7 AMPLIFIERS The principal opplatins of tomitrt ond roca tubes are bd my itr abit amp rc signe Some cit amp ‘mt alg sgl fcr of many mons hen ‘nee he ec power of inal i ere to eee sched dv rch of eri eS ether res bly cure In eck of the aplatin hun, rons ofthe inp sia i iportont, Diferent crit oe een dlp for de omplifton ond for a igh rede ‘freecin Mat ce il rt inetd srr uci fier Hage a at the died aia gal magne De th ce Tatracin of pir gr mat be oudeed ad ft conpcated wert ae eed. erence, stealer frat eas dsl prensa, npr the ac epcln cress for tbe and rst ar oie (for aati amdersanding of comple eis cc VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS. TA Cascading “The tansor and vacwumsube rca dscamed in previous haps reel suited eo amphi volage signals with nium ‘velorm distort, Cain fare grexter tan thowe poe with ‘MShglestage sropliier are obtained by ead veverl ampier sages, Tne ouput of one smplier stages amplifed by ameter Sage or suger unl the desired signal woage level achieved ‘Consider, for exanpe, the two-stage cateaded tide ample, Fig, Pl. ‘Two individual create nmilar to thowe dscused in CURE 74 Two nie te ik Chap. 5 are conneced with the coupling capacitor Cag This ‘apacior passes the ampliied ac signal frm Vt the gid of ‘tthe same time i blacks the poste plate vote of Fy Eom the {el ofthe second wie Silay, capacitors and Colt ‘he inpat and output res insofar de potential are concerned The entire a equivalence of this amplifier may be draw sng the principles dincumedin Chap 5. The performance othe Sywem is determined fromacompleteaccireut nals Actual thi procedure i ume becase ofthe umber af ops in dhe network and is rarely atempted. Rather, the crest analyzed im several scparate stops, each of which has a tanimum of mathe Imaal complexity. his hat the further advantage that the i portant effec can be bot and tone early exained For example, the reatances of oth cathode bypat espace are assumed small enough fo be elite According, these Component sre abuent in the ae equivalent ci of the amplifier, ig. 72. The reacances of the coupling capachors are alo ig‘nored, even though they are included in the equivalent circuit for any. With these simphictons, the ousputvolage may be ‘mnmedatly writen 38 wore tn a oy Tere rly Trl where the load restance ofthe Sst sta iss the paral coms Tation of the plate esixor Ry and the econdstage god Te- Stor Ra “Accordng © (7-1); the overall ain of this two-stage ample is simply asa oy where ay and 2 ae the gine of each aye. The expreson for the gu of the fat tage 9 ncdes the putiempedance of Fy 2 FIGURE 22. Essai! doi of hme ended empiri pnt ofthe load resistance. Usually. Rg ® Ray however 50, i ‘Ssentally the gain ofthe sobted stage. Equations (7-1) nd (G2) ge the mand gen of the ample since the reactances of the coupling cayaciors and the cathode bypass capacitors are ‘sumed negigtie This approximation applies 10 signal fe (quercie wehic are neither 20 low thatthe reactance cannot be Ippored nor 10 high that other effects rece the gain. These ther Fequency sion are dacuaed inthe folowing scton. ‘Cascade trantor voage ampliers most often employ the ‘rounded-emimer configuration because of the combined vhage {nd carrem gun of thisreuit Neither thecommor-hase norte fmiderfollower coaligaraion achieves 38 greteoveral slage Smplieion when cawaded.” ‘This rest ofthe great i pedance mismatch between the ouspumpedance of one stage and the input impedance ofthe succeeding stage. A peal ransisior ‘wllage ampliber, Fig, 7-3, uses imerstage coupling espacio sn {he Yacuurtube case wo bolae the de is selages of the 140 tages” Note thc the bits eitory ofthe second wage are diferent from thote of the fire stage, even though bod transistors are identical "The operating pois are seta dierent places inorder to obtain mos favorable values of the & parameters each sige FIGURE 73. ‘T-sge cael ronson angie Inthe appropriste equivalent circuit ofthe amplifier, Fi 7-4, ‘he hase bas restos ate replaced By ther patallet combination, ss explained inthe previous chapter, Here aga, the overall gain | pean" ol, sine $a] FIGURE 7-4 uit cic of etre roms ompifer of Te 73 ‘isthe product ofthe individual gui of ach sage, Eq. 7-2. The Trading eect ofthe second stg upon the output ofthe fat stage eanot be ignored in eaulating the gaia betause of thet ‘herent low inp impedance oftranssior Infact tk necessary 1o work backward throng the crew saring atte ep ter ‘minal beeaue the inp impedance of tanstor amplifier de pends upon the output load impedance, With the ouput kad Specied she gain and input impedance of the scond sage ‘Gesated uxing the rere developed inthe previous chapter ‘This input impedance is par of the lad forthe preceding sage and it gain and inpot impedaoce are caleuated according Thus, detailed analysis of transsiorcrcultsis somewhat more eam ‘heated than i dhe eae for vacuum-tube ampliers, basil be-‘cause of the input-output coupling in a wransistor. Nevertheless, ttanistororcie ae treated quite sasfactoy y straightforward ‘eccrenit aha of de equivalence 7-2 Lowtrequoncy gaia At sulin ow frequencies the capacitive reactanees may no longer be neqleed. The fea of the coupling capacton tully of gaeater significance than that of the eaode Bypass ‘Gpactors, although Boh tend to rede the gain at om fequen ‘Sen Ir isnot praeal to make the coupling capac’ lage [ange vies of cxparsnce imply inceaed leakage ure which ‘upet rid bus of scutes. This staan saggravoted by the fact thatthe coupling capacitor ie conneced between the lange postive plate pore andthe lowe gid wolage and by the lange value of gid resistance. Consequently, practical coupling ‘pucitors ae ited 1 values below about 03 pl ‘No sich reritious are placed on eathode bypass capacitors since they are connected si loeinpedance,low-solage Gres Where leakage currents are ianigniicant Elecwoltc capacitors {re common in tht poston and values ranging up 0 10 al are ‘ied. Special low-sltageeecolycs are ued in rassior amp fers ap otk coupling capacitors and bypass capacitors singe the Impedance lvls are low in oth places. Neverhees lesage ‘trent must be minimized int the base ermina 03 it to the ‘apaitance exits in this case a wel The low-frequency gain of ‘Ghoaded traitor ampere ie ato determined pray by the Fencance ofthe iterstage coupling cpactors case the overall gun of asc stages the product of individual tage gain, only necessary to examine the fect of| ‘he coupling expactor reactance foram Hold ampli sage ‘According to the ae equivalent circuits ofboth vacwum-tube and “Gamsisor amplifiers Fs, 7 snd To this effect canbe ested by considering the simple RC circuit comprising the coupting ‘ipacitor and the inp impedance of the arp. "This part of both equivalent reser shows separacely in Fi ‘for eary.Theinputimpedance simply the ri resior inthe case of the tube ampli, but athe wansitor amplifier it Includes the input impedance of the wansisor ill. Th cies ‘Ge, the up voltage ofthe age ane Ree “Tyee a Asslcosed in Chap. iis appropriate to deine the characteriic requency ars oy Suing na, A i =e where eit the midband gain. Noe thatthe git reduced when the signal frequency ix smaller dhan dhe characterise Frequency [Ath rae tne a phate sits introduced between the iputand the ougp sigais "Bat effects are important deverining the trevelorn datorion ofthe amplifier. Reel the inthe Fourier nae of complex sgoal waveform, bh the amplides and rela phases of all frequency components mux be preserved if {he ouput wave ito be am amped replica of the fput signal. Wisconverient to ratonsine £4 (5, os “n= a OSG as) so that the gun at any Frequency can be immediately aust Note that by (7-6) show thatthe gain a! V2 oF about 70 per envof the mdiand ain when fy Iisimpotant to recognize that Eq (8) apples to am indral stages “The lowe frequency eaponte ofthe eae amplier i always poorer than that o any individual stage becuse the gain of cascaded stages the product of iniidual sage gas 1-3. Wightroquancy gain “The high-requency gain of any amplifier veduced by say capucive effect shat se net purpowely made par ofthe cra Referring toa simple rode amplifier Fi 7-5, these ate the id= ‘tbode espackance Cy, the grid pate capacitance Cand the late Cathode capuctance Cyl the tbe tol Also ocuded in, a8 Gare say capacitances between the wires and componcals Sched to the ghd and plte ternal All Urer of these “apscitors shunt the signal to ground a frequencies high enough {ht the eapaeive reactants are significant “The eet of the gr-patecapactance bparGelaly important Consider the pernent equivalent drei, Fig. 77,0 which Ga