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Chapter Four Oscillators and Wave Shaping Circuits

4.1 Introduction

In electronics periodic signals of various shapes such as sinusoids, triangular, rectangular and
pulses are often needed to perform different types of operation. While the term oscillator is
generally referred to as generator of sinusoid signals, a rectangular wave generator is more
commonly known as a mulitivibrator. An oscillator generates an ac output signal without
requiring any form of input signal. The signal - generating devices have certain fundamental
elements in common, i.e. conversion of direct, or constant voltage to a particular periodically
varying voltage, the manipulation of that voltage to a desired wave shape , and the precise
control of the magnitude and frequency of that voltage.

Generally an oscillator circuit consists of:

• An amplifier circuit
• A positive feedback circuit
• Frequency determining components

Three requirements for an oscillation to sustain are:

• Positive feedback
• An initial input trigger to start oscillations
• Barkhausen criterion: loop gain(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) = 1

Barkhausen Criteria

Consider the feedback circuit shown in figure 4.1 below.

+ + +
Vi A Vo = AVi β Vf = β(Avi)
- - -
-
+

Vf = β(Avi)

Fig.4.1: Feedback used as an oscillator circuit

From feedback analysis and the figure above, the loop gain is given by 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 (product of the gain of the base
amplifier and the feedback gain). If the circuits of the base amplifier and feedback network provide 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 of
correct magnitude and phase, 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 can be made equal to𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 . This results in to the feedback voltage to be the
proper input voltage to drive the amplifier and feedback circuits. Hence, it sustains the loop operation i.e.
the output waveform exists due to the feedback voltage if the following condition is met.

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𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.1

This is known as the Barckhausen criterion for oscillation.

4.2 Sinusoidal Oscillators

Sinusoidal oscillators use sine wave generator circuits to produce signals ranging from a low audio
frequency to very high radio and microwave frequencies, which are constructed using resistor, capacitor
and/or inductor.

Many low frequency type sine wave generators use resistors and capacitors to form their frequency
determining network and are referred to as RC Oscillators (shown in fig.4.2 below). They produce up to 1
MHz sine wave signals.

RS CS

Vin Rp Cp Vout

Fig. 4.2 RC Oscillator

The frequency of RC oscillator circuit shown in figure 4.2 is given by:

1
𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … 4.2
𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃

Another type of sine wave generator circuit, which can produce high frequency waves (up to 500 MHz) uses
inductors and capacitors. These are referred to as LC tank circuits.

Vin L C Vout

Fig. 4.3 LC Oscillator

The frequency of figure 4.3 is given by:

1
𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … 4.3
√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

A third type sinusoidal oscillator uses RLC resonant circuit and is known as the crystal-controlled oscillator.
It produces very high and fixed frequency waves with excellent frequency stability and a greater quality.

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CS

ZS
ZP
CP L

Crystal Symbol
Crystal equivalent circuit

Fig. 4.4 Crystal controlled Oscillator

The frequency of oscillation of RLC circuit can be found from the crystal impedance, where the impedance
ZS (using S domain) is given by:

𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 1�𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶 , 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝑆𝑆

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 1�𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶
𝑆𝑆
𝑍𝑍𝑃𝑃 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 //𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆 =
1 + �𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 1�𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶 � 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃
𝑆𝑆

𝑆𝑆 2 + 1�𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶
𝑆𝑆
𝑍𝑍𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … 4.4
(𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 + 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆 )
𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 �𝑆𝑆 2 + �𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶 �
𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆

Hence we see that the crystal circuit has two resonance frequencies: Series (𝜔𝜔𝑆𝑆 ) and Parallel (𝜔𝜔𝑃𝑃 )
resonance, as given by the following expressions.
1
𝜔𝜔𝑆𝑆 = … … … … … … … … … … … 4.5𝑎𝑎
�𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆

1
𝜔𝜔𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … 4.5𝑏𝑏
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶
�𝐿𝐿 � 𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆 �
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 + 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆
The basic principle of oscillation of an LC circuits will be illustrated by the aid of the following example.

Example 1: Consider the following LC oscillator circuit

VCL
A B
SW

+
E L
C t
-

(a) Circuit (b) Damping Oscillation

Fig. 4.5 Oscillation principle

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With the switch in position A, the capacitor charges quickly to the voltage of the battery. When the switch is
placed in position B, the charged capacitor begins to discharge through the inductor. The current flows
through the coil and builds up a magnetic field around the coil.

When the capacitor is discharged, there is no force to maintain current flow and sustain the magnetic field.
So, the magnetic field collapses, inducing a voltage, which causes current to continue flowing, charging the
capacitor. Current continues until the magnetic field is completely collapsed and the capacitor is charged.
The capacitor begins to discharge again through the coil.

The entire process continues at a rate determine by the value of L and C. The output wave shape, taken
across the tank circuit is a sine wave (as determined by the following derivation) which occurs as the
inductor and the capacitor alternately store and release energy in their respective fields.

E +
i L
-
C
+ -

Fig.4.6 Tank circuit after the cap is fully charged

KVL equation for fig 4.6 yields (in S domain):

1
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑖𝑖 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0 … … … … … … … … … . … 4.6𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑖𝑖 = =
1
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑆𝑆 2+1

�𝐸𝐸�𝐿𝐿�𝑆𝑆
𝑖𝑖 = 2 … … … … … … … … … … … 4.6𝑏𝑏
2 1
𝑆𝑆 + � � �
√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 1� = 𝜔𝜔 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝐸𝐸� = 𝐴𝐴 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝐿𝐿

Hence, we can write equation 4.6b as follows

𝑆𝑆
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐴𝐴 ∗ … … … … … … … … … … 4.7
𝑆𝑆 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
Therefore,
𝑓𝑓 = 1� … … … … … … … … … … … 4.8
2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

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And using inverse Laplace transformation, we have,

𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 ∗ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) … … … … … … … … … … … 4.9

This proves that the output wave shape of a tank circuit is a sinusoidal wave.

If there were no internal resistance in a tank circuit, oscillations would continue indefinitely. Each resonant
circuit, however, contains some resistance, which dissipates power. This Power loss causes the amplitude to
decrease as shown in Fig.4.5b. The reduction of oscillation amplitude in an oscillator circuit is defined of
damping. Tank and load resistances cause damping. The larger the tank resistance the greater is the
amount of damping. The effect of tank damping in oscillators is overcome by applying regenerative
feedback.

4.3 RC Oscillator

4.3.1 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

This oscillator circuit is constructed using an op-amp, which is connected in a noninverting

configuration, and two RC bridge circuits used to determine the frequency of oscillation. The
circuit is as shown in figure 4.7 below.

R2

R1
-
Vx
Vo
Vy +

Vi
C R
ZS
C R
Zp

Fig.4.7: Wien-bridge oscillator

The loop gain is the product of the amplifier gain and the feedback transfer function.

The amplifier gain is given by:

𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴 = �1 + � … … … … … … … … … … … 4.10
𝑅𝑅1

This is the same expression as given by the non inverting op-amp amplifier.

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And the feedback transfer function is given by:

𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝
𝛽𝛽 = … … … … … … … … … … … 4.11
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 + 𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆

Hence,

𝑅𝑅2 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇 = �1 + �� �, 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆 = 𝑅𝑅 + 1�𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑅𝑅1 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 + 𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Substituting 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , 𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆 and the condition for oscillation which is given by: 𝑇𝑇(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗) = 1, we get,

𝑅𝑅2 1
𝑇𝑇(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗) = �1 + �� � = 1 … … … … … 4.12
𝑅𝑅1 3 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1�
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

But the loop gain must be real, this results for the imaginary part of equation 4.19 to be zero.

i.e.

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1�𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0

From which we could get the frequency of oscillation as:

1
𝜔𝜔 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.13
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
From the real part we have
𝑅𝑅2 1
�1 + �� � = 1
𝑅𝑅1 3
This results into:

𝑅𝑅2
= 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.14
𝑅𝑅1

Hence, to have a sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at a frequency f given above, we must have
𝑅𝑅2 ⁄𝑅𝑅1 > 2.

4.4 LC oscillators

The most commonly used types of LC oscillators are the Colpitts and Hartley Oscillators, which can be
constructed using BJT, FET or ICs.

4.4.1 Colpitts Oscillator

One of the most common oscillator circuits is the Colpitts Oscillator. The identification feature of a Colpitts
Oscillator is split capacitor. The two capacitors (C1 and C2 in figure 4.8) in the frequency-determining device
provide the oscillator with capacitive feedback. Thus, Colpitts Oscillators use split capacitors for capacitive
feedback.

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Consider the following CE circuit

VCC

VO
CB

C2 C1

Fig. 4.8 CE circuit to illustrate Colpitts

The small signal ac equivalent circuit is shown below, taking the assumption that at the frequency of
oscillation 𝑟𝑟𝜋𝜋 ≫ 1⁄𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶2 and the resistance R includes 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 of the transistor.

n
VO
+
C2 gmVπ R C1
Vπ

Fig.4.9: small signal equivalent circuit, BJT Colpitts oscillator

From the above figure it can be seen that the output voltage appears across C1 and the feedback voltage
appears across C2.

A KCL equation at node n (fig.4.9) yields:

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜

+ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝜋𝜋 = 0 … … … … … … … … 4.15
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶1 𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2

And voltage divider gives us:

𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2
𝑉𝑉𝜋𝜋 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 � � … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.16
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

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Substituting this into equation 4.10,

1 1 1 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 � + + + 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 � �� = 0
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶1 𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

If we assume that oscillation has started, then 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 ≠ 0 and we get,

1 1 1 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2
+ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 � �=0
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶1 𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

Substituting the expression for 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶1 , 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 in terms of the frequency 𝜔𝜔 and after a long simplification,
we get the following expression:

1 1
� + 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 − 𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶2 � + 𝑗𝑗(𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶1 + 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶2 − 𝜔𝜔3 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐿𝐿) = 0 … … … … … … 4.17
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

For oscillations to start, both the real and imaginary parts must be zero. Equating the imaginary part to zero
gives us the frequency of oscillation as follows:

1
𝜔𝜔 = … … … … … … … … … … … 4.18
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶
�𝐿𝐿 � 1 2 �
𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2

And equating the real part to zero and substituting the above equation for 𝜔𝜔 we get,

1 1
+ 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 − 𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶2 = 0
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

𝐶𝐶2
𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 = �𝐶𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … … 4.19
1

This can be interpreted as the gain of the base amplifier is equal to the ratio of the capacitive reactance. And
for oscillations to start the loop gain must be made greater than unity. i.e.

𝐶𝐶2
𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 > �𝐶𝐶
1

The transistors non linear characteristics reduce the effective value of 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 , and thus reduce the loop gain to
unity, which helps the circuit to sustain the oscillation.

Using Barkhausen criteria

1 𝐶𝐶1
𝛽𝛽 = =
𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶2

This is the feedback gain of the oscillating circuit.

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4.4.2 Hartley Oscillator

Hartley Oscillator is another typical oscillator. The identifying feature of this oscillator is a tapped coil for
inductive feedback.

The ac equivalent circuit for the Hartley oscillator is shown in figure 4.10. For this circuit the output voltage
appears across L1 and the feedback voltage appears across L2.And a similar analysis can be used to calculate
the operating frequency oscillating circuit, which is given in equation 4.15 below.

1
𝜔𝜔 = … … … … … … … … … … … … . … 4.20
�(𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 )𝐶𝐶

And the analysis for the feedback gain and the minimum voltage gain is as given below:

𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2

𝛽𝛽 = = = … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.21𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿1

𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿1

𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = = = … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.21𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2

Note: The proof is left as an exercise for the students.

Fig 4.10 Ac equivalent CE circuit to illustrate Hartley

4.5 Wave Form Generator Circuits

These are non sinusoidal oscillator circuits which generates complex wave shapes. Some of these circuits
are discussed below.

4.5.1 Multivibrators

These are most often used to generate square or triangular waves. A multivibrator is basically two-amplifier
circuits arranged with regenerative feedback. Usually one of the amplifiers is conducting while the other is
cutoff.
In general, there are three types of multivibrators namely Astable, Monostable and Bistable.

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Astable (free running) multivibrator

Has no stable state. With no external signal applied, the two active devices (transistors)
alternatively switch from cutoff to saturation, at a frequency determined by the RC time constants
of the coupling circuits. Its circuit and wave form is shown below:
+VCC +VCC
Vc1
0v
R1 R2 R3 R4 0v

VC1 VC2 -v
C1 C2 Vc2
+VCC

0v
Q1 Q2
0v

-v
(a) T0 T1 T2 T3
(b)

Fig. 4.11 Astable multivibrator (a) circuit (b) wave shape

Operation of astable multivibrator circuit shown above is stated as follows:

Because the characteristics of the two transistors are not the same, when the circuit is first switched on the
current through one of the transistors say Q1 will increase faster than the current through Q2. Due to the
rise of current through R1, the voltage across it will increase, causing the collector voltage of Q1 to fall. This
fall in voltage is coupled to the base of Q2. This causes the collector current of Q2 to fall, and its collector
voltage to rise, due to less voltage being dropped across R4. This rise in collector voltage is cross coupled to
the base of Q1, increasing the forward bias of Q1 and increasing its collector current. Since the collector
current was already rising, its rise is aided by this rising forward bias. The effect is cumulative and Q1
becomes rapidly fully on and Q2 completely off.

The collector voltage of Q1 is now low, and that of Q2 is high. C1 now begins to charge from the supply rail,
via R2. As the voltage on the right hand side of C1 starts to rise, Q2 starts to conduct. Again we have the
cumulative effect and Q2 rapidly comes on and Q1 goes off. The collector voltage of Q1 is now high and that of
Q2 low. It is now the turn of C2 to charge from the supply via R3. As the voltage on the left hand side of C2
begins to rise, the base voltage of Q1 increases, turning it on and turning Q2 off.

The whole process repeats continuously.

From T0 to T1: Q1 is saturated, Q2 is cutoff and its collector voltage is at VCC.

Base wave shape for Q2 indicates a negative signal, going towards zero which is the result of C1
discharging. And base voltage of Q1 is positive to keep it saturation.

From T1 to T2 : Q1 is cutoff and Q2 is saturated. The circuit remains in this condition until C2
discharges enough to allow Q1 to conduct at T2.

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Monostable (one shot) multivibrator

The monostable has only one permanent stable state. When triggered by an external pulse, it changes
over to an unstable state for a time determined by a CR time constant. It then reverts to its stable state
and waits for another trigger pulse.

Consider the following circuit to illustrate the operation of monostable multivibrators.

+V

R1 R3 R4
R2

C1

Q1 Q2
Negative
pulses
0V

Fig. 4.12 Monostable multivibrator circuit

At switch on, Q1 is forward biased by R3. This turns Q1 hard on, giving it a high collector current and a
low collector voltage. This low collector voltage is cross connected to the base of Q2, turning Q2 off.
This is the stable state.

A negative pulse to the base of Q1 turns Q1 off. The collector voltage of Q1 goes high and turns Q2 on.
The circuit is now in the unstable state. C1 now charges from the supply rail via R3.

Eventually the voltage on the left hand side of C1 will be high enough to turn Q1 back on, which in turn
switches Q2 off. The circuit is now back in its stable state.

The monostable can be used as a short duration timer or a pulse width stretcher.

Bistable Multivibrator

It has two stable states. It remains in one of the stable states until a trigger is applied, then it goes to the
other stable condition to remain these until another trigger is applied to change it back to the original stable
state.

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Take a look at the following figure, to see the operation of bistable multivibrators.

+V

Set Reset R2
R1
R3 R4

Q1 Q2

0V

Fig. 4.13 Bistable multivibrator

This circuit is similar to an astable multivibrator, except that there is no charge or discharge time, due
to the absence of capacitors. Hence, when the circuit is switched on, if Q1 is on, its collector is at 0 V. As
a result, Q2 gets switched off. This results in more than half +V volts being applied to R4 causing current
into the base of Q1, thus keeping it on. Thus, the circuit remains stable in a single state continuously.
Similarly, Q2 remains on continuously, if it happens to get switched on first.

Switching of state can be done via Set and Reset terminals connected to the bases. For example, if Q2 is
on and Set is grounded momentarily, this switches Q2 off, and makes Q1 on. Thus, Set is used to "set" Q1
on, and Reset is used to "reset" it to off state.

4.5.2 Comparator

It is essentially an op-amp operated in an open loop configuration, which actually compares two
voltages to determine the largest. It is usually biased at voltages +Vs and –Vs, although other biases are
possible. It is shown in figure 4.14 below with its transfer characteristics.

VO
+VS

VH
V1 -
VO

V2 +
VL

-VS -γ 0 +γ V2 - V1

Fir. 4.14 Open loop comparator and its voltage transfer characteristics
In figure 4.14, there are three conditions:

• When 𝑉𝑉2 > 𝑉𝑉1 : the output is driven to a high saturated state VH;
• When 𝑉𝑉2 < 𝑉𝑉1 : the output is driven to a low saturated state VL.
• And when the input differential voltage is in the range −𝛾𝛾 < (𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 ) < +𝛾𝛾, the output
voltage is in neither of its saturation states. This region is known as the transition region.

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Consider the following non inverting comparator circuit configuration

VO
VH
R1 // R2
-

VO
R1 V+ R2
VREF + − V REF Vl
R1
Vl
R2 VL

Figure 4.15: Noninverting comparator circuit and its output transfer.

Here the crossover voltage is a function of resistor ratios. Using superposition we can obtain V+ as
follows:
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉+ = � � 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + � � 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑙𝑙

The ideal crossover voltage occurs when 𝑉𝑉+ = 0, or

𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 0

This gives us:

𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 = − 𝑉𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.22
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

The output goes high when 𝑉𝑉+ > 0. VO = High when Vl is greater than the crossover voltage.

A similar analysis applies for the inverting comparator as shown in figure 4.16 below.

VO
R1
VREF
VH
V1 -
R2
VO
R2
+ − V REF Vl
R1 // R2 R1
VL

Figure 4.16: Inverting comparator circuit with its output characteristics.

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Example 2:

The following circuit has been designed to control street lights.

Light +VS=15V VCC

Photodetector Vl
circuit -
Q

VREF +

R
-VS=15V

Street Relay
Lights Switch

Fig.4.17: Comparator application

The input signal to the comparator is the output of the detector i.e. Vl which is directly proportional to
the amount of light incident in the detector.

We need to turn the transistor on in order to close the relay switch, so that the street lights will get
current and be turned on. This happens when 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 < 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , i.e. during the night time (where we have VO
in the order of 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = +15𝑉𝑉). But if we want the street lights to be turned off, which means during the
day time, 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 > 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , this results the output voltage VO to be in the order of −𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = −15𝑉𝑉. Which turns
the transistor off, hence results the switch to be open and the lights off.

In the above example, there might be disturbances in the light effect due to noises, like clouds. For
example, the light may become on and off within a short period of time, which is called chatter effect.
This effect can be eliminated by Schmitt trigger circuits discussed in the following section.

4.5.3 Schmitt Trigger Circuits

This is a class of circuit which uses positive feedback and can be used in the class waveform generators
called multivibrators. Of the three multivibrators (bistable, astable and monostable), we will examine
the bistable one which has a comparator with positive feedback and has two stable states.

Basic inverting Schmitt Trigger

The Schmitt trigger or bistable multivibrator uses positive feedback with a loop gain greater than unity
to produce a bistable characteristic. Positive feedback occurs because the feedback resistor is
connected between the output and the non inverting input terminals.

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VO
R1 // R2  R1 
VTH =  VH
 R1 + R2
V1 -

VO
V+ Vl
+
R1

R2 (a) (b)

VO

Vl

 R1 
VTL =  VL
 R1 + R2  (c)

Figure 4.18: (a) Schmitt trigger circuit, (b) voltage transfer characteristics as input voltage increases and (c)
voltage transfer characteristics as input voltage decreases

Voltage V+, in terms of the output voltage, can be found by using a voltage divider equation to yield:

𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉+ = � � 𝑉𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … 4.23
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑂𝑂

From the above equation we can see that, the voltage V+ is not constant rather it is a function of the
output voltage. Using this equation we can determine the voltage transfer characteristic, by taking only
one state at a time and replacing the output voltage VO with the corresponding state VH and/or VL. The
output curve is shown in figure 4.18 (b) and (c) above.

𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉+ = � � 𝑉𝑉 , 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐻𝐻

𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉+ = � � 𝑉𝑉 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿

Non inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit

Consider the circuit in figure 4.19

VO
R1 // R2
-

VO VTL VTH
V+
+ Vl
V1 R1

R2

Fig. 4.19: Non inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit and voltage transfer characteristics

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As it is shown in figure 4.19 the inverting terminal is held at ground potential and the input signal is
applied to resistor R1 at the non inverting terminal. The voltage V+ at the non inverting terminal is a
function of both the input voltage and the output voltage.

Now using superposition, one can write

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉+ = � � 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 + � � 𝑉𝑉 … … … … … … … … 4.24
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑂𝑂

If VL is negative, and the output is in its low state, then VO=VL (assumed to be negative), this results in
V+ to be negative, and the output remains in its low saturation state.

Substituting V+ = 0 and VO = VL in the equation of V+ above, the higher crossover voltage Vl = VTH is given
by:

0 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿

Hence,

𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = − � � 𝑉𝑉 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿

Similarly, the lower crossover voltage Vl=VTL is found by substituting V+=0 and VO=VH as follows,

0 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻

This can be written as

𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = − � � 𝑉𝑉 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑅2 𝐻𝐻

The voltage transfer characteristic is shown in figure 4.19 above.

From the complete transfer characteristics and the analysis given above it can be stated that, with Vl
sufficiently positive, the output is in its high state; with Vl sufficiently negative, the output is in its low
state. Hence, the circuit exhibits the non inverting transfer characteristic.

4.6 Timer Circuits

The 555 Timer is a general purpose Integrating Circuit (IC) that can be used for:

• Create time delay

• Control alarms
• Ramp(Rise) outputs
• Build train of pulses for modulator circuits

It can operate in both the astable and monostable multivibrator modes.

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Operation

The 555 internal circuit consist of two comparators which set/reset the flip flop, which in turn determines
whether the discharge transistor, which discharges the external timing capacitor, is ‘on’ or ‘off’, and an
output buffer.

+VCC

R3
Comparator 1
Threshold +
- R Flip-Flop

Control R4 Q
Comparator 2 Out
voltage
S
+
Trigger -

R5
Discharge
Discharge Transistor
R6
Q

Fig. 4.20: 555 timer internal circuit block diagram

RS-Flip Flop: is a digital circuit, when the input R high and input S is low output Q is high. The
complementary state occurs when R is low and S is high. When both R and S are low Q remains in its
previous state.

Comparator 1: is the threshold comparator, which compares its input with an internal voltage reference
set at �2�3�𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 by the voltage divider 𝑅𝑅3 , 𝑅𝑅4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅5 . When the input exceeds this reference level, the
threshold comparator output goes high, producing a high output at flip flop terminal Q. This turns the
discharge transistor on and an external timing capacitor starts to discharge.

Comparator 2: is the trigger comparator, compares its input trigger voltage to an internal voltage
reference set to �1�3�𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 . When the output trigger level is reduced below this reference level, the trigger
comparator goes output high, which resets the RS-flip flop and the discharge transistor turns off.

The timing functions of the 555 depend on how the inputs of the comparators are configured and how the
discharge path is used.

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4.6.1 Modes of function of 555 Timer:

Monostable mode:

In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot", it changes state once triggered, but returns to its original
state after a certain time delay. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.

VCC

R1 +VCC Reset

Discharge

Threshold
+ Output
C1 555
VC(t) +
-
VO
Trigger Monostable Pulse Out

Trigger Pulse In Ground -

Vin

Fig. 4.21: 555 circuit connected as a monostable multivibrator

This mode operates by charging a timing capacitor with a current set by an external resistance.

With a high voltage applied to the trigger input, the trigger comparator output is low, the flip flop output 𝑄𝑄�
is high, the discharge transistor is turned on and the timing capacitor C1 is discharged to nearly ground
potential. The output of the 555 timer is then low, which is the quiescent state of the one shot.

When the negative pulse is applied to the trigger input, the output of the trigger comparator goes high when
the trigger pulse drops below �1�3�𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 . Output 𝑄𝑄� goes low, which means that the output of 555 goes high
and the discharge transistor turns off.

The monostable 555 timer circuit, in effect, produces a pulse at the output whose width t is just the product
of R1 and C1, i.e.,

𝑡𝑡1 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶1 … … … … … … … … … … … 4.25

Astable Mode (Free running mode)

In this mode both the ‘low’ and ‘high’ states are unstable. Thus, the output toggles between low and high
continuously, in effect generating a train of pulses. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation,
logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.

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VCC

R1 +VCC Reset

Discharge

R2
Output
555
+
Threshold

VO
Trigger
+
Ground -
C1 VC(t)
-

Fig.4.22: Astable multivibrator 555 circuit

In this circuit, capacitor C1 charges through R1 and R2, eventually building up enough voltage to
trigger an internal comparator to toggle the output flip-flop. Once toggled, the flip-flop discharges
C1 through R2 into discharge pin. When C1's voltage becomes low enough, another internal
comparator is triggered to toggle the output flip-flop. This once again allows C1 to charge up
through R1 and R2 and the cycle starts all over again.

C1's charge-up time t1 is given by:

𝑡𝑡1 = 0.693(𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 )𝐶𝐶1

C1's discharge time t2 is given by:

𝑡𝑡2 = 0.693(𝑅𝑅1 )𝐶𝐶1

Thus, the total period of one cycle is:

𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2 = 0.693(𝑅𝑅1 + 2𝑅𝑅2 )𝐶𝐶1 … … … … … … … … … 4.26

The frequency f of the output wave is the reciprocal of this period, and is therefore given by:

1.44
𝑓𝑓 = … … … … … … … … … … … 4.27
𝐶𝐶1 (𝑅𝑅1 + 2𝑅𝑅2 )

Wherein f is in Hz if R1 and R2 are in megaohms and C1 is in microfarads.

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4.7 Sample and Hold Circuits

This circuit holds a signal (analogue) steady for a short period of time before it is used by the following
circuit in the system. For example, an analog to digital converter (ADC) should get a stable signal in
order to perform accurate conversion.

The operational amplifier circuit shown in fig 4.23 provides this sample and hold function.

Fig. 4.23 : Op-amp connected as sample and hold circuit

Here is how it operates: With the switch SW2 opened, switch SW1 connects the capacitor to the signal
conditioning circuit once every sample period. The capacitor then holds the voltage value measured
until a new sample is acquired. The circuit is reset by closing S2. Many times, the sample and hold
circuitry is incorporated into the same integrated circuit package.
The rate at which the switch is operated is the sampling rate of the system. Take a look to the following
figure for a sample time and its sample and hold.

Sample times Sample and Hold

Fig.4.24: sample time and its sample and hold

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