Sheet 1 of 26

Oscillator Basics Tutorial

J P Silver E-mail: john@rfic.co.uk

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the basics of oscillator design including the parameters effecting oscillator performance, with special emphasis on the causes of phase noise. Theory is given for the two types of oscillator topography namely feedback and reflection oscillators.

the device, which is not far from the 1dB compression point. A diagram of a typical compression characteristic, for the device used as an amplifier, is shown below in Figure 1.
Output power Saturated output power

INTRODUCTION
This tutorial shows how device parameters can effect the performance of oscillators, including output power, oscillating frequency and probably most important of all phase noise. An example is given for each of the two types of oscillator the feedback oscillator and the reflection oscillator

1dB compression point 1dB

Input power

OSCILLATOR SPECIFICATION
OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY The frequency of operation determines the active device to be used as well as the technology. For example, a UHF oscillator would use a device with an fT of a few GHz and would employ a lumped resonator. It would be impracticable to use a dielectric resonator due to size at UHF frequencies. The use of a very high fT device may lead to problems with stability. OSCILLATOR BANDWIDTH Many applications require variable frequency operation for use in synthesisers where a range of frequencies or frequency steps may be needed across a particular band of frequencies. In order to achieve such variations the resonator must to have a variable element, which is often a varactor diode (a device whose depletion layer width and hence its value of capacitance, is directly controlled by the amount of reverse bias applied). The use of varactors can cause problems in that they usually determines the Q of the resonator, which is an important factor in setting the phase noise floor, as we shall see later. OUTPUT POWER The output power requirement is determined by the application, but the use of a high power device will mean a phase noise performance. After start-up the oscillator will reach a point close to the saturated output power of

Figure 1 Typical compression characteristic of

an amplifier. The diagram shows the compression point occurs when the gain has dropped by 1 dB from the linear region. The saturated output power is the maximum power that the amplifier can deliver and occurs several dBs beyond the 1 dB compression point. The following expressions [1] give empirical formulae for a common-source amplifier output power based on the small signal gain of the device (ie modulus of S21). The objective is to maximise (Pout Pin) of the amplifier, which is the net useful power to the load: GPin Pout = Psat 1 exp P sat

Psat = saturated ouput power G = tuned small signal transducer gain ie S21
2

Sheet 2 of 26

Output
Since the objective is to maximise Pout - Pin , we require that as the input power is varied : d (Pout - Pin ) = 0

Pout = 1 differentiate Pout w.r.t Pin Pin

G Pin Pout = G exp P Pin sat =1 =G

Amplifier

Resonator

G Pin exp P SAT

Pin lnG = Psat G

Figure 2 Schematic of a simple feedback oscillator. The amplifier needs to have enough gain to overcome the loss of the resonator. The output is usually lightly coupled to an attenuator to overcome load-pull problems.
.......... . (1)

From the data sheet the estimated saturated output power is ~ 16.5dBm; S21 Magnitude @ 8GHz 2.659
1 LnG POSC = PSAT 1 G G
2 1 Ln(2.659 ) POSC = 16.5 1 2 2 (2.659 ) (2.659 )

At maximum value of Pout - Pin , the amplifier output is 1 = Psat 1 G

Pout

.......... ... (2)

and the maxiumum oscillator output power is POSC = Pout Pin Combining equations 1 & 2

POSC = 9.6dBm
POSC 1 lnG = PSAT 1 G G

Thus, the maximum oscillator output power can be predicted from the common-source amplifier saturated output power and the small-signal common source transducer gain G. OUTPUT POWER EXAMPLE The following example uses the Fujitsu FHX35LG, which is a HEMT GaAs FET device. The data sheets give the value of the 1dB compression point of ~ 15dBm when biased at 3V (Vds) with a drain current 20mA (Ids). The data sheets also give the magnitudes of S21 for various frequencies. We shall assume we want to estimate the output power from a feedback oscillator using one active device. The schematic of the oscillator is shown below in Figure 2.

POWER CONSUMPTION Many applications like portable telephones are reliant on batteries for power so that is essential to minimise the power required by an oscillator and to ensure maximum efficiency. This again can conflict with the phase noise performance, as a good output match is required for the oscillator to minimise the phase noise. SPURIOUS & HARMONIC OUTPUT Any non-linear device will create harmonics at multiples of the fundamental frequency. These harmonics may interact with out-of-band signals in the system mixer causing spurious responses in the receiver, thereby desensitising it. In transmitters the efficiency may be reduced if strong signals are generated that are not required, as the total power will be shared amongst the different signals generated.

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PHASE NOISE. For a discussion on phase noise read the Phase Noise Tutorial. But in summary Leesons equation is given below:-

FkT fc f o 1 + L( fm ) = + 2Pavs fm 2f m Q L

fc 1 + fm
Flicker effect

(6) Reduce flicker noise. The intrinsic noise sources in a GaAs FET are the thermally generated channel noise and the induced noise at the gate. There is no shot noise in a GaAs FET, however the flicker noise (1/f noise) is significant below 10 to 50MHz. Therefore it is preferable to use bipolar devices for low-noise oscillators due to their much lower flicker noise, for example a 2N5829 Si Bipolar transistor, has a flicker corner frequency of approximately 5KHz with a typical value of 6MHz for a GaAs FET device. The effect of flicker noise can be reduced by RF feedback, eg an un-bypassed emitter resistor of 10 to 30 ohms in a bipolar circuit can improve flicker noise by as much as 40dB. (7) The energy should be coupled from the resonator rather than another point of the active device. This will limit the band-width as the resonator will also act as a band pass filter. The relationship between loaded Q, noise factor and centre frequency can be used to derive the singlesideband phase noise performance, for a given frequency offset in the form of the nomograph shown in Figure 6. Generally then we require to maximise the loaded Q and this can be done by using a coaxial or dielectric resonators. However this is all very well for a fixed frequency oscillator where we are able to maximise the Q, we generally require a variable frequency oscillator, (VCO) for use in a phase locked loop, to cover a band of frequencies. Such VCOs require a method of converting the PLL control voltage to frequency and this is normally done with a varactor diode (Vari-capacitance diode). Unfortunately any noise on the PLL control voltage and any internally generated noise will modulate the carrier, increasing the overall phase noise performance. The equivalent noise voltage modulating the varactor is given by Nyquists equation [4]:Vn = 4kTR enr volts/root Hz

Resonator Q Phase perturbation Usually the phase noise is specified in dBc/Hz ie : FkT L( f m ) = 10Log10 2Pavs
2 fc 1 + fc + f o 1 + fm fm 2f m Q L

dBc / Hz

The Leeson equation identifies the most significant causes of phase noise in oscillators. Therefore it is possible to highlight the main causes in order to be able to minimise them. In order to minimise the phase noise of an oscillator we therefore need to ensure the following:(1) Maximise the Q. (2) Maximise the power. This will require a high RF voltage across the resonator and will be limited by the breakdown voltages of the active devices in the circuit. (3) Limit compression. If the active device is driven well into compression, then almost certainly the noise Figure of the device will be degraded. It is normal to employ some form of AGC circuitry on the active device front end to clip and hence limit the RF power input. (4) Use an active device with a low noise figure. (5) Phase perturbation can be minimised by using high impedance devices such as GaAs Fets and HEMTs, where the signal-to-noise ratio or the signal voltage relative to the equivalent noise voltage can be very high.

The peak phase deviation in a 1 Hz bandwidth which results from the varactor noise resistance is :d =
2K v Vn fm where K v is the VCO gain constant in Hz/volt.

The resulting phase noise in dBc/Hz is : L(f m ) = 20Log

d
2

ie L(f m ) = 20Log

2K v Vn 2f m

Therefore, the total single-sideband phase noise will be the power sum of the oscillator phase noise given by the

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Leeson equation added to the varactor phase noise just given. A quick lookup chart for the additive single sideband phase noise is given in Figure 3 and Figure 4 where the phase noise is given for a VCO tuning constant range of 1000MHz/V to 0.001MHz/V for a given effective noise resistance of 3.3K and 1K respectively
Phase Noise Contribution from Varactor
fm (Hz) 0 -20 -40
Phase Noise (dBc/Hz)

it is not preferable to use a large gain control constant, but to use a narrower range varactor and physically switch capacitance in and out using PIN switching diodes to cover the required range.

OSCILLATOR FUNDAMENTALS
FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR An amplifier provides an output that is a replica of the input. An oscillator provides an output at a specific frequency with no input signal required. Figure 5 shows the three fundamental parts of a feedback oscillator ie the amplifier (capable of amplifying at the frequency of interest) a resonator (the frequency selective component) and an output load. The resonator may contain transformers or other impedance transforming components such as coupling capacitors.
Amplifier

-60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 -200 100

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

resonator

Figure 3 Varactor phase modulation contribu-

tion to single sideband phase noise performance, assumimg an equivalent varactor noise resistance of 3300ohms.
Phase Noise Contribution from Varactor
fm (Hz) 0 -20 -40
Phase Noise (dBc/Hz)

Output load ~ 50 ohms X

Vout

-60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 -200 100

100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

Zin Rload

Z = Zin

b
Figure 5 Closed loop (a) and open loop (b) oscillator models. Figure a shows the closed loop model with the three main parts of the oscillator the resonator, active device and output load. To aid analysis the loop is often broken at point X to form the open loop model shown in figure b. The open loop model can be analysed, for insertion magnitude and phase difference. At the required oscillator frequency the phase difference through the loop must be 0 or 360 degrees (or multiples of 0 and 360 degrees) and that the corresponding loop gain magnitude is maximum and greater than unity.

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

Figure 4 Varactor phase modulation contribution to single side-band phase noise performance, assuming an equivalent varactor noise resistance of 1000ohms.

As can be seen from the proceeding graphs the contribution of phase noise from the varactor can be very significant and mask the performance of a good low noise oscillator employing a high Q resonator. For this reason

There will be no output when power is initially applied, but even if the amplifier were noise free, noise would still be generated in the resonator at the resonant frequency. This noise will be applied to the input of the

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amplifier where it will be amplified and fed back in phase at the resonant frequency and further amplified, building up each time. Eventually the signal will cause the amplifier to limit, ensuring that the oscillator output power eventually peaks, usually at the saturated output power of the amplifier. The oscillator loop gain is given by:

Af =

A 1 A

Af = gain after feedback A = open loop gain = feedback factor

The gain A will be infinite when the loop gain is unity and the phase shift is 360. This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation [5]. -50

-70 0.0 -30 -

0.1

0.1

-90

-20

-157

-10

-167

10

10

-110

-177

100

100 -130 1000 Fm

+10

-187 1000 Fo/2 -197

Power-NF

Floor -150 SSB -NOISE

Figure 6 Nomograph for calculating the phase noise of an oscillator. The nomograph is valid for offset frequencies 1/fc to fo/(2QL), where fc = flicker corner frequency of the active device and QL = loaded Q of the resonator.

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To evaluate the circuit it is easier to split the loop at X in Figure 5a. Figure 5b shows the open loop equivalent circuit for the oscillator, where the circuit is analysed for the voltage gain & phase appearing across the terminating impedance. If the phase shift is 0 degrees and the voltage magnitude ratio at the same point greater than unity then oscillation will occur. Figure 7 shows a typical voltage and phase plot for a open-loop oscillator.
Voltage response through the loop 180 Phase response 1 through the Phase degrees 0

L.S22 = 1 where L = output load reflection coefficient and S22 = modified output reflection coefficient The stability factor K must be below one for any chance of oscillation. K may be optimised to be below one by the methods of configuration and feedback. Passive terminations need to be selected to resonate the input and output ports at the frequency of oscillation ie G.S11 = 1 or L.S22 = 1 It can be shown that if one port meets the above criteria for oscillation, then the other expression must be satisfied ie if one port is oscillating then so is the other. Since the loads are passive then this will imply that | S11 | > 1 and | S22 | > 1

-180 Voltage ratio magnitude fo frequency

From transmission line theory we can generate expressions for the modified input and output return losses due to the addition of a load MODIFIED S PARAMETERS - MISMATCHED SOURCE & LOAD [8] The diagram below (Figure 8) is a diagram showing the S-parameters for a two-port device and how they are modified at the input port when a mismatched output load is added. By definition S-parameters are measured in a 50 ohm system so if the output load is mismatched it will alter S11 to S11. This is a useful result for the oscillator designer as it means that it should be possible to modify the input return loss to be greater than 0dB by simply mismatching the output. The following theory describes how the input return loss can be modified.
S21 a1 S11 modified S11 S12 L S21 b1 b2 S12 S22
ZL Zo mismatched load

Figure 7 Typical magnitude & phase response for an open-loop oscillator, showing that at the maximum magnitude (greater than unity) the phase difference through the loop is zero.

The resonator can take a variety of different forms, which will be described later. The idea is to design the resonator with a light enough coupling to give the Q required to meet a particular phase noise performance.

NEGATIVE RESISTANCE OSCILLATOR.

These types of oscillator also employ feedback, but as a way of providing a negative impedance at an input complex load. At microwave frequencies, devices are usually characterised by using S-parameters and these can be used to calculate stability, and for our purposes instability. This is can be achieved by using a conditionally stable device, or by using a non-conditionally stable device in a different configuration eg common-source or by using positive feedback eg source feedback. The general conditions for oscillation are [7] :K<1 G.S11 = 1 where G = input load reflection coefficient and S11 = modified input reflection coefficient.

a2

Figure 8 Modified input return loss by applying a mismatched output load. This diagram is used in the following analysis.

We can define the load reflection coefficient as:

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L =

ZL Zo ZL + Zo

L =

a2 a2 = b2.L b2

S22 modified

b1 = S11.a1 + S12 .a2 = S11.a1 + S12 .b2 .L b2 = S 21.a1 + S 22 .a 2 = S 21.a1 + S 22 .b2 .L

S12

b b S11 ' = 1 ; S 21 ' = 2 a1 a1 S .b . b 2 S 21.a1 S 22 .b2 .L b = + rearrange gives 2 22 2 L = a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 S 21 S 21 ' = 1 S 22 .L

S 21 ' =

Figure 9 Modified output return loss by applying a mismatched source load. This diagram is used in the S 21.a1 following analysis.
a1

S 21 ' (1 - S 22 .L ) = S 21

S 12 ' =

S 12 1 - S 11 . S + S 12 .S 21 . S 1 S 11 . S

S
S 21 b 1 = S11 . a1 + S12 . L . . a1 1 S 22 . L S .S . S11 ' = S11 + 21 12 L 1 - S 22 . L (divide by a1 on both sides)

22

'= S

22

S 22 '

S22 s .D 1 - S11s

Multiply both sides by 1 - S 22 . L

It can be proved that simultaneous oscillation will occur if one port is oscillating as follows:

S11 (1 - S 22 . L ) + S 21 . S12 . L = S11 ' (1 - S 22 . L ) S11 - S11S 22 . L + S 21 . S12 . L = S11 ' (1 - S 22 . L )

1 = s S11 '

1 = L S22 '

for oscillation to begin

S11 - S11S 22 .L + S21.S12 .L = S11' (1 - S22 .L ) D = S11S22 S12S21 S11' (1 - S22 .L ) = S11 L .D S11' = S11 L .D 1 - S 22 .L

from above S11 ' = S11 +

S12 S 21L S11 DL = 1 S 22 L 1 S 22 L

where

D = S11S 22 S 21S12

This is the final result to define the modified input reflection coefficient. MISMATCHED SOURCE Similarly we can perform the same analysis by mismatching the source load to modify the output return loss. The S-parameter diagram for the analysis is shown below in Figure 9.

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1 1 S 22 L = s = S11 ' S11 DL By expanding we get : S S11 DL S = 1 - S 22 L L (S 22 DS ) = 1 - S11S L = 1 - S11S S 22 DS S12 S 21S S 22 DS = 1 - S11S 1 - S11S

RESONATORS [3]
The resonator is the core component of the oscillator, in that it is the frequency selective component and its Q is the dominating factor for the phase noise performance of the oscillator. This section discusses the range of resonators, that can be used for an oscillator covering, dielectric, cavity, transmission line, lumped element and coaxial resonators. LUMPED ELEMENT As discussed in the design example of section Error! Reference source not found. lumped element resonators are configured to form either a low, high or band pass filter, and the given number of elements is directly related to the Q and loss of the resonator. The simplest resonators can consist of just two elements an inductor and a capacitor ie:TWO ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS Figure 10 shows a schematic diagram of a two-element resonator. This circuit is seldom used in oscillators as the loaded Q will be very low as the source and load impedances will directly load the tuned cicuit.

S 22 ' = S22 +

1 1 - S11S = S 22 ' S 22 DS 1 = L S 22 '

Therefore this proves that if conditions exist for one port to oscillate then they must exist at the other port. Note L is normally designated the output termination.

Two-port oscillator design may be summarised as follows: (1) Select a transistor/FET with sufficient gain and output power capability for the frequency of operation. This may be based on oscillator data sheets, amplifier performance, or S-Parameter calculation. (2) Select a topography that gives K < 1 at the operating frequency. Add feedback if K < 1 has not been achieved. (3) Select an output load matching circuit that gives | S11 | > 1 over the desired frequency range. In the simplest case this could be a 50 ohm load. (4) Resonate the input port with a lossless termination so that GS11 = 1. The value of S22 will be greater than unity with the input properly resonated.

Q =

2. R . L

Q =

. L
2. R

Figure 10 Schematic of a two element, lumped resonator, together with loaded Q equations.

At resonance the transmission phase is zero and the network is loss less (except for the resistance of the inductor). The series resonator impedes signal transmission while the parallel network allows signal transmission. The main problem with such a simple resonator is achieving a required Q, for example if we want a Q of 30 we would need the following series inductor & capacitor at 1GHz:-

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L=

2.R.Q

2 * 50 * 30 = 477nH 2 * 1E9
2

Q=

XL R R2 + XL 2X L
2

1 1 2f 2 * 1E 9 C= = = 0.05pF 477E 9 L

XC =

Although the inductor is a realised value the capacitor could not be realised except in perhaps inter-digital form. This could be used if the oscillator is designed for fixed frequency but the value is impracticable as a varactor in a voltage controlled oscillator. The situation can be improved by using more than two elements eg 3 or 4 as described in the next section. THREE ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS The diagram below shows a range of three element lumped resonators - Figure 11.

QL =

R XL

X C = 2. X L

Q=

XC R R2 + XC 2X C
2

XL =

QC =

R XC

X L = 2. X C

X L = 2 . f . L

&

XC =

1 2 . f . C

Figure 11 Schematic diagram of a range of three element resonators together with equations to calculate the reactive components and loaded Q.

FOUR ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS Four element resonators are used most commonly in oscillators as the loaded Q of the resonator can be set independently of the resonant circuit so that sensible component values can be calculated. Figure 12 shows a four element lumped resonator and Figure 13 shows an alternative configuration.

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C series

Effective capacitance which resonates with the series inductor L series is : Ce = 1

1 C series

C shunt

( o R oCshunt )2 + 1

2C shunt ( o R o )

R o = input/oupu t load resistance Required inductance to resonate at f o is given by : 1

Figure 12 Schematic diagram of a four element lumped resonator

L series =

o Ce
2

Loaded Q is a function of C shunt . The reactance for a given loaded Q is approximately : 2R o Qe X cshunt = R o 1 X L
1 / 2

where Q e =

1 where Q u is the L unloaded Q 1 1 QL Qu

C series

C shunt

Figure 13 Schematic diagram of the alternative four element lumped resonator

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X cseries

2R o Q e 1 = Ro B L 1 1 1 QL Qu

1/ 2

C series =

1 2 .f .X cseries

air =

2.99E8 f

where Q e =

coax =

air 1 ; = Resonator length = coax 4 r

where Q u is the L unloaded Q & B L is a given shunt inductor admittance Capacitanc e to resonate shunt inductor : 1 2 .f Ce = L
2

The unloaded Q of the resonator is a function of the conductor losses, the dielectric losses and the physical dimensions of the coaxial cable ie:
1 1 1 = + QU Q C QD wher e C = Conductor & D = Dielectric

The Q contributi on from conductor is due to energy lost due to current flow in the conductors and is given by

.f . . .Ln
Effective capacitanc e which resonates with the shunt inductor L series is : C shunt = Ce 2C series
Q C = 2. 1 1 + a b

b a

( o R oC series )2 + 1

where = permeabili ty and = conductivi ty of the conductors The Q contributi on from the dielectric that separates

R o = input/oupu t load resistance

the conductors is given by QD = tan. (Loss Tangent/Di ssipation factor) =

2 .f. r . o

COAXIAL CABLE RESONATOR [10] A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed by shorting the centre conductor of a coaxial line to its shield at one end, leaving the other end open-circuited. The physical length of the resonator is equal to one quarter the wavelength (90 degrees electrical length) in the medium filling the resonator. A diagram of a coaxial resonator is shown below in Figure 14.

= conductivi ty of dielectric ie

r = relative permitivit y; o = 8.854x10 -12 Fm -1

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL CABLE RESONATOR The following example is for the design of a coaxial resonator to operate in an oscillator at 1GHz. The resonator is made from semi-rigid coaxial cable that contains a dielectric of PTFE, which has a relative permittivity of ~ 2.2 and a tan of 0.0004.

/4

2.99E8 90 = 5.04cm Resonator length = 1E9 . 2.2 360

Figure 14 Schematic diagram of a coaxial cable resonator showing the critical dimensions.

CALCULATION OF RESONATOR Q FACTOR The Q factor of the resonator determines the phase noise performance of the oscillator. Loss in the coaxial cable from the conductivity of the sheath and the loss tangent of the dielectric will set the Q of the resonator. Most coaxial cables especially semi-rigid cables use copper as the conductor, therefore the equation for the Q contribution for the conductor ie Qcc is given by:

Sheet 12 of 26

The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the resonator and is given by:
Qcc = Conductor contribution to unloaded Q = 8.398.b. f Overall diameter of typical semi - rigid cable is 0.141" or 3.58mm For above example b = 3.58mm (0.000358) Qcc = 92.95

COAXIAL RESONATOR [11] A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed, by plating a piece of dielectric material with a high relative permittivity using a highly conductive metal. A cylindrical hole is formed along the axis of a cylinder of high relative permittivity dielectric material. All surfaces, apart from the end surface, are coated with a good conductor to form the coaxial resonator. The physical length of the resonator is equal to one quarter the wavelength (90 degrees electrical length) in the medium filling the resonator. The diagram (Figure 15) below shows the key dimensions of a coaxial resonator.
Outer surface plated End of resonator plated

The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the resonator and is given by:
Q d = Dielectric loss contribution to unloaded Q= 1 loss tangent of dielectric material tan.

tan for PTFE ~ 0.0004 @ 10GHz Qd = 1 = 2500 0.0004 1 1 1 + = Q Q cc Q d

W d

/4

Total unloaded

Inner surface plated

1 1 + = 8 9 .6 92.95 2500

C R

Note the Qcc term dominates the overall Q factor of the resonator at this frequency. The table below shows (Table 1) design data for a range of common materials used in the construction of coaxial cables:Material Copper Gold Silver Nylon PTFE Polythene HD PVC flexi r 3.0 2-2.1 2.25 4.5 1.56E-8.m 2.04E-8.m 1.63 E-8.m 109-1011.m 1E-16 >1014.m 109-1012.m tan 0.012@3GHz 0.0004@10GHz 0.0004@10GHz

Figure 15 Schematic diagram of a coaxial resonator showing the key dimensions. Note the resonator is plated with silver except for one end to allow it to be grounded.

The expression for the unloaded Q of such a resonator is

W Ln1.079. d = k. fo. 1 1 + 25.4 W d

Table 1 Design data for a range of materials commonly used in the construction of coaxial cables. The parameters shown are relative permittivity (r), resistivity (1/ = conductivity) and tan delta (tan).

where W = outside diameter in mm, d = inside diameter in mm k = 240 for a silvered dielectric with r of 38.6 = 200 for a sivered dielectric with r of 88.5 Input Impedance (Z in ) = 60 W .Ln1.079. d

Sheet 13 of 26

Assume an ideal starting inductance of 4nH at 900MHz.

Inductance = 8.Zo.l. r 25.4. 2 3 x10 8 l. r 25.4 * 2 * 3 x10 8.Zo l = Physical length in mm

Capacitance =

The material chosen is a silver-plated ceramic resonator with a relative permittivity of 38.6 from Transtech. It has a tab inductance of 1nH, a W/h ratio of 2.57, a width of 6mm and a characteristic impedance of 9.4.
Wavelength = c/fo

Resistance =

4.Zo.Q

3E8 / 800E 6 = 60.36mm 38.6

Below resonance, such short-circuited coaxial line elements simulate high-Q, temperature stable ideal inductors. They will only realise an ideal inductor over a narrow range as shown in the diagram Figure 16.
S elf R eso n a n t F req u en cy

We subtract the tab inductance from the required inductance ie 4 - 1 = 3nH whose reactance is 15.1 at 900MHz.

Length of resonator = =

g
2

Zinput . tan1 Z o

0.6036 15.1 . tan1 = 9.74mm 2 9.4

XL Id eal In d u ctan ce R egio n

F req u en cy

W Ln1.079. d Q = k. fo. = 1 1 25.4 + W d 0.006 Ln1.079. 0.00246 Q = 240. 800E6. = 415.7 1 1 25.4 + 0.006 0.00246

XC

Self Resonant Frequency =

F r eq u en cy

g .f o 1
4

. MHz l

Figure 16 Frequency response of a coaxial resonator. The first region shows an area of inductance followed by a point of resonance followed by a region of capacitance. The resonator is usually used below the selfresonant frequency so that in a VCO the varactor can be used to resonate with the coaxial resonator.

0.6036 * 800 1 . = 1241MHz 4 0.0973 0.0973 = 0.161 g long 0.6036

Therefore the coaxial line is

In order to use the coaxial resonator as a ideal inductor the resonator must be used below the self-resonant frequency. DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL RESONATOR [12,13,14] The following section describes the design of a coaxial resonator to be used in a varactor controlled oscillator at 900MHz. We need therefore to select a suitable resonator that is inductive at 900MHz.

The part resonance could be tested to ensure that it occurs at the self-resonant frequency of 1.241GHz. DIELECTRIC RESONATOR [16] At lower frequencies the length of W/d ratio of a coaxial resonator becomes too big to realise so a dielectric puck is used instead. The dielectric resonator is often made from the same material as the coaxial resonators except that they are not plated with a low-loss metal. In addition they are mounted on planer circuits as shown below (figure 35) and are coupled to a transmission line without a direct connection. As with other resonators, standing TE waves will be set up within the resonator,

Sheet 14 of 26

which will be dependent on the physical dimensions of the cylinder. The diagram of a dielectric resonator is shown below in Figure 17

FGHz =

34 a . + 3.45 a (mm) . r L

34 3.8735 . + 3.45 = 7.313GHz 3.8735. 30 3.479

This calculated figure assumes that the resonator is in free-space. If the resonator is mounted on a substrate in a cavity then this will significantly alter the resonant frequency. A more accurate model to take into account cavity and substrate is the Itoh and Rudokas model [7] which, is shown below in Figure 18:

Figure 17 Schematic diagram of a dielectric resonator showing the key dimensions.

shield

The most common resonant mode in dielectric resonators is the TE01 mode and when the relative dielectric constant is around 40, more than 95% of the stored energy are located within the resonator. For an approximate estimation of the resonant frequency in TE01 mode of an isolated dielectric resonator, the following simple formula can be used:

Region 2 Region 4 Region 1

er2

L2 er4 L L1 shield

er6
er1

FGHz =

34 a . + 3.45 a(mm) . r L

Region 6

The above equation is accurate to about 2% in the range 0.5 < a/L < 2 and 30 < r < 50 The approximate Q factor of the resonator is directly related to the dielectric loss ie tan.
Qunloaded = 1 tan tan =

Figure 18 Itoh & Rudokas model of a dielectric resonator inside a metallic shielded cavity

This model can be simplified to the numerical solution of a pair of transcendental equations:
k oa =

(. o . r )

150

.a (mm) .f( GHz)

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A DIELECTRIC RESONATOR The following section describes the design of a dielectric resonator for a frequency of ~ 7GHz. A manufacturer of dielectric resonators Transtech can supply two relative permittivities of 30 and 38. The Trans-Tech D8733-0305-137 puck was selected with the following parameters, r = 30, Diameter = 7.75mm, Height = 3.48mm, the resonant frequency can be estimated using:

An initial frequency is entered to calculate the height L y0 =

2 (k o a)2 ( r 6 r 4 ) x 01

x 01 is taken to be 2.4048

k 1a = 2.4048 +

y0 2.43 2.4048 1+ y + 0.291y 0 0

Sheet 15 of 26

The attenuation constantsin regions1and 2 are : -

LC =

(2f )2

1 = k 1 k . r 1
2 2 0

R = 2 * Zo *
2 = k 1 k . r 2
2 2 0

The propagatio n constant common to regions 4 and 6 is : 2 = k0 . r 6 k 2 1

QU QL = 1+

QU 1= QL

With the above equations it is possible to design VCO for a given Q for example if we want a minimum Q of 1000:

ResonatorLengthL 1

[tan (

1 1

coth1.L1 + tan1

coth 2 .L 2

)]

If we use a Resonator with a unloaded Q of 5000 QU QL = 1+ QU 1= QL 5000 1= 4 1000

COUPLING OF RESONATOR TO MICROSTRIP LINE [16] For analysis of the resonator coupled to a micro-strip line, the transformation shown in the Figure 19 below is used. (coupling coefficient) is used to provide an equivalent series resistance for the resonator:d

For analysing on a CAD we can replace the resonator with a series resistor of R = 2 * Zo * 2 * 50 * 4 = 4K

Trans-Tech have a CAD package [15] to calculate various design parameters using their dielectric resonators. We can use the CAD package to calculate a plot of the coupling coefficient vs distance from the centre of the micro-strip line to the centre of the DRO puck. The plot of the analysis is shown below in Figure 20.

Coupling Coefficient
45
40
35
30
25
|B|

C L

R
Figure 19 Dielectric resonator coupled to a microstrip line and the corresponding circuit diagram. The resistor L simulates the coupling of the L-C resonant circuit of the dielectric resonator.

20
15
10
5
5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

D (mm) Center to Center

Calculation of loaded Q:

Figure 20 Plot of coupling coefficient () with distance from the centre of the puck to the centre of the microstrip line in mm

Sheet 16 of 26

Therefore, in our example, the puck would be placed at a distance of 7.15mm from the puck centre to the microstrip line centre. TRANSMISSION LINE RESONATOR [17] Over a narrow bandwidth L-C lumped components can be realised using short-circuit and open-circuit transmission lines. If we analyse a transmission line terminated in a load ZL we can define the transformed impedance in terms of the characteristic line impedance and the electrical length of the transmission line. The diagram below (Figure 21) shows a transmission line loaded with ZL.
ZL

divide through by 2cos .l Zo . j 2 sin .l Zl . 2 cos .l 2 cos .l + 2 cos .l Zo . Zl . j 2 sin .l + Zo . 2 cos .l 2 cos .l 2 cos .l Zo . j sin .l Zl + cos .l Zo . . j sin .l Zl Zo + cos .l

Z (in)

T.L Zo

Zl + Zo . tan .l Z ( in ) = Zo . Zo + Zl . tan .l

l=0

Figure 21 Transmission line loaded with load ZL

V v1e + j .l + v 2e j .l = 1 I v 1e + j .l v 2e j .l Zo

Z (in ) =

This equation is the general expression for the impedance looking into a load ZL via a length of transmission line. If we now have the case where the transmission line is terminated with a short circuit we find the general expression simplifies ie let ZL = 0 then
Zl + Zo. tan . l Z (in) = Zo. Zo + Zl. tan . l = jZ o tan . l ( Short circuit)

Z Zo V2 == L V1 Z L + Zo (Zl + Zo ).e V + (Zl Zo ).e = Zo. + j .l j .l I (Zl + Zo ).e (Zl Zo ).e

+ j .l j .l

Z (in ) =

Zl (e j .l + e j .l ) + Zo(e j .l e j .l ) Z (in ) = Zo. j .l j .l ) + Zo(e j .l + e j .l ) Zl (e e (e j .l + e j .l ) = 2 cos .l (e j .l e j .l ) = j 2 sin .l

We can now plot the impedance (Figure 22) of the shorted length of transmission line vs electrical length and we get the following graph, which shows how the transmission line equates to lumped capacitance and inductance with resonances in between. In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For S/CCT R(in) = 0 ; X(in) = Zotan.L Zotan.L is purely reactive varies between - & + as L varies

Zl .2 cos .l + Zo. j 2 sin .l Z (in ) = Zo. Zl . j 2 sin .l + Zo.2 cos .l Zl .e j .l + Zo.e j .l + Zl .e j .l Zo.e j .l Z (in ) = Zo. j . l j .l j . l + Zo.e j .l Zl .e + Zo.e Zl .e

Sheet 17 of 26

3 g/4

g/2

g/4

X = Z o tan . l

=
1

g .l
v

= . l =
l = v

Z (in)

T.L Z o

ZL

V=M ax at O/cct

= .L

3 /2

/2

l=0

ZL =

2
f 4fo 3fo 2fo

2
fo 0

Zl + Zo . tan .l Z ( in ) = Zo . Zo + Zl . tan .l divide top & bottom by Z L ie Zl Zo . tan .l + Zl Zo . Zl Zo Zl . tan .l + Zl Zl 1 = jZ o [tan .l

Figure 22 Plot of impedance against length of a short circuited transmission line. The plot shows how the reactance of the transmission line varies between inductive and capacitive reactances with resonant frequency regions in between.

( Open circuit)

Each region of figure 40 is now described: (1) If between 0 & /2 tan.L is positive X is +ve j(.L) - INDUCTIVE. (2) If /2 < < tan.L is -ve X is -ve j(-1/.C) CAPACITIVE. (3) If 0, , 2 | X | goes to a minimum ie:-

Again we can plot the impedance against electrical length of the transmission line (Figure 23) to see the equivalent lumped reactance and resonance points. In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For O/CCT R(in) = ; X(in) = Zocot.L Zocot.L is purely reactive varies between - & + as L
g g 3g/4 g/2 g/4
X = Z o cot . l

|X |

g . l
v

L .C

= .L 2 3/2

= . l =
l = v

/2

l=0

(4) If /2 , 3/2 | X | goes to a maximum:|X |

f 4fo 3fo

2
2fo fo

2
0

L //C

Similarly, for a transmission line terminated by an open circuit we can repeat the analysis, but we dividing through by ZL. Note Zo/ZL tends to zero ie:-

Figure 23 Plot of impedance against length of a open circuited transmission line. The plot shows how the reactance of the transmission line varies between inductive and capacitive reactances with resonant frequency regions in between.

Sheet 18 of 26

The previous graphs show that we can realise lumped components from transmission lines eg

strip lines and characteristic impedance [8]. The first equation describes the effective relative permittivity which, differs from the specified value due the width of the micro-strip track.
r + 1 r 1
2 + h 1 + 10. 2 w
a .b

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF INDUCTOR USING A TRANSMISSION LINE The following section describes the process of designing a transmission line to have a specific inductance of 0.7nH at a frequency of 8.8GHz. The transmission line is to be etched on RT duroid substrate material, which has a relative permittivity of 2.94 and a substrate thickness of 0.25mm.
Reactance = 38.8 of inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz
1 2f
2

eff =

r 0 .9 where b = 0.564 +3 r

0.053

4 2 1 (W / h ) + (W / 52h ) 1 3 and a = 1+ Ln Ln (1 + (W / 18.1h ) ) + 4 49 (W / h ) + 0.432 18.7

= C C = 0.466pF 2

Calculation of W/h (width of micro-strip/substrate thickness) for a given characteristic impedance and effective relative permitivity:
For Z o 44 - 2 r

1 Zin = - j.Zo tan .l

where =

Solve for l

Using the transmission line equation for an open-circuit stub we can calculate the electrical length required for an inductance of 0.7nH. Therefore a open-circuit stub of length 3.1mm will have an inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz. As the equations show the resulting impedance is a function of the characteristic of the line and generally we use a narrow high impedance line ~ 100 for an inductive impedance and a wide length of line ~ 20, for a capacitive impedance. For completeness the empirical equations for calculating line widths are given in the next section:Relative permittivity of the material to be used is 2.94 therefore

1 W 2 0.517 = B - 1 - Ln(2B - 1) + r Ln(B - 1) + 0.293 2 r h r

where B = 377 2Z o r

For Z o 44 - 2 r W 8e n = 2n h e 2

where n =

r + 1 Zo
2 . 60

r 1 0.12 . 0.226 + r + 1 r

g =

air eff

3E8/8.8E9 = 0.0214m or 21.4mm 2.53

2 = 293 0.0214

Z 50 arctan o arctan X 38.9 = 3.1mm = l= 293

INTER-DIGITAL MICRO-STRIP CAPACITORS [19] Normally resonators need to be lightly coupled in order to maintain a high Q, this can be done by using a filter arrangement or by using very small value capacitors. Normal chip capacitors can go as low as 0.1pF, but for smaller capacitance it is convenient to use transmission line inter-digital capacitors. Literature on the subject is very scarce so a basic design formula was used to get the initial dimensions and the final dimensions were optimised during RF simulations.

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY [18] The following section describes the empirical equations that are used to calculate the dimensions of the micro-

Sheet 19 of 26

The basic formula for the inter-digital capacitor is given by:C = 0.83 (N F 1).L Where NF = Number of fingers L = Length of fingers in cm C = Capacitanc e in pF

lent to a tuned circuit parallel resonator. What tends to differ in the topographies are the ways in which the resonators are coupled together. The resonators can be end coupled or parallel coupled using the gaps between them as the low value coupling capacitors. It is also possible to use inter-digital capacitors to generate coupling capacitors less than 1pF VARACTORS [21] Voltage variable capacitors or tuning diodes are best described as diode capacitors employing the junction capacitance of a reverse biased PN junction. The capacitance of these devices varies inversely with the applied reverse bias voltage. The general equation for calculating the capacitance of the varactor is :CJ = CD (V + ) C D = diode capacitanc e;

This formula assumes a finger spacing of 5um and a finger width of 10um For example if we want a 0.05pF capacitor and if we assume that there are 2 fingers then the length of the fingers will be : 0.05 C =L = = 0.06 cm 0.83(2 - 1) 0.83 * (N F 1) = 600um long fingers

To further aid in the evaluation of a inter-digital capacitor the model was analysed in Libra RF CAD with a finger width and gaps of 0.1mm and number of fingers 2,3 & 4. The graph (Figure 24) shows the relationship between capacitance and finger length.
3

where

V = applied voltage, = junction contact potential (~ 0.7V) and

= Capacitanc e exponent

2.5

Capacitance pF

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A VARACTOR DIODE The following section describes how information from a data sheet can be used to predict the capacitance of the varactor diode for a given reverse bias. For this example the varactor diode selected is a Macom Tuning diode type MA46H071. The data sheet gives the following parameters for the diode:C = 0.9-1.1pF @ 4V;cap ratio Cto/Ct20 = 5.5;Gamma=0.75;Q @ 50MHz=4500
CJ = CD rearrange to give CD = C J .(V + ) (V + )

1.5

0.5

= 1E -12 (4 + 0.7) 0.75 = 3.19pF

0 0 0.5 1

Finger Length m m

1.5

2.5

therefore, to calculate a capacitance for a given bias

Figure 24 Graph of a micro-strip inter-digital capacitor vs capacitance. The plots were calculated by analysis on HP/Eesof libra.

= CJ =

3.19E 12 (V + 0.7) 0.75

Transmission lines may be used as single resonators capacitively coupled to the active device, but also they may be configured as a micro-strip band-pass filter. The basic principle involves using open circuit transmission lines of electrical length 180 degrees, which is equiva-

This is obviously the ideal case as it does not take into account the case parasitics

Sheet 20 of 26

TUNING RATIOS The tuning or capacitance ratio, TR, denotes the ratio of capacitance obtained with two values of applied bias voltage. This ratio is given by the following:-

Rp

TR =

CJ ( V2 ) = CJ ( V1 )

V1 + V2 +

Rs

Cj
Figure 26 Simplified model of a typical varactor diode with parasitic reactance removed.

where CJ(V1) = junction capacitance at V1;CJ(V2) = junction capacitance at V2 (V1>V2). CIRCUIT Q The Q of the varactor can be very important, because the varactor usually directly forms the tuned circuit and the overall Q is dominated by the worst Q factor. The Q of tuning diode capacitors falls off at high frequencies because of the series bulk resistance of the silicon used in the diode. The Q also falls off at low frequencies because of the back resistance of the reverse-biased diode. The equivalent circuit of a tuning diode is often shown in the form given below in Figure 25.
Rp

The resulting Q for the above circuit is given by :Q= 2fC.Rp 2 Rs + Rp + ( 2fC) 2 Rs.Rp 2

Typically Rs = 1 & Rp = 30x10 9

Therefore for a MA/COM MA46H071 we would expect the following Qs at different frequencies as shown in the table below: f(GHz) 0.05 2 6 Q 3500 88 30

Rs

Ls

Ls

Cj

Cc

Figure 25 Equivalent circuit of a typical varctor diode together with case and lead parasitic components.

Where diode.

Rp = Parallel resistance /back resistance of the Rs = Bulk resistance of the silicon in the diode. Ls = External lead inductance. Ls = Internal lead inductance. Cc = Case Capacitance.

The degradation of Q at microwave frequencies means that the varactor, has to be lightly coupled, or Q transformed in order not to load the resonant circuit, lowering the loaded Q with the resultant degradation in phase noise performance. The following graph (Figure 27) of the varactor diode frequency response shows that at low frequencies the Q is dominated by the parallel term ie Qp = 2f.Rp.C and at high frequencies by the series term Qs = 1/(2fRs.C).
100000

10000

Normally the lead inductance and case capacitance can be ignored, which results in a simplified circuit shown in Figure 26.

1000

100

10

1 1 0.1 100 10000 1000000 100000000 1E+10

Frequency (Hz)

Sheet 21 of 26

Figure 27 Plot of Q against frequency. The vertical scale is Q and the horizontal scale is frequency in Hz.

LOADED & UNLOADED Q [22,23,24]

UNLOADED Q The earlier section described how the Q of a tuning diode varies over frequency and can be quite low (~ 30) at microwave frequencies. This will obviously have an effect on the loaded Q of a circuit where the individual components may have higher Qs in the hundreds. We therefore need to estimate the loaded Q of a resonator, with a varactor connected, in order to calculate the phase noise performance of the oscillator. It is useful to be able to simplify the equivalent Q of a circuit, so the effect of the varactor Q can be evaluated. Some basic definitions of Q in the series and parallel form are:
Unloaded Series circuit Q oL L 1 = = External Q = o R RL oR.C Unloaded Parallel circuit Q

TEMPERATURE VARIATION The two mechanisms for the variation of capacitance over temperature are (i) contact potential and (ii) case capacitance. The contact potential will vary at -2.2mV/C thus for the MACom diode we would expect the following temperature drifts as shown in Table 2.
V 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Cj 2.1426636 1.5144951 0.9993492 0.7660103 0.6297254 0.5392037 0.4741742 0.4249156 0.3861476 0.3547394 0.32871 Cj+1 decC 2.1405863 1.5135702 0.9989986 0.7658217 0.629606 0.5391205 0.4741126 0.4248679 0.3861094 0.3547081 0.3286838 Diff 0.0020773 0.0009249 0.0003507 0.0001886 0.0001194 8.313E-05 6.16E-05 4.769E-05 3.815E-05 3.13E-05 2.62E-05 ppm/degC 2077.292 924.86538 350.69174 188.59013 119.40427 83.133275 61.595969 47.688364 38.14791 31.297317 26.199086

Table 2 Calculated data of the capacitance variation with temperature for the MACom varactor diode.

= oR.C =

R oL

External Q =

RL oL

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION A popular method of temperature compensation involves the use of a forward bias diode. The voltage drop of a forward biased diode decreases as the temperature rises, therefore applying a changing voltage to the tuning diode. For the circuit to be effective the compensating diode must be thermally coupled to the varactor to be corrected. Figure 28 shows a method for temperature compensating a varactor diode.
Compensatin g Vin Varactor

We can take the specified Q values for inductors and capacitors from the data sheets and calculate the equivalent series or parallel resistance that distinguish the component from an ideal component to one with a finite Q. Once the resistance has been calculated, the circuit can be simplified down to a single component or a series/parallel combination of two circuits, to allow calculation of the unloaded circuit Q. The following example (shown in Figure 29) shows a simple L-C tuned circuit but with losses added.
RIND=163K

L ~ 2.5uH

Q =100 @ 100MHz C = 1pF Q = 200 @ 100MHz

RC=318K

Figure 28 Schematic circuit diagram, for temperature compensation, of a varactor diode

Normally, however the varactor is part of a feedback loop, which controls the frequency of oscillation eg in a PLL system. In this case, the temperature effects are generally accounted for in the loop so that external compensation is not required.

Figure 29 Simple L-C circuit with component losses added

The equivalent parallel loss resistance for each component was calculated as follows-

Sheet 22 of 26

Rs = 50

R PL = Q. o .L and R CP

Q = o .C
L ~ 2.5uH Q =100 @ 100MHz

RRES=108K

R LP = 2 * 100 * 100E 6 * 2.5E 6 = 163K and R CP = 200 = 318K 2 * 100E 6 * 1E 12

RL=50

C = 1pF Q = 200 @ 100MHz

Parallel equivalent resistance = R LP //R CP = 163K * 318K = 163K + 318K

Figure 30 Simple L-C resonant circuit loaded, with 50-ohm source and load impedances.

108K

Unloaded Q of circuit = o .R.C Q= R

and

The addition of the source and load impedances will degrade the loaded Q of the circuit as they will effectively be in parallel with the high impedance resonant circuit as shown below in Figure 31.
L ~ 2.5uH Q =100 @ 100MHz RRES=108K

o .L

= 2 * 100E 6 * 1E 12 * 108E 3 = 67

Requ = 24.99

A useful transformation from series equivalent resistive loss (Rs) to parallel equivalent resistive loss (Rp) is given as
RL=50

For Q < 10
Rs = 50 C = 1pF Q = 200 @ 100MHz

Rp = (Q + 1) * Rs
2

For Q > 10 Rp (Q 2 ) * Rs and Xs Xp

Figure 31 L-C resonant circuit reduced to one resistive loss component.

These transformations are only valid at one frequency, as they involve the component reactance, which is frequency dependant. LOADED Q The loaded Q of a resonant circuit is dependent on three main factors: (1) The source impedance (Rs). (2) The load impedance (RL). (3) The component Q. The circuit used in the example of section 3.5.1 is to be loaded in a 50-ohm system as shown in Figure 30.

The loaded Q of the circuit of Figure 31 is:Q= Rp = o L 24.99 = 0.0159 2 * 100E 6 * 2.5E -6

This dramatic decrease in Q will give the simple L-C network a 3dB bandwidth of:
Q =
100MHz f f = = 6GHz !! fo 0.0159

To improve the loaded Q, given a restraining source and load impedance, we could alter the value of Xp. This however, results in either very high inductors, or very low capacitors. If we are restrained from altering the value of Xp we can either use a tapped L or C transformer or coupling L or C.

Sheet 23 of 26

Q TRANSFORMATION The circuits shown in Figure 32 show the two methods of transforming the Q of a circuit, by the use of impedance transformers.
Tapped C circuit

Rp = Q.Xp = 10 * 2 * 100E6 * 2.6E6 = 15.7K 15707 = Rs * RL From previous calculations RL = 108K Rs + RL Rs * 108K Rs + 108K solve for Rs = 18.37K

15707 =

Therefore we need to transformour source impedance to 18K using a capacitor tapped transformer, C1 Rs' = Rs1 + C2
2

Rs

RL

C1 Rs' -1 = Rs C2 C1 * C2 = 1pF C1 + C2

18K - 1 = 18 50

Therfore C1= 18 * C2 and

C1 Rs' = Rs1 + C2

We could have C1 = 1.055pF and C2 = 18pF

Tapped L circuit

The final circuit designed to give a Q of 10 is shown in Figure 33.

L = 2.5uH

C 2= 18pF

n1 Rs

n RL
C 1= 1.055pF

R L = 108K

n Rs' = Rs n1

R s = 50

C1 Rs' = Rs1 + C2

Figure 32 Impedance transformation circuits (Tapped L & C). These circuits can be used to increase the effective source & or load impedances in order to improve the loaded Q of a circuit.

18 Rs' = 501 + = 16K3 1.055 C1//C2 = 18pF * 1.055pF ~ 1pF 18pF + 1.055pF

If we require a Q of 10 then this will equate to a parallel equivalent resistance of:

Figure 33 L-C circuit with a capacitor tapped impedance transformer, to give a loaded Q of 10, when loaded with a source impedance of 50 ohms.

Equally we could use a coupling capacitor between the source impedance and resonant circuit such that the resistance will equal 16K.

Sheet 24 of 26

Required coupling capacitor reactance at 100MHz = 16K - 50 ~ 16K C coupling = 1 = 0.1pF 2 * 100E 6 * 16E 3

cuit with the inductor. In this example, we assume a source impedance of 50ohms.

Rcdiode= 2.65 Cdiode ~ 1pF Q =30 @ 2GHz L ~ 7.6nH Q =150 @ 1GHz C ~5pF RIND=7163 Q = 100 @ 5GHz RC=0.06

The addition of a coupling capacitor to the circuit is shown in Figure 34.

L = 2.5uH

Cc=0.1pF RL = 108K Rs = 50 C=1pF

Figure 35 Schematic circuit diagram of a varactor controlled resonator for use at 2GHz. The equivalent loss resistances have been calculated using the equations of section 3.5.1

Figure 34 Addition of a coupling capacitor to the simple L-C to increase the loaded Q to ~10

The required coupling capacitor is very small at 0.1pF and is probably impracticable at 100MHz. However this size of capacitor can be realised at microwave frequencies by the use of a microstrip gap or a inter-digital capacitor (as described in section 0). INSERTION LOSS OF RESONATOR The insertion loss of a resonator is important in oscillator design as there needs to be enough loop gain to allow oscillation. A high insertion loss resonator may require two stages of amplification around the loop that will add to the size, power consumption and complexity of the oscillator. The insertion loss of the resonator is a function of loaded and unloaded Q ie:Insertion loss (dB) QL = - 20log 1 Q U Q U = unloaded Q

This circuit of Figure 35 can be simplified to that shown in Figure 36. The loss resistances of the capacitor arm can be added and converted to a parallel loss resistance that can be added to the loss of the inductor. The equivalent capacitor now equals 0.833pF ie 1pF // 5pF.
Rcdiode= 2.71(series) 3343 (parallel)

L ~ 7.6nH Q =150 @ 1GHz

RIND=7163

Q of capcitor+diode ~35

Figure 36 Simplified varactor controlled resonator for use at 2GHz

where Q L = loaded Q and

Conversion of series capacitor loss to parallel loss : 1 9 Xs 2 . * 2E * 0.833E 12 = 35 Q= (series) = (2.65 + 0.06) Rs R P = Q 2 * R s = (35) * 2.71 = 3319
2

DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR A VARACTOR CONTROLLED RESONATOR Consider the varactor resonator shown below in Figure 35. The capacitor combination can be simplified to a single capacitor that then forms a parallel resonant cir-

Sheet 25 of 26

Now we can calculate the equivalent loss resistance and the unloaded Q of the circuit:
Equivalent loss resistance across the resonant circuit is 7163 // 3319 = 2268 Unloaded Q of the circuit = Rp Xp

Graph 1
0

DB(|S[2,1]|) * Varactor

-2

-4

-6

-8

2268 = 2 * 2E 9 * 7.6E 9

23.7
-10 0.2 2.2 4.2 Frequency (GHz) 6.2 8

We can see that the low Q of the inductor is going to dominate the unloaded Q of the parallel circuit. Now, if we load the circuit with 50-ohm source and load impedances, (as shown in Figure 37) we can calculate the loaded Q of the circuit.
RS = 50 RRES=2268 RL = 50

Figure 38 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with 50ohm source and load impedances. The Q was graphically measured at ~ 0.28.

L ~ 7.6nH

Cdiode ~ 0.833pF

Figure 37 Resonant varactor circuit loaded with 50ohm source and load impedances.

The loaded Q is lower than the unloaded Q due to the damping effect of the low value source impedance. An oscillator with a resonant circuit with a Q of 0.24 will be very unsatisfactory, so a means of increasing the loaded Q is required. We cannot do much about the tuned circuit, but we can modify the source and load impedances either by the used of a C/L tapped transformer or by the use of coupling capacitors. For this example we shall consider the use of coupling capacitors on the varactor circuit. Figure 39 shows the implementation of coupling capacitors.
RS = 50
Coupling C

The loaded Q of the circuit will be the parallel combination of the equivalent parallel resistance of the resonant circuit with the source and load impedances ie1 1 1 1 = + + Rp 50 50 2268 Rp = 24.73

Coupling

RRES=2268

L ~ 7.6nH RL = 50 Cdiode ~ 0.833pF

This will give a loaded Q of

Rp 24.73 = = 0.26 Xp 2 * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9

The circuit was analysed on the CAD to confirm the Q calculations and is shown in Figure 38.

Figure 39 Varactor tuned circuit, with coupling capacitors, added between 50- ohm source and load impedances.

If we decide that we require a loaded Q of say 10, then we can calculate the value of the source resistors, that when placed in parallel with the tuned circuit, will give the required value of Q ie

Sheet 26 of 26

Total parallel resistance to give a Q of 10 = X .QL = Rp Rp = 2 * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9 * 10 = 95.5 1 1 1 1 = + + Rp Rs RL 2268 Rp = 198 1 = 0.4pF 2 * 2E 9 * (198)

Value of series capacitor =

This value of series coupling capacitor is very small but can be realised at microwave frequencies by the use of a inter-digital microstrip capacitor. The coupling capacitors were added to the CAD model and analysed to confirm a Q of ~ 10, the plot is shown in Figure 40. Predicted insertion loss:
QL loss (dB) = 10log 1 - Q U 10 = 10log1 = - 2.85dB 23
Loaded Q
0

-2

DB(|S[2,1]|) * Varactor

-4

-6

-8

-10 1.5 2 Frequency (GHz) 2.5

Figure 40 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with 50-ohm source, load impedances and coupling capacitors. The Q was graphically measured at ~ 10,