Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering UNIT-III -EC-II

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UNIT-III

OSCILLATORS

SYLLABUS:

Condition for oscillations. RC-phase shift oscillators with Transistor and FET,
Hartley and Colpitts oscillators, Wein bridge oscillator, Crystal oscillators, Frequency and
amplitude stability of oscillators.

LECTURE PLAN

S. No. Topic to be covered Periods

required

1 Introduction to oscillators, Conditions for oscillations 1

2 RC Phase shift oscillators and its analysis with transistor and FET 3

3 Hartley Oscillator 1

4 Colpitts Oscillator 2

5 Wein-Bridge Oscillator 1

6 Crystal Oscillators, Frequency stability of oscillators 1

7 Related Problems 1

Total 09

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OSCILLATORS
Introduction:

Any circuit which is used to generate an ac voltage without an ac input signal is called an
Oscillator. Positive feedback is used to generate oscillations of desired frequency.

Basic theory of Oscillators:

The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same
circuit as its input.

As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input applied, the feedback is
called positive feedback.

Fig. Concept of Positive Feedback.

The amplifier gain is A i.e., it amplifies its input Vi , A times to produce output VO.

V
∴ A =0
Vi
A is called open loop gain of the amplifier.

For the overall circuit, the input is supply voltage VS and net output is VO. The ratio of
output VO to input VS considering effect of feedback is called closed loop gain of the circuit (or) gain
with feedback denoted as Af.
V0
∴A =
f V
i
The feedback is positive and voltage Vf is added to VS to generate input of amplifier Vi.

∴Vi = VS + V
f
The feedback voltage Vf depends on the feedback element gain β. So, we can write

V = β V0 ∴Vi = VS + β V0
f
V V0
⇒ VS =Vi − β V0 ∴A = 0 =
f V
S Vi − β V0
Dividing both numerator and denominator by Vi, we get
V 
 0 
Vi
∴ A = 
f V 
1− β  0 
V 
 i

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A V0
∴A = as A =
f 1 − Aβ Vi

Here A > A . The product of the open loop gain and the feedback factor is called the
f
loop gain, i.e., loop gain = Aβ.

If Aβ = 1 , then Af=∞.

Hence, the gain of the amplifier with positive feedback is infinite and the amplifier gives an
a.c. output without a.c. input signal. Thus, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.

The positive feedback increases the instability of an amplifier, reduces the bandwidth and
increases the distortion and noise. The property of the positive feedback is utilized in oscillators.

Conditions for oscillations (Barkhausen Criterion):

Consider the block diagram of oscillator circuit shown in figure below.

Fig. Block diagram of oscillator circuit.

We know, V0=AVi and Vf=βV0

∴V Aβ Vi
=
f
For the oscillator, we want that feedback should drive the amplifier and hence Vf must act as Vi.
Therefore, we can write that, Vf is sufficient to act as Vi when Aβ = 1 .
And the phase of Vf is same as Vi i.e., feedback network should introduce 180o phase shift
in addition to 180o phase shift introduced by amplifier. This ensures positive feedback. So total
phase shift around a loop is 360o.

In this condition, Vf drives the circuit and without external input circuit works as an
oscillator.

The two conditions described above, required to work the circuit as an oscillator are called
“Barkhausen Criterion” for oscillation.
The Barkhausen criterion states that,

i) The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the
magnitude of the feedback factor β is unity. i.e., Aβ = 1
ii) The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero (or) 360o.

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Satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained

oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude.

Effect of the magnitude of the product Aβ on the nature of the oscillations:

i) Aβ > 1 :
When the total phase shift around a loop is 0o (or) 360o and Aβ = 1 , then the output
oscillates but the oscillations are of growing type. The amplitude of oscillation goes on increasing as
shown in the figure below.

Fig. Growing type oscillations.

2) Aβ = 1 :
As stated by Barkhausen criterion, when total phase shift around a loop is 0o (or) 360o
ensuring positive feedback and Aβ = 1 then the oscillations are with constant frequency and
amplitude called sustained oscillations. Such oscillations are shown in the figure.

Fig. Sustained oscillations.

3) Aβ < 1 :
When total phase shift around a loop is 0o (or) 360o but Aβ < 1 then the oscillations are
of decaying type i.e., such oscillations amplitude decreases exponentially and the oscillations finally
cease.

Fig. Exponentially decaying oscillations.

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So to start the oscillations without input, Aβ is kept higher than unity and then circuit

adjusts itself to get Aβ = 1 to result sustained oscillations.

Classification of Oscillators:
The oscillators are classified based on the nature of the output waveform, the parameters
used, The range of frequency etc.,
The various ways in which oscillators are classified as:
1) Based on the output waveforms:
i) Sinusoidal oscillators
ii) Non-sinusoidal oscillators.
The sinusoidal oscillators generate purely sinusoidal waveform at the output. While non-
sinusoidal oscillators generate an output waveform as triangular, square, saw-tooth etc.,
2) Based on the circuit components:
i) LC Oscillators
ii) RC Oscillators
iii) Crystal Oscillators
The oscillators using the components resistance (R) and capacitor (C), are called RC
Oscillators. While the oscillators using the components inductance (L) and capacitor (C) are called
LC oscillators. In some oscillators, Crystal is used, which are called Crystal Oscillators.
3) Based on the range of operating frequency.
i) LF (or) AF oscillators
ii) HF (or) RF oscillators
iii) VHF oscillators
iv) UHF oscillators
v) Microwave frequency oscillators.
4) Based on the whether feedback is used or not?
i) Feedback oscillators
ii) Non-feedback oscillators (or) Relaxation oscillators

General form of an LC oscillator:

In the general form of oscillator shown in figure below, any of the active devices such as
BJT, FET may be used in the amplifier section. Z1, Z2 and Z3 are reactive elements constituting the
feedback circuit which determines the frequency of oscillations.
Here Z1 and Z2 serve as an ac voltage divider for the output voltage and feedback signal.
Therefore, the voltage across Z1 is the feedback signal.

Fig. (a) General form of an oscillator (b) Its equivalent circuit.

The output terminals are 2 and 3, and input terminals are 1 and 3.

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Load Impedance:

Since Z1 and the input resistance hie of the transistor are in parallel, their equivalent
impedance Z’ is given by
1 1 1
= +
Z ' Z1 hie
Z h
From this equation, we get Z ' = 1 ie
Z1 + hie
Now the load impedance ZL between the output terminals 2 and 3 is the equivalent
impedance of Z2 in parallel with the series combinations of Z’ and Z3.
1 1 1 1 1
Therefore, = + = +
ZL Z 2 Z '+ Z3 Z2 Z1hie
+ Z3
Z1 + hie
1 Z1 + hie
= +
Z2 h Z + Z + Z Z
ie 1 3 (
1 3 )
=
( )
hie Z1 + Z3 + Z1Z3 + Z 2 Z1 + hie ( )
Z 2  hie ( Z1 + Z3 ) + Z1Z3 
 

=
(
hie Z1 + Z 2 + Z3 + Z1Z 2 + Z1Z3)
(
Z 2  hie Z1 + Z3 + Z1Z3 
  )

Therefore, Z =
Z  hie Z + Z + Z Z 
2 1 3 1 3 ( ) …. (1)

ie 1 2 (
L h Z +Z +Z +Z Z +Z Z
3 1 2 1 3 )
Voltage gain without feedback:
h ZL
fe
This is given by AV = − …………… (2)
hie
Feedback Fraction β:

The output voltage between the terminals 3 and 2 in terms of the current I1 is given by
 Zh 
(
− I1 Z '+ Z3 =
Vo = )
I1  1 ie + Z3 
 Z1 + hie 

= − I1 
ie 1 3(
h Z + Z + Z Z 
1 3 )
 Z1 + hie 
 
The voltage feedback to the input terminals 3 and 1 is given by
 Zh 
V = − I1  1 ie 
− I1Z ' =
fb Z +h 
 1 ie 

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Therefore, the feedback ration β is given by

V
fb  Zh  Z1 + hie 
β
= = I1  1 ie  
Vo Z +h
 1 ie   ie 1 3 (
h Z + Z + Z Z 
1 3)
Z1hie
β= ………………… (3)
(
hie Z1 + Z3 + Z1Z3 )
Equation for the oscillator:

For oscillator, we must have Aβ=1

Substituting the values of AV and β, we get

 − h fe Z L  Z1hie
  =1
 h
 ie  ie 1 3(
h Z +Z +Z Z
1 3 )
 fe 2  ie 1 (
 −h Z h Z + Z + Z Z   
3 )
1 3   Z1 
 =1
 
h (
Z + Z
 ie 1 2 3

+ Z + Z Z)
1 2 + Z Z
1 3
 h Z +
  ie 1 3
Z + Z Z 
1 3 ( )
 
− h Z 2 Z1
 fe 
⇒ =1
h (Z + Z
 ie 1 2 3 + Z + Z Z
1 2 + Z Z )
1 3


( )
⇒ hie Z1 + Z 2 + Z3 + Z1Z 2 + Z1Z3 =
− h Z1Z 2
fe

(
1 2 3 1 2 )
⇒ hie Z + Z + Z + Z Z 1 + h  + Z Z =
fe  1 3
0
This is the general equation for the oscillator.
Hartley Oscillator:

In the Hartley oscillator shown in figure. Z1 and Z2 are inductors and Z3 is a capacitor.
Resistors R1, R2 AND RE provide the necessary dc bias to the transistor CE is a bypass capacitor.
CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting of inductors L1 and L2, and
capacitor C determined the frequency of the oscillator.

Fig. Hartley Oscillator.

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When the supply voltage +VCC is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the tank
circuit and consequently, damped harmonic oscillations are set up in the tank circuit produces ac
voltage across L1 and L2. As terminal 3 is earthed, it is at zero potential. If terminal 1 is at a
positive potential with respect to 3 at any instant, terminal 2 will be at a negative potential with
respect to 3 at the same instant. Thus the phase difference between the terminals 1 and 2 is
always 180o.
In the CE mode, the transistor provides the phase difference of 180o between the input and
output. Therefore, the total phase shift is 360o. Thus, at the frequency determined for the tank
circuit, the necessary condition for sustained oscillations is satisfied. If the feedback is adjusted so
that the loop gain Aβ=1, the circuit acts as an oscillator.

Analysis:

In the Hartley oscillator, Z1 and Z2 are inductive reactances and Z3 is the capacitive
reactance. Suppose M is the mutual inductance between the inductors, then
Z1 jω L1 + jω M
=
Z 2 jω L2 + jω M
=
1 j
Z3 = = −
jωC ωC
Substituting the values in general equation,

( )
hie Z1 + Z 2 + Z3 + Z1 + Z 2 1 + h
fe ( 0
+ Z1 + Z3 = )

(
⇒ hie  jω L1 + L2 + 2 M −

j 
)
ωC 
(
+ jω L1 + M . jω L2 + M ) ( ) (1 + h fe ) + jω ( L1 + M ) . ω−Cj =
0


⇒ jω hie  L1 + L2 + 2 M −

1 
2
2 
(
 − ω L1 + M  L2 + M
ω C 
)( ) (1 + h fe ) − ω 21C  =
0

The frequency of oscillations can be determined by equating the imaginary part of the
above equation to zero.
1
Therefore, L1 + L2 + 2 M − 0
=
ωr2 C
1
⇒ ωr2 =
(
L1 + L2 + 2 M C )
1
⇒ ωr =
(
L1 + L2 + 2 M C )
ωr
But ωr = 2π f r ⇒ fr =
2π
1
∴ fr = …………………. (2)
2π ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) C
The condition for maintenance of oscillation is obtained by substituting equation (2) in
equation (1).

Now the imaginary part becomes zero and hence,

( L2 + 2M ) (1 + h fe ) − ω 21C =
0
r

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(
⇒ L2 + 2 M ) (1 + h fe ) − 1
1
0
=
.C
( L1 + L2 + 2 M C )
(
⇒ L2 + 2 M ) (1 + h fe ) − ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) =
0

( ) (
⇒ L2 + 2 M L2 + 2 M h − L1 + M − L2 + M =
fe
0 ) ( )
L +M
⇒h = 1 ……………………. (3)
fe L + M
2
Colpitts Oscillator:
In the Colpitts Oscillator shown in figure below Z1 and Z2 are capacitors and Z3 is an
inductor. The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide the necessary d.c bias to the transistor. CE is a
bypass capacitor. CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting of
capacitors C1 and C2 and an inductor L determine the frequency of the oscillator.

Fig. Colpitts Oscillator.

When the supply voltage +VCC is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the tank
circuit and consequently, damped harmonic oscillations are set up on the circuit. The oscillatory
current in the tank circuit produces ac voltages across C1 and C2. As terminal 3 is earthed, it will
be at zero potential. If terminal 1 is at a positive potential w.r.t. 3 at any instant, terminal 2 will be
at a negative potential w.r.t. 3 at the same instant. Thus us phase difference between the
terminals 1 and 2 is always 180o. In the CE mode, the transistor provides the phase difference of
180o between the input and output. Therefore, the total phase shift is 360o. Thus, at the
frequency determined for the tank circuit, the necessary condition for sustained oscillations is
satisfied. If the feedback is adjusted so that the loop gain Aβ=1, the circuit acts as an oscillator.

1 j
Analysis: For this oscillator, Z1 = = −
jω C1 ω C1
1 j
Z2 = = −
jω C2 ω C2
Z3 = jω L

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Substituting these values in general equation

( ) (
hie Z1 + Z 2 + Z3 + Z1 + Z 2 1 + h
fe ) 0
+ Z1 + Z3 =

( )
 j j  1  −j 
⇒ − hie  + − jω L  +
2
1+ h
fe
+  ( jω L ) =0
 ω C1 ω C2  ω C1C2  ωC 
 1

 1 1   1 + h fe L 
⇒ jhie  + − ω L +  − =0 …………………. (1)
 2
ω
 1C ω C 2   ω C1C2 C1 
The frequency of oscillation is found by equating the imaginary part of equation (1) to zero.
1 1
Thus we get + − ωr L =
0
ωr C1 ω r C2

1 1 1 
⇒ ω 2=  + 
r 
L  C1 C2 

C + C2
⇒ ωr =1
LC1C2
But ωr = 2π f r

1 C + C2
⇒ fr = 1 ………………… (2)
2π LC C
1 2
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get the condition for maintenance of
oscillations as

1+ h L
fe
− 0
=
C1 + C2 C
1
LC1C2

(1+ h )L
= 0 ⇒ (1 + h ) C1 = C1 + C2
fe L
⇒ −
C1 + C2 C1 fe

C1C2
C
∴h = 2 ……………………….. (3)
fe C
1
RC Oscillators:
All the oscillators using tuned LC circuits operate well at high frequencies.

Al low frequencies, as the inductors and capacitors required for the time circuit would be
very bulky, RC oscillators are found to be more suitable.

Two important RC oscillators are

1) RC Phase shift oscillator and

2) Wein Bridge oscillator.

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RC Phase Shift Oscillator:

In this oscillator the required phase shift of 180o in this feedback loop from output to input
is obtained by using R and C components instead of tank circuit.

The circuit diagram of RC phase shift oscillator is shown the figure. Here, a common
emitter amplifier is followed by three sections of RC phase shift network, the output of the last
section being returned to the input. In order to make the three RC sections identical, R3 is chosen
as R3 = R-Ri, where Ri is the input impedance of the circuit.

Fig. RC phase shift oscillator.

 1 
The phase shift, Φ, given by each RC section is φ = tan −1  . If R is made zero, then
 ωCR 
the phase shift Φ will become 90o. But making R=0 is impracticable because if R is zero, then the
voltage across it will become zero. Therefore, in practice the value of R is adjusted such that Φ
becomes 60o.

If the value of R and C are so chosen that, for the given frequency fr, the phase shift of
each RC section is 60o.
Thus such a RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180o between its input and
output voltages for the given frequency. Therefore, at the specified frequency fr, the total phase
shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly 360o
(or) 0o, thereby satisfying Barkhausen condition for oscillation.

Fig. Equivalent circuit using h-parameter model.

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R
Assume the ration of the resistance RC to R be K. K= C
R
The modified equivalent circuit is shown in the figure below.

Fig. Modified equivalent circuit.

Applying KVL for the various loops in the modified equivalent circuit we get,
For loop (1),
1
− I1RC − 0
I − I R + I 2 R − h i RC =
jωC 1 1 fe b
Replacing RC by KR and jω by S we get,
 1 
I1 ( K + 1) R + −I R= h i KR …………………… (1)
 SC  2 fe b
1
For loop (2), − 0
I − I R − I 2 R + I1R + I3 R =
jωC 2 2
 1 
− I1R + I 2  2 R + 0
−I R= …………………….. (2)
 SC  3
1
For loop (3), − I3 0
− I3 R − I3 R + I 2 R =
jωC
 1 
− I 2 R + I3  2 R + 0
= ……………………… (3)
 SC 
Using Cramer’s Rule to solve for I3,
1
( K + 1) R + −R 0
SC
1
D= −R 2R + −R
SC
1
0 −R 2R +
SC
2
 1  1   1   1 
= ( K + 1) R +   2R +  − R 2 2R  − R 2 ( K + 1) R +
 SC   SC   SC   SC 
2 2
 SRC ( K + 1) + 1 [ 2 SRC + 1] R 2 ( 2 SRC + 1) R ( K + 1) SRC + 1
=  − −
S 3C 3 SC SC

[ SKRC + SRC + 1] 4S 2 R 2C 2 + 4SCR + 1

First term can be written as, =
S 3C 3

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4 KS 3 R3C 3 + 4 S 3 R3C 3 + 4 S 2 R 2 C 2 + 4 KS 2 R 2 C 2 + 4 S 2 R 2 C 2 + 4 SCR + SCKR + SRC + 1

=
S 3C 3
Second and the third term can be combined to get,

− R 2 [ SKRC + SRC + 1] − R 2 [1 + 2 SRC ]

=
SC
−  2 R 2 + 3R3SC + KR3SC 
=  
SC
Combining the two terms and taking LCM as S3C3 we get,
S 3 R3C 3 ( 4 K + 4 ) + S 2 R 2 C 2 ( 4 K + 8 ) + SCR ( 5 + K ) + 1 −  2 R 2 + 3R3 SC + KR3 SC  S 2 C 2
D=
 
S 3C 3
S 3 R3C 3 ( 3K + 1) + S 2 R 2 C 2 ( 4 K + 6 ) + SCR ( 5 + K ) + 1
= ………………. (4)
S 3C 3

1
( K + 1) R + −R − h i KR
fe b
SC
1
Now D = −R 2R + 0
SC
0 −R 0

(
= − R 2 h i KR
fe b )
= − KR3 h i …………………………. (5)
fe b
D3 − KR3 h i S 3C 3
∴ I3 = = fe b …………………….. (6)
D S R C ( 3K + 1) + S R C 2 ( 4 K + 6 ) + SCR ( 5 + K ) + 1
3 3 3 2 2

Now I3 = Output current of the feedback circuit

Ib = Input current of the amplifier.
IC = hfe ib = Input current of the feedback
I3 I3
=
β = Output of amplifier circuit / Input to feedback circuit =
IC h I
fe b
IC
Also, A = =
Output of amplifier circuit / Input to amplifier circuit = h
I fe
b
I3 I
∴ Aβ
= = .h fe 3
h I I
fe b b
− KR3 h i S 3C 3
Using equation (6) we get,
fe b ……………. (7)
Aβ =
S R C ( 3K + 1) + S R C 2 ( 4 K + 6 ) + SCR ( 5 + K ) + 1
3 3 3 2 2

Substituting S=jω, S2= j2ω2 =- ω2, S2= j3ω3 =- jω3 in the equation (7), we get,

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− jω 3 KR3C 3 h
fe
Aβ =
3 3 3 2 3 3
− jω R C ( 3K + 1) + −ω R C ( 4 K + 6 ) + jω RC ( 5 + K ) + 1
Separating the real and imaginary parts in the denominators we get,
− jω 3 KR3C 3 h
fe
Aβ =
1 − 4ω 2 R 2 C 2 − 6ω 2 R 2 C 2  + − jω 3K ω 2 R3C 3 + ω 2 R3C 3 − 5 RC − KRC 
   
3 3 3
Dividing numerator and denominator by − jω R C ,
Kh
fe
=
 1 4K 6   5 K 
j − −  + − jω 3K + 1 − − 
3 3
ω R C 3 ω RC ω RC   2 2
ω R C 2 2 2 2
ω R C 

1
Replacing = α for simplicity
ω RC
Kh
fe ………………… (8)
Aβ =
3K + 1 − 5α − K α  + j α 3 − 4 K α − 6α 
2 2
   
As per the Barkhausen criterion ∠Aβ =
o 0o , the imaginary part is
0 . To have ∠Aβ =
equated to 0.
α 3 − 4 K α − 6α =
0
(
α α 2 − 4K − 6 =
0 )
⇒ α 2 = 4K + 6
∴ α= 4K + 6
1
∴ = 4K + 6
ω RC
1
∴ω =
RC 4 K + 6
1
∴f = ………………. (9)
2π RC 4 K + 6
This is the frequency at which 0o . At the same frequency
∠Aβ = Aβ = 1 ,
=
Substituting α 4 K + 6 in the equation (8), we get
Kh
Aβ fe
=
3K + 1 − ( 4 K + 6 )( 5 + K )
Kh
fe
=
3K + 1 − 20 K − 30 − 4 K 2 − 6 K
Kh
fe
=
2
−4 K − 23K − 29
Kh
Now, Aβ = 1 fe
∴ 1
=
2
−4 K − 23K − 29

⇒ Kh = 4 K 2 + 23K + 29
fe

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29
⇒h = 4 K 2 + 23K + …….…………………… (10)
fe K
This must be the value of hfe for the oscillations.

If K=1 then hfe=56 ……………………... (11)

Minimum value of hfe for the oscillations:

To get minimum value of hfe,

dh
fe
=0
dK
d  2 29 
4 K + 23K +  = 0
dK  K
29 29
∴4 − = 0 ⇒ K2 = 2.6925 for minimum hfe
∴K =
K 2 4

h  = 44.54
Substituting in the equation (10),  fe  …………………….. (12)
 min
h 
Thus for the circuit to oscillate, we must select the transistor whose  fe  should be
 min
greater than 44.54.

Wein Bridge Oscillator:

The circuit diagram of a Wein-Bridge oscillator is shown in the figure. The circuit consists
of a two-stage RC coupled amplifier which provides a phase-shift of 360o or 0o. A balanced bridge
is used as the feedback network which has no need to provide any additional phase shift. The
feedback network consists of a lead-lag network (R1C1 and R2-C2) and a voltage divider (R3-R4).

Fig. Wein – Bridge oscillator

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Derivation for frequency of oscillations:

1 1 + jω R1C1
From fig, Z1 =+
R1 =
jωC1 jωC1
1
R2 .
1 jωC2
=Z 2 R=
2  jωC 1
2 R +
2 jωC
2
R2
=
1 + jω R2C2
Replacing jω=S,

1 + SR1C1
Z1 =
SC1

R2
Z2 =
1 + SR2C2

VO
From figure, I= and If = I.Z2
Z1 + Z 2

VO Z 2
Vf =
Z1 + Z 2

Vf Z2
∴ β= =
Vo Z1 + Z 2

Substituting the values of Z1 and Z2,

R
2
1 + SR C
∴β = 2 2
1 + SR C R
1 1+ 2
SC 1 + SR C
1 2 2
SC1R2
=
( ) (
1 + SR1C1 + 1 + SR2C2 SC1R2 )
SC1R2
=
( )
1 + S R1C1 + R2C2 S 2 R1C1R2 C2 + SC1R2

SC1R2
=
(
1 + S R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 S 2 R1R2 + C1C2 )

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Replacing S by jω and S2 by –ω2,

jω C1R2
β=
(1 − ω 2 R1R2C1C2 ) + jω ( R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 )
Rationalizing the expression,

β=
( ) (
jω C1R2  1 − ω 2 R1R2 C1C2 − jω R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 
  )
2
( )
2
1 − ω 2 R1R2 C1C2 + ω 2 R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2( )

β=
( ) (
ω 2 C1R2 R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 + jω C1R2 1 − ω 2 R1R2 C1C2 )
2
( 1 2 1 2 ) + ω 2 ( R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 )
2R R C C 2
1 − ω

To have zero phase shift of the feedback network, its imaginary part must be zero.

(
∴ ω 1 − ω 2 R1R2 C1C2 =
0 ) ⇒ ω2 =
1
R1R2 C1C2

1
⇒ω =
R1R2 C1C2
1
∴f =
2π R R C C
1 2 1 2
This is the frequency of the oscillator and it shows that the components of the frequency
sensitive arms are the deciding factors, for the frequency.

In practice, R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C are selected.

1 1
∴f
= = ⇒ f
2π R 2C 2 2π RC
At R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C, the gain of the feedback network becomes,

β=
(
ω 2 RC ( 2 RC ) + jω RC 1 − ω 2 R 2C 2 )
(1 − ω 2 R 2C 2 ) + ω3 (3RC )2
1 3 1
Substituting ω= , β= ⇒β =
RC 9 3
1
But Aβ ≥ 1 ∴A ≥ = A ≥3
β
1
If R1 ≠ R2 and C1 ≠ C2 then ∴f =
2π R R C C
1 2 1 2
C1R2 R C + R C +C R
β= Aβ ≥ 1 ⇒ A≥ 1 1 2 2 1 2
R1C1 + R2C2 + C1R2 CR
1 2

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Crystal Oscillators:
The crystals exhibit the piezoelectric effect. The crystal is a thin layer slice of piezo-electric
material such as quartz, tourmaline and Rochelle salt. The piezoelectric effect represents the
characteristics that the crystal reacts to any mechanical stress by producing an electric field results
in mechanical strain.
The crystal has a greater stability in holding the constant frequency. The crystal oscillators
are preferred when greater frequency stability is required.
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as its
resonant tank circuit.
Quartz is inexpensive and easily available in nature and hence very commonly used in the
crystal oscillators. Quartz is widely used for RF oscillators and the filters.

Construction:
The natural shape of a quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism. But for its practical use, it is
cut to the rectangular slab. This slab is then mounted between the two metal plates.
The symbolic representation of such a practical crystal is shown in the figure below. The
metal plates are called holding plates, as they hold the crystal slab in between them.

Fig. Symbolic representation of a crystal.

AC Equivalent Circuit:
When the crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to a capacitance due to the mechanical
mounting of the crystal. Such a capacitance exiting due to the two metal plates separated by a
dielectric like crystal slab, is called mounting capacitance denoted as CM (or) C’.
When it is vibrating, there are internal frictional losses which are denoted by a resistance R.
While the mass of the crystal, which is indication of its inertial is represented by inductor L, and
stiffness of the crystal is represented by a capacitor C. The mounting capacitance is a shunt
capacitance. And hence the overall equivalent circuit of a crystal can be shown as in the figure.

Fig. AC Equivalent circuit of a crystal

RLC forms a resonating circuit. The expression for the resonating frequency fr is
1 Q ωL
fr = where Q=
2π LC 1 + Q2 R
The crystal has two resonating frequencies, series resonant frequency and parallel resonant
frequency.

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Series and Parallel Resonance:

Series resonance occurs when the reactances of series RLC leg are equal i.e., XL=XC.
X L = XC

1
⇒ ωS L =
ωS C
1
⇒ ωS2 =
LC
1
⇒ fS =
2π LC
Parallel resonance occurs when the reactance of series resonant leg equals the reactance of
the mounting capacitor CM.
X X L − XC
=

1 1
⇒ ωP L
=
ω P CM ωP C

11 1 
⇒ ω P2=  + 
L  C CM 

1
⇒ fP =
LCCM
2π
C + CM
Frequency stability of oscillator:
For an oscillator, the frequency of the oscillations must remain constant.
The measure of ability of an oscillator to maintain the desired frequency as precisely as
possible for as long a time as possible is called frequency stability of an oscillator.
In general following are the factors which affect the frequency stability of an oscillator.
i) Due to the changes in temperature, the values of the components of tank circuit
get affected. So a change in the values of inductors and capacitors due to changes
in the temperature is the main cause due to which frequency does not remain
stable.
ii) Due to the changes in temperature, the parameters of the active device used like
BJT, FET get affected which in turn affect the frequency.
iii) The variation in the power supply is another factor affecting the frequency.
iv) The changes in the atmosphere conditions, aging and unstable transistor
parameters affect the frequency.
v) The changes in the load connected, affect the effective resistance of the tank
circuit.
vi) The capacitive effect in transistor and stray capacitances, affect the capacitance of
the tank circuit and the tank circuit and hence the frequency.
The variation of frequency with temperature is given by the factor dented as S.
∆ω / ωr
Sω ,T = parts per million per oC.
∆T / Tr

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Where ωr = desired frequency

Tr = operating temperature
∆ω = change in frequency
∆T = change in temperature
The frequency stability is defined as,
dθ
Sω =
dω
where dθ = phase shift introduced for a small frequency change in desired frequency fr.

dθ
Larger the value of , more stable is the oscillator.
dω
The frequency stability can be improved by the following modifications:

1) Enclosing the circuit in a constant temperature chamber.

2) Maintaining constant voltage by using the Zener diodes.
3) The load effect is reduced by coupling the oscillator to the load loosely (or) with the
help of a circuit having high input impedance and low output impedance.

Problems:

1. In a transistorized Hartley oscillator the two inductances are 2mH and 20μH while the
frequency is to be changes from 950kHz to 2050kHz. Calculate the range over which
the capacitor is to be varied.
Solution:
1
The frequency is given by f =
2π CLeq
where Leq = L1+L2
= 2x10-3 + 20x10-6
= 0.00202 = 2.02mH.
For f = fmax = 2050 kHz

1
2050 × 10−3 =
(
2π C × 2.02 × 10−3 )
2.98 pF
⇒C =
For f = fmin =950 kHz

1
950 × 10−3 =
(
2π C × 2.02 × 10−3 )
13.89 pF
⇒C =
Hence C must be varied from 2.98pF to 13.89pF, to get the required frequency variation.

2. Find C and hfe of a transistor to provide f of 50kHz of a RC transistorized phase shift

oscillator. Given R1=22kΩ, R2=68kΩ, RC=20kΩ, R=6.8kΩ and hie=2kΩ.
Solution:

Ri1 = R1  R2  hie = 22k Ω  68k Ω  2=

kΩ 1.8243k Ω

Now Ri1 + R3 = R

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R3= R − Ri1 = 6.8 – 1.8243 = 4.9757kΩ

Rc 20
K =
= = 2.9411
R 6.8
1
∴f =
2π RC 6 + 4k
1
⇒ 50 × 10−3 =
2π × 6.8 × 10−3 × C × 6 + 4 × 2.9411
( )
111.062 pF
⇒C =
29
And h fe ≥ 4 K + 23 +
K
29
≥ 4 ( 2.9411) + 23 +
2.9411
h ≥ 44.6246
fe
3. Find the capacitor C and hfe for the transistor to provide a resonating frequency of 10kHz of
a phase-shift oscillator. Assume R1=25kΩ, R2=60kΩ, RC=40kΩ, R=7.1kΩ and hie=1.8kΩ.
Solution: Ri1 = R1  R2  hie =25k Ω  60k Ω 1.8k Ω =

Now Ri1 + R3 = R

R3= R − Ri1 = 7.1 - =

Rc 40
=K = = 5.6338
R 7.1
1
∴f =
2π RC 6 + 4k
1
⇒ 10 × 10−3 =
−3
(
2π × 7.1 × 10 × C × 6 + 4 × 5.6388 )
⇒C =
29
And h fe ≥ 4 K + 23 +
K
29
≥ 4 ( 5.6388 ) + 23 +
5.6388
⇒h ≥
fe
4. A crystal has L=2H, C=0.01pF and R=2KΩ. Its mounting capacitance is 2pF. Calculate its
series and parallel resonating frequency.
Solution: CM = 2pF
1 1
Now fs = =
2π LC 2π 2 × 0.01 × 10−12

= 1.125 MHz

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CCM 0.01×10−12 × 2 ×10−12

Ceq =
=
C + CM 0.01×10−12 + 2 ×10−12

= 9.950.01×10−120.01×10−12 ×10−15 F
1 1
fp = =
2π LCeq 2π 2 × 9.95 × 10−15

= 1.128 MHz So fs and fp are almost same.

5. A quartz crystal has the following constants, L=50mH, C1=0.02pF, R=500Ω and C2=12pF.
Find the values of fs and fp. If the external capacitance across the crystal changes from 5pF
to 6pF, find the change in frequency of oscillations.

Solution: L =50mH, C1=0.02pF, R=500Ω and C2=12pF

C1C2 0.02 × 12 × 10−12 × 10−12
Ceq
= = = 0.019916 pF
C1 + C2 ( 0.01 + 2 ) × 10−12
1 1
∴ fs = = = 5.0329 MHz
2π LC1 −3
2π 50 × 10 × 0.02 × 10 −12

1 1
and fp = = = 5.0379 MHz
2π LCeq 2π 50 × 10−3 × 0.01996 × 10−12

Let CX = 5pF connected across the crystal.

∴ C 1 =C2 + C X = 12+5 = 17pF

2

C1C1
1
∴ C eq = 2 = 0.019976 pF
C1 + C1
2
1
∴ f1 = = 5.03588 MHz
p 1
2π LC
eq
Now CX = 6pF is connected then

∴ C "2 = C2 + C X = 12+6 18pF

C1C2"
∴ C "eq = = 0.019976 pF
C1 + C2"
1
∴ f p" = = 5.035716 MHz
"
2π LCeq

Therefore, Change = f p' − f p" = (5.03588-5.035716)x106 = 164Hz

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6. A crystal oscillator has L=0.4H, C=0.085pF and mounting capacitance CM=1pF with R=5KΩ.
Find series and parallel resonant frequencies. By what percent does the parallel resonant
frequency exceed the series resonant frequency? Also find the Q-factor of the crystal.

1 1
Solution: fs = = = 0.856 MHz
2π LC 2π 0.4 × 0.085 × 10−12

CCM 0.085 × 1
Ceq
= = = 0.078 MHz
C + CM 0.085 + 1

1 1
fp = = = 0.899 MHz
2π LCeq 2π 0.4 × 0.078 × 10−12

0.899 − 0.856
% Increase = ×100 = 5.023%
0.856

ωs L 2π f s L 2π × 0.856 × 106 × 0.4

Q
= = =
R R 5 × 103

430.272
⇒Q=

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