ 90 2 3S Elastomer Grade With Spec Bearings shall be made from AASHTO low tempera ture grades of elastomer as defined in Section 18.2 of Di- vision 1. The minimum grade of elastomer required for cach low temperature zone is specified in Table 14.3.2. ‘The special provisiois required in Table 14.3.2 are that either a positive slip apparatus be installed and the bridge components shall be able to withstand forces arising fom, a bearing force equal to twice the design shear force. or that the components of the bridge be able to resist the Forces arising from a bearing force four times the cesign shear force as defined in Section 14.6. 144 BEARING DESIGN METHODS 14.4.1 Method A—Design Procedure for Steel Reinforced, Fabrie Reinforced or Plain Bearings 144.11 Compressive Stress Unless shear deformation is prevenied, the average compressive stress 6 in any layer shall satisfy: oon 5 GSIB and oe 1,000 psi for steel-reinforced bearings of ay.x, = 800 psi, for plain pads or fabric reinforced bearings ‘These stress limits may be increased by 10 percent where shear deformation is prevented, In bearings containing layers of different thickness, the value of $ used shall be that which produces the smallest S/B. In bearings in which the elastomer is specified by its hardness, the valu: of G used shall be the lowest value of the range given ir Table 143.1144.12 Compressive Deflection ‘The compressive defiection, A., of the bearing shall be so limited as to ensure the serviceability of the bridge and {joint system, Deflections due o total load and to live load alone shall be considered separately. Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as. A= Deans Value for €,; shall be obtained from design aids based on tests such as presented in Figures 14.4.1.2A and 144.1.2B, by testing or by an approved analysis method. Figures 14.4.1.2A and 14.4.1.2B are for internal layers of | reinforced bearings. They may be used for plain pads or cover layers of reinforced bearings if Sis replaced by S/B. ‘When long-term deftections are to be considered, the {otal deflection shall be computed by adding deflections due to the effects of creep of the elastomer to the instantaneous deflection. Long-term deflections may affect the serviceability ofthe joint system, and shall be considered at joints between sections of bridges resting on bearings (of different design and for other conditions where signi icant large or differential deflection is expected inthe joint system. They also should be accounted for when estimating redistribution of forces in continuous bridges caused by support settlement. Defiections due to ercep shall be computed from information relevant to the elastomeric compound used if itis available. If not, the values given in Antcle 14.3 shall be used. 144.13. Shear ‘The horizontal bridge movement shall be taken as the maximum possible deformation caused by creep, shrink- ‘age, and post-tensioning, combined with thermal effects DIVISION DESIGN 345 Sheet Shapetactor 12 /g 1400 - 50 durometer 1200} reinforced g bearings, : & 1000 a 800 ‘ % 00 - E400 & 200 0 cutie tetearpattoarerat Compressive strain (%) FIGURE 144.1.24 Compressive Stress vs. Strain for 50 Dorometer Stecl-Reinforeed Bearings uv 144.14 Rotation ‘The rotational deformations about exch axis shall be taken as the maximum possible rotation between the top and bottom of the bearing caused ty initial lack of pparailetism and girder end rotation. They shall be limited by: Ons S2/L and_Qn, <= 2A/W, for rectanguhr bearings or VG na. + Fy.) S 2D, for circular bearings. 144.15 Stability To cnsure stability, the total thickness of the bearing shall not exceed the smallest of 1/5, W/S, or D6 for plain pads; LB, WA, or Dis for reinforced beatings,346 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1600 Shape factor 12 1400 60 durometer F reinforced / “bearings” 8 Compressive stress (ps 8 123 4 5 6 7 Compressive strain (%) FIGURE 14.4128 Compressive Stress vs. Strain for 60 Durometer Steol-Reinforced Bearings 14416 Reinforcement ‘The reinforcement shall be fabric or steel and its resistance in pounds pes linear inch at working stress ievels in each direction stall not be less than: 1,400 hy, 1,700, for fabric for steel For these purposes fy, shal be taken asthe mean thick tance per! a Tnch is given! feu the product ofthe material thickness of the reinforcement and the allowable stress. The allowable stress shall be calculated taking into account fatigue loading but ignoring holes in the reinforce- ‘ment, Holes shall be prohibited in fabric ceinforcemeat. They are not recommended in steel reinforcement; but, if they exis, the steel thickness shall be increased by a fac- toe (2 X gross width}M(net width). Mad ‘Method B—Optional Design Procedure for Steel Reinforced Bearings 2 all note designed by the provisions of Ar: “uHfe® With the requirements of Article 18.2.7 of Division Io this specifiation. AL 1442.1 Compressive Stress In any bearing layer, the average compressive steess shall satisty for bearings subject to shear deformations Gen = 1,600 psi Gon 5 1.66 GSB nu 50.66 GSB for bearings fixed against shear deformations en = 1,600 psi Gon $2.00 GSIB cut = 1.00 GS/B. where @ = layers, Inbearings containing layers of different thickness. the value of $ used shall be that which produces the strallest S/B. In bearings in which the elastomer is specified by its hardness, the value of G used shall be the lowest value of the range given in Table 14.3.1 LO for internal layers and 1.4 for cover 1442.2 Compressive Deflection ‘The compressive deflection, &., of the bearing stall be so limited as to ensure the serviceability of the bridge and Joi system. Deflections due to total load and to liv toad alone shall be considered separately Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as: A= Dechy Values for ¢q shall be obtained from design aids based on tests such as presented in Figure 14.4.1.2A and Ie. L2B. by testing of by an approved analysis method. Figures I44.1.2A and 14.4.1.28 are for internal layers oF reinforced bearings. They may be used for cover layers of reinforced bearings if $ is replaced by S/B. When long-term deflections are to be consifered. ‘the total deflection shall be computed by adding defiections due to the effects of ercep of the elastomer to the instantaneous deflection. Long-term deflections may affect the serviceability of the joint system, anc shall be considered at joints between sections of bridges resting on bearings of different design and for other con: ditions where significant large or differential deflection is expected in the joint system. They also should be ‘accounted for when estimating redistribution of Forces in ‘continuous bridges caused by support seitlement. De- flections due to creep shall be computed from infor- ration relevant to the elastomeric compound used if it is available. If not, the values given in Article 14.3 shall be used.14423 DIVISION I—DESIGN 3a7 14423 Shear ‘The horizontal movement ofthe bridge superstructure, ‘A, shall be taken as the maximum possible deforms- tion caused by creep, shrinkage, and post-tensioning, combined with thermal effects comptted in accordance with Article 3.16. The maximum shear deformation of the bearing, dy, shall be taken as As, modified to account for the pier flexibility and construction procedures. If positive slip apparatus is installed, A, need not be taken Jarger than the deformation corresponding to fist stip, ‘The bearing shall be designed s0 that fy = 2A 14.424 Rotation and Combined Compression and Rotation. ‘The rotational deformations about each axis shall be taken as the maximum possible rotation between the top and bottom of the bearing caused by initial lack of parallelism and girder end rotation. They shall be limited by: Ona S 2L. and On, = 2AJW, for rectangular bearings of (Orn, + On) = 20D, for circular bearings In bearings subjected to both compression and rotation. ‘about the transverse axis of the bearing, the average compressive stress shall satisfy, for bearings subject to shear deformations: Sn STE wos ab. or, for bearings fixed against shear deformations: where Oi, is the total rotation about the transverse axis of the bearing, including the effects of intial lack of parallelism, creep, shrinkage, and temperature. Reduced stress levels for rotations about the longitui- nal axis of the bearing shall be computed by a rational method, 7 M425 Stability ‘The bearings shall be proportioned to prevent stability failure. The average compressive stress due to total dead and lve load on rectangular bearings shall satisfy: if the bridge deck is free to translate Forizomtall 384(hg/L) 261 } sGi = oon £0 ae or, ifthe bridge deck is not free to randiate horizontally: 92h (1), 267 | om 864 tt 20 RSE SST IFL is greater than W for a rectangular bearing, stability shall be checked by the above formulas with L and W i terchanged. The stability of circular bearings may be evaluated by using the equation for a square bearing with W = L = op. 1442.6 Reinforcement ‘The thickness of the reinforcement h, shall satisfy: 215 y tha) 6, for total load 15 thy tha) eu > F, hy . for live load ‘where F,, is the allowable stress range based on fatigue loading. F, shall be taken from Table 103.1 of Division oof this specification using category A for a Nonredun- dant Load Path Structure. If holes exist, the minimum thickness shall be increased by a factor: 2 gross width net width 145 ANCHORAGE Ifthe design shear force, H, due to bearing deformation exceeds one-fifth of the compressive force P due to dead load alone, the beating shall be secured against hor- zontal movement. The bearing shall net be permitted to sustain uplift forces.348, HIGHWAY BRIDGES 46 146 DESIGN FORCES FOR SUPPORTING STRUCTURE, ‘The forces imposed by the bearing on the substructure are a function of the stiffness of the bearing and the Rexi- bility of the substructure. Maximum forces to be applied by the bearing (fora rigid substructure) may be computed in accordance with Article 14.6.1 for shear and in accor: dance with Article 14.6.2 for moment. 146.1 Shear Force Ifa positive slip apparatus is installed, H shall be taken. as the largest force which can be transmitted by the apparatus, If no positive stip apparatus is installed, the design shear force shall be taken as nt les than H= GA Ay/hq, Where A. is the horizontal movement ofthe bridge superstructure relative to conditions when the bearing is unde~ formed and G is the shear modulus of the elastomer at "73°F. La bearings in which the elastomer is specified by its hardness, the value of G used shall be the highest value of the range given in Table 14.3.1. 14.6.2 Moment ‘The moment induced by bending of a rectangular beating about an axis parallel to its Tong side shall be taken as rot less than M = (0.5 B) 1 Or stty, where = Wile. 147 STIFFENERS FOR STEEL BEAMS AND GIRDERS The flanges of sieel members seated on elastomeric bearings must be flexurally stiff enough not to risk damage to the bearing. Any necessary stiffening may be accomplished by means ofa sole plate or vertical stitfeners. ‘The stiffening requirements ofthis section do not replace any others inthis specification, but should be read in zon- junction with them ‘Single-webbed beams and girders symmetric about their minor (vertical) axis and placed symmetrically on the bearing need no additional stiffening if where by = total flange width, ty = thickness of fa combined flange and sole plate, and F,_ the girder steel yield siress of 14,8 PROVISIONS FOR INSTALLATION EFFECTS Allowance shall be made during design for miseliga ment in bridge girders due to fabrication and erection tol- ‘erance, camber, and other sources. The bearings shall be focated and installed in such a way as (0 permit subsequent replacement,Section 15 TFE BEARING SURFACE 15.1 GENERAL 15.1.1 Proprietary makes of polytetrafluoroethylene IFE) fixed and expansion bearings may be used if inthe ‘opinion of the Engineer, and substantiated either by tests ‘or experience, they meet design requirements. 15.1.2 Bearings having sliding surfaces of TFE shall be subject tothe requirements ofthis Section and to Sections applicable to the particular types of construction with which they are used. 15.1.3 The TFE material consisting of filled or unfilled sheet, fabric containing TFE fibers, interlocked bronze and filled TFE structures, TFE-perforated metal composites together with adhesive materials, stainless steel mating surface and manufacturing processes shall conform to the requirements given in Anicle 18.8— Division IL 152 DESIGN 15.2.1 TRE sliding surfaces are designed to translate or rotate by sliding of a self-lubricating polytetrafluoroeth- ‘ylene surface across a smooth hard mating surface prefer- ‘bly of staintess steel or other equally corrosion resistant material. 15.2.2 Expansion bearings having sliding surfaces of ‘TFE shall not be used without provision for rotation, ‘which shall be not less than 04015 radians, to prevent excessive local stresses on the TFE sliding surface. Rotation shall be considered the sum of live load rotation, changes jn camber during construction, and misalignment of the bearing seats due to construction tolerances. ‘The design ‘shall include compensating provision for grade. Provision for rotation may be accomplished with a hinge, radiused sliding surfaces, elastomeric pads, pre-formed fabric pads, or other means. 15.2.3 TRE sliding surfaces shall have the following minimum and maximum thickness: 349 Unfilled or filled TFE Ye in. minimum to Ya in, Fabric containing ‘TFE fibers Yo in minimum to % in. Interlocked Bronze and Filled TFE Structures Ye in. misimum to Ye in, ‘TFE Perforated Metal Composite Yes in. minimum to Yin. ‘maximam 15.24 ‘The TFE sliding surface mus: be either bonded under factory controlled conditions or mechanically connected to arigid back-up material eapable of resisting any bending stresses to which the sliding surfaces may be subjected, Altematively, TFE material of twice the thickness specified above may be recessed for half it thickness in the back-up material and shall not be less than Yin. hick. Ifthe other sie ofthe back-up materia isto be bonded to an elastomeric pad, the back-up material must have suff- 15 t0 0.44 for soils 6 < 15, 163.42 Design forbuckling is accomplished by limiting the ting compression thrust T to the buckling stress multiplied by the effective cross-sectiona area ofthe liner plate divided by the factor of safety. fA fA 168) T= (16-8) where: T= thrust per linear foot from Ande 16.3. fective cross-sectional area of liner plate in square inches per foot; FS = factor of safety for buckling. 163.5 Deflection or Flattening 163.5.1 Deflection of a tunnel depends significantly ‘on the amount of over-excavation of th: bore and is affected by delay in backpacking or inadequate backpacking. The magnitude of deflection is not primarily a fune- tion of soil modulus or the liner plate properties, so it ‘cannot be computed with usual deflection formulae. 1635.2 Where the tunnel clearances are important, er should oversize the structurs to provide for a normal deflection. Good construction methods should result in deflections of not more than 3 percent of the nor- ‘mal diameter.354 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 6a 164 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 16.4.1 Chemical Composition ‘Base metal shall contorm to ASTM A 568. 16s 2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Plate Before Cold Forming Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation, 2 inches 1643 Dimensions and Tolerances Nominal plate dimensions shall provide the section properties shown in Articte 16.5. Thickness tolerances shall conform to Paragraph Ld of AASHTO M 167, 165 SECTION PROPERTIES The section properties per inch of plate width, based on the average of one ring of linear plates, shall conform t0 the following: TABLE 16.52 Section Properties for Four-Flange Liner Plate Eifecive Momeat Thickness Area Area of Inertia Gage Gin) nin) ini) inFn.) 2 0105013 0.067 (0.02 n 0.1196 -O.1S2 0.076.049 1 0135 0.700.085, 0.055 3 O64 = 0.209 0.105 0.070 7 019 ©0277 Ole .0TS 3 0.209 © O26t 0.132 (0.087 3 0239 © 0300150, 0.120 v4 0250 = 0309155 O.101 56 03125 0386 0.193 0.123 ya 0375 0.460.230 O13 TABLE 16.5b Section Properti for Two-Flange Liner Plate Effective Moment Thickness Area of Inertia. Gn) Gain) Gn*fin) 0.075 0096 «0.034 0.105 0.135 0.089 0.135, 074 0.064 0.164 023 0.079 0.179 0233, 0.087 0.208 02 0.103 0.239 03312 os 166 COATINGS Steel tunnel liner plates shall be of heavier gage or thickness or protected by coatings or other means when requiced for resistance to abrasion or corrosion. 16.7 BOLTS 16.7.1 Bolts and nuts used with lapped seams shall be not less than ¥+ inch in diameter. The bolts shall conform to the specifications of ASTM A 449 for plate thickness equal to or greater than 0.209 inches and A 307 for plate thickness less than 0.209 inches. The nut shall conform to ASTM A 307, Grade A. 16:.2 Ciscumferential seam bolts shall be A 307 or bet- ter forall plate thicknesses. 16.7.3. Bolts and nuts used with four hanged plates shall be not less than Ys inch in diameter for plate thickresses to and including 0.179 inches and not less than Ys inch in diameter for plates of greater thickness. The bolts and nuts shall be quick acting coarse thread and shall conform to ASTM A 307, Grade A. 168 SAFETY FACTORS Longitudinal test seam strength Pipe wall bucklingSection 17 SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS 17.1 GENERAL ITAA Scope Specifications in this Section govem the design of buried reinforced concrete suructures. A buried reinforced concrete element becomes part of composite system comprising the reinforced concrete section and the soit envelope, both of which contribute to the structural behavior of the system. 17.1.2 Notations A effective tension asea of concrete surrounding the flexural tension reinforcement and having the same centroid as that reinforcement, di vvided by the number of bars or wires, sq ins when the flexural reinforcement consists of several bar sizes or wire the number of bars for wires shall be computed as the total area of reinforcement divided by the area of the largest bar or wire used (Articles 17.6.4 and 117.4) ‘A, = total active lateral pressure acting on pipe, Ibs/ft (Article 17.4.5 and Figure 17.4C) = tension reinforcement area on width b, in-/ft (Anticle 17.4.6) = stirrup reinforcement area to resist radial tension forces on width b, in.¥/ft in each line of stirraps at circumferential spacing s (Article 17.46) ‘Ag = required area of stirrups for shear reinforcement, in. (Article 17.4.6.4.6.2) b= width of section which resists M, N, V—Usually b= 12 inches (Article 17.4.6) B, = out-to-out horizontal span of pipe or bor, ft (Ar- ticles 17.4.4, 17.4.5, 17.6.4, and 17.7.4.) jrizontal width of trench at top of pipe or box, ft (Articles 17.4.4, 17.64, and 17.7.4) B, = bedding factor (Article 17.4.5) 355 Br = earth load bedding factor Bas = live load bedding factor B, Be G Ce ron Gy G a =crack control coefficient for effect of cover and spacing of reinforcament (Article 17.46) = out-to-out vertical rise of pipe, ft (Figure 174) = load coefficient for embankment installations (antice 17.4.5) = load coefficient for uench instalations (Antcie 1744) = constant corresponding to the shape of pipe (Ar ticle 174.5) = parameter which isa function ofthe distribution of the vertical load and the vertical reaction (Ar~ ticle 17.45) = crack control coef sent (Article 17.4.6) = distace from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcemeat, in (Artic: 17.4.6) = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wite Tocated closest thereto (Articles 17.6.4 and 1174) = D-load of pipe, thrée-edge bearing test load ex: pressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of span to produce a 0.01-inch crack (Aricle 17.4.5) inside diameter of pipe, i maximum service load stress in the reinforcing steel for crack control (Articles 17.64 and 1774) = maximum allowable strength of scrap material, Tbsfin? (Article 17.4.6.4.6) = specified yield strength of reinforcement, Ibsin2 (Anicle 17.4.6) = factor for effect of curvature on diagonal tension (shear) strength in curved components (Article T7ASAS) = factor for adjusting érack contro relative to aver~ age maximum crack width of 0.01 inch when Fe = 1.0 (Article 174.644) int for type of reinforce336, HIGHWAY BRIDGES 12 Fs = fector for crack depth effect resulting in increase q_—_ = ratioof the total lateral pressure tothe total vert in diagonal tension (shea strength wit decteas- cal load (Article 17.4.5) ing d cAntcle 174.645) t= radius of the inside reinforcement, in (Article F, = sollstracure interaction factor (Articles 17.4.4, 1746.43.1) 17.64. and 17.74) tug seillement ratio (Article 17.4.5.2.1) Fy =soil Structure’ interaction factor for embank- ° S, = circumferential spacing of stirrups in. (Article iment installations (Articles 17.4.4, 17.64, and 17.4646.1) W774) st = spacing of circumferential reinforcement ir. (At- Fz =soil-structure interaction factor for trench ticle 17.4.6) tallations (Articles 17.44, 1764, and S, = intemal horizontal span of pipe, in, (A:ticles V7.4) 17.45 and 17.4.6) Fy = factor for process and local materials that af- ' t —=elear cover over reinforcement, in. (Antcle fect the radial tension strength of pipe (Article 17.46) 17.46) Va = basie shear strength of ritical section, tbsit F., = factor for process and local materials that affect the shear strength of pipe (Amicle 174.64.5) Fy = covlficient for effect of thrust on shear steength (Aaicle 174.645) EL = design compressive strength of concrete, Ibs/in? (Anticles 174.6, 17.62, and 17.7.2) hh = overall thickness of member (wall thickness), in. (Anicle 17.644) H_ = heightof fill above top of pipe or box, ft (Articles 1744, 174.5, 17.64, and 17-74) HAE = herizoatal arching factor (Figure 17.48) i= coefficient for effect of axial force at service load stress, f (Amicle 17.4.6.4.4) j= coefficient for moment arm at service load stess, fAnticle 74.644) K =raio of the active unit tateral soil _pres- sure to unit vertical soil pressure-Rankine's coefficient of active earth pressure (Figures 17.4B-D) M__ = moment acting on cross section of width, b, service load conditions, in.-lbs/ft (Taken as absolute value ia design equations, always +) (Ar 174644) M, = service load bending moment, inIbsift (Article 146A) |, = factored moment acting on cross section of width , intbsft (Article 17.4.6.4.6.1) = number of layers of reinforcement in a cage—I or 2 (Anticle 17.4.6) N, axial thrust acting on cross section of width by service load condition (+ when com- M. pressive, — when tensile), Ibs/ft (Article 17A644) IN, = factored axial thrust acting on cross section of ‘width b,Ibs/ft (Anite 17.4.6) P rojection ratio (Article 17.4.5.2.1) bp! = negative projection ratio (Figure 17.44 and Table 1748) where Mi(Vybd) = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6) Y_ =.nominal shear strength provided by width b of ‘concrete cross section, Ibsift (Article 17.4.5) V, = factored shear force acting on cross section of ‘width b,Ibsift (Article 17.4.6.8.6) Vac = factored shear force at critical section, tbs/ft where M/(V,bd) = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6.4.62) AF = vertical arching factor (Article 17.44.2.1.1) nit weight of soil, Ibs per cubic foot (Article 1744) We = total earth load on pipe or box. Ibs/ft (Articles 17.44, 1745, 17.64, and 17.7.4) |W; = Guid load in the pipe as determined according to Anicle 1744.2, Ibsift al live load on pipe or box, Ibs/ft (Articles W744 and 17.4.5) W, = totul load, earth and live, on pipe or box, tbs/tt (Anicles 17.4.4 and 17.4.5) X = parameter which is a function of the area of the vertical projection of the pipe over which fateral pressure is effective (Article 17.4.5) H coefficient of internal friction of the soi (Fig- ure 17.4B) coefficient of friction between backfill andtrench walls (Figure 17.48) Wy -central angle of pipe subtended ty assumed distribution of external reactive force (Figure 17.4F) p= ratio of reinforcement area to concrete arsa (Ar- ticle 17.4.6) = strength reduction factor for flexure (Article 17.464.1) b, = strength reduction factors for shear and racial tension (Anicle 17.6.6.4.5) 1213 Loads Design loads shall be determined by the forces acting con the structure. For earth fonds, see Article 3.20. Zor live

AASHTO Standard Specifications For Highway Bridge 16th

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