OSCILLATORS

Objectives

 Describe the basic concept of an oscillator

 Discuss the basic principles of operation of an oscillator
 Describe the operation of Phase-Shift Oscillator, Wien Bridge
Oscillator, Crystal Oscillator and Relaxation Oscillator
 Introduction

Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal

of some type without the need of an input.
The AC supplied by the utility company operates at a
preset frequency of 50 Hz in South Africa & other
nations (60 Hz in the USA & China), whereas
many applications such as electronic circuits, test
equipment, communication systems, and microwave
devices require internally generated frequencies that
range from 0 to 10 GHz or higher. Oscillators are used
for generating these frequencies.
The Oscillator
 Feedback Concepts

The effects of negative feedback on an amplifier:

Benefits
• Higher input impedance
• More stable gain
• Improved frequency response
• Lower output impedance
• Reduced noise
• More linear operation

Drawback
• Lower gain
 Feedback Oscillator Principles

Positive feedback circuit used as an oscillator

 When switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.
 Consider Vi,, results in Vo=AVi (after amplifier stage) and Vf = (AVi)
(after feedback stage)
 Feedback voltage Vf = (AVi) where A is called the loop gain.
 In order to maintain Vf = Vi , A must be in the correct magnitude
and phase.
Feedback Oscillator Principles

Positive feedback circuit used as an oscillator

• When the switch is closed and Vi is removed, the circuit will

continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to
drive the amplifier and feedback circuit, resulting in proper input
voltage to sustain the loop operation.
Feedback Oscillator Principles

An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.

Ve = Vi + Vf (1)
Vo = AVe (2)
Vf = (AVe)=Vo (3)

From (1), (2) and (3), we get

Vo A
Af  
Vi 1  Aβ  where A is loop gain
Feedback Oscillator Principles
In general A and  are functions of frequency and thus
may be written as;
Vo As 
A f s   s  
Vi 1  As β s 
As β s  is known as loop gain
At a specific frequency f0;
T  jω0   A jω0 β  jω0   1
At this frequency, the closed loop gain;
A jω0  A jω0 
A f  jω0    
1  A jω0 β  jω0  (1  1)
will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output
for zero input signal – thus we have oscillation
 Design (Barkhausen) Criteria for oscillators

1) |A| equal to unity or slightly larger at the

desired oscillation frequency.
- Barkhaussen criterion, |A|=1

2) Total phase shift (from input to output &

back to the input),  of the loop gain must be 0°
or 360°.
Build-up of steady- state oscillations

 The unity gain condition

must be met for oscillation to
be sustained
 In practice, for oscillation to
begin, the voltage gain
around the positive feedback
loop must be greater than 1
so that the amplitude of the
output can build up to the
desired value.
 If the overall gain is greater
Build-up of steady-state than 1, the oscillator
oscillations
eventually saturates.
Build-up of steady- state oscillations

Then voltage gain

decreases to 1 and maintains
the desired amplitude of
waveforms.
 The resulting waveforms
are never exactly sinusoidal.
 However, the closer the
value A to 1, the more
nearly sinusoidal is the
waveform.

Buildup of steady-state
oscillations
Factors that determine the frequency of oscillation

Oscillators can be classified into many types depending on the

feedback components, amplifiers and circuit topologies used.

RC components generate a sinusoidal waveform at a few Hz to

kHz range.

LC components generate a sine wave at frequencies of 100 kHz to

100 MHz.

Crystals generate a square or sine wave over a wide range,i.e.

about 10 kHz to 30 MHz.
Types of Oscillator

1. RC Oscillator - Wien Bridge Oscillator

- Phase-Shift Oscillator
2. LC Oscillator - Crystal Oscillator
3. Relaxation Oscillator
1. RC Oscillators
1. RC Oscillators

 RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to

frequencies of 1MHz or less
 The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss are the
Wien-Bridge and the Phase Shift
Wien-Bridge Oscillator

• It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges from

a few kHz to 1 MHz.
• Structure of this oscillator is

R1
–
R2 Vout
+

C1 R4
R3 C2
Conditions of Oscillation:
Barkhausen criteria

18
Starting & Sustaining Oscillations

19
RC Network: Wien-bridge
Oscillator- example

20
 RC Network: Wien-bridge
Oscillator- Lead-Lag Circuit
At lower frequencies, the
lead circuit dominates
R1
C2 due to the high reactance
Vin Vout
Vout of C2. As the frequency
1
V increases, XC2 decreases,
3 in
thus allowing the output
C1 R2
voltage to increase. At the
resonant frequency (fr),
f
fr the response of the lag
circuit takes over, and the
decreasing value of XC1
causes the output voltage
Assignment: to decrease
In your own words explain what you
understand by a lead lag circuit and 21

how it can be used for oscillation

Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The lead-lag circuit is in the
positive feedback loop of Wien-
bridge oscillator.
 The voltage divider limits
gain (determines the
closed-loop gain). The lead
lag circuit is basically a band-
pass with a narrow bandwidth.
The Wien-bridge oscillator
circuit can be viewed as a
noninverting amplifier
configuration with the input
Basic circuit signal fed back from the output
through the lead-lag circuit.
 RC Network: Wien-bridge
Oscillator
In signal generator applications, capacitor values are often switched by
decade values to achieve a wide range of oscillation frequencies. The
resistors can be replaced with potentiometers to provide continuous
frequency adjustment within a given range.

1 j
o RC series impedance: Zs  R1   R1 
jC1 C1
1 R2
o RC parallel impedance: Zp  R2 // 
jC 2 1 jR C2 2

V2 Zp R2
  
Vo Z p  ZS 
j 
R 2   R 1  C 1 jR 2C 2
 1 

R2C1

R2C 1  R C 2 2 j  R1C1R 2C 21
2
1 1 R C

23
 RC Network: Wien-bridge
Oscillator
To satisfy the 2nd Barkhausen V2 must be in phase with Vo,
which implies that the ratio V2/Vo must be purely real. Hence, the
imaginary part must be zero. Setting the imaginary part equal to zero
gives the oscillation frequency ωo as:
2 RC R C 1  0 .Therefore,   1
. In most applications R1 =
o 1 1 2 2 o
R1 C1 R2 C2
 1 1
R2= R and C1 = C2 = C so that   o  2fo . Thus, fo  and
RC 2R
  V2  1 C
Vo 3

To satisfy the 1st Barkhausen criterion the operational amplifier must

compensate by providing a gain of 3 or greater so that the overall
gain (β  Av(closed loop)) is at least 1 or unity. We recall that for a non-
Vo Rf
inverting amplifier  1  3 . Thus, R f
 2R g .
V2 Rg

24
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Conditions for sustained oscillation

 The0o phase-shift condition is met when the frequency is fr
because the phase-shift through the lead lag circuit is 0o
 The unity gain condition in the feedback loop is met when Acl = 3
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Since there is a loss of about 1/3 of the signal in the
positive feedback loop, the voltage-divider ratio must be
adjusted such that a positive feedback loop gain of 1 is
produced.
This requires a closed-loop gain of 3.
The ratio of R1 and R2 can be set to achieve this. In order
to achieve a closed loop gain of 3, R1 = 2R2

R1
2
R2

To ensure oscillation, the ratio R1/R2 must be slightly

greater than 2.
 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator Example
The figure below shows a Wien bridge oscillator. When the
R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the frequency
of the bridge is given by 1
f  r
2πRC

Calculate fr for the Wien bridge? C1 Rf

4.7 nF 10 k
–
R1
Vout
680 
+
1 D1
fr  Q1
2πRC
R2 C2
1
 680  4.7 nF
2π  680   4.7 nF  = 48.9 kHz
R3 R4 C3
1.0 k 10 k 1.0 F
Phase-Shift Oscillator
Rf

-
0V C C C Vo
.
R
+
R R

Phase-shift oscillator
 The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to
provide 180º phase shift that when coupled with the 180º of
the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to
sustain oscillations.
 The frequency for this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator :

1
f 
2RC 6
where  = 1/29 and the phase-shift is 180o

 For the loop gain A to be greater than unity, the gain of the amplifier
stage must be greater than 29.

 If we measure the phase-shift per RC section, each section would not

provide the same phase shift (although the overall phase shift is 180o).

The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillation

Phase Shift Oscillator – Practical

The last R has been incorporated into the summing resistors

at the input of the inverting op-amp.

1  Rf
fr  K  29
2 6 RC R3
The Phase-Shift Oscillator
Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz.
The capacitors are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
R   8.12 k (Use 8.2 k.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 800 Hz 10 nF 
Rf
Calculate the
238 k 10 nF
feedback resistor 10 nF 10 nF
needed: – C1 C2 C3
Vout
+
Rf = 29R = 238 k. R1 R2 R3
8.2 k 8.2 k 8.2 k
RC Oscillators: tutorial
examples
Phase-Shift Oscillator:

a. Determine the value of Rf necessary to for the circuit, above to

operate as an oscillator [136.3 kΩ].
b. Determine the frequency of operation [628.38 Hz].

Wien-bridge Oscillator:
1. Design a Wien-bridge circuit of slide 122 to oscillate at 100 kHz.
2. In the Wien-bridge 122, let
oscillator circuit of frequency fo of the
R1  R2  2.5 k , C1  C2  1 nF . Determine the
slide
oscillator [63.66 kHz].
32
2. LC Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits

 For frequencies above 1 MHz, LC feedback oscillators

are used.
 We will discuss the crystal-controlled oscillators.
 Transistors are used as the active device in these
types.
Crystal Oscillator

The crystal-controlled oscillator is the most stable and

accurate of all oscillators. A crystal has a natural frequency
of resonance. Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have
a certain frequency. We can better understand the use of a
crystal in the operation of an oscillator by viewing its
electrical equivalent.
The Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are highly stable oscillators for demanding circuits

such a radio transmitters. Crystals have very high Q. +V CC

Manufacturers prepare natural crystals

(usually quartz) by mounting a very thin slab R1 L
C4

between metal electrodes. When a small ac Vout

voltage is applied, the crystal oscillates at its

own resonant frequency.
R2 R4 C3

The crystal acts as the resonant circuit for

the modified Colpitts oscillator and
stabilizes the oscillations. The capacitors C1
XTAL
C2
still tap off a feedback signal to the CE
amplifier.
 Crystal Oscillator
The crystal appears as a resonant circuit
(tuned circuit oscillator).

The crystal has two resonant frequencies:

Series resonant condition

• RLC determine the resonant frequency
• The crystal has a low impedance

Parallel resonant condition

• RLC and CM determine the resonant
frequency
• The crystal has a high impedance

The series and parallel resonant frequencies

are very close, within 1% of each other.
Series-Resonant Crystal
Oscillator
• RLC determine the resonant
frequency

• The crystal has a low impedance

at the series resonant frequency
 Parallel - Resonant Crystal
Oscillator
 RLC and CM
determine the
resonant frequency

 The crystal has a

high impedance at
parallel resonance
 CRYSTAL Oscillators
Oscillators with very high frequency accuracy and stability can be
formed using quartz crystals as the frequency-determining element
(crystal oscillators). The crystal is a piezoelectric device that vibrates
in response to electrical stimulus. Although the frequency of vibration of the
crystal is determined by its mechanical properties, the crystal can be
modelled electrically by a very high Q (>10 000, typically 20 000) resonant
circuit

L, C , and R characterize the intrinsic series resonance path through the

S

crystal element itself, whereas the parallel capacitance C is dominated

P

by the capacitance of the package containing the quartz element. The

equivalent impedance of this network exhibits a series resonant frequency ω S

at which C resonates with L, and a parallel resonant frequency ω that is

S P

determined by L resonating with the series combination of C and C .

S P

The impedance versus frequency of the crystal is shown. To use the crystal
properly, it must be connected in a circuit so that its low impedance in the
series-resonant operating mode or high impedance in the anti-resonant
40
operating mode is selected.
CRYSTAL Oscillators: symbol and

electrical equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal

41
 CRYSTAL Oscillators (2):
crystal equivalent circuit quartz

The values of L and C that represent the crystal have

S

unusual magnitudes because of the extremely high Q (quality

factor) of the crystal below the series resonant frequency
and above the parallel resonant frequency, the crystal
exhibits capacitive reactance. Between f (or f ) and f (or f ),
S 1 P 2

the crystal appears inductive (see slide 137). In many

oscillator circuits, the crystal behaves as an inductor and
resonates with external capacitance. The oscillator frequency
will therefore be between f (or f ) and f (or f ).
S 1 P 2

Several examples of crystal oscillators are discussed in

literature. Many variations are possible, but most of these
1
oscillators Series
are topological transformations
resonant frequency, f 2 LC of. The
S the parallel
Colpitts or
S

Hartley oscillators.
is: 1 f  C C resonant
C C .
S P S

2 LC P P S

frequency, f is: P fP 
42

where C P
LC Oscillators: tutorial

1. Calculate the frequency of oscillation for each circuit in the

Figure above and identify the type of oscillator: a) Assume Q >
10, b) Assume Q = 5.

43
CRYSTAL Oscillators: series

resonant tank circuit in (a) & parallel

resonant tank circuit
(modified Colpitts configuration) in (b)

44
Crystal Oscillators: tutorial
1. A crystal has these values: L = 3 H, CS = 0.05
pF, R = 2 kΩ, and CP = 10 pF. What are
the series and parallel resonant frequencies of
the crystal? [fS = 411 kHz, CP = 0.0498 pF, fP =
412 kHz].
2. Draw circuit diagrams of (a) a series-operated
crystal oscillator and (b) a shunt-excited crystal
oscillator.

45
3. Relaxation Oscillators
Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a device

that changes states to generate a periodic waveform (non-
sinusoidal) such as:

1. Triangular-wave
2. Square-wave
3. Sawtooth
 Triangular-wave Oscillator

Triangular-wave oscillator circuit is a combination of a

comparator and integrator circuit.

1  R2   R3 
fr    VUTP  Vmax    R3 
4CR1  R3   R2  VLTP  Vmax  
 R2 
Relaxation Oscillators

Relaxation oscillators are characterized by an RC timing

circuit and a device that periodically changes state.
The triangular wave oscillator is an example. For this circuit, the device
that changes states is a comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger). The
RC timing device is an integrator. The comparator output can be used as
a square wave output. A square wave
can be taken as C
The trigger points set the an output here.
triangle’s peak-to-peak –
R1
voltage: R  –
VUTP  Vmax  3  + Vout
 R2  R2
Comparator +
R  R3 Integrator
VLTP  Vmin  3 
 R2 
Relaxation Oscillators
C

–
R1
–
+ Vout
Comparator R2 +
R3 Integrator
 Relaxation Oscillators

For the triangular wave generator, the frequency is found from:

1  R2 
fr   
4 R 1 C  R3 

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here?

C
1  R2 
fr    –
4 R 1 C  R3  R1 10
– nF
1  22 k  82 k
   + Vout
4 82 k 10 nF   10 k  Comparator R2 +
22 k
R3 Integrator
= 671 Hz
10 k
Relaxation Oscillators
A sawtooth VCO also uses an integrator to create the ramp
portion of the waveform. In this case, when VC > VG + 0.7 V,
the programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) fires and the
capacitor discharges rapidly.
In this circuit, the device that changes VG

state is a PUT and the RC timing PUT

+ Vp
circuit is an integrator. off
discharge
C
–

The frequency is found by: Ri

– charge
V  1  0V Vout
f  IN   –
4 R i C  V p  VF  VIN
+
+
Relaxation Oscillators

Another relaxation oscillator that uses a Schmitt trigger is the

basic square-wave oscillator. The trigger points are set by R2
and R3. The capacitor charges and discharges between these
levels: VUTP  Vmax  R3  R 1

 R2  R3 
VC
 R3  –
VLTP  Vmax   Vout
 R2  R3  C
Vf +
The period of the waveform is given by: R2

 2R 
T  2 R1C ln 1  3  R3
 R2 
Relaxation Oscillators

R1

VC
–
Vout
C
Vf +
R2

R3
Square-wave Oscillator

 A square wave relaxation oscillator is like the Schmitt trigger

or Comparator circuit.
 The charging and discharging of the capacitor cause the
op-amp to switch states rapidly and produce a square wave.
 The RC time constant determines the frequency.
Summary
 Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.
 Two conditions for oscillation are 0º feedback phase
shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
 The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily
greater than 1.
 RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge and phase shift.

 LC oscillators include Colpitts, Hartley and the Crystal

Oscillator.
Summary
 The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit
and is very stable and accurate.
 A voltage controlled oscillator’s (VCO) frequency is
controlled by a dc control voltage.
 Selected Key Terms

Feedback An electronic circuit that operates with positive

oscillator feedback and produces a time-varying output
signal without an external input signal.
Relaxation An electronic circuit that uses an RC timing
oscillator circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal waveform
without an external input signal.
Positive The return of a portion of the output signal
feedback such that it reinforces and sustains the input
signal.
 Quiz

1. The Wien-bridge oscillator uses the network shown. If

R’s and C’s are equal, the maximum Vout will be phase-
shifted by
a. 0o R1
C2
Vin Vout

b. 90o
C1 R2
c. 180 o

d. 270o

a
 Quiz

6. An example of an LC feedback oscillator is a

a. phase-shift oscillator
b. relaxation oscillator
c. Colpitts oscillator
d. Wien-bridge oscillator

c
 Quiz

7. In a crystal oscillator, the crystal acts like a

a. band-pass filter
b. resonant circuit
c. notch filter
d. power source

b
 Quiz

8. The waveforms at Vout1 and Vout2 should be a

a. sawtooth wave and a sine wave
b. triangle wave and a square wave
c. sawtooth wave and a square wave
d. triangle wave and a sine wave
Vout2 C

–
R1
–
+ Vout1
R2
+
R3