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0.000 403 3(
a
/) + 0.045 34 - 1.679(r/R)
where F is the correction factor,
a
is the
apparent surface tension read from the dial
(dyne/cm), is the density of the liquid (g/cm
3
),
and (r/R) for the ring is found on the ring
container. The actual surface tension for the
liquid is given by
= F
a
9
EXPERIMENT 2
FLUID PROPERTIES: VISCOSITY
One of the properties of homogeneous liquids
is their resistance to motion. A measure of this
resistance is known as viscosity. It can be
measured in different, standardized methods or
tests. In this experiment, viscosity will be
measured with a falling sphere viscometer.
The Falling Sphere Viscometer
When an object falls through a fluid medium,
the object reaches a constant final speed or
terminal velocity. If this terminal velocity is
sufficiently low, then the various forces acting on
the object can be described with exact expressions.
The forces acting on a sphere, for example, that is
falling at terminal velocity through a liquid are:
Weight - Buoyancy - Drag = 0
s
g
4
3
R
3
- g
4
3
R
3
- 6VR = 0
where
s
and are density of the sphere and
liquid respectively, V is the spheres terminal
velocity, R is the radius of the sphere and is
the viscosity of the liquid. In solving the
preceding equation, the viscosity of the liquid can
be determined. The above expression for drag is
valid only if the following equation is valid:
VD
< 1
where D is the sphere diameter. Once the
viscosity of the liquid is found, the above ratio
should be calculated to be certain that the
mathematical model gives an accurate
description of a sphere falling through the
liquid.
Equipment
Hydrometer cylinder
Scale
Stopwatch
Several small spheres with weight and
diameter to be measured
Test liquid
Drop a sphere into the cylinder liquid and
record the time it takes for the sphere to fall a
certain measured distance. The distance divided
by the measured time gives the terminal velocity
of the sphere. Repeat the measurement and
average the results. With the terminal velocity
of this and of other spheres measured and known,
the absolute and kinematic viscosity of the liquid
can be calculated. The temperature of the test
liquid should also be recorded. Use at least three
different spheres. (Note that if the density of
the liquid is unknown, it can be obtained from any
group who has completed or is taking data on
Experiment 1.)
Questions
1. Should the terminal velocity of two
different size spheres be the same?
2. Does a larger sphere have a higher
terminal velocity?
3. Should the viscosity found for two different
size spheres be the same? Why or why not?
4. If different size spheres give different
results for the viscosity, what are the error
sources? Calculate the % error and account
for all known error sources.
5. What are the shortcomings of this method?
6. Why should temperature be recorded.
7. Can this method be used for gases?
8. Can this method be used for opaque liquids?
9. Can this method be used for something like
peanut butter, or grease or flour dough?
Why or why not?
d
V
FIGURE 2.1. Terminal velocity measurement (V =
d/ t i me) .
10
EXPERIMENT 3
CENTER OF PRESSURE ON A SUBMERGED
PLANE SURFACE
Submerged surfaces are found in many
engineering applications. Dams, weirs and water
gates are familiar examples of submerged
surfaces used to control the flow of water. From
the design viewpoint, it is important to have a
working knowledge of the forces that act on
submerged surfaces.
A plane surface located beneath the surface
of a liquid is subjected to a pressure due to the
height of liquid above it, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Increasing pressure varies linearly with
increasing depth resulting in a pressure
distribution that acts on the submerged surface.
The analysis of this situation involves
determining a force which is equivalent to the
pressure, and finding the location of this force.
F
y
F
FIGURE 3.1. Pressure distribution on a submerged
plane surface and the equivalent force.
For this case, it can be shown that the
equivalent force is:
F = gy
c
A (3.1)
in which is the liquid density, y
c
is the distance
from the free surface of the liquid to the centroid
of the plane, and A is the area of the plane in
contact with liquid. Further, the location of this
force y
F
below the free surface is
y
F
=
I
x x
y
c
A
+ y
c
(3.2)
in which I
xx
is the second area moment of the
plane about its centroid. The experimental
verification of these equations for force and
distance is the subject of this experiment.
Center of Pressure Measurement
Equipment
Center of Pressure Apparatus
Weights
Figure 3.2 gives a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. The torus and balance
arm are placed on top of the tank. Note that the
pivot point for the balance arm is the point of
contact between the rod and the top of the tank.
The zeroing weight is adjusted to level the
balance arm. Water is then added to a
predetermined depth. Weights are placed on the
weight hanger to re-level the balance arm. The
amount of needed weight and depth of water are
then recorded. The procedure is then repeated for
four other depths. (Remember to record the
distance from the pivot point to the free surface
for each case.)
From the depth measurement, the equivalent
force and its location are calculated using
Equations 3.1 and 3.2. Summing moments about the
pivot allows for a comparison between the
theoretical and actual force exerted. Referring to
Figure 3.2, we have
F =
WL
(y + y
F
)
(3.3)
where y is the distance from the pivot point to
the free surface, y
F
is the distance from the free
surface to the line of action of the force F, and L is
the distance from the pivot point to the line of
action of the weight W. Note that both curved
surfaces of the torus are circular with centers at
the pivot point. For the report, compare the force
obtained with Equation 3.1 to that obtained with
Equation 3.3. When using Equation 3.3, it will be
necessary to use Equation 3.2 for y
F
.
Questions
1. In summing moments, why isn't the buoyant
force taken into account?
2. Why isnt the weight of the torus and the
balance arm taken into account?
11
L
F
y
h
w
y
F
R
i
R
o
zeroing weight
pivot point
(point of contact)
level
torus
weight
hanger
FIGURE 3.2. A schematic of the center of pressure apparatus.
12
EXPERIMENT 4
MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
Pressure can be measured in several ways.
Bourdon tube gages, manometers, and transducers
are a few of the devices available. Each of these
instruments actually measures a difference in
pressure; that is, measures a difference between
the desired reading and some reference pressure,
usually atmospheric. The measurement of
differential pressure with manometers is the
subject of this experiment.
Manometry
A manometer is a device used to measure a
pressure difference and display the reading in
terms of height of a column of liquid. The height
is related to the pressure difference by the
hydrostatic equation.
Figure 4.1 shows a U-tube manometer
connected to two pressure vessels. The manometer
reading is h and the manometer fluid has
density
m
. One pressure vessel contains a fluid of
density
1
while the other vessel contains a fluid
of density
2
. The pressure difference can be found
by applying the hydrostatic equation to each
limb of the manometer. For the left leg,
p
1
p
2
z
2
z
1
p
A
p
A
h
m
1
2
FIGURE 4.1. A U-tube manometer connected to
two pressure vessels.
p
1
+
1
gz
1
= p
A
Likewise for the right leg,
p
2
+
2
gz
2
+
m
gh = p
A
Equating these expressions and solving for the
pressure difference gives
p
1
- p
2
=
2
gz
2
+
1
gz
1
+
m
gh
If the fluids above the manometer liquid are both
gases, then
1
and
2
are small compared to
.
The above equation then becomes
p
1
- p
2
=
m
gh
Figure 4.2 is a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. It consists of three U-tube
manometers, a well-type manometer, a U-
tube/inclined manometer and a differential
pressure gage. There are two tanks (actually, two
capped pieces of pipe) to which each manometer
and the gage are connected. The tanks have bleed
valves attached and the tanks are connected
with plastic tubing to a squeeze bulb. The bulb
lines also contain valves. With both bleed valves
closed and with both bulb line valves open, the
bulb is squeezed to pump air from the low pressure
tank to the high pressure tank. The bulb is
squeezed until any of the manometers reaches its
maximum reading. Now both valves are closed
and the liquid levels are allowed to settle in
each manometer. The h readings are all
recorded. Next, one or both bleed valves are
opened slightly to release some air into or out of a
tank. The liquid levels are again allowed to
settle and the h readings are recorded. The
procedure is to be repeated until 5 different sets of
readings are obtained. For each set of readings,
convert all readings into psi or Pa units, calculate
the average value and the standard deviation.
Before beginning, be sure to zero each manometer
and the gage.
Questions
1. Manometers 1, 2 and 3 are U-tube types and
each contains a different liquid. Manometer
4 is a well-type manometer. Is there an
advantage to using this one over a U-tube
type?
2. Manometer 5 is a combined U/tube/inclined
manometer. What is the advantage of this
type?
3. Note that some of the manometers use a
liquid which has a specific gravity
different from 1.00, yet the reading is in
inches of water. Explain how this is
possible.
4. What advantages or disadvantages does
the gage have over the manometers?
13
5. Is a low value of the standard deviation
expected? Why?
6. What does a low standard deviation
imply?
7. In your opinion, which device gives the
most accurate reading. What led you to this
conclusion?
U-tube manometers
Well-type
manometer
U-tube/inclined
manometer
Gage
Bleed valves
Low pressure tank High pressure tank
FIGURE 4.2. A schematic of the apparatus used in this experiment.
14
EXPERIMENT 5
IMPACT OF A JET OF WATER
A jet of fluid striking a stationary object
exerts a force on that object. This force can be
measured when the object is connected to a spring
balance or scale. The force can then be related to
the velocity of the jet of fluid and in turn to the
rate of flow. The force developed by a jet stream
of water is the subject of this experiment.
Impact of a Jet of Liquid
Equipment
Jet Impact Apparatus
Object plates
Figure 5.1 is a schematic of the device used in
this experiment. The device consists of a tank
within a tank. The interior tank is supported on a
pivot and has a lever arm attached to it. As
water enters this inner tank, the lever arm will
reach a balance point. At this time, a stopwatch
is started and a weight is placed on the weight
hanger (e.g., 10 lbf). When enough water has
entered the tank (10 lbf), the lever arm will
again balance. The stopwatch is stopped. The
elapsed time divided into the weight of water
collected gives the weight or mass flow rate of
water through the system (lbf/sec, for example).
The outer tank acts as a support for the table
top as well as a sump tank. Water is pumped from
the outer tank to the apparatus resting on the
table top. As shown in Figure 5.1, the impact
apparatus contains a nozzle that produces a high
velocity jet of water. The jet is aimed at an object
(such as a flat plate or hemisphere). The force
exerted on the plate causes the balance arm to
which the plate is attached to deflect. A weight
is moved on the arm until the arm balances. A
summation of moments about the pivot point of
the arm allows for calculating the force exerted
by the jet.
Water is fed through the nozzle by means of
a centrifugal pump. The nozzle emits the water in
a jet stream whose diameter is constant. After the
water strikes the object, the water is channeled to
the weighing tank inside to obtain the weight or
mass flow rate.
The variables involved in this experiment
are listed and their measurements are described
below:
1. Mass rate of flowmeasured with the
weighing tank inside the sump tank. The
volume flow rate is obtained by dividing
mass flow rate by density: Q = m/.
2. Velocity of jetobtained by dividing volume
flow rate by jet area: V = Q/A. The jet is
cylindrical in shape with a diameter of 0.375
in.
3. Resultant forcefound experimentally by
summation of moments about the pivot point
of the balance arm. The theoretical resultant
force is found by use of an equation derived by
applying the momentum equation to a control
volume about the plate.
Impact Force Analysis
The total force exerted by the jet equals the
rate of momentum loss experienced by the jet after
it impacts the object. For a flat plate, the force
equation is:
F =
Q
2
A
(flat plate)
For a hemisphere,
F =
2Q
2
A
(hemisphere)
For a cone whose included half angle is ,
F =
Q
2
A
(1 + cos ) (cone)
For your report, derive the appropriate
equation for each object you use. Compose a graph
with volume flow rate on the horizontal axis,
and on the vertical axis, plot the actual and
theoretical force. Use care in choosing the
increments for each axis.
15
flat plate
pivot
balancing
weight lever arm with
flat plate attached
water
jet
nozzle
drain
weigh tank
plug
sump tank
motor
pump
weight hanger
flow control
valve
tank pivot
FIGURE 5.1. A schematic of the jet impact apparatus.
16
EXPERIMENT 6
CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER IN PIPE FLOW
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio
of inertia forces to viscous forces and is used in
identifying certain characteristics of fluid flow.
The Reynolds number is extremely important in
modeling pipe flow. It can be used to determine
the type of flow occurring: laminar or turbulent.
Under laminar conditions the velocity
distribution of the fluid within the pipe is
essentially parabolic and can be derived from the
equation of motion. When turbulent flow exists,
the velocity profile is flatter than in the
laminar case because the mixing effect which is
characteristic of turbulent flow helps to more
evenly distribute the kinetic energy of the fluid
over most of the cross section.
In most engineering texts, a Reynolds number
of 2 100 is usually accepted as the value at
transition; that is, the value of the Reynolds
number between laminar and turbulent flow
regimes. This is done for the sake of convenience.
In this experiment, however, we will see that
transition exists over a range of Reynolds numbers
and not at an individual point.
The Reynolds number that exists anywhere in
the transition region is called the critical
Reynolds number. Finding the critical Reynolds
number for the transition range that exists in pipe
flow is the subject of this experiment.
Critical Reynolds Number Measurement
Equipment
Critical Reynolds Number Determination
Apparatus
Figure 6.1 is a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. The constant head tank
provides a controllable, constant flow through
the transparent tube. The flow valve in the tube
itself is an on/off valve, not used to control the
flow rate. Instead, the flow rate through the tube
is varied with the rotameter valve at A. The
head tank is filled with water and the overflow
tube maintains a constant head of water. The
liquid is then allowed to flow through one of the
transparent tubes at a very low flow rate. The
valve at B controls the flow of dye; it is opened
and dye is then injected into the pipe with the
water. The dye injector tube is not to be placed in
the pipe entrance as it could affect the results.
Establish laminar flow by starting with a very
low flow rate of water and of dye. The injected
dye will flow downstream in a threadlike
pattern for very low flow rates. Once steady state
is achieved, the rotameter valve is opened
slightly to increase the water flow rate. The
valve at B is opened further if necessary to allow
more dye to enter the tube. This procedure of
increasing flow rate of water and of dye (if
necessary) is repeated throughout the
experiment.
Establish laminar flow in one of the tubes.
Then slowly increase the flow rate and observe
what happens to the dye. Its pattern may
change, yet the flow might still appear to be
laminar. This is the beginning of transition.
Continue increasing the flow rate and again
observe the behavior of the dye. Eventually, the
dye will mix with the water in a way that will
be recognized as turbulent flow. This point is the
end of transition. Transition thus will exist over a
range of flow rates. Record the flow rates at key
points in the experiment. Also record the
temperature of the water.
The object of this procedure is to determine
the range of Reynolds numbers over which
transition occurs. Given the tube size, the
Reynolds number can be calculated with:
Re =
VD
+
V
1
2
2
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
and substituting from the hydrostatic equation, it
can be shown after simplification that the
volume flow rate through the venturi meter is
given by
Q
th
= A
2
2gh
1 - (D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
(7.1)
The preceding equation represents the theoretical
volume flow rate through the venturi meter.
Notice that is was derived from the Bernoulli
equation which does not take frictional effects
into account.
In the venturi meter, there exists small
pressure losses due to viscous (or frictional)
effects. Thus for any pressure difference, the
actual flow rate will be somewhat less than the
theoretical value obtained with Equation 7.1
above. For any h, it is possible to define a
coefficient of discharge C
v
as
C
v
=
Q
ac
Q
th
For each and every measured actual flow rate
through the venturi meter, it is possible to
calculate a theoretical volume flow rate, a
Reynolds number, and a discharge coefficient.
The Reynolds number is given by
Re =
V
2
D
2
(7.2)
where V
2
is the velocity at the throat of the
meter (= Q
ac
/A
2
).
The Orifice Meter and
Nozzle-Type Meter
The orifice and nozzle-type meters consist of
a throttling device (an orifice plate or bushing,
respectively) placed into the flow. (See Figures
7.2 and 7.3). The throttling device creates a
measurable pressure difference from its upstream
to its downstream side. The measured pressure
difference is then related to the flow rate. Like
the venturi meter, the pressure difference varies
with flow rate. Applying Bernoullis equation to
points 1 and 2 of either meter (Figure 7.2 or Figure
7.3) yields the same theoretical equation as that
for the venturi meter, namely, Equation 7.1. For
any pressure difference, there will be two
associated flow rates for these meters: the
theoretical flow rate (Equation 7.1), and the
19
actual flow rate (measured in the laboratory).
The ratio of actual to theoretical flow rate leads
to the definition of a discharge coefficient: C
o
for
the orifice meter and C
n
for the nozzle.
1
2
h
FIGURE 7.2. Cross sectional view of the orifice
meter.
1 2
h
FIGURE 7.3. Cross sectional view of the nozzle-
type meter, and a typical nozzle.
For each and every measured actual flow
rate through the orifice or nozzle-type meters, it
is possible to calculate a theoretical volume flow
rate, a Reynolds number and a discharge
coefficient. The Reynolds number is given by
Equation 7.2.
The Turbine-Type Meter
The turbine-type flow meter consists of a
section of pipe into which a small turbine has
been placed. As the fluid travels through the
pipe, the turbine spins at an angular velocity
that is proportional to the flow rate. After a
certain number of revolutions, a magnetic pickup
sends an electrical pulse to a preamplifier which
in turn sends the pulse to a digital totalizer. The
totalizer totals the pulses and translates them
into a digital readout which gives the total
volume of liquid that travels through the pipe
and/or the instantaneous volume flow rate.
Figure 7.4 is a schematic of the turbine type flow
meter.
rotor supported
on bearings
(not shown)
turbine rotor
rotational speed
proportional to
flow rate
to receiver
flow
straighteners
FIGURE 7.4. A schematic of a turbine-type flow
meter.
The Rotameter (Variable Area Meter)
The variable area meter consists of a tapered
metering tube and a float which is free to move
inside. The tube is mounted vertically with the
inlet at the bottom. Fluid entering the bottom
raises the float until the forces of buoyancy, drag
and gravity are balanced. As the float rises the
annular flow area around the float increases.
Flow rate is indicated by the float position read
against the graduated scale which is etched on
the metering tube. The reading is made usually at
the widest part of the float. Figure 7.5 is a sketch
of a rotameter.
tapered, graduated
transparent tube
freely
suspended
float
inlet
outlet
FIGURE 7.5. A schematic of the rotameter and its
operation.
Rotameters are usually manufactured with
one of three types of graduated scales:
1. % of maximum flowa factor to convert scale
reading to flow rate is given or determined for
the meter. A variety of fluids can be used
with the meter and the only variable
20
encountered in using it is the scale factor. The
scale factor will vary from fluid to fluid.
2. Diameter-ratio typethe ratio of cross
sectional diameter of the tube to the
diameter of the float is etched at various
locations on the tube itself. Such a scale
requires a calibration curve to use the meter.
3. Direct readingthe scale reading shows the
actual flow rate for a specific fluid in the
units indicated on the meter itself. If this
type of meter is used for another kind of fluid,
then a scale factor must be applied to the
readings.
Experimental Procedure
Equipment
Fluid Meters Apparatus
Stopwatch
The fluid meters apparatus is shown
schematically in Figure 7.6. It consists of a
centrifugal pump, which draws water from a
sump tank, and delivers the water to the circuit
containing the flow meters. For nine valve
positions (the valve downstream of the pump),
record the pressure differences in each
manometer. For each valve position, measure the
actual flow rate by diverting the flow to the
volumetric measuring tank and recording the time
required to fill the tank to a predetermined
volume. Use the readings on the side of the tank
itself. For the rotameter, record the position of
the float and/or the reading of flow rate given
directly on the meter. For the turbine meter,
record the flow reading on the output device.
Note that the venturi meter has two
manometers attached to it. The inner
manometer is used to calibrate the meter; that is,
to obtain h readings used in Equation 7.1. The
outer manometer is placed such that it reads
the overall pressure drop in the line due to the
presence of the meter and its attachment fittings.
We refer to this pressure loss as H (distinctly
different from h). This loss is also a function of
flow rate. The manometers on the turbine-type
and variable area meters also give the incurred
loss for each respective meter. Thus readings of
H vs Q
ac
are obtainable. In order to use these
parameters to give dimensionless ratios, pressure
coefficient and Reynolds number are used. The
Reynolds number is given in Equation 7.2. The
pressure coefficient is defined as
C
p
=
gH
V
2
/2
(7.3)
All velocities are based on actual flow rate and
pipe diameter.
The amount of work associated with the
laboratory report is great; therefore an informal
group report is required rather than individual
reports. The write-up should consist of an
Introduction (to include a procedure and a
derivation of Equation 7.1), a Discussion and
Conclusions section, and the following graphs:
1. On the same set of axes, plot Q
ac
vs h and
Q
th
vs h with flow rate on the vertical
axis for the venturi meter.
2. On the same set of axes, plot Q
ac
vs h and
Q
th
vs h with flow rate on the vertical
axis for the orifice meter.
3. Plot Q
ac
vs Q
th
for the turbine type meter.
4. Plot Q
ac
vs Q
th
for the rotameter.
5. Plot C
v
vs Re on a log-log grid for the
venturi meter.
6. Plot C
o
vs Re on a log-log grid for the orifice
meter.
7. Plot H vs Q
ac
for all meters on the same set
of axes with flow rate on the vertical axis.
8. Plot C
p
vs Re for all meters on the same set
of axes (log-log grid) with C
p
vertical axis.
Questions
1. Referring to Figure 7.2, recall that
Bernoulli's equation was applied to points 1
and 2 where the pressure difference
measurement is made. The theoretical
equation, however, refers to the throat area
for point 2 (the orifice hole diameter)
which is not where the pressure
measurement was made. Explain this
discrepancy and how it is accounted for in
the equation formulation.
2. Which meter in your opinion is the best one
to use?
3. Which meter incurs the smallest pressure
loss? Is this necessarily the one that should
always be used?
4. Which is the most accurate meter?
5. What is the difference between precision
and accuracy?
21
orifice meter
venturi meter
manometer
valve
turbine-type meter
rotameter
sump tank
volumetric
measuring
tank
return
motor
pump
FIGURE 7.6. A schematic of the Fluid Meters Apparatus. (Orifice and Venturi meters: upstream
diameter is 1.025 inches; throat diameter is 0.625 inches.)
22
EXPERIMENT 8
PIPE FLOW
Experiments in pipe flow where the presence
of frictional forces must be taken into account are
useful aids in studying the behavior of traveling
fluids. Fluids are usually transported through
pipes from location to location by pumps. The
frictional losses within the pipes cause pressure
drops. These pressure drops must be known to
determine pump requirements. Thus a study of
pressure losses due to friction has a useful
application. The study of pressure losses in pipe
flow is the subject of this experiment.
Pipe Flow
Equipment
Pipe Flow Test Rig
Figure 8.1 is a schematic of the pipe flow test
rig. The rig contains a sump tank which is used as
a water reservoir from which a centrifugal pump
discharges water to the pipe circuit. The circuit
itself consists of four different diameter lines and
a return line all made of drawn copper tubing. The
circuit contains valves for directing and
regulating the flow to make up various series and
parallel piping combinations. The circuit has
provision for measuring pressure loss through the
use of static pressure taps (manometer board not
shown in schematic). Finally, because the circuit
also contains a rotameter, the measured pressure
losses can be obtained as a function of flow rate.
As functions of the flow rate, measure the
pressure losses in inches of water for (as specified
by the instructor):
1. 1 in. copper tube 5. 1 in. 90 T-joint
2.
3
/4-in. copper tube 6. 1 in. 90 elbow (ell)
3.
1
/2-in copper tube 7. 1 in. gate valve
4.
3
/8 in copper tube 8.
3
/4-in gate valve
The instructor will specify which of the
pressure loss measurements are to be taken.
Open and close the appropriate valves on the
apparatus to obtain the desired flow path.
Use the valve closest to the pump on its
downstream side to vary the volume flow
rate.
With the pump on, record the assigned
pressure drops and the actual volume flow
rate from the rotameter.
Using the valve closest to the pump, change
the volume flow rate and again record the
pressure drops and the new flow rate value.
Repeat this procedure until 9 different
volume flow rates and corresponding pressure
drop data have been recorded.
With pressure loss data in terms of h, the
friction factor can be calculated with
f =
2gh
V
2
(L/ D)
It is customary to graph the friction factor as a
function of the Reynolds number:
Re =
VD
p cosd
The above expression states that the drag force is
twice the cylinder radius (2R) times the cylinder
length (L) times the area under the curve of p
cos vs .
Drag data are usually expressed as drag
coefficient C
D
vs Reynolds number Re. The drag
coefficient is defined as
C
D
=
D
f
V
2
A/2
The Reynolds number is
Re =
VD
inlet flow
straighteners
nozzle
test section
diffuser
fan
FIGURE 9.3. A schematic of the wind tunnel used in this experiment.
26
where V is the free stream velocity (upstream of
the cylinder), A is the projected frontal area of
the cylinder (2RL), D is the cylinder diameter,
is the air density and is the air viscosity.
Compare the results to those found in texts.
static pressure
taps attach to
manometers
60
0
30
90
120
150
180
FIGURE 9.4. Schematic of the experimental
apparatus used in this experiment.
27
EXPERIMENT 10
DRAG FORCE DETERMINATION
An object placed in a uniform flow is acted
upon by various forces. The resultant of these
forces can be resolved into two force components,
parallel and perpendicular to the main flow
direction. The component acting parallel to the
flow is known as the drag force. It is a function of
a skin friction effect and an adverse pressure
gradient. The component perpendicular to the
flow direction is the lift force and is caused by a
pressure distribution which results in a lower
pressure acting over the top surface of the object
than at the bottom. If the object is symmetric
with respect to the flow direction, then the lift
force will be zero and only a drag force will exist.
Measurement of the drag force acting on an object
immersed in the uniform flow of a fluid is the
subject of this experiment.
Equipment
Subsonic Wind Tunnel
Objects
A description of a subsonic wind tunnel is
given in Experiment 9 and is shown schematically
in Figure 9.3. The fan at the end of the tunnel
draws in air at the inlet. An object is mounted on a
stand that is pre calibrated to read lift and drag
forces exerted by the fluid on the object. A
schematic of the test section is shown in Figure
10.1. The velocity of the flow at the test section is
also pre calibrated. The air velocity past the
object can be controlled by changing the angle of
the inlet vanes located within the fan housing.
Thus air velocity, lift force and drag force are
read directly from the tunnel instrumentation.
There are a number of objects that are
available for use in the wind tunnel. These
include a disk, a smooth surfaced sphere, a rough
surface sphere, a hemisphere facing upstream,
and a hemisphere facing downstream. For
whichever is assigned, measure drag on the object
as a function of velocity.
Data on drag vs velocity are usually graphed
in dimensionless terms. The drag force D
f
is
customarily expressed in terms of the drag
coefficient C
D
(a ratio of drag force to kinetic
energy):
C
D
=
D
f
V
2
A/2
in which is the fluid density, V is the free
stream velocity, and A is the projected frontal
area of the object. Traditionally, the drag
coefficient is graphed as a function of the
Reynolds number, which is defined as
Re =
VD
+
V
o
2
2
+ gh =
p
a
+
V
2
2
+ g(h - y)
Note that in pipe flow, pressure remained in the
equation when analyzing any of the differential
pressure meters (orifice or venturi meters). In open
channel flows, the pressure terms represents
atmospheric pressure and cancel from the
Bernoulli equation. The liquid height is
therefore the only measurement required here.
From the above equation, assuming V
o
negligible:
V = 2gy (13.1)
Equation 13.1 is the starting point in the analysis
of all weirs. The incremental flow rate of liquid
through layer dy is:
dQ = 2Vxdy = 2gy(2x)dy
From the geometry of the V-notch and with
respect to the coordinate axes, we have y = h - x.
p
a
p
a
V
o
V
h
y
dy
x
x axis
y axis
FIGURE 13.1. Side and upstream views of a 90 V-notch weir.
33
Therefore,
Q =
0
h
(22g)y
1/2
(h - y)d y
Integration gives
Q
th
=
8
15
2g h
5/2
=Ch
5/2
(13.2)
where C is a constant. The above equation
represents the ideal or theoretical flow rate of
liquid over the V-notch weir. The actual
discharge rate is somewhat less due to frictional
and other dissipative effects. As with pipe
meters, we introduce a discharge coefficient
defined as:
C' =
Q
ac
Q
th
The equation that relates the actual volume flow
rate to the upstream height then is
Q
ac
= C'Ch
5/2
It is convenient to combine the effects of the
constant C and the coefficient C into a single
coefficient C
vn
for the V-notch weir. Thus we
reformulate the previous two equations to obtain:
C
vn
Q
ac
Q
th
(13.3)
Q
ac
= C
vn
h
5/2
(13.4)
Each type of weir will have its own coefficient.
Calibrate each of the weirs assigned by the
instructor for 7 different upstream height
measurements. Use the flow rate chart provided
with the open channel flow apparatus to obtain
the actual flow rate. Derive an appropriate
equation for each weir used (similar to Equation
13.4) above. Determine the coefficient applicable
for each weir tested. List the assumptions made
in each derivation. Discuss the validity of each
assumption, pointing out where they break down.
Graph upstream height vs actual and theoretical
volume flow rates. Plot the coefficient of
discharge (as defined in Equation 13.3) as a
function of the upstream Froude number.
FIGURE 13.2. Other types of weirssemicircular, contracted and suppressed.
34
EXPERIMENT 14
OPEN CHANNEL FLOWHYDRAULIC JUMP
When spillways or other similar open
channels are opened by the lifting of a gate,
liquid passing below the gate has a high velocity
and an associated high kinetic energy. Due to the
erosive properties of a high velocity fluid, it
may be desirable to convert the high kinetic
energy (e.g. high velocity) to a high potential
energy (e.g., a deeper stream). The problem then
becomes one of rapidly varying the liquid depth
over a short channel length. Rapidly varied flow
of this type produces what is known as a
hydraulic jump.
Consider a horizontal, rectangular open
channel of width b, in which a hydraulic jump
has developed. Figure 14.1 shows a side view of a
hydraulic jump. Figure 14.1 also shows the depth
of liquid upstream of the jump to be h
1
, and a
downstream depth of h
2
. Pressure distributions
upstream and downstream of the jump are drawn
in as well. Because the jump occurs over a very
short distance, frictional effects can be neglected.
A force balance would therefore include only
pressure forces. Applying the momentum equation
in the flow direction gives:
p
1
A
1
- p
2
A
2
= Q(V
2
- V
1
)
Pressure in the above equation represents the
pressure that exists at the centroid of the cross
section. Thus p = g(h/2). With a rectangular
cross section of width b (A = bh), the above
equation becomes
h
1
g
2
(h
1
b) -
h
2
g
2
(h
2
b) = Q(V
2
- V
1
)
From continuity, A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
= Q. Combining and
rearranging,
h
1
2
- h
2
2
2
=
Q
2
gb
2
(
j
,
\
1
h
2
-
1
h
1
Simplifying,
h
2
2
+ h
2
h
1
- 2
Q
2
gb
2
h
1
= 0
Solving for the downstream height yields one
physically (nonnegative) possible solution:
h
2
= -
h
1
2
+
2Q
2
gb
2
h
1
+
h
1
2
4
from which the downstream height can be found.
By applying Bernoullis Equation along the free
surface, the energy lost irreversibly can be
calculated as
Lost Energy = E =
g(h
2
- h
1
)
3
4h
2
h
1
and the rate of energy loss is
d W
d t
= QE
The above equations are adequate to properly
describe a hydraulic jump.
Hydraulic Jump Measurements
Equipment
Open Channel Flow Apparatus (Figure 12.1)
The channel can be used in either a
horizontal or a sloping configuration. The device
contains two pumps which discharge water
through calibrated orifice meters connected to
manometers. The device also contains on the
channel bottom two forward facing brass tubes.
Each tube is connected to a vertical Plexiglas
tube. The height of the water in either of these
tubes represents the energy level at the
respective tube location. The difference in height
is the actual lost energy (E) for the jump of
interest.
FIGURE 14.1. Schematic of a
hydraulic jump in an open
channel.
h
1
V
2
V
1
p
1
p
2
h
2
35
Develop a hydraulic jump in the channel;
record upstream and downstream heights,
manometer readings (from which the actual
volume flow rate is obtained) and the lost energy
E. By varying the flow rate, upstream height,
downstream height and/or the channel slope,
record measurements on different jumps. Derive
the applicable equations in detail and substitute
appropriate values to verify the predicted
downstream height and lost energy. In other
words, the downstream height of each jump is to
be measured and compared to the downstream
height calculated with Equation 14.1. The same
is to be done for the rate of energy loss (Equation
14.2).
Analysis
Data on a hydraulic jump is usually specified
in two ways both of which will be required for
the report. Select any of the jumps you have
measurements for and construct a momentum
diagram . A momentum diagram is a graph of
liquid depth on the vertical axis vs momentum on
the horizontal axis. The momentum of the flow is
given by:
M =
2Q
2
gb
2
h
+
h
2
4
Another significant graph of hydraulic jump
data is of depth ratio h
2
/h
1
(vertical axis) as a
function of the upstream Froude number, Fr
1
(=
Q
2
/gb
2
h
1
3
). Construct such a graph for any of the
jumps for which you have taken measurements.
36
EXPERIMENT 15
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW OVER A HUMP
Flow over a hump in an open channel is a
problem that can be successfully modeled in order
to make predictions about the behavior of the
fluid. This experiment involves making
appropriate measurements for such a system, and
relating flow rate to critical depth. The flow
rate, critical depth, and specific energy are
determined theoretically and experimentally.
Theory
Flow in a channel is modeled in terms of a
parameter called the specific energy head (or just
specific energy) of the flow, E. The specific
energy head is defined as
E = h +
Q
2
2gh
2
b
2
(15.1)
where h is the depth of the flow, Q is the volume
flow rate, g is gravity, and b is the channel
width. The dimension of the specific energy head
is L (ft or m).
Figure 15.1 is a sketch of flow over a hump,
with flow from left to right. Shown is the chan-
nel bed and the hump. Upstream of the hump
(subscript 1 notation), the flow is subcritical;
downstream (subscript 2) the flow is super-
critical. Just at the highest point of the hump,
the flow is critical (subscript c). Also shown in
the figure is the total energy line, which we
assume is parallel to the flow channel bed; i.e.,
the total energy remains a constant in the flow.
Upstream of the hump, the total specific
energy head of the flow is denoted as E
1
, and the
depth of the liquid is h
1
, as shown graphically in
Figure 15.1. At any location z on the hump before
z
c
, the energy head is E, and the depth is h. At
this same height z downstream of z
c
, the liquid
depth is h, but the energy head is still E. At the
highest point of the hump z
c
, the energy head is
E
c
and the liquid depth is h
c
. The total specific
energy head and the liquid depth anywhere are
related according to Equation 15.1.
E
1
h
1
z
E
h
h
c
h
2
h'
E
c
z
c
total energy line
hump
channel bed
flow
direction
FIGURE 15.1. Flow over a
hump in an open
channel.
We can illustrate the relationship between
these parameters graphically by drawing a
specific energy head diagram, as illustrated in
Figure 15.2. This graph has flow depth on the
vertical axis and specific energy head on the
horizontal axis. The condition of the flow is
represented by the solid line with arrows
showing how the flow changes from subcritical to
supercritical. At the location on the hump where
the height is z, the energy head is E. We draw a
vertical line at this value of the specific energy
head; it will intersect the line at h (upstream)
and h (downstream).
E
1
, E
2
h
1
z
E
h
h
c
h
2
h'
E
c
z
c
specific energy head E
d
e
p
t
h
h
supercritical
subcritical
FIGURE 15.2. Specific energy diagram.
37
At any upstream (of the hump) location, say
h
1
, we see that the corresponding specific energy
head is E
1
. The vertical line that locates E
1
also
locates the energy E
2
which is downstream of the
hump. A vertical line drawn at E
1
intersects the
line at h
1
and h
2
, which are the upstream and
downstream liquid heights, respectively. Note
that the minimum specific energy head is at the
highest point of the hump z
c
, and the energy
head there is E
c
.
As water flows over the hump, the initial
specific energy head E
1
is reduced to a value E by
an amount equal to the height of the hump. So at
any location along the hump, the specific energy
head is E
1
- z, where z is the elevation above the
channel bed. At the point where the flow is
critical, the critical depth h
c
is given by
h
c
=
(
j
,
\
Q
2
b
2
g
1/3
=
2E
c
3
(15.2)
Flow Over a Hump
Equipment
Open Channel Flow Apparatus (Figure
12.1)
Installed hump
The open channel flow apparatus is described
in Experiment 12 and illustrated schematically in
Figure 12.1. Adjust the channel so that it is
horizontal. Make every effort to minimize
leakage of water past the sides of the hump.
Start both pumps and adjust the valves to give a
smooth water surface profile over the hump. For
one set of conditions, take readings from the
manometers to determine the volume flow rate
over the hump.
The open channel flow apparatus has a
depth gage attached. It will be necessary to
measure the water depth at certain specific
locations on or about the hump. These locations
are shown in Figure 15.3 (dimensions are in feet).
There are 8 water depths to be measured. So for
one flow rate, two manometer readings and 8
water depths will be recorded. Gather data for
the assigned number of flow rates.
Results
Although the data taken in this experiment
seem simple, the calculations required to reduce
the data appropriately can occupy much time.
With the data obtained:
Determine the flow rate using the manometer
readings. This value will be referred to as the
actual flow rate Q
AC
(subscript AC will refer
to an actual value, while TH refers to a
theoretical value).
Calculate the flow rate using a rearranged
form of Equation 15.2. This value will be
referred to as the theoretical flow rate Q
TH
.
Compare the two flow rates and find % error.
Use Equation 15.2 to find the value of the
critical depth using Q
AC.
Compare this value
to the measured value, and find % error.
Calculate the theoretical and actual values
of the minimum energy E
c
using Equation 15.2.
Compare the results.
Calculate the actual specific energy head E
AC
at each measurement station using Equation
15.1. Determine also the total energy head
H
AC
(= E
AC
+ z) for all readings.
Compose a chart using the column and row
headings shown in Table 15.1.
flow
direction
0.313 0.313 0.313 0.313
0.276
2
hump
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FIGURE 15.3. Water depth
measurement locations
for flow over a hump.
(Dimensions in feet.)
38
TABLE 15.1. Data reduction table for flow over a hump.
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Depth of flow h
AC
in ft
Specific energy head E
AC
in ft
Height of hump above channel bed z
in ft
Total energy head H
AC
in ft
Construct a graph of the flow configuration.
On the horizontal axis, plot distance
downstream, and plot depth on the vertical
axis. On this set of axes, plot (a) the total
energy line (H
AC
); (b) the water surface
profile; and, (c) the elevation z. Show data
points on the graph.
Construct a specific energy head diagram
similar to that of Figure 15.2. Show the
theoretical results (based on Q
TH
), and show
the actual data points.
Derive Equation 2.
Questions
1. What is the value of the Froude number (a)
upstream of the hump, (b) at the highest
point of the hump, and (c) downstream of the
hump?
2. Is the Froude number used in finding the
critical depth in Equation 15.2?
3. What equations is used to develop the
expression for specific energy head (Equation
15.1)?
4. How is the second term in Equation 15.1 (i.e.;
Q
2
/2gh
2
b
2
) related to the Froude number?
5. Is the total energy line (H
AC
) a constant as we
assumed with reference to Figure 15.1, or does
it change?
39
EXPERIMENT 16
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
AND
CALIBRATION OF A METER FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
The objective of this experiment is to
determine a calibration curve for a meter placed
in a pipe that is conveying air. The meters of
interest are an orifice meter and a venturi meter.
These meters are calibrated in this experiment by
using a pitot-static tube to measure the velocity,
from which the flow rate is calculated.
Pitot Static Tube
When a fluid flows through a pipe, it exerts
pressure that is made up of static and dynamic
components. The static pressure is indicated by a
measuring device moving with the flow or that
causes no velocity change in the flow. Usually, to
measure static pressure, a small hole
perpendicular to the flow is drilled through the
container wall and connected to a manometer (or
pressure gage) as indicated in Figure 16.1.
The dynamic pressure is due to the movement
of the fluid. The dynamic pressure and the static
pressure together make up the total or stagnation
pressure. The stagnation pressure can be measured
in the flow with a pitot tube. The pitot tube is an
open ended tube facing the flow directly. Figure
16.1 gives a sketch of the measurement of
stagnation pressure.
static pressure
measurement
stagnation pressure
measurement
pitot tube
flow
h
h
FIGURE 16.1. Measurement of static and
stagnation pressures.
The pitot-static tube combines the effects of
static and stagnation pressure measurement into
one device. Figure 16.2 is a schematic of the pitot-
static tube. It consists of a tube within a tube
which is placed in the duct facing upstream. The
pressure tap that faces the flow directly gives a
measurement of the stagnation pressure, while
the tap that is perpendicular to the flow gives
the static pressure.
When the pitot-static tube is immersed in the
flow of a fluid, the pressure difference
(stagnation minus static) can be read directly
using a manometer and connecting the pressure
taps to each leg. Applying the Bernoulli equation
between the two pressure taps yields:
A
A
section A-A
enlarged
four to eight holes
equally spaced
manometer
connections
flow direction
FIGURE 16.2. Schematic of a pitot-static tube.
p
1
g
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
=
p
2
g
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
where state 1 as the stagnation state (which
will be changed to subscript t), and state 2 as
the static state (no subscript). Elevation
differences are negligible, and at the point where
stagnation pressure is measured, the velocity is
zero. The Bernoulli equation thus reduces to:
p
t
g
=
p
g
+
V
2
2g
Next, we rearrange the preceding equation and
solve for velocity
V =
2(p
t
- p)
2gh
(1 - D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
Now for any pressure drop h
i
, there are two
corresponding flow rates: Q
ac
and Q
th
. The ratio of
these flow rates is the venturi discharge
coefficient C
v
, defined as
C
v
=
Q
ac
Q
th
= 0.985
for turbulent flow. The orifice discharge
coefficient can be expressed in terms of the Stolz
equation:
C
o
= 0.595 9 + 0.031 2
2.1
- 0.184
8
+
+ 0.002 9
2.5
(
j
,
\
10
6
Re
0.75
+ 0.09L
1
(
j
,
\
4
1 -
4
- L
2
(0.003 37
3
)
where Re =
V
o
D
o
=
4Q
ac
D
o
=
D
o
D
1
L
1
= 0 for corner taps
L
1
= 1/D
1
for flange taps
L
1
= 1 for 1D &
1
2
D taps
and if L
1
0.433 3, the coefficient of the
(
j
,
\
4
1 -
4
term becomes 0.039.
L
2
= 0 for corner taps
L
2
= 1/D
1
for flange taps
L
2
= 0.5 - E/D
1
for 1D &
1
2
D taps
E = orifice plate thickness
Compressible Flow Through a Meter
When a compressible fluid (vapor or gas)
flows through a meter, compressibility effects
must be accounted for. This is done by introduction
of a compressibility factor which can be
determined analytically for some meters
(venturi). For an orifice meter, on the other hand,
the compressibility factor must be measured.
The equations and formulation developed
thus far were for incompressible flow through a
meter. For compressible flows, the derivation is
somewhat different. When the fluid flows
through a meter and encounters a change in area,
the velocity changes as does the pressure. When
pressure changes, the density of the fluid changes
and this effect must be accounted for in order to
obtain accurate results. To account for
compressibility, we will rewrite the descriptive
equations.
Venturi Meter
Consider isentropic, subsonic, steady flow of
an ideal gas through a venturi meter. The
continuity equation is
1
A
1
V
1
=
2
A
2
V
2
=
m
isentropic
=
m
s
where section 1 is upstream of the meter, and
section 2 is at the throat. Neglecting changes in
potential energy (negligible compared to changes
in enthalpy), the energy equation is
h
1
+
V
1
2
2
= h
2
+
V
2
2
2
The enthalpy change can be found by assuming
that the compressible fluid is ideal:
h
1
- h
2
= C
p
(T
1
- T
2
)
Combining these equations and rearranging gives
C
p
T
1
+
m
s
2
2
1
2
A
1
2
= C
p
T
2
+
m
s
2
2
2
2
A
2
2
or
m
s
2
(
j
,
\
1
2
2
A
2
2
-
1
1
2
A
1
2
= 2C
p
(T
1
- T
2
)
= 2C
p
T
1
(
j
,
\
1 -
T
2
T
1
If we assume an isentropic compression process
through the meter, then we can write
p
2
p
1
=
(
j
,
\
T
2
T
1
- 1
where is the ratio of specific heats ( = C
p
/C
v
).
Also, recall that for an ideal gas,
C
p
=
R
- 1
Substituting, rearranging and simplifying, we get
42
m
s
2
2
2
A
2
2
(
j
,
\
1 -
2
2
A
2
2
1
2
A
1
2
= 2
R
- 1
T
1
,
,
]
]
]
1 -
(
j
,
\
p
2
p
1
- 1
For an ideal gas, we write = p/RT. Substituting
for the RT
1
term in the preceding equation yields
m
s
2
A
2
2
= 2
2
2
- 1
(
j
,
\
p
1
1
1 - (p
2
/p
1
)
( - 1)/
1 - (
2
2
A
2
2
/
1
2
A
1
2
)
For an isentropic process, we can also write
p
1
=
p
2
or
2
=
(
j
,
\
p
2
p
1
1/
1
from which we obtain
2
2
=
(
j
,
\
p
2
p
1
2/
1
2
Substituting into the mass flow equation, we get
after considerable manipulation Equation 16.1 of
Table 16.1, which summarizes the results.
Thus for compressible flow through a venturi
meter, the measurements needed are p
1
, p
2
, T
1
,
the venturi dimensions, and the fluid properties.
By introducing the venturi discharge coefficient
C
v
, the actual flow rate through the meter is
determined to be
m
ac
= C
v
m
s
Combining this result with Equation 16.1 gives
Equation 16.2 of Table 16.1.
It would be convenient if we could re-write
Equation 16.2 in such a way that the
compressibility effects could be consolidated into
one term. We attempt this by using the flow rate
equation for the incompressible case multiplied
by another coefficient called the compressibility
factor Y; we therefore write
m
ac
= C
v
Y
1
A
2
2(p
1
- p
2
)
1
(1 - D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
We now set the preceding equation equal to
Equation 16.2 and solve for Y. We obtain Equation
16.3 of the table.
The ratio of specific heats will be known for
a given compressible fluid, and so Equation 16.3
could be plotted as compressibility factor Y versus
pressure ratio p
2
/p
1
for various values of D
2
/D
1
.
The advantage of using this approach is that a
pressure drop term appears just as with the
incompressible case, which is convenient if a
manometer is used to measure pressure. Moreover,
the compressibility effect has been isolated into
one factor Y.
Orifice Meter
The equations and formulation of an analysis
for an orifice meter is the same as that for the
venturi meter. The difference is in the evaluation
of the compressibility factor. For an orifice meter
the compressibility factor is much lower than
that for a venturi meter. The compressibility
factor for an orifice meter cannot be derived, but
instead must be measured. Results of such tests
have yielded the Buckingham equation, Equation
16.4 of Table 16.1, which is valid for most
manometer connection systems.
Calibration of a Meter
Figures 16.4 and 16.5 show how the apparatus
is set up. An axial flow fan is attached to the
shaft of a DC motor. The rotational speed of the
motor, and hence the volume flow rate of air, is
controllable. The fan moves air through a duct
into which a pitot-static tube is attached. The
pitot static tube is movable so that the velocity
at any radial location can be measured. An orifice
or a venturi meter can be placed in the duct
system.
The pitot static tube has pressure taps which
are to be connected to a manometer. Likewise each
meter also has pressure taps, and these will be
connected to a separate manometer.
A meter for calibration will be assigned by
the instructor. For the experiment, make
measurements of velocity using the pitot-static
tube to obtain a velocity profile. Draw the
velocity profile to scale. Obtain data from the
velocity profile and determine a volume flow
rate.
For one velocity profile, measure the pressure
drop associated with the meter. Graph volume
flow rate as a function of head loss h obtained
from the meter, with h on the horizontal axis.
Determine the value of the compressibility factor
experimentally and again using the appropriate
equation (Equation 16.3 or 16.4) for each data
point. A minimum of 9 data points should be
obtained. Compare the results of both
calculations for Y.
43
TABLE 16.1. Summary of equations for compressible flow through a venturi or an orifice meter.
m
s
= A
2
2p
1
1
(p
2
/p
1
)
2/
[/( - 1)] [1 - (p
2
/p
1
)
( - 1)/
]
1 - (p
2
/p
1
)
2/
(D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
1/2
(16.1)
m
ac
= C
v
A
2
2p
1
1
(p
2
/p
1
)
2/
[/( - 1)] [1 - (p
2
/p
1
)
( - 1)/
]
1 - (p
2
/p
1
)
2/
(D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
1/2
(16.2)
Y =
- 1
[(p
2
/p
1
)
2/
- (p
2
/p
1
)
( + 1)/
](1 - D
2
4
/D
1
4
)
[1 - (D
2
4
/D
1
4
)(p
2
/p
1
)
2/
](1 - p
2
/p
1
)
(venturi meter) (16.3)
Y = 1 - (0.41 + 0.35
4
)
(1 - p
2
/p
1
)
1
= m
2
The energy equation is
0 = -
dW
d t
+ m
1
,
]
]
h
1
+
V
1
2
2
- m
2
,
]
]
h
2
+
V
2
2
2
where dW/dt is the power input from the fan to
the air, which is what we are solving for. By
substituting the enthalpy terms according to the
definition (h = u + pv), the preceding equation
becomes
d W
d t
= m
(u
1
- u
2
)
+ m
,
]
]
p
1
+
V
1
2
2
-
,
]
]
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
Assuming ideal gas behavior, we have
u
1
- u
2
= C
v
(T
1
- T
2
)
With a fan, however, we assume an isothermal
process, so that T
1
T
2
and
1
2
= . With m
=
AV (evaluated at the outlet, section 2), the
equation for power becomes
d W
d t
= A
2
V
2
,
]
]
p
1
+
V
1
2
2
-
,
]
]
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
Recall that in this analysis, we set up our control
volume so that the inlet velocity V
1
= 0; actually
V
1
<< V
2
. Thus
,
]
]
p
1
+
V
1
2
2
-
,
]
]
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
,
]
]
p
1 -
p
2
-
V
2
2
2
in which p
1
is atmospheric pressure, and p
2
is
measured at section 2. The quantity in brackets in
the previous equation is the change in total
pressure p
t
. Thus, the power is
d W
d t
= p
t
Q (17.1)
This is the power imparted to the air from the
fan.
Data Acquisition
The motor controller is used to set the
rotational speed of the fan, which in turn controls
the volume flow rate of air through the duct. On
the side of the motor is a shaft (a torque arm)
that extends outward normal to the axis of
rotation. When the fan rotates, the motor tends to
rotate in the opposite direction. A weight can be
rounded
inlet
outlet duct axial flow
fan
motor
manometer
connections
venturi meter
1
2
FIGURE 17.1. Schematic of setup of fan horsepower experiment.
45
placed on the torque arm to reposition the motor
to its balanced position. The product of weight
and torque arm length gives the torque input from
motor to fan.
A tachometer is used to measure the
rotational speed of the motor. The product of
torque and rotational speed gives the power input
to the fan:
dW
a
d t
= T (17.2)
This is the power delivered to the fan from the
motor.
The efficiency of the fan can now be
calculated using Equations 1 and 2:
=
d W/ d t
d W
a
/ dt
(17.3)
Thus for one setting of the motor controller, the
following readings should be obtained:
1. An appropriate reading for the flow meter.
2. Weight needed to balance the motor, and its
position on the torque arm.
3. Rotational speed of the fan and motor.
4. The static pressure at section 2.
With these data, the following parameters
can be calculated, again for each setting of the
motor controller:
1. Outlet velocity at section 2: V
2
= Q/A
2
.
2. The power using Equation 17.1.
3. The input power using Equation 17.2.
4. The efficiency using Equation 17.3.
Presentation of Results
On the horizontal axis, plot volume flow
rate. On the vertical axis, graph the power using
Equation 1, and Equation 2, both on the same set of
axes. Also, again on the same set of axes, graph
total pressure p
t
as a function of flow rate. On a
separate graph, plot efficiency versus flow rate
(horizontal axis).
46
EXPERIMENT 18
MEASUREMENT OF PUMP PERFORMANCE
The objective of this experiment is to perform
a test of a centrifugal pump and display the
results in the form of what is known as a
performance map.
Figure 18.1 is a schematic of the pump and
piping system used in this experiment. The pump
contains an impeller within its housing. The
impeller is attached to the shaft of the motor
and the motor is mounted so that it is free to
rotate, within limits. As the motor rotates and
the impeller moves liquid through the pump, the
motor housing tends to rotate in the opposite
direction from that of the impeller. A calibrated
measurement system gives a readout of the torque
exerted by the motor on the impeller.
The rotational speed of the motor is obtained
with a tachometer. The product of rotational
speed and torque is the input power to the
impeller from the motor.
Gages in the inlet and outlet lines about the
pump give the corresponding pressures in gage
pressure units. The gages are located at known
heights from a reference plane.
After moving through the system, the water
is discharged into an open channel containing a
V-notch weir. The weir is calibrated to provide
the volume flow rate through the system.
The valve in the outlet line is used to control
the volume flow rate. As far as the pump is
concerned, the resistance offered by the valve
simulates a piping system with a controllable
friction loss. Thus for any valve position, the
following data can be obtained: torque, rotational
speed, inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and volume
flow rate. These parameters are summarized in
Table 18.1.
TABLE 18.1. Pump testing parameters.
Raw Data
Parameter Symbol Dimensions
torque T FL
rotational speed 1/T
inlet pressure p
1
F/L
2
outlet pressure p
2
F/L
2
volume flow rate Q L
3
/T
The parameters used to characterize the
pump are calculated with the raw data obtained
from the test (listed above) and are as follows:
input power to the pump, the total head
difference as outlet minus inlet, the power
imparted to the liquid, and the efficiency. These
parameters are summarized in Table 18.2. These
parameters must be expressed in a consistent set of
units.
TABLE 18.2. Pump characterization parameters.
Reduced Data
Parameter Symbol Dimensions
input power dW
a
/dt FL/T
total head diff H L
power to liquid dW/dt FL/T
efficiency
The raw data are manipulated to obtain the
reduced data which in turn are used to
characterize the performance of the pump. The
input power to the pump from the motor is the
product of torque and rotational speed:
-
dW
a
d t
= T (18.1)
where the negative sign is added as a matter of
convention. The total head at section 1, where
the inlet pressure is measured (see Figure 18.1), is
defined as
H
1
=
p
1
g
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
where is the liquid density and V
1
(= Q/A) is
the velocity in the inlet line. Similarly, the
total head at position 2 where the outlet pressure
is measured is
H
2
=
p
2
g
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
The total head difference is given by
47
H = H
2
- H
1
=
p
2
g
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
-
(
j
,
\
p
1
g
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
The dimension of the head H is L (ft or m). The
power imparted to the liquid is calculated with
the steady flow energy equation applied from
section 1 to 2:
-
d W
d t
= m
g
,
(
j
,
\
p
2
g
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
-
]
]
(
j
,
\
p
1
g
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
In terms of total head H, we have
-
d W
d t
= m
g (H
2
- H
1
) = m
g H (18.2)
The efficiency is determined with
=
d W/ d t
d W
a
/ dt
(18.3)
Experimental Method
The experimental technique used in obtaining
data depends on the desired method of expressing
performance characteristics. For this experiment,
data are taken on only one impeller-casing-motor
combination. One data point is first taken at a
certain valve setting and at a preselected
rotational speed. The valve setting would then be
changed and the speed control on the motor (not
shown in Figure 18.1) is adjusted if necessary so
that the rotational speed remains constant, and
the next set of data are obtained. This procedure
is continued until 6 data points are obtained for
one rotational speed.
Next, the rotational speed is changed and
the procedure is repeated. Four rotational speeds
should be used, and at least 6 data points per
rotational speed should be obtained.
sump tank
inlet
valve
valve
pump
motor
control panel
and gages
v-notch weir
return
1-1/2 nominal
schedule 40
PVC pipe
1 nominal
schedule 40
PVC pipe
pressure
tap
pressure
tap
z
1
z
2
motor
shaft
FIGURE 18.1. Centrifugal pump testing setup.
48
Performance Map
A performance map is to be drawn to
summarize the performance of the pump over its
operating range. The performance map is a graph
if the total head H versus flow rate Q
(horizontal axis). Four lines, corresponding to the
four pre-selected rotational speeds, would be
drawn. Each line has 6 data points, and the
efficiency at each point is calculated. Lines of
equal efficiency are then drawn, and the resulting
graph is known as a performance map. Figure 18.2
is an example of a performance map.
0 200 400 600 800
0
10
20
30
40
Volume flow rate in gallons per minute
T
o
t
a
l
h
e
a
d
i
n
f
t
3600 rpm
1760
2700
900
85%
80%
75%
75%
65%
65%
Efficiency in %
FIGURE 18.2. Example of a performance map of
one impeller-casing-motor combination
obtained at four different rotational speeds.
Dimensionless Graphs
To illustrate the importance of
dimensionless parameters, it is prudent to use the
data obtained in this experiment and produce a
dimensionless graph.
A dimensional analysis can be performed for
pumps to determine which dimensionless groups
are important. With regard to the flow of an
incompressible fluid through a pump, we wish to
relate three variables introduced thus far to the
flow parameters. The three variables of interest
here are the efficiency , the energy transfer rate
gH, and the power dW/dt. These three
parameters are assumed to be functions of fluid
properties density and viscosity , volume flow
rate through the machine Q, rotational speed ,
and a characteristic dimension (usually impeller
diameter) D. We therefore write three functional
dependencies:
= f
1
(, , Q, , D )
gH = f
2
(, , Q, , D)
d W
d t
= f
3
(, , Q, , D)
Performing a dimensional analysis gives the
following results:
= f
1
(
j
,
\
D
2
,
Q
D
3
gH
2
D
2
= f
2
(
j
,
\
D
2
,
Q
D
3
dW/ dt
3
D
5
= f
3
(
j
,
\
D
2
,
Q
D
3
where
gH
2
D
2
= energy transfer coefficient
Q
D
3
= volumetric flow coefficient
D
2
3
D
5
= power coefficient
Experiments conducted with pumps show that the
rotational Reynolds number (D
2
/) has a
smaller effect on the dependent variables than
does the flow coefficient. So for incompressible
flow through pumps, the preceding equations
reduce to
f
1
(
j
,
\
Q
D
3
(18.4)
gH
2
D
2
f
2
(
j
,
\
Q
D
3
(18.5)
dW/ dt
3
D
5
f
3
(
j
,
\
Q
D
3
(18.6)
For this experiment, construct a graph of
efficiency, energy transfer coefficient, and power
coefficient all as functions of the volumetric flow
coefficient. Three different graphs can be drawn,
or all lines can be placed on the same set of axes.
49
Specific Speed
A dimensionless group known as specific
speed can also be derived. Specific speed is found
by combining head coefficient and flow
coefficient in order to eliminate characteristic
length D:
ss
=
(
j
,
\
Q
D
3
1/2
(
j
,
\
2
D
2
gH
3/4
or
ss
=
Q
1/2
(gH)
3/4
[dimensionless]
Exponents other than 1/2 and 3/4 could be used (to
eliminate D), but 1/2 and 3/4 are customarily
selected for modeling pumps. Another definition
for specific speed is given by
s
=
Q
1/2
H
3/4
,
]
]
rpm =
rpm(gpm)
1/2
ft
3/4
in which the rotational speed is expressed in
rpm, volume flow rate Q is in gpm, total head H
is in ft of liquid, and specific speed
s
is
arbitrarily assigned the unit of rpm. The equation
for specific speed
ss
is dimensionless whereas
s
is not.
The specific speed of a pump can be
calculated at any operating point, but
customarily specific speed for a pump is
determined only at its maximum efficiency. For
the pump of this experiment, calculate its
specific speed using both equations.
50
Appendix
Calibration Curves
Orifice platesopen channel flow apparatus .................................... 51
V-notch weirturbomachinery experiments...................................... 52
51
0.01
0.1
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
v
o
l
u
m
e
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
i
n
f
t
3
/
s
manometer deflection in ft of water
large orifice
small orifice
FIGURE A.1. Calibration curve for the open channel flow device.
52
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
volume flow rate in liters/min
h
e
i
g
h
t
r
e
a
d
i
n
g
i
n
m
m
FIGURE A.2. Calibration curve for the V-notch weir, turbomachinery experiments.