Discrete Structures

.
3

) ( ) discrete
(structures

.
) ( .

) (
) (
.


) (.


.

)Kenneth Rosen (:
Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications
:
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6

.7
.8
.9

) 14 (.

.
:
.
.




.
.
.
.
-

.
5

Logic

1.1 proposition

1.2
1.3 logical operators
1.4 compound proposition
1.5 bit operators
1.7 1
1.8 Equivalence
1.9
1.10 2

1.12
negation
1.14 3
1.15 )(1

11
12
13
21
25
28
32
40
43

35
1.11
42
1.13
46
48
51

: Sets
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

) (
4

53
57
58
60
62
65

2.7
2.8 5

:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

69
70

Functions

1-1
onto
inverse
composite function
graph of a function
6

73
76
77
79
81
84
86

: Sequences
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

)(7

89
90
91
92
93
94
95

:
Mathematical Induction
6

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

:
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

97
98
99
100
101
102

Counting

)(9
Permutations
Combinations
Pascal triangle
)(10

103
103
104
109
111
114
116
118

: Relations
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

function

121
122
123
126

7.5 n-ary Relations

7.6
134
7.7 )(11
7.8 Equivalence Relations
7.9 Equivalence Class
7.10
143
7.11 )(12
7.12 Partial Ordering
7.13 Total ordering
7.14 Well-Ordering
149
7.15 )(13

129
130
138
139
141
144
147
148

Graphs

8.1
8.2 Complete Graphs
8.3
handshaking theorem
8.4
8.5 )(14
8.6 Representing Graphs
8.7 )(15
8.8
8.9)(16
8.10 connectivity
8.11

8.12 )(17
8.13

151
152
208
157
158
158
166
170
174
177
182

185
186

.
9

8.14 weighted graphs

8.15 )(18

:
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

191

Trees

:
.1 )(1
.2 )(2
.3 )(3
.4 )(4
.5 )(5
.6 )(6
.7 )(7
.8 )(8
.9 )(9
.10 )(10
.11 )(11
.12 )(12
.13 )(13
.14 )(14
.15 )(15
.16 )(16
.17 )(17
9

189

193
194
200
204
208

212
216
223
226
228
231
234
237
239
240
242
244
246
248
250
256
260

10

.18 )(18
.19 )(19

263
265

10

.
11

1
2

Logic

. ""

.

1.1

proposition

) (
TRUE . FALSE

) :(1 )(:
(a .

11

12

1 + 1 = 2 (b
(c .

(d .
(e .

True

.False
.
) : (2 proposition
(a

(b

(c

propositions .
.

1.2

Logical Variables

True False

:
p , q , r , s , ..
.

12

.
13

T = True
F = False
.

Boolean variable

George Boole .

: p q :
; )p := (2>1
; )q : = (3=4
p True q
. False
1.3

Logical Operators

logical operators

.compound propositions
:

negation operator
conjunction operator
disjunction operator

13

14

implication operator
bidirectional operator

-1 ) negation operator ( :
) p p ~ p

NOT p ( unary operator

T F F .T
.Truth Table

.
.

p
p

F
T

T
F

-2 ) AND ( conjunction operator

) AND
conjunction operator
(connective operator

conjunction

binary

14

.
15

) ( q p
:
AND
q
p^q
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
F

p
T
T
F
F

p^q

p q.

-3 ) OR ( Disjunction operator

OR )

operator

Disjunction

( connective

q p :

15

disjunction

16

OR
q
p
q
T
T
T
F

T
F
T
F

p
T
T
F
F

True

.False

:
.1 .
.2 .

.3 .
:
" -1 " = p

" " = q

" " = p q

16

.
17

" -2 " = p
" " = q

" " = p q

-3

" " = p
" " = q

" " = q

q p

TRUE . TRUE TRUE

. TRUE

OR :

" -1"

" -2"

Inclusive OR
Exclusive OR

OR ) XOR

(.

) inclusive disjunction (OR p q

TRUE p v q ) TRUE .(v

17

18

) Exclusive disjunction ( p q

) ( TRUE p q TRUE FALSE

:
)Exclusive OR (XOR
q
pq
F
T
T
F

T
F
T
F

p
T
T
F
F

""

: " "

" 3

25 ".
.
:

" "

18

.
19

" " . ""

exclusive .inclusive
: ""
inclusive ) (
"" )

( . )
( ) (
.

-4 implication :

pq
q .p :
p q

) (p implies q

: Implication Truth Table

19

20

pq
T
F
T
T

T
F
T
F

T
T
F
F

:
p q p hypothesis
.conclusion

p q :

p TRUE q
TRUE
p q

If p then q

1.

p implies q

2.

p q

p is sufficient
condition for q

3.

q TRUE p
TRUE

q whenever p

4.

q p

5. q is necessary for p

20

.
21

p q )

p q

( q p
.
true
p=false q=true

.false q=false true p

:

) (
. .
.
: :

" "

.

.

"" .

21

22

" " = p

4 :

" " = q
, (p q) = T
, (p q) = T
, (p q) = T
, (p q) = F

q=T
q=T
q=F
q=F

,
,
,
,

p=T
p=F
p=F
p=T

1234-

True
.p = T , q = F , (p q) = F

:
If p then s
s .p=True
:
; x:=0
;If (2+2 = 4) then x:= x+1
x

2+2 = 4 TRUE
;x:= x+1
1 ) x 1 (0
x =0+1 =1

22

.
23

-5 Bidirectional Proposition
:
pq

p q.
p q.

. if and only if

p . q
p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q.
:
pq
T
F
F
T

q
T
F
T
F

p
T
T
F
F

:
) (p q) (q p p q

23

24

: :
" x x "
.

" x" = p

" x " = q

p q
: :
" 50 "
:
" " = p
" q = " 50

" r = "50
:
pqvr

24

1.4

.
25

Compound Propositions

.
. :
p q
p) q(

)(p q

: priorities
)
(.

: NOT AND OR
:
.1 NOT

.2 AND
.3

OR XOR

) ( OR , XOR

. ) (
.
:
; PROGRAM LOGIC

25

26

VAR p , q , r , s : BOOLEAN ;
BEGIN
p := FALSE ;
q := FALSE ;
r := TRUE ;
s := p AND q OR r ;
WRITELN(s)
END .

TRUE :
:
s = (p AND q) OR r
= (TRUE AND FALSE) OR (TRUE)
= FALSE OR TRUE
= TRUE
. OR AND

:
PROGRAM LOGIC ;
VAR p , q , r , s : BOOLEAN

;
BEGIN

26

.
27

; p := TRUE
; q := FALSE
; r := TRUE
; s := p AND NOT q OR r
; )WRITELN (s
END .
TRUE :
:
) NOT AND (OR :
; s:= p AND (NOT q) OR r
= (FALSE AND TRUE) OR TRUE
= FALSE OR TRUE
= TRUE
:
) (NOT q . NOT
OR .AND NOT

OR AND
.

1.5 Bit Operators

27

28

bit :
= Binary Digit

0 . 1

: John Tukey .1946

False = 0
True = 1

: bit string
.

: 01001001

8 .

0 FALSE 1 . TRUE

x y
0
1
1

xy
0
0
0

xvy

0
1
1

0
1
0

0
0
1

28

.
29

y , x 0 . 1
:
x = 1011
y = 1101
:
xy , xy , xvy
: y , x :
Bitwise AND
v Bitwise OR
:

29

Bitwise XOR

30

1.7

Exercises 1

) (1 .
(a .

(b
(c
(d
(e

.
2+3=5
5 + 7 = 11

(f
x+y
(g

) (2 )(negation
(a .

(b .
2+3=5
(c

30

(d

.
31

) (3

" " = p

" " =q

) (4

" " = p

(b
(c

(d

31

pq

)d

q p
q p

)e
)f

q p

)g

)p v (p q

" " = q

(a

p
pvq
pq

)a
)b
)c

)h

32

(e
(f .

) (5 T F

1 + 1 = 2 then 2 + 2 = 5
1 + 1 = 2 then 2 + 2 = 4
1 + 1 = 3 then 2 + 2 = 5
cows can fly then 1 + 1 = 2
2 + 2 = 4 then 1 + 2 = 3

If
If
If
If
If

)a
)b
)c
)d
)e

) (6 OR inclusive exclusive

)( .

)( .
)( .

) (7 Truth Table :
p a) p
p b) p v
q) q c) (p v
)d) (p v q) (p q
)p q( )e) (p q
)f) (p q) (q p
g) p p

p h) p

32

.
33

q i) p
p q )k
) (8 x = 1 . x
; 1 + 2 = 3 then x:= x + 1
; (1 + 1 = 3) OR (2 + 2 = 3) then x:= x + 1
; (2 + 3 = 5) AND (3 + 4 = 7) then x:= x + 1
; (1 + 1 = 2) XOR (1 + 2 = 3) then x:= x + 1
; x < 2 then x:= x + 1
) (9

a) If
b) If
c) If
d) If
e) If

bitwise OR

bitwise AND

bitwise XOR

a) 101 1110 ,
010 0001
b) 1111 0000 ,
1010 1010
c) 00 0111 0001 , 10 0100 1000
d) 11 1111 1111 , 00 0000 0000
(10 function
.implication

33

34

1.7 Tautology & Contradiction

) (1 Compound Proposition
TRUE )

( . Tautology

) (2 FALSE
.Contradiction
A tautology is a compound proposition which is true no
matter what the truth values of its simple components.
A contradiction is a compound proposition which is false no
matter what the truth values of its simple components.

) :(1 ) p( p v
: p True
:
)p( p v
T
T

F
T

T
F

34

.
35

) :(2 p p
:

p p FALSE

:
p p

F
F
T
F
.contradiction

p
T
F

1.8 Logical Equivalence

Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if they

have identical truth values for every set of truth values
of their components.

35

PQ

P . Q

36

.
De Morgan's laws
q p v ) (p q

q p ) (p v q

.
:
Qp
F
F
F
T

)(p v q

F
T
F
T

F
F
T
T

F
F
F
T

T
F
T
F

T
T
F
F

)(p v q qp
) ( .
:

36

.
37

:
" 20 30"
:

" ) ( 20 ) ( 30"
"" "" :

" p = "20
" q = "30
:
:

pq

q p v
De Morgan

: p q p v q .

:
pq
P
p v q
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
T

37

q
T
F
T

p
T
T
F

38

p q

p v q .

: .
Distributive law
)p v (q r) (p v q) (p v r
)p ^ (q v r) (p ^ q) v (p ^ r

:
(p v q)
)(p v r
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F

pvr

pvq

)p v (q r

qr

T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F

T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F

T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F

T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F

r
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

p
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

38

.
39

) p v (q r ).(p v q) (p v r

1.9 :

)( 1
)(2

pTp

pvF p

) (1 ) (2 identity law

)(3

pvT T
pF F

)(4

pvp p
pp p

)(5

pvq qvp
pq qp

) (6

)(p v q) v r p v (q v r
)(p q) v r P (q r

39

commutative law

associative law

40

)(7

p True p v

)(8

p False p
p v q p q

)p (9 q p q

) (6 :

))p q ( (p v
q p

:
:

)p q( p ))p q( (p v

)q p v( p

)q p (p v

)q p ( p p) v(

40

.
41

)q p ( F v
.

q p

:
" " = p
" " = q
:

" " = p q

" " = p v q
:

pqpvq
.
) (7 :
.

)p q (p v q

p q TRUE
p v q .TRUE

41

42

)(p q) (p v q

)(p q) v (p v q
).(4

:
)q) v (p v q p v( )(p q) v (p v q
:
)Q v q( p v p) v(
TvT

T
TRUE q , p
.

1.10 )(2

42

.
43

) (1 Truth Table :
a) p T p
b) p v F p

c) p F F

d) p v T T

e) p v p p
f) p p p
) (2 :
)p (q v r) = (p q) v (p r
) (3 implications :
a) (p q) p
)b) p (p v q
)p (p q )c
)( .

)( .
) (4 ) (absorption Laws
(p (p v q)) p
) (5 :

43

(p v (p q)) p

44

q )q (p q

) (6 :

p q

q p

.
) (7 :

pq

p q
p q (

) (8 ) p q (
" "

1.11

) P(x . x
:

44

.
45

}P:X{T,F
X P } {T, F T True
F .False

) (1 ) P(x " "x > 3 x

) P(4) P(3
:

P(3) ="3>3" = False

P(4) ="4>3"= True

.
): (2
.

) Q(x,y

" "x = y+ 3 x y

) Q(3,0) Q(1,2
Q(1,2) = "1 = 2 + 3" = False
Q(3,0) = " 3 = 0 + 3" = True

) :(3 ) R(x, y ,z x + y = z
) R(1, 2 ,3
:

45

R(1,2,3) = " 1 + 2 = 3"= True

46

1.12

) x P(x universal quantification

) x ) P(x

.( True

) :(4 ) p(x ""x + 1 > x

:

) x P(x

x
x real number

x P(x) = True
1 .
) :(5 ) Q(x ""x < 2
:

)x Q(x

x
x Q(x) = False
) x ( x=3 .

) :(6 ) x P(x ) P(x ""x < 10

46

.
47

4
:

} {1,2,3,4
P(1) = True , P(2) = True , P(3) = True , P(4) = False
) True = x P(x :

) P(4) P(3) P(2) P(1 . True

x P(x) = False

existential quantification
x

) P(x P(x) = True

:

x P(x) = True

) :(7 ) Q(x x = x + 1
) x Q(x x
:
x Q(x) = False

. 1

47

48

) :(8 ) C(x
) F(x ,y

" x "
" x , y"

y x

)))x (C(x) v y (C(y) F(x ,y

:

.

) :(9 :
)( " "

)( " "
:

x :

" x " = )M(x

" x " = )C(x

)( ""
:

48

.
49

" " = )x M(x

)(

))x (M(x) v C(x

=

" "

1.13 NEGATION
) :(1

" "

)x P(x

) P(x x .

)P(xx

" "

):(2

)P(x x P(x) x

49

50

" "
:

" "
:
)P(x x P(x) x
" x " = )P(x

1.14 )(3
-1 ) P(x x 4 :
)a) P(0
)b) P(4
)c) P(6
-2 ) Q(x,y " x "y :
) a) Q( Cairo , Egypt
) b) Q( Tripoli , Tunis
) c) Q( New York , USA
-3 ) P(x " x "
:

)a) x P(x

50

.
51

)b) x P(x

)P(xc) x

)P(x d) x

-4 ) W(x , y x visited y " x "y

x y .

.a) W(Ali , www.fatahu.edu).

)b) x : W (x , www.yahoo.com
)c) y: W (Omar , y

))d) y (W (Anas, y) W(Adel, y

)))e) y z (y Ahmed (W(Ahmed,z) W(y,z

)))f) x y z ((x y) (W(x,z) W(y,z
-5 ) P(x " x "
Q(x) " x "C++
x .

)( C++ .

)( C++

51

52

)( C++
)( C++
-6

)S(x

" x"

) F(x
) A(x, y

" x "

" x y"

quantifiers :
)( .

)( .

)(
.

)( .
)( .
-7 :

)(

)x P(x

)( )P(x x
)(

)x P(x

)( )P(x x

52

.
53

) P(x " x "

x .

" " = P
" Q="5=3 + 2

:
PQ
===============
2 x :
;x:=2
;If 2+2=4 then x:=x+3
==============
3
) ( p q ) ( NOT p v q
=============
4

53

54

- ) NOT ( p ^ q ---------------------
- ) NOT ( p v q ----------------------
============
5
" - "
" "
-
" "
-
" "
-
===========

6 5
===========
7
" x " = )P(x
" y Q(x ,y) = " x
:

) )x P(x) v y ( Q(x ,y) ^ P(y

.
=========
8
)P^(PvQ

54

.
55

============================================

55