University of KwaZulu-Natal Analogue Electronics 2 ENEL3AE Oscillators

Positive Feedback and Sinusoidal Oscillators

Introduction
In this section we briefly study the basic principles on which the design of “linear” sine-wave
oscillators is based. Despite the name linear oscillator, some form of non-linearity must be
employed to provide stable amplitude of sinusoidal output voltage. Although all sinusoidal
oscillators are essentially non-linear circuits, the first step in analysis is usually based on linear
circuit analysis using frequency-domain methods of feedback circuit analysis. A non-linear
mechanism for amplitude control can then be provided.

1. Positive feedback
1.1 The Oscillator Feedback Loop

The basic structure of a “linear” sinusoidal oscillator is that of a positive-feedback loop consisting
of an amplifier and frequency-selective feedback network, such as that shown in block diagram
form in Fig. 1 below. Here positive mixing is assumed, and although no input signal is required in
practice, it is initially included here to explain the principle of operation.

xs xi xo
+
å Amplifier A
+
xf

Frequency-selective
network 

Figure 1

A(s)
The gain with feedback is then A f (s)  where we define the loop gain as (s)A(s)
1  (s)A(s)

1.2 The Oscillation Criterion

If the loop gain A is unity at a specific frequency f o then A f will be infinite and at this frequency
the circuit will have finite output for zero input, and the circuit is then by definition an oscillator.
Thus the condition for the feedback loop of Fig. 1 to provide sinusoidal oscillations of frequency
o is that
( jo )A( jo )  1 [1]

At o the phase of the loop gain should be zero and the magnitude of the loop gain should be unity.

This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation. For the circuit to oscillate at one
frequency, the oscillation criterion should be satisfied at one frequency only, otherwise the
waveform would not be a simple sinusoid.

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The frequency of oscillation o is determined solely by the phase characteristics of the feedback
loop; the loop oscillates at the frequency for which the loop phase is zero. The stability of the
frequency of oscillation is thus determined by the manner in which the phase () of the feedback
loop varies with frequency. Imagine a change in a circuit component causes a change in phase  .

The resulting change in frequency will be o  . If d / d is large, the resulting change in
d / d
o will be small, as shown in Fig. 2. Hence the greater the slope of the phase versus frequency
response, the greater the stability of the frequency of oscillation.





0 o 

Figure 2

1.3 Non-linear Amplitude Control

To initiate oscillations, the magnitude of the loop gain must be slightly greater than unity. Thus as
the power supply is switched on the oscillations will grow in amplitude. If not controlled, the
amplitude of oscillation will continue to grow until distortion or saturation limits the gain, as shown
in Fig. 3. To reduce distortion of the waveform, a non-linear amplitude control mechanism must be
provided to reduce the gain to exactly unity at the desired amplitude of output. Some examples of
amplitude control are described later with oscillator circuits.

Vo
saturation limits gain
A Þ 1
t

oscillations grow as A > 1

Figure 3

2. RC Oscillator Circuits

Suitable frequency-selective feedback networks may be constructed from RC combinations that will
produce the desired phase shift at one frequency only. Some popular circuits are the Wien-bridge
oscillator, which uses a non-inverting amplifier, and the RC phase-shift oscillator, which uses an
inverting amplifier.

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University of KwaZulu-Natal Analogue Electronics 2 ENEL3AE Oscillators

2.1 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

This comprises a non-inverting amplifier and an RC network with one series RC arm and one shunt
RC arm. The gain control is commonly provided by use of a non-linear resistance such as a
thermistor, biased JFET, or diode-resistor combinations1

A basic circuit diagram, using an op-amp for the inverting amplifier, is shown in Fig. 4 below.

C
ZS
R +
V
-
Vi o

R2
R C
R1

ZP

Figure 4

 R  ZP
The amplifier gain is A  1  2  , the transfer function of the feedback network is  
 R1  Z P  ZS
1 R 1
Here Z P  R //  and ZS  R  , thus
sC 1  sCR sC
R
(s)  1  sCR 
R

1
 R   1   1  1
    R   R   R  1  sCR  3  sCR 
 1  sCR   sC   sC  sCR
 R  1
Thus substituting s = jω: A( j)  ( j)  1  2  
 R1  3  j CR  1 
 CR 
The Barkhausen criterion for oscillation requires that ( j)  A( j)  10and to satisfy this phase
condition the j term above must be zero.
1 1
Thus the phase will be zero at only one frequency when o CR  i.e. when f o  [2]
o CR 2 CR

Hence to sustain oscillations, the magnitude of the loop gain at f o should be unity, thus

 R2  1  R  R
1    1  A  1  2   3, and hence 2  2 [3]
 R1  3  R1  R1

1
Sedra & Smith: Microelectronic Circuits 5th Ed. p 1169 – 1175, 4th Ed. p 977 – 984.
Jaeger & Blalock: Microelectronic Circuit Design 3rd Ed. p 1143 −1144, 2nd Ed. p 1452 – 1454.

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In practice to ensure that oscillations start, the ratio R 2 R 1 is made slightly greater than 2 and a
non-linear control system then reduces this ratio to 2 at the required output amplitude.

A practical circuit based on the above is shown in Fig. 5. Here an NTC thermistor (type RA53) is
used as the non-linear control element. As the output voltage increases, more power is dissipated in
the thermistor, and as its temperature rises, its resistance reduces so reducing the gain of the
amplifier. The output voltage will stabilize at whatever value causes the resistance of the thermistor
1
to equal 660 . The frequency of oscillation, from [2], will be f o   1,061kHz
2 10n 15k

10
nF
+15V
15k +
741
Vo
- -15V

15k 10 RA53
nF 330

Figure 5

2.2 The RC Phase-shift Oscillator

An RC-ladder network of at least 3 RC sections (either low-pass or high-pass) may be used with an
inverting amplifier to produce a very simple oscillator circuit. A very simple version using an
op-amp is shown in Fig. 6.

RF

C C C R
-
VO
R R +

Figure 6

The circuit will oscillate at the frequency for which the phase shift of the RC network is 180 since
1
the amplifier is inverting. Analysis shows this to be f o  and the minimum amplifier
2 6  RC
voltage gain magnitude required is 29.

Exercise 1:

Derive the above relationships for the RC phase shift oscillator as shown in Fig. 6 assuming the
op-amp is ideal.

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3. LC Oscillator Circuits

LC tuned-circuit oscillators are commonly used in the frequency range from about 100 kHz to
hundreds of MHz. Two popular circuits are the Colpitts oscillator and the Hartley oscillator.2
Each uses three reactances around an amplifier, which may be inverting or non-inverting,
depending on the position and type of the reactances.

3.1 Colpitts Oscillator

Using a BJT in common-emitter mode (hence inverting), a very simplified diagram of a Colpitts
oscillator is shown in Fig. 7 (biasing details etc. omitted).

Vo

R C1
C2

Figure 7

This circuit may be analysed using a simplified model for the BJT. At oscillation frequency it is
likely that X C2  r so r has been neglected to simplify analysis. R models the losses of the
inductors, the load resistance of the oscillator and ro of the BJT. An equivalent circuit is thus:

sC2V L

Vo  V (1  s 2 LC 2 )
sC2V V

C2 R C1
gmV

Figure 8

Vo  V  VL  V  sC2 V   sL  V 1  s 2 LC2  
1 
A node equation at the collector yields: sC2 V  g m V    sC1 (1  s 2 LC 2 )V  0
R 
Since V  0 once oscillations have started, it can be eliminated and the equation rearranged in the
form:
LC 2  1
s 3LC1C 2  s 2  s(C1  C 2 )   g m    0 Substituting s = j gives:
R  R

2
Sedra & Smith: Microelectronic Circuits 5th Ed. p 1179 – 1182, 4th Ed. p 988 – 991.
Jaeger & Blalock: Microelectronic Circuit Design 3rd Ed. p 1144 −1146, 2nd Ed. p 1454 – 1458.

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University of KwaZulu-Natal Analogue Electronics 2 ENEL3AE Oscillators

 

 g m  1   LC 2   j  (C1  C 2 )  3LC1C 2  0 
2

 R R 


For oscillations to start this equation must be satisfied i.e. both real and imaginary parts must be
zero. Equating the imaginary part to zero and solving for  gives the frequency of oscillation as:

1 1
o  and hence f o  [4]
 CC   CC 
L  1 2  2 L  1 2 
 C1  C 2   C1  C 2 

C
Equating the real part to zero and using [4] gives the BJT amplifier voltage gain: g m R  2 .
C1
C
To start oscillations in practice, the loop gain must exceed unity, hence g m R > 2 [5]
C1

As oscillations grow in amplitude, the transistor’s non-linear characteristics reduce the effective
value of gm and correspondingly reduce the loop gain to unity, thus sustaining oscillations.

A complete Colpitts oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 9 below.

Problem 1:

For this circuit calculate the frequency of oscillation and minimum amplifier gain (gmR) required
for oscillation.
+ 15V

RF choke
68 k
VO
0,1 F
Q1 2,2 nF

5,5 H
18 k
22 k 0,1
F 100 nF

Figure 9

Answer: 1 100nF
fo  Hz = 1,463 MHz ; A v (min)   45,45
100  10 9  2,2  10 9 2,2 nF
2 5,5  10 6
100  10 9  2,2  10 9

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3.2 Hartley Oscillator

This is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, but uses 2 inductors (or a tapped inductor) and one
capacitor. Using a BJT in common-emitter mode (hence inverting), a very simplified diagram of a
Hartley oscillator is shown in Fig. 10 (biasing details etc. omitted).

Vo

L2 R L1

Figure 10

Similar to the Colpitts circuit above, this circuit may be analysed using a simplified model for the
BJT. At oscillation frequency it is likely that X L2  r so r has been neglected. Again R
models the inductor losses, the load resistance of the circuit and ro of the BJT. An equivalent circuit
is thus:
C

Vo
V

L2 R L1
gmV

Figure 11

Exercise 2:

Using the simplifications indicated above and a similar method to that used for the Colpitts
oscillator, show that for the Hartley oscillator circuit in Fig. 11:

1
a. the frequency of oscillation is f o  ; and
2 C (L1  L 2 )

L1
b. for oscillations to start g m R >
L2

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4. Crystal Oscillators
4.1 Piezoelectric Crystals

Piezoelectric crystals, such as quartz, exhibit electromechanical resonance characteristics that are
very stable (with time and temperature) and highly selective (having very high Q factors). The
circuit symbol and electrical equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 12
R L Cs

Cp

Figure 12

Here: L is the effective motional inductance due to the crystal mass;

Cs is the effective motional capacitance due to the crystal compliance;
R represents the damping losses produced by the crystal as it vibrates;
Cp is the electrical capacitance due to the electrodes and holder connection.

From the equivalent circuit, it is seen that multiple resonance exists, with both a series and parallel
mode resonance occurring. The two resonant frequencies are very close to each other for normal
crystals.

Neglecting the effective loss resistance R that is small by comparison, the terminal impedance Z of
this crystal equivalent circuit is given by:

 1  1  1 
 jL    j  L  
 jCs  jC p  Cs 
Z 
jL 
1

1  1 
1  C p  L  
jCs jC p  Cs 

Series resonance will occur when ω is such that Z Þ 0

1 1 1
L   0  s  ; thus the seriesresonant frequency f s  .....[6]
Cs LCs 2 LCs

Parallel resonance will occur when Z Þ ∞ i.e. when:

 1  C C  Cp
1  C p  L    0 ; i.e. 2 LC p  p  1  2 LC p Cs  C p  Cs  2  s
 Cs  Cs LCs C p
Cs  C p 1 Cs  C p 1 C C
 p  fp   1  s  fs  1  s .....[7]
LCs C p 2 LCs C p 2 LCs Cp Cp

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The impedance of the crystal thus varies from low values at series resonance to a very high value at
parallel resonance with appropriate reactance variations as shown in Figure 13.

Reactance

(Inductive)

+
Frequency
O
fS fP

-
(Capacitive)

Figure 13

We observe that the crystal reactance is inductive over the very narrow frequency band between f s
and fp. Thus a crystal may be used to replace the inductor in a Colpitts oscillator. The resulting
circuit will oscillate at the resonance frequency of the crystal inductance L with the series
 C1C 2 
equivalent of Cs and  C p   . Since Cs is much smaller than the 3 other capacitances, Cs
 C1  C 2 
1
will dominate and hence f o   fs If the circuit impedance is low, the crystal will
2 LC s
operate close to the series resonant frequency (so-called series resonant mode), and if the circuit
impedance is high, the crystal will operate close to the parallel resonant frequency (so-called
parallel resonant mode).

The Q of the crystal resonance will depend on the reactance and loss resistance values and with
such low typical loss resistances the unloaded Q values of crystals are typically extremely high,
usually in the range of 104 to 106.

Problem 2:

The equivalent electrical parameters for a certain crystal are as follows:

Cs = 0,0195 pF; L = 12,38 mH; R = 22,3 Ω; Cp = 4 pF
Calculate the series and parallel resonant frequencies and the unloaded Q of this crystal.

Answer:
1 1
fs   Hz  10,243 MHz
2 LC s 2 12,38  10 3  0,0195  10 12
Cs 0,0195
f p  fs 1   10,243  106 1  Hz  10,268 MHz
Cp 4

Xo 2  f s  L 2  10,243  10 6  12,38  10 3
Qu     35729
R R 22,3

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4.2 Pierce Oscillator

A common crystal oscillator configuration is the Pierce oscillator3 and a popular version of this
utilizes a CMOS inverter as the amplifier as shown in Fig. 14. This circuit is based on the Colpitts
configuration with the crystal replacing the inductor hence operation must be at frequencies
between fs and fp where the crystal reactance is inductive.

Resistor Rf determines a dc operating point in the high-gain region of the CMOS inverter. Resistor
R1 together with capacitor C1 provides a low-pass filter that discourages the circuit from oscillating
at a higher harmonic of the crystal frequency.

+VDD

QP
Rf
Vo

QN
R1

C2 Xtal C1

Figure 14

Problem 3:

The equivalent electrical parameters for a certain crystal are as follows:

L = 0,52 H; Cs = 0,012 pF; Cp = 4 pF; R = 120 Ω

Calculate the series and parallel resonant frequencies and the unloaded Q of this crystal.

This crystal is then used in a Pierce oscillator circuit as in Fig. 14 with C1 being a 1–10 pF variable
capacitance and C2 being a 10 pF fixed capacitance.

Determine the range over which the oscillation frequency may be tuned by varying C1.

Answer:

fs = 2,015 MHz; fp = 2,018 MHz; Qu = 55 000; foH = 2,0172 MHz; foL = 2,0161 MHz.

3
Sedra & Smith: Microelectronic Circuits 5th Ed. p 1184, 4th Ed. p 993.
Jaeger & Blalock: Microelectronic Circuit Design 3rd Ed. p 1149, 2nd Ed. p 1461.

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