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4.1 Introduction
Os
In electronics periodic signals of various shapescill
such as sinusoids, triangular, rectangular and
pulses are often needed to perform different types
at of operation. While the term oscillator is
generally referred to as generator of sinusoid orsignals, a rectangular wave generator is more
commonly known as a mulitivibrator. An oscillators generates an ac output signal without
an
requiring any form of input signal. The signal - generating devices have certain fundamental
d
elements in common, i.e. conversion of direct, or constant voltage to a particular periodically
W
varying voltage, the manipulation of that voltage to a desired wave shape , and the precise
av
control of the magnitude and frequency of that voltage.
e
Sh
Generally an oscillator circuit consists of:
ap
 An amplifier in circuit
g
 A positive feedback circuit
Ci
 Frequency determining components
rc
uit are:
Three requirements for an oscillation to sustain
s
 Positive feedback
 An initial input trigger to start oscillations
 Barkhausen criterion: loop gain( βA)=1

Barkhausen Criteria

Consider the feedback circuit shown in figure 4.1 below.

+ + +
Vi A Vo = AVi β Vf = β(Avi)
- - -
-
+

Vf = β(Avi)

Fig.4.1: Feedback used as an oscillator circuit

From feedback analysis and the figure above, the loop gain is given by βA (product of the gain of the base
amplifier and the feedback gain). If the circuits of the base amplifier and feedback network provide βA of
correct magnitude and phase, V f can be made equal toV i. This results in to the feedback voltage to be the

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proper input voltage to drive the amplifier and feedback circuits. Hence, it sustains the loop operation i.e.
the output waveform exists due to the feedback voltage if the following condition is met.

βA=1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.1

This is known as the Barckhausen criterion for oscillation.

4.2 Sinusoidal Oscillators

Sinusoidal oscillators use sine wave generator circuits to produce signals ranging from a low audio
frequency to very high radio and microwave frequencies, which are constructed using resistor, capacitor
and/or inductor.

Many low frequency type sine wave generators use resistors and capacitors to form their frequency
determining network and are referred to as RC Oscillators (shown in fig.4.2 below). They produce up to 1
MHz sine wave signals.

RS CS

Vin Rp Cp Vout

Fig. 4.2 RC Oscillator

The frequency of RC oscillator circuit shown in figure 4.2 is given by:

1
ω r= … … … … … … … … … 4.2
RPCP

Another type of sine wave generator circuit, which can produce high frequency waves (up to 500 MHz) uses
inductors and capacitors. These are referred to as LC tank circuits.

Vin L C Vout

Fig. 4.3 LC Oscillator

The frequency of figure 4.3 is given by:

1
ω r= … … … … … … … … … 4.3
√ LC

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A third type sinusoidal oscillator uses RLC resonant circuit and is known as the crystal-controlled oscillator.
It produces very high and fixed frequency waves with excellent frequency stability and a greater quality.

CS

ZS
ZP
CP L

Crystal Symbol
Crystal equivalent circuit

Fig. 4.4 Crystal controlled Oscillator

The frequency of oscillation of RLC circuit can be found from the crystal impedance, where the impedance
ZS (using S domain) is given by:

1
Z S= X L + X C =SL+ , w h ere R is neglected
S
S CS

1
SL+
S CS
Z P= X C /¿ Z S =
P
1
(
1+ SL+
SCS )
S CP

1
S2+
L CS
Z P= … … … … … … … … … … 4.4
( C P +C S )
(
S C P S2 +
LC P C S )
Hence we see that the crystal circuit has two resonance frequencies: Series ( ω S) and Parallel (ω P )
resonance, as given by the following expressions.
1
ω S= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.5 a
√ LC S
1
ωP = … … … … … … … 4.5 b
CP CS
√ L ( C P +C S )
The basic principle of oscillation of an LC circuits will be illustrated by the aid of the following example.

Example 1: Consider the following LC oscillator circuit

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VCL
A B
SW

+
E L
C t
-

(a) Circuit (b) Damping Oscillation

Fig. 4.5 Oscillation principle

With the switch in position A, the capacitor charges quickly to the voltage of the battery. When the switch is
placed in position B, the charged capacitor begins to discharge through the inductor. The current flows
through the coil and builds up a magnetic field around the coil.

When the capacitor is discharged, there is no force to maintain current flow and sustain the magnetic field.
So, the magnetic field collapses, inducing a voltage, which causes current to continue flowing, charging the
capacitor. Current continues until the magnetic field is completely collapsed and the capacitor is charged.
The capacitor begins to discharge again through the coil.

The entire process continues at a rate determine by the value of L and C. The output wave shape, taken
across the tank circuit is a sine wave (as determined by the following derivation) which occurs as the
inductor and the capacitor alternately store and release energy in their respective fields.

E +
i L
-
C
+ -

Fig.4.6 Tank circuit after the cap is fully charged

KVL equation for fig 4.6 yields (in S domain):

1
E− i−LSi=0 … … … … … … … … … . … 4.6 a
CS

E ECS
i= =
1 LC S2 +1
LS+
CS

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E
i=
( L)
S
… … … … … … … … … … … 4.6 b
2
1
S +(
√ LC )
2

1
Let =ω w hic h is used ¿ determine t h e frequency of t h e tank circuit
√ LC
E
= A w h ic h ist h e amplitude of t h e tank circuit
L

Hence, we can write equation 4.6b as follows

A∗S
i= … … … … … … … … … … 4.7
S 2 +ω2
Therefore,
1
f= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.8
2 π √ LC

And using inverse Laplace transformation, we have,

i ( t )= A∗cos ( ωt ) … … … … … … … … … … … 4.9

This proves that the output wave shape of a tank circuit is a sinusoidal wave.

If there were no internal resistance in a tank circuit, oscillations would continue indefinitely. Each resonant
circuit, however, contains some resistance, which dissipates power. This Power loss causes the amplitude to
decrease as shown in Fig.4.5b. The reduction of oscillation amplitude in an oscillator circuit is defined of
damping. Tank and load resistances cause damping. The larger the tank resistance the greater is the
amount of damping. The effect of tank damping in oscillators is overcome by applying regenerative
feedback.

4.3 RC Oscillator

4.3.1 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

This oscillator circuit is constructed using an op-amp, which is connected in a noninverting

configuration, and two RC bridge circuits used to determine the frequency of oscillation. The
circuit is as shown in figure 4.7 below.

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R2

R1
-
Vx
Vo
Vy +

Vi
C R
ZS
C R
Zp

Fig.4.7: Wien-bridge oscillator

The loop gain is the product of the amplifier gain and the feedback transfer function.

The amplifier gain is given by:

R2
A= 1+ ( ) R1
… … … … … … … … … … … 4.10

This is the same expression as given by the non inverting op-amp amplifier.

And the feedback transfer function is given by:

Zp
β= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.11
Z p+ ZS

Hence,

R2 Zp R 1
T = 1+ ( )(
R1 )
Z p+ Z S
,but Z p=
1+ jωRC
∧Z S=R +
jωRC

Substituting Z p , Z S and the condition for oscillation which is given by: T ( jω)=1, we get,

R2 1
( )(
T ( jω )= 1+
R1
3+ jωRC +
1
)
=1 … … … … … 4.12
jωRC

But the loop gain must be real, this results for the imaginary part of equation 4.19 to be zero.

i.e.

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1
jωRC + =0
jωRC

From which we could get the frequency of oscillation as:

1
ω= … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.13
RC
From the real part we have
R2
( 1+
R1 () 13 )=1
This results into:

R2
=2… … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.14
R1

Hence, to have a sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at a frequency f given above, we must have
R2 / R1 >2.

4.4LC oscillators

The most commonly used types of LC oscillators are the Colpitts and Hartley Oscillators, which can be
constructed using BJT, FET or ICs.

4.4.1 Colpitts Oscillator

One of the most common oscillator circuits is the Colpitts Oscillator. The identification feature of a Colpitts
Oscillator is split capacitor. The two capacitors (C 1 and C2 in figure 4.8) in the frequency-determining device
provide the oscillator with capacitive feedback. Thus, Colpitts Oscillators use split capacitors for capacitive
feedback.

Consider the following CE circuit

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VCC

VO
CB

C2 C1

Fig. 4.8 CE circuit to illustrate Colpitts

The small signal ac equivalent circuit is shown below, taking the assumption that at the frequency of
oscillation r π ≫1/ω C 2 and the resistance R includes r o of the transistor.

n
VO
+
C2 gmVπ R C1
Vπ

Fig.4.9: small signal equivalent circuit, BJT Colpitts oscillator

From the above figure it can be seen that the output voltage appears across C1 and the feedback voltage
appears across C2.

A KCL equation at node n (fig.4.9) yields:

Vo Vo Vo
+ + + g m V π =0 … … … … … … … … 4.15
XC R XL + XC
1 2

And voltage divider gives us:

XC
V π=V o
( XC + X L
2
2

)
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.16

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Substituting this into equation 4.10,

1 1 1 XC
Vo
( + +
X C R X L+ X C
1
+ gm
XC + XL
=0
2
( 2
2

))
If we assume that oscillation has started, then V o ≠ 0 and we get,

1 1 1 XC
+ +
X C R X L+ X C
1
+ gm
XC + X L
=0
2
( 2
2

)
Substituting the expression for X C , X C ∧ X L in terms of the frequencyω and after a long simplification, we
1 2

get the following expression:

( 1R + g − 1R ω L C )+ j (ω C + ω C −ω C C L )=0 … … … … … … 4.17
m
2
2 1 2
3
1 2

For oscillations to start, both the real and imaginary parts must be zero. Equating the imaginary part to zero
gives us the frequency of oscillation as follows:

1
ω= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.18
C1 C2
√(
L
C 1+C 2 )
And equating the real part to zero and substituting the above equation for ω we get,

1 1
+ g m− ω 2 L C2=0
R R

C2
gm R= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.19
C1

This can be interpreted as the gain of the base amplifier is equal to the ratio of the capacitive reactance. And
for oscillations to start the loop gain must be made greater than unity. i.e.

C2
gm R>
C1

The transistors non linear characteristics reduce the effective value of gm , and thus reduce the loop gain to
unity, which helps the circuit to sustain the oscillation.

Using Barkhausen criteria

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1 C1
β= =
gm R C2

This is the feedback gain of the oscillating circuit.

4.4.2 Hartley Oscillator

Hartley Oscillator is another typical oscillator. The identifying feature of this oscillator is a tapped coil for
inductive feedback.

The ac equivalent circuit for the Hartley oscillator is shown in figure 4.10. For this circuit the output voltage
appears across L1 and the feedback voltage appears across L2.And a similar analysis can be used to calculate
the operating frequency oscillating circuit, which is given in equation 4.15 below.

1
ω= … … … … … … … … … … … … . … 4.20
√ ( L1 + L2 ) C
And the analysis for the feedback gain and the minimum voltage gain is as given below:

V f X L2 L2
β= = = … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.21 a
V O X L1 L1

V O X L1 L1
A v= = = … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.21b
V f X L2 L2

Note: The proof is left as an exercise for the students.

Fig 4.10 Ac equivalent CE circuit to illustrate Hartley

4.5 Wave Form Generator Circuits

These are non sinusoidal oscillator circuits which generates complex wave shapes. Some of these circuits
are discussed below.

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4.5.1 Multivibrators

These are most often used to generate square or triangular waves. A multivibrator is basically two-amplifier
circuits arranged with regenerative feedback. Usually one of the amplifiers is conducting while the other is
cutoff.
In general, there are three types of multivibrators namely Astable, Monostable and Bistable.

Astable (free running) multivibrator

Has no stable state. With no external signal applied, the two active devices (transistors)
alternatively switch from cutoff to saturation, at a frequency determined by the RC time constants
of the coupling circuits. Its circuit and wave form is shown below:

+VCC +VCC
Vc1
0v
R1 R2 R3 R4 0v

VC1 VC2 -v
C1 C2 Vc2
+VCC

0v
Q1 Q2
0v

-v
(a) T0 T1 T2 T3
(b)

Fig. 4.11 Astable multivibrator (a) circuit (b) wave shape

Operation of astable multivibrator circuit shown above is stated as follows:

Because the characteristics of the two transistors are not the same, when the circuit is first switched on the
current through one of the transistors say Q 1 will increase faster than the current through Q 2. Due to the rise
of current through R1, the voltage across it will increase, causing the collector voltage of Q 1 to fall. This fall in
voltage is coupled to the base of Q2. This causes the collector current of Q 2 to fall, and its collector voltage to
rise, due to less voltage being dropped across R 4. This rise in collector voltage is cross coupled to the base of
Q1, increasing the forward bias of Q 1 and increasing its collector current. Since the collector current was
already rising, its rise is aided by this rising forward bias. The effect is cumulative and Q 1 becomes rapidly
fully on and Q2 completely off.

The collector voltage of Q1 is now low, and that of Q2 is high. C1 now begins to charge from the supply rail,
via R2. As the voltage on the right hand side of C1 starts to rise, Q2 starts to conduct. Again we have the
cumulative effect and Q2 rapidly comes on and Q1 goes off. The collector voltage of Q1 is now high and that of

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Q2 low. It is now the turn of C2 to charge from the supply via R3. As the voltage on the left hand side of C2
begins to rise, the base voltage of Q1 increases, turning it on and turning Q2 off.

The whole process repeats continuously.

From T0 to T1: Q1 is saturated, Q2 is cutoff and its collector voltage is at VCC.

Base wave shape for Q2 indicates a negative signal, going towards zero which is the result of C 1
discharging. And base voltage of Q1 is positive to keep it saturation.

From T1 to T2 : Q1 is cutoff and Q2 is saturated. The circuit remains in this condition until C 2
discharges enough to allow Q1 to conduct at T2.

Monostable (one shot) multivibrator

The monostable has only one permanent stable state. When triggered by an external pulse, it changes
over to an unstable state for a time determined by a CR time constant. It then reverts to its stable state
and waits for another trigger pulse.

Consider the following circuit to illustrate the operation of monostable multivibrators.

+V

R1 R3 R4
R2

C1

Q1 Q2
Negative
pulses
0V

Fig. 4.12 Monostable multivibrator circuit

At switch on, Q1 is forward biased by R3. This turns Q1 hard on, giving it a high collector current and a
low collector voltage.  This low collector voltage is cross connected to the base of Q 2, turning Q2 off.
This is the stable state.

A negative pulse to the base of Q1 turns Q1 off. The collector voltage of Q1 goes high and turns Q2 on.
The circuit is now in the unstable state. C1 now charges from the supply rail via R3.

Eventually the voltage on the left hand side of C1 will be high enough to turn Q1 back on, which in turn
switches Q2 off. The circuit is now back in its stable state.

The monostable can be used as a short duration timer or a pulse width stretcher.

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Bistable Multivibrator

It has two stable states. It remains in one of the stable states until a trigger is applied, then it goes to the
other stable condition to remain these until another trigger is applied to change it back to the original stable
state.

Take a look at the following figure, to see the operation of bistable multivibrators.

+V

Set Reset R2
R1
R3 R4

Q1 Q2

0V

Fig. 4.13 Bistable multivibrator

This circuit is similar to an astable multivibrator, except that there is no charge or discharge time, due
to the absence of capacitors. Hence, when the circuit is switched on, if Q 1 is on, its collector is at 0 V. As
a result, Q2 gets switched off. This results in more than half +V volts being applied to R4 causing current
into the base of Q1, thus keeping it on. Thus, the circuit remains stable in a single state continuously.
Similarly, Q2 remains on continuously, if it happens to get switched on first.

Switching of state can be done via Set and Reset terminals connected to the bases. For example, if Q 2 is
on and Set is grounded momentarily, this switches Q2 off, and makes Q1 on. Thus, Set is used to "set" Q1
on, and Reset is used to "reset" it to off state.

4.5.2 Comparator

It is essentially an op-amp operated in an open loop configuration, which actually compares two
voltages to determine the largest. It is usually biased at voltages +Vs and –Vs, although other biases are
possible. It is shown in figure 4.14 below with its transfer characteristics.

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VO
+VS

VH
V1 -
VO

V2 +
VL

-VS -γ 0 +γ V2 - V1

Fir. 4.14 Open loop comparator and its voltage transfer characteristics
In figure 4.14, there are three conditions:

 When V 2 >V 1 : the output is driven to a high saturated state VH;

 WhenV 2 <V 1: the output is driven to a low saturated state VL.
 And when the input differential voltage is in the range −γ < ( V 2−V 1) <+ γ , the output voltage is
in neither of its saturation states. This region is known as the transition region.

Consider the following non inverting comparator circuit configuration

VO
VH
R1 // R2
-

VO
R1 V+
+ R2
VREF  V REF Vl
R1
Vl
R2 VL

Figure 4.15: Noninverting comparator circuit and its output transfer.

Here the crossover voltage is a function of resistor ratios. Using superposition we can obtain V+ as
follows:
V R2 R1
+¿=
( )
R1 + R 2 (
V REF +
R1 +R2 )
Vl¿

The ideal crossover voltage occurs whenV +¿=0¿ , or

R2 V REF + R1 V l=0

This gives us:

−R2
V l= V … … … … … … … … … … … … 4.22
R1 REF

The output goes high whenV +¿>0 ¿. VO = High when Vl is greater than the crossover voltage.

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A similar analysis applies for the inverting comparator as shown in figure 4.16 below.

VO
R1
VREF
VH
V1 -
R2
VO
R2
+  VREF Vl
R1 // R2 R1
VL

Figure 4.16: Inverting comparator circuit with its output characteristics.

Example 2:

The following circuit has been designed to control street lights.

Light +VS=15V VCC

Photodetector Vl
circuit -
Q

VREF +

R
-VS=15V

Street Relay
Lights Switch

Fig.4.17: Comparator application

The input signal to the comparator is the output of the detector i.e. Vl which is directly proportional to
the amount of light incident in the detector.

We need to turn the transistor on in order to close the relay switch, so that the street lights will get
current and be turned on. This happens whenV l <V REF, i.e. during the night time (where we have VO in
the order ofV S =+15 V ). But if we want the street lights to be turned off, which means during the day

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time,V l >V REF, this results the output voltage VO to be in the order of−V S =−15 V . Which turns the
transistor off, hence results the switch to be open and the lights off.

In the above example, there might be disturbances in the light effect due to noises, like clouds. For
example, the light may become on and off within a short period of time, which is called chatter effect.
This effect can be eliminated by Schmitt trigger circuits discussed in the following section.

4.5.3 Schmitt Trigger Circuits

This is a class of circuit which uses positive feedback and can be used in the class waveform generators
called multivibrators. Of the three multivibrators (bistable, astable and monostable), we will examine
the bistable one which has a comparator with positive feedback and has two stable states.

Basic inverting Schmitt Trigger

The Schmitt trigger or bistable multivibrator uses positive feedback with a loop gain greater than unity
to produce a bistable characteristic. Positive feedback occurs because the feedback resistor is
connected between the output and the non inverting input terminals.

VO
R1 // R2  R1 
V1 -
VTH   VH
 R1  R2 
VO
V+ Vl
+
R1

R2 (a) (b)

VO

Vl

 R1 
VTL   V L
 R1  R2  (c)

Figure 4.18: (a) Schmitt trigger circuit, (b) voltage transfer characteristics as input voltage increases and (c)
voltage transfer characteristics as input voltage decreases

Voltage V+, in terms of the output voltage, can be found by using a voltage divider equation to yield:

V R1
(
+¿=
)
R1+ R 2
V O …… …… … …… …… … 4.23¿

From the above equation we can see that, the voltage V+ is not constant rather it is a function of the
output voltage. Using this equation we can determine the voltage transfer characteristic, by taking only

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one state at a time and replacing the output voltage VO with the corresponding state VH and/or VL. The
output curve is shown in figure 4.18 (b) and (c) above.

V R1
+¿=
( )
R1 + R 2
V H ,for t h e h igh er state ∧¿ ¿

V R1
+¿=
( R1+ R2 )
V L for t h e lower state ¿

Non inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit

Consider the circuit in figure 4.19

VO
R1 // R2
-

VO VTL VTH
V+
+ Vl
V1 R1

R2
Fig. 4.19: Non inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit and voltage transfer characteristics
As it is shown in figure 4.19 the inverting terminal is held at ground potential and the input signal is
applied to resistor R1 at the non inverting terminal. The voltage V+ at the non inverting terminal is a
function of both the input voltage and the output voltage.

Now using superposition, one can write

V R2 R1
(
+¿=
) (
R1 + R 2
Vl+
)
R1 + R2
V O … …… …… …… … 4.24 ¿

If VL is negative, and the output is in its low state, then VO=VL (assumed to be negative), this results in
V+ to be negative, and the output remains in its low saturation state.

Substituting V+ = 0 and VO = VL in the equation of V+ above, the higher crossover voltage Vl = VTH is given
by:

0=R2 V TH + R 1 V L

Hence,

R1
V TH =− ( ) V , since V L is negative V TH is positive
R2 L

Similarly, the lower crossover voltage Vl=VTL is found by substituting V+=0 and VO=VH as follows,

0=R2 V TL + R1 V H

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This can be written as

R1
V TL=− ( )V , since V H is positive V TL is negative
R2 H

The voltage transfer characteristic is shown in figure 4.19 above.

From the complete transfer characteristics and the analysis given above it can be stated that, with Vl
sufficiently positive, the output is in its high state; with Vl sufficiently negative, the output is in its low
state. Hence, the circuit exhibits the non-inverting transfer characteristic.

4.6 Timer Circuits

The 555 Timer is a general purpose Integrating Circuit (IC) that can be used for:

 Create time delay

 Control alarms
 Ramp(Rise) outputs
 Build train of pulses for modulator circuits

It can operate in both the astable and monostable multivibrator modes.

Operation

The 555 internal circuit consist of two comparators which set/reset the flip flop, which in turn determines
whether the discharge transistor, which discharges the external timing capacitor, is ‘on’ or ‘off’, and an
output buffer.

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+VCC

R3
Comparator 1
Threshold +
- R Flip-Flop

Control R4 Q
Comparator 2 Out
voltage
S
+
Trigger -

R5
Discharge
Discharge Transistor
R6
Q

Fig. 4.20: 555 timer internal circuit block diagram

RS-Flip Flop: is a digital circuit, when the input R high and input S is low output Q is high. The
complementary state occurs when R is low and S is high. When both R and S are low Q remains in its
previous state.

Comparator 1: is the threshold comparator, which compares its input with an internal voltage reference

set at ( 23 ) V CC by the voltage divider R3 , R 4∧R 5. When the input exceeds this reference level, the threshold

comparator output goes high, producing a high output at flip flop terminal Q. This turns the discharge
transistor on and an external timing capacitor starts to discharge.

Comparator 2: is the trigger comparator, compares its input trigger voltage to an internal voltage

reference set to ( 13 ) V CC . When the input trigger level is reduced below this reference level, the trigger

comparator goes output high, which resets the RS-flip flop and the discharge transistor turns off.

The timing functions of the 555 depend on how the inputs of the comparators are configured and how the
discharge path is used.

4.6.1 Modes of function of 555 Timer:

Monostable mode:

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In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot", it changes state once triggered, but returns to its original
state after a certain time delay. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.

VCC

R1 +VCC Reset

Discharge

Threshold
+ Output
C1 555
VC(t) +
-
VO
Trigger Monostable Pulse Out

Trigger Pulse In Ground -

Vin

Fig. 4.21: 555 circuit connected as a monostable multivibrator

This mode operates by charging a timing capacitor with a current set by an external resistance.

With a high voltage applied to the trigger input, the trigger comparator output is low, the flip flop output Q́
is high, the discharge transistor is turned on and the timing capacitor C 1 is discharged to nearly ground
potential. The output of the 555 timer is then low, which is the quiescent state of the one shot.

When the negative pulse is applied to the trigger input, the output of the trigger comparator goes high when

the trigger pulse drops below ( 13 ) V CC . Output Q́ goes low, which means that the output of 555 goes high

and the discharge transistor turns off.

The monostable 555 timer circuit, in effect, produces a pulse at the output whose width t is just the product
of R1 and C1, i.e.,

t 1=R1 C 1 … … … … … … … … … … … 4.25

Astable Mode (Free running mode)

In this mode both the ‘low’ and ‘high’ states are unstable. Thus, the output toggles between low and high
continuously, in effect generating a train of pulses. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation,
logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.

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VCC

R1 +VCC Reset

Discharge

R2
Output
555
+
Threshold

VO
Trigger
+
Ground -
C1 VC(t)
-

Fig.4.22: Astable multivibrator 555 circuit

In this circuit, capacitor C1 charges through R1 and R2, eventually building up enough voltage to
trigger an internal comparator to toggle the output flip-flop.  Once toggled, the flip-flop discharges
C1 through R2 into discharge pin.  When C1's voltage becomes low enough, another internal
comparator is triggered to toggle the output flip-flop. This once again allows C1 to charge up
through R1 and R2 and the cycle starts all over again.

C1's charge-up time t1 is given by:

t 1=0.693 ( R1 + R2 ) C1

C1's discharge time t2 is given by:

t 2=0.693 ( R2 ) C1

Thus, the total period of one cycle is:

t 1+ t 2=0.693 ( R 1+2 R2 ) C1 … … … … … … … … … 4.26

The frequency f of the output wave is the reciprocal of this period, and is therefore given by:

1.44
f= … … … … … … … … … … … 4.27
C1 ( R1 +2 R 2)

Wherein f is in Hz if R1 and R2 are in megaohms and C1 is in microfarads.  

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4.7 Sample and Hold Circuits

This circuit holds a signal (analogue) steady for a short period of time before it is used by the following
circuit in the system. For example, an analog to digital converter (ADC) should get a stable signal in
order to perform accurate conversion.

The operational amplifier circuit shown in fig 4.23 provides this sample and hold function.

Fig. 4.23 : Op-amp connected as sample and hold circuit

Here is how it operates: With the switch SW2 opened, switch SW1 connects the capacitor to the signal
conditioning circuit once every sample period. The capacitor then holds the voltage value measured
until a new sample is acquired. The circuit is reset by closing SW2. Many times, the sample and hold
circuitry is incorporated into the same integrated circuit package.
The rate at which the switch is operated is the sampling rate of the system. Take a look to the following
figure for a sample time and its sample and hold.

Sample times Sample and Hold

Fig.4.24: sample time and its sample and hold

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