NMJ20303/Analogue

Electronics II
CHAPTER 5: OSCILLATORS
Dr. Sanna Taking

⦿ Lecturer, Microelectronic Engineering Program

⦿ Office : Room 00-00-7C (Ground Floor), Blok 7 FKTEN,
Kampus Pauh Putra
⦿ Email : sanna@unimap.edu.my
⦿ Phone No.: 01159120420 (whatsapp)
WEEK PLANNING (W12 TO W15)

⦿ Chapter 5 (Oscillators) – W11(Fri), W12 & W13 (Mon)

⦿ Lab 4 (Oscillators) – W13 (stick with your previous
schedule/session)
⦿ Chapter 6 (Voltage Regulators) – W13 (Fri) & W14
⦿ Quiz 2 – W14(Mon) 16 January 2023 – lecture time
⦿ Revision Class - W15 (Fri)
ATTENDANCE 30/12/2022
Example writing your attendance
Chapter 5 : Oscillators

Objectives :

⦿ Describe the operating principle of an oscillator

⦿ Analyze the operation of RC and LC feedback oscillators
⦿ Describe and analyze the operation of relaxation oscillator
Introduction : What is an
oscillator?
 Oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on its output
with only the dc supply voltage as an input.- produces a repetitive
signal from a dc voltage.
 The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal,
depending on the type of oscillator.
Sine wave

Square wave Frequency: Hz to GHz

Sawtooth wave
Where does oscillator been used?
⦿ In laptops – generate clock signals
⦿ In radio/mobile receiver & transmitters – to generate local carrier
frequency
⦿ In signal generators
Oscillator = Amplifier with Positive Feedback

Ve Vo
Vs A
+
Vf
b
Basic principles for oscillation

⦿ An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.

Ve Vo
Vs A
+
Ve  Vs  V f (1) Vf
b
V f  βVo (2)
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝑽𝒆 (𝟑)
(1) (2)Into (3) Vo  AVe
 AVs  V f   AVs  βVo 
Vo  AVs  AbVo
1  Ab Vo  AVs
⦿ The closed loop gain is:

Vo A
Af  
Vs 1  Aβ  Not related to Vs
Basic principles for oscillation

⦿ In general A and b are functions of frequency

and thus may be written as; Ve Vo
As 
Vs A
A f s   s  
Vo
Vs 1  As β s  +
Vf
b
As β s  is known as loop gain of the feedback
circuit.
 Vo A
Af  
Vs 1  Aβ 

𝐴𝛽 < 1 𝐴𝛽 > 1

Oscillate but eventually die out Unstable & grow exponentially

So, how do we get a sustain periodical oscillation?
Basic principles for oscillation

 Writing T s   As β s  the loop gain becomes;

As 
A f s  
1  T s 
 Replacing s with j
A jω
A f  jω 
1  T  jω
 and

T  jω  A jωβ  jω

 At a specific frequency f0
T  jω0   A jω0 β  jω0   1
 At this frequency, the closed loop gain;
A jω0 
A f  jω0  
1  A jω0 β  jω0 
will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output for zero input signal
- oscillation
 Sustaining a periodical output : Barkhauseon
criterion
⦿ Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of frequency f0 is;

A jω0 β  jω0   1
⦿ The frequency of oscillation is solely determined by the phase
characteristic of the feedback loop – the loop oscillates at the
frequency for which the phase is zero.
In phase

Vf Vo
A v

Noninverting
amplifier

Feedback
circuit
Design Criteria for
Oscillators
Barkhausen criterion

𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴𝐵 = 0
Major Classification of Oscillator

⦿ Two major classification for oscillators are feedback oscillators

and relaxation oscillators.
⦿ The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the
output to maintain the oscillations.
⦿ The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit
to generate a non-sinusoidal signal such as square wave’
 Feedback Oscillator
⦿ In a feedback oscillator, a fraction of the
output is returned with no net phase shift,
resulting in a reinforcement of the output
signal.
⦿ After oscillations are started, the loop gain is
maintained at 1.0 to maintain oscillations.
⦿ A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier
for gain (either a discrete transistor or an op-
amp) and a positive feedback circuit that
(a)
produces phase shift and provides
attenuation, as shown in Figure (a).
Basic principles for oscillation

⦿ The feedback oscillator is widely used for generation of sine wave

signals.
⦿ The positive (in phase) feedback arrangement maintains the
oscillations.
⦿ The feedback gain must be kept to unity to keep the output from
distorting.
Relaxation Oscillators

⦿ Second type of oscillator is the relaxation oscillator. Instead of

feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing circuit to
generate a waveform that is generally a square wave or other
nonsinusoidal waveform.
⦿ Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other
device that changes states to alternately charge and discharge a
capacitor through a resistor.
Types of Feedback Oscillators

RC Feedback oscillators
⌾ Wien Bridge
⌾ Phase-Shift

LC Feedback oscillators
⌾ Hartley
⌾ Colpitts
⌾ Crystal
 Oscillators

• Sinusoidal Oscillation • Non-sinusoidal

• Use positive feedback Feedback Relaxation oscillation
• Apply RC, LC feedback circuit • Use RC timing circuit
Oscillator Oscillator • Use Schmitt trigger to
change state

LC Feedback
RC Feedback oscillators
oscillators
- Hartley
- Wien Bridge
- Colpitts
- Phase-Shift
- Crystal
 Oscillators with RC Feedback Circuits

⦿ RC feedback is used in various lower frequency sine-wave

oscillators.
⦿ RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to frequencies of 1
MHz or less.
⦿ The types of RC Feedback oscillators that we will discuss are the
Wien-bridge and the phase-shift
 • Use RC circuits in feedback part
RC Phase-Shift • Generate stable sine wave
Oscillator • Low frequencies generation ~kHz – audio
Ve 180° o
V frequencies range
Vs A
+ • Amplifier provide 180° phase
Vf shift.
b 180° • How to get:

𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴β = 0°𝑜𝑟 360°

Introduce 180° phase shift in feedback circuit

REVISION
𝑉𝑜 𝑅 𝑅 1
= = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 𝑅 − 𝑗 1−
𝑗
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶𝑅
−1
1
∠𝜑 = 0 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −
𝜔𝐶𝑅
Phase shift depends on the value of R and C.
−1
1 If Xc << 0, ∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0 = 0°
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 If R<< 0, ∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞ = 90°
𝜔𝐶𝑅

𝑋𝐶 So, ∠𝜑 is between 0° to 90°.

∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −
𝑅
How to get ∠𝝋 =180° to fulfil
condition ∠𝑨𝜷 = 𝟎?
 ⦿ Theoretically, to get 180°, we can
cascade 2 RC stage.
⦿ Practically, it is hard to get 90° on
each stage (R,C ≠0).
Stage-1 Stage-2

• practically, 3 or more stages would be used.

• Cascading 3 stages of RC circuit:
Each stage ∠𝜑 = 60°. Total 180° shift.
• Because of loading effect in each stage, the
phase shift will be slightly different.
• For example: Introduce ∠𝜑 = 45° in each stages
of 4 stages RC cascades.

∠𝐴𝛽 = 0°
Configuration of RC phase shift oscillator (3
stages)
Gain in RC phase shift Oscillator
• Required gain depends on attenuation
value in feedback circuit, 𝛽.
𝐴𝛽 = 1 1
• For 3 stages RC, 𝛽 = . So the
∠𝐴β = 0° required gain:
29

𝑅2
𝐴= = 29
𝑅

the resonance frequency:

1
fr 
2 6 RC
 Nodal Analysis: 3 stages RC
circuit Node V0: 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼3 𝑅 ⇒ 𝐼3 =
𝑉𝑜
(1)
𝑅
Node V2: 𝐼3 (2)
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶
(1) Into (2): 𝑉𝑜
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
1
𝑋𝐶 = 1
𝜔𝐶 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + (3)
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
 Applying KCL at Node V2
𝑉2
𝐼2 = + 𝐼3 (4)
𝑅
𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜
(1)(3) Into (4): 𝐼2 = 1+ +
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑅

1 𝑉𝑜 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼2 = 2+ (5)
𝜔𝐶 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
 𝐼2
Node V1: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + (6)
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
(3),(5) Into (6): 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜 1 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑉𝑜 1 1
+ 2+ (7)
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶 3 1
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + − 2 2 2 (8)
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
 Applying KCL at Node V1
𝑉1
𝐼1 = + 𝐼2 (9)
𝑅
3 1
(5)(8) Into (9): 𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + − 2 2 2
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
𝑉𝑜 1
1 + 2+
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑜 4 1
𝐼1 = 3+ − 2 2 2 (10)
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
Relation of Vin to Vout
𝐼1 (11)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶
(8),(10) Into (11):
3 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + − 2 2 2
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
𝑉𝑜 4 1 1
+ 3+ − 2 2 2
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶

6 5 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + − 2 2 2− 3 3 3
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
 6 5 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1+ − 2 2 2− 3 3 3
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 𝑅

Input voltage (real

Imaginary part=0 part):
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1 −
5
(Voltage is in real part) 𝜔 2 𝐶 2 𝑅2
6 1 5
− 3 3 3=0 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1− 2 2 2
𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅 𝜔 𝐶 𝑅
1 5
⇒ 𝜔2 𝐶 2 𝑅 2 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1 −
6 2
1
1 𝐶 2 𝑅2
⇒𝜔= 6𝑅𝐶
6𝑅𝐶

1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 1 − 30
𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6 𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 29
Gain in RC phase shift Oscillator
𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴β = 0°
In 3 stages phase shift oscillator, the gain:
𝑅2
𝐴= = 29
𝑅

the resonance frequency:

1
1 𝑓𝑟 =
fr  2𝜋 2𝑁𝑅𝐶
2 6 RC N: no of stage
 Example 1

Answer

(a)Determine the value of Rf

necessary for the circuit to operate
as an oscillator.
(b)Determine the frequency of
oscillation
 Example 2
Consider the phase shift oscillator in Figure (a).
a) Determine the frequency of oscillation for R = 12 kΩ and C = 150 pF.
What is the required value of R2?
b) Design the circuit such that the frequency of oscillation is fo = 22 kHz.
Let C = 0.001μF.
Answer

(a)
The Wien-bridge Oscillator
⦿ It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges from a few kHz to 1
MHz.
Wien-bridge Oscillator

⦿ The loop gain for the oscillator is;

 R2  Z p 
T s   As β s    1  
Z Z 
 R1  p s 
R
⦿ where; Zp  Equation (1)
1  sRC where Zp and Zs are
the parallel and
series RC network
⦿ and; impedances.
1  sRC Equation (2)
Zs 
sC
Wien-bridge Oscillator

⦿ Combine Equation (1) and (2) to get an expression for the loop gain
function;   
T s    1 
R2 1
  
 R1  3  sRC  1 /sRC  
⦿ Substituting for s = jω;
 R2   
T  j   1   
1
      
 R1  3 j RC 1 /j RC 
⦿ For oscillation frequency f0;
 R2   
T  j0   1   
1
      
 R1  3 j 0 RC 1 /j 0 RC 
Wien-bridge Oscillator

⦿ Since at the frequency of oscillation, T(j) must be real (for zero

phase condition), the imaginary component must be zero;
1
j0 RC  0
j0 RC
⦿ Which gives us;

1 1
0  or 𝑓0 =
RC 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Wien-bridge Oscillator

⦿ From the previous equation;

 R2   
T  j0   1   
1

 R1   3  j0 RC  1/j0 RC 
⦿ the magnitude condition is;
𝑅2 1 R2 𝐴𝛽 = 1
1+ = 1 or 2 ∠𝐴𝛽 = 0°
𝑅1 3 R1
To ensure sustain oscillation, the ratio
R2/R1 must be equal to 2.
Wien-bridge Oscillator
R2
 With the ratio; 2
R1
 then; 𝑅2 TRUE if:
𝐴=1+ =3
𝑅1
R=Rs=Rp
C=Cs=Cp
 with 1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
A = 3 ensures the loop gain of unity – oscillation
 A > 3 : growing oscillations
 A < 3 : decreasing oscillations
 If 𝑹𝟏 ≠ 𝑹𝟐, 𝑪𝟏 ≠ 𝑪𝟐,
⦿ The loop gain for the oscillator is;
𝑅2 𝑍𝑝
𝑇 𝑠 =𝐴 𝑠 𝛽 𝑠 = 1+
𝑅1 𝑍𝑝 + 𝑍𝑠
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑐
substitute 𝑍𝑝 = , 𝑍𝑠 =
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝑐 𝐶𝑐

1 1
𝜔0 = 𝑓0 =
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑠 or 2𝜋 𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑠

𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑠 𝑅2 𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑠
𝐴= + +1 or = +
𝑅𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅𝑠 𝐶𝑝
 Example 3
⦿ Design the wein-bridge circuit to oscillate at fo= 800 kHz.
Assume R = R1=10kΩ.

Answer
Example 4
A Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit is required to generate a sinusoidal
waveform of 5,200 Hertz (5.2kHz). Calculate the values of the frequency
determining resistors R1 and R2 and the two capacitors C1 and C2 to
produce the required frequency. Also, if the oscillator circuit is based
around a non-inverting operational amplifier configuration, determine the
minimum values for the gain resistors to produce the required
oscillations. Finally draw the resulting oscillator circuit.
 1
𝑓𝑟 = = 5.2kHz
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Assuming R=R3=R4, and C=C1= C2=3nF:
1 1
𝑅= = = 10.2𝑘Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋(5.2𝑘)(3𝑛)
In Wien Bridge, to produce oscillation, A>3. Assume A=3.5:
𝑅2
𝐴 =1+ = 3.5
𝑅1
Assuming R1=100 kΩ:

𝑅2 = 3.5 − 1 𝑅1 = 250𝑘Ω

∴ 𝐶 = 3𝑛𝐹, 𝑅 = 10.2𝑘Ω, 𝑅1 = 100𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 250𝑘Ω

ATTENDANCE 30/12/2022
LC Feedback Oscillator

• LC tuned circuits or crystals in the feedback

networks
• used in the hundreds of kHz to hundreds of
MHz frequency range (RF range)
• We assume that the transistor frequency
response occurs at a high enough frequency
that the oscillation frequency is determined by
the external elements only.

/ quartz crystal
 LC FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR
⦿ Use of LC Tank Circuit
2 3 4
1

1 2 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐿𝐼 𝐵=
2 2𝜋𝛾

1 How to
2
sustain this
3
4 oscillation?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_y_3_3V-so
 Colpitts Oscillator
Z1, Z2 = Capacitor
180° Z3 = Inductor

Hartley Oscillator
Z1, Z2 = Inductor
180° Z3 = Capacitor
A parallel LC resonant circuit is used to establish the
oscillator frequency, and feedback is provided by a
voltage divider between Z1 and Z2
Revisio
n Resonance frequency in LC Tank Circuit
1
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

At resonance,
XL=XC 1
2𝜋𝑓𝐿 =
2π𝑓𝐶
2
1
2𝜋𝑓 𝐿 =
2π𝐶
2
1
𝑓 =
2π 2 𝐿𝐶
1
∴𝑓=
2π 𝐿𝐶
Colpitts
Oscillator ⦿ The resonant frequency is found by
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐿𝐶T
⦿ Effective capacitance = total capacitance
of two series capacitors :
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
⦿ Thus,
1
𝑓𝑟 =
𝐶1 𝐶2
2π 𝐿
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴β = 0°
Sustain oscillation in Colpitts Oscillator
1
𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑋𝐶1 𝑋𝐶 =
𝛽= = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑋𝐶2
1/(2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐶1 ) 𝐶2
= =
1/(2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐶2 ) 𝐶1
To sustain oscillation, Aβ need to be 1.
𝐶2
𝐴𝛽 = 𝐴 = 1
𝐶1
𝑅2 𝐶1
𝐴= =
𝑅1 𝐶2
To start oscillation, Aβ >1.
𝐶1
𝐴>
𝐶2
Example

A Colpitts Oscillator circuit having two capacitors of 24nF and 240nF

respectively are connected in parallel with an inductor of 10mH.
Determine the frequency of oscillations of the circuit, the feedback
fraction and draw the circuit.
 𝐶1 = 24𝑛𝐹, 𝐶2 = 240𝑛𝐹, L = 10mH

Resonance frequency, fr:

10𝑘Ω
1 1
𝑓𝑟 = = = 10.8𝑘𝐻𝑧 1𝑘Ω
𝐶 𝐶 24𝑛×240𝑛
2π 𝐿 𝐶 1+𝐶2 2π 10𝑚 24𝑛+240𝑛
1 2

Feedback fraction, ff:

240𝑛𝐹
𝐶1 24𝑛
𝑓𝑓 = = = 10%
𝐶2 240𝑛
10mH
𝑅2 𝐶1
= = 10 24𝑛𝐹
𝑅1 𝐶2
Assume R1= 1kΩ:

𝑅2 = 10 𝑅1 = 10𝑘Ω
Example

For the Colpitts oscillator shown in the

Figure, assume parameters of L=1μH, C1
and C2=1nF and R=4kΩ. Determine the
oscillator frequency and the required
value of gm.
 High Frequency Small Signal Model:
L=1μH, C1 and C2=1nF and R=4kΩ

oscillator frequency:

oscillator frequency:

gmR is the real part that determines feedback

gain of Colpitts Oscillator.
 1  2 LC2 
 g m    
  j C1  C2    2 LC1C2  0
 R R 

Imaginary: Real:

o 
1  2 LC2 1 𝐶2
 CC   gm  𝑔𝑚 𝑅 =
L 1 2  R R 𝐶1
 C1  C2 
Hartley
Oscillator
⦿ The resonant frequency is found by
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐶𝐿T
⦿ Effective inductance = total
capacitance of two series inductors :
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
⦿ Thus,
1
L1 𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐶(𝐿1 +𝐿2 )

Advantage of tuning by using a

variable capacitor in the
resonant circuit.
 𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴β = 0°
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑋𝐿1
𝛽= =
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑋𝐿2
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿1 𝐿1
= =
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿2 𝐿2
To sustain oscillation, Aβ need to be 1.
𝐿1
𝐴𝛽 = 𝐴 = 1
𝐿2
𝑅2 𝐿2
𝐴= =
𝑅1 𝐿1
To start oscillation, Aβ >1.
𝐿2
𝐴>
𝐿1
Example

A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH

each, are designed to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that
can be adjusted between 100pF and 500pF. Determine the upper and
lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley oscillators
bandwidth.
 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 0.5𝑚𝐻 , C between 100pF and 500pF
1 1
𝑓𝑟 = =
2π 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 2π 𝐶(𝐿1 +𝐿2 )
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 0.5𝑚 + 0.5𝑚 = 1𝑚𝐻
- Hartley upper frequency, fH:
1 1
𝑓𝑟 = = = 503 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 2π 100𝑝𝐹(1𝑚𝐻)

- Hartley lower frequency, fL:

1 1
𝑓𝑟 = = = 225 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 2π 500𝑝𝐹(1𝑚𝐻)

- Bandwidth, BW:

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 = 503 𝑘 − 225𝑘 = 278 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Crystal
Oscillator
⦿ RC & LC Oscillator Frequency may change due to change in:
⌾ Temperature
⌾ Power supply voltage
⌾ Component values
⦿ Most communications and digital applications require the use of
oscillators with extremely stable output regardless of load variation
⦿ Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output fluctuation
experienced by conventional oscillators.
 piezoelectric effect
⦿ Voltage supply create mechanical deformation- when applied ac
signal at specific frequency, it will vibrate at same frequency.
⦿ External force- Generate voltage across 2 terminals – when
mechanically force to vibrate at certain frequency, it can generate Ac
signal at the same frequency  act as a transducer

Voltage supply create

Generate voltage mechanical
deformation
Piezoelectric materials (Rochelle Salt, tourmaline, Quartz): compromise
strength and piezoelectric activity

Cp

Parameter Affecting Factors

Motional Capacitance, Cs
Motional Inductance, Ls
Resistance, Rs
Shunt Capacitance, Cp
Elasticity, area of plates & thickness
of Quartz
Mechanical mass of the Quartz
Resistive Loss
Capacitance due to electrodes
⦿ Combination of series and parallel tune circuit. Thus,
having two resonant frequencies; fs and fp
⦿ fs occurs when XL = XC. At this frequency, crystal
offers a very low impedance to the external circuit.
⦿ fp occurs when Ls interact with Cp creating an LC tank
circuit. At this frequency, crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit.
Resonance frequencies

⦿ Series resonance frequency:

1
𝑓𝑠 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝑠 𝐶𝑠

⦿ Parallel resonance
frequency:
1
𝑓𝑝 =
𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑠
2𝜋 𝐿𝑠
𝐶𝑝 +𝐶𝑠
 Configuration of crystal oscillator

Crystal Colpitts Microprocessor Pierce

Oscillator Oscillator Oscillator
 1 1
𝑓𝑠 = = = 9.987MHz
2𝜋 𝐿𝑠 𝐶𝑠 2𝜋 2.546𝑚 × 0.09972𝑝

Example
1
𝑓𝑝 =
A quartz crystal has the following values: 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑠
2𝜋 𝐿𝑠
Rs = 6.4Ω, Cs = 0.09972pF and Ls = 𝐶𝑝 + 𝐶𝑠
2.546mH. If the capacitance across its 1
=
terminal, Cp is measured at 28.68pF, 28.68𝑝 × 0.09972𝑝
2𝜋 2.546𝑚
28.68𝑝 + 0.09972𝑝
Calculate the fundamental oscillating
frequency of the crystal and its secondary = 10.005MHz
resonance frequency. Then, evaluate the
Q-factor at series resonance frequency. 𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 2𝜋 × 9.987𝑀 × 0.002546
𝑄= = =
𝑅 𝑅 6.4

= 24966
 Relaxation
⦿
Oscillator
Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other
device that changes states to alternately charge and discharge a
capacitor through a resistor.
⦿ Do not have input, and provide non-sinusoidal output waveform

Schmitt Trigger
Relaxation Oscillator
Recall Schmitt
Trigger

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger response

Inverting Schmitt Trigger transfer characteristics

 Working principle
⦿ Assume initial voltage across the circuit is positive saturation voltage, +VSAT.
Capacitor will start charging towards +VSAT (assume op-amp is ideal, no current is
flowing towards input terminal).
⦿ Voltage will start to build up across capacitor and node. Whenever voltage reach
upper threshold voltage, VUT = βVSAT, voltage at inverting node will be slightly higher
than non-inverting node.
⦿ The output will switch from +VSAT to -VSAT. Capacitor will start discharging toward -
VSAT.
⦿ Soon as the voltage goes below VLT = -βVSAT, voltage at non-inverting will be slightly
higher than inverting terminal. Output will switch from -VSAT to +VSAT.
⦿ By charging and discharging of this capacitor, we will get the square wave at the
1+𝛽
output. 𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐶 × 𝑙𝑛
1−𝛽
⦿ Period, T will depends on RC and the value of VUT and VLT (or depends on R1, and
R2)
 1+𝛽
𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐶 × 𝑙𝑛
1−𝛽

⦿ If -VSAT = +VSAT, the duty cycle of the square =50%. If -VSAT ≠ +VSAT, duty cycle
can be more or less than 50%.
⦿ If the duty cycle =50%, and R1=R2=R,
3 1
1 + 𝛽 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 − 𝛽 =
2 2

⦿ The equation can then be simplified to

𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐶 × 𝑙𝑛 3
Example
⦿ Design a relaxation oscillator with f=1kHz. Lets assume duty cycle of
50%, and R1=R2=R for simplicity.
1
𝑓 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧 ⇒ 𝑇 = = 1𝑚𝑠
𝑓
𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐶 × ln(3)
Assume C=0.1𝜇𝐹,
𝑇 1𝑚
𝑅= = ≅ 4.5kΩ
2𝐶 × ln(3) 2 × 0.1𝜇 × ln(3)

We can use potentiometer of 5kΩ and tune to 4.5 kΩ.

Chapter Summary

⦿ Oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic waveform

on its output with only the dc supply voltage
⦿ Positive feedback is the return of a portion of the output signal to the
input such that it reinforces and sustain the output.
⦿ Sinusoidal feedback oscillator operate with positive feedback
⦿ Relaxation oscillator use an RC timing circuit
⦿ The two conditions for positive feedback are the phase shift around
the feedback loop must be 0o and the voltage gain around the
feedback loop must equal 1
Chapter Summary

⦿ For initial startup, the voltage gain around the feedback loop gain,
Aβ must be greater than 1
⦿ Sinusoidal RC oscillator include the Wien bridge and phase shift.
⦿ Sinusoidal LC oscillator include the Colpitts, Hartley and Crystal
controlled.
⦿ The feedback signal in a Colpitts oscillator is derived from a
capacitive voltage divider in the LC circuit
⦿ The feedback signal in a Hartley oscillator is derived from a inductive
voltage divider in the LC circuit
⦿ Crystal oscillator are the most stable type of feedback oscillator