1

ACTIVE FILTERS
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specific band of frequencies while
attenuating all signals outside this band. Passive filters contain only resistors, inductors and
capacitors. Active filters employ passive as well as active components such as transistors and
operational amplifiers. There are 4 main types of filters: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and
band-stop (or notch) filters. A low-pass filter produces a constant output voltage from DC up to
a cut-off frequency fc. Above fc, the output voltage is attenuated. This is shown in Fig.1.

Figure 1
The range of frequencies that is transmitted is known as the pass band. The range of frequencies
that is attenuated is known as the stop band. The cut-off frequency fc is also called the 0.707
frequency, the 3dB frequency, the corner frequency, or the break frequency. High-pass filters
attenuate the output voltage for all frequencies below the cut-off frequency fc. Above fc, the
magnitude of the output voltage is constant. This is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2
 2

Band-pass filters pass a band of frequencies while attenuating all frequencies outside that band.

Figure 3
Band-stop filters stop a band of frequencies while passing all frequencies outside that band.
This filter is shown in Fig.4.

Figure 4

Basic Low-Pass Filter (1 st order)

RF=R

Vo Vo
Vi R Vi R

C C

Figure 5 Figure 6
 3

The circuit shown in fig.5 is a non-inverting low-pass active filter. The filtering is done by the
RC network and the operational amplifier is used as a unity-gain amplifier. Sometimes a
resistor Rf set equal to R is included in the feedback loop to minimize DC offset. For the
circuit,
Vo 1 / sC 1
Acl  ( s)  
Vi R  1 / sC 1  jRC

where ω is the (angular) frequency of Vi ( ω= 2πf) and j = √-1. The frequency response plot
for this circuit is shown in figure 7 where  o  1/ RC or f o  1/ 2RC is the cut-off frequency.

At the

Figure 7
cut-off frequency, the transfer function becomes
1 1
Acl ( f o )   , since RC  1 at  o
1  jRC 1  j
1
This reduces to Acl ( f o )   0.707  450
245 0

1 1
Acl ( f o )  
1  jRC 1  j
1
Acl c
  0.707  3dB
2
and the phase angle is -450.
 4

Low-Pass Filter with Gain (1st order)

R
Vi
Vo

C
RF
RA

Figure 8
The low-pass filter with gain is shown in figure 8 where the RC passive filter is associated with
a non-inverting amplifier with gain. The transfer function is given by
Vo 1 R
 .(1  F )
Vi 1  sRC RA
This first order active filter has one pole. The corner frequency is at 1/RC and the DC gain
(s=0) is 1 + RF/RA. The design equations are the following:
f c  1/ 2RC

RF
Acl ( DC)  1 
RA

R  RF // RA for DC bias stability

An alternative form of low-pass filter is shown in figure 9. The transfer function for this circuit

R2
Vi R1
Vo

Figure 9
is given by
 5

Vi  Vo R2
  Vo /
R1 R2 // 1 / sC 1  sCR2

 R2 1
which yields ACL  .
R1 1  sR2C
The DC gain is -R2/Rl and the break frequency is 1/R2C. For reduced DC offset, a resistor
R  R1 // R2 can be inserted between the inverting terminal and ground as shown in fig.10.

R2
Vi R1
Vo

Figure 10

Example
Design a first-order inverting low pass filter with a DC gain of 10 and a corner frequency of
lkHz.
Solution
Choose C = 0.01µF
R = 1/2πfC = 16k, R1 = R2/10 = 1.6k
R = Rf // RA = 1450Ω

Second-Order Low Pass Filter

The filters described above are first-order. A second-order low pass filter is shown in
fig. 11.
 6

C1

R1 R2
Vi B
A Vo

C2

Figure 11

Using Kirchoff’s current law, the node equations for junctions A and B are given by
Vi V A  VB
  (V A  Vo ) sC1 node A
R1 R2

V A  VB
 VB sC2 node B
R2

where VB  Vo . Eliminating V A and VB yields

Vo 1
Acl  
Vi R1 R2 C1C2 s  R1  R2 C2 s  1
2

Let R1 = R2 = R, C1 = 2C and C2=C. Then

Vo 1 1
  ( s  j )
Vi 1  RCs  2 R C s 1  2 RCj  2 R 2 C 2  j 
2 2 2 2

Let ωc = 1/√2RC. Then

Vo 1

Vi j  
1  ( j )2
Q c c
where Q = 1/√2 = 0.707 (quality factor). This is the transfer function of a 2nd order
Butterworth Filter. It has the flattest pass band of all filters (it is also called a MAXIMALLY
FLAT filter) and gives a steeper roll-off than the basic filter. (Damping ratio   1/ 2Q ).
 7

Log-Magnitude Curves

Design Procedure
1. Choose the cut-off frequency ωc, or fc
2. Choose C2, usually a convenient value between 100pF and 0.lµF
3. Determine Cl from Cl = 2C2, fc = 1/(2√2πRC)
4. Calculate R = 0.707/ω0C
5. Choose Rf = 2R and RI = R2 = R

C1

R1 R2
Vi
Vo

C2
RF

Figure 13
Again, a resistor RF=R1//R2 may be added as shown in fig. 13 in order to minimikze DC
offset.
Example
Determine R1 and R2 for a cut-off frequency of lkHz. Let Cl = 0.0lµF
 8

Solution
Pick C2 = 2C1 = 2 x 0.01µF = 0.02µF. Select RI = R2 = R where
0.707
R  11258; RF  2 R  22516
2  3.14 1103  0.0110 6

Figure 14
The frequency response plot for the (2nd order) Low-pass Butterworth Filter is shown in fig.
14.

Basic High-Pass Filter (1st order)

A basic high-pass filter is shown in figure 15. This lst order high-pass filter uses a CR
network to provide the high-pass filtering followed by a unity gain buffer. It is obtained from
the basis low-pass filter by interchanging R and C at the input. For this circuit, the transfer
function is given by

RF

C Vo
Vi

Figure 15
 9

Vo R sCR
Acl   
Vi R  1 / sC 1  sCR

Here ωc = 1/RC or fc = 1/2πRC. The frequency response of this circuit is shown in figure 16.

Figure 16

High-Pass Filter with Gain (1stOrder)

C
Vi
Vo

R
RF
RA

Figure 17

The transfer function ACL given by

Vo R R R sRC
ACL   (1  F ).  (1  F ).
Vi R A R  1 / sC R A 1  sRC

The high-frequency gain is 1 + Rf/RA and the corner frequency is at fc = 1/2πRC.

Example
Design an RC high-pass filter with a high-frequency gain of 10 and a corner frequency of lkHz.
 10

Solution
Choose C = 0.0lµF
1
R
2  3.14 1103  0.0110 6
1 + Rf/RA = 10 R = Rf // RA = 15.9k
∴ RF = 159k RA = 17.7k

Example
Design a 1st order non-inverting low pass filter with a DC gain of 10 and a corner frequency of
1kHz.
Solution
Choose C = 0.01µF. Then R = 1/2πfC = 16k. For bias current balance, RA//RF = R16k and
1 + Rf/RA = 10 giving RF = 160k and RA = 17.8k.

16k
Vi
Vo

0.01F
100k
17.8k

Figure 18

Second Order High-Pass Filter

Figure 19 shows a second-order high pass filter. Comparing this with the 2nd order low
pass filter, it can be seen that the resistors and capacitors are interchanged. In order to derive
the transfer function for the high pass circuit, we use Kirchoff’s Current law at nodes A and B.
 11

R1

Vi B
A Vo
C1 C2
R2

Figure 19
Thus
V A  Vo
Vi sC1  (V A  VB ) sC2  Node A
R1
VB
(V A  VB ) sC2  Node B
R2

where VB  Vo . Eliminating V A and VB yields

Vo s2
Acl  
Vi 1 1 s 1
s2  (  ) 
C1 C 2 R2 R1 R2 C1C 2
This transfer function has two zeros and two poles. To obtain the maximally flat Butterworth
response, set Cl = C, C2 = C, R1=R, R2 = 2R giving
Vo s2  ( /  c ) 2
Acl   
Vi s 1 j  
s2   1  ( )2
RC 2 R 2 C 2 Q c c

 ( /  c ) 2
Then Acl 
j  
1  ( )2
Q c c

where ωc = 0.707/RC and Q=0.707. To minimise DC offset a reisitor Rf = R2 can be introduced

in the feedback loop. (See log-magnitude curves)
 12

Figure 20

Design Procedure
1 . Choose a cut off ftquency ωc of fc
2. Let Cl = C2 = C and choose a convenient value
3. Calculate R2 form
4 Select R1 = ½ R 2
5 To minimize DC offset, let Rf = R2

Example
Let Cl = C2 = 0.0lµF. Calculate R1 and R2 for cut off frequency of lkHz.
Solution
1.414
R2   22.5k
2  3.14  1  10 3  0.01  10 6
R1 = ½ R2 = 11.3k

Band Pass Filters

A band-pass filter passes signals only in a certain band of frequencies while rejecting all
signals outside this band. This type of filter has a maximum output voltage at one frequency
called the RESONANT or CENTRE FREQUENCY ωr. Above or below ωr, V0 drops. ωc,
and ωn where V0 = .707V0max are the high cutoff and low cut off frequencies. The general
transfer function is given by
G
s o
Q
Acl 
o
s2  s  o
2

Q
 13

where ωo is the centre frequency, G is the centre frequency gain and Q is the quality factor.

Figure 21
The band of frequencies between ωl and ωh is the BANDWIDTH B= ωh - ωl. Bandpass
ffiters are classified as either narrow-band or wide-band. A narrow-band filter is one that has a
bandwidth of less than one-tenth the resonant frequency ie B<0.1ωl. If B>0.1ωl the filter is
wide-band. The ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth is the quality factor, Q of the circuit.
It indicates the selectivity of the circuit. The higher the Q, the more selective the circuit. For
the bandpass filter, Q = ωr/B and B = ωr/Q rad/s. Thus Q<10 corresponds to a wide-band filter
and Q>10 corresponds to a narrow-band filter.

Figure 22
One approach to band pass filters is to cascade a low pass and high pass filter as shown in
fig.23.
 14

Figure 23
Although such an arrangement uses two or more op amps, the roll-off can be made high at both
the high and low cut off frequencies as shown in Fig. 24. The gain in the pass band is 1.

Figure 24
The circuit shown in fig. 25 is a (narrow) bandpass filter referred to as the multiple-
feedback configuration or the Delyiannis-Friend circuit. This circuit is to band-pass filters what
the Sallen-Key configuration is to low and high pass filters. Setting the capacitor values equal
simplifies the analysis without diminishing the filter’s capabilities. Thus the node equations are
Vi  V A V A
  (V A  Vo ) sC  V A sC node A
R1 R2
Vo
V A sC   node B
R3

C1

R3
R1 C2
Vi
A B
Vo

R2

Figure 25
Substituting for VA and manipulating gives
 15

s
Vo CR1

Vi 2s R  R2
s2   21
CR3 C R1 R2 R3

Comparing this with the standard bandpass transfer function gives

1
o 
C R1 // R2 .R3

1 R3
Q
2 R1 // R2

1 R3 R2
G  2Q 2 .
2 R1 R1  R2

The Gift-Maundy bandpass filter shown in fig. 26 allows a simpler design procedure. It
utilises a Wien network along with positive feedback to sharpen the response. Straightforward
analysis gives the transfer function as

R3

R2 R
Vi R1
R C R
Vo

Figure 26

R2
 o s
Vo R1

Vi R
s 2  (3   2 ) o s   o
2

R1
1
where o 
RC
 16

1
Q
R2
3 
R3

R2
G  Q
R1
For this filter, C is first chosen then R is selected to achieve the desired centre frequency.
Following this R2, R3 and α are determined to give the desired Q and finally R1 is adjusted to
give the desired centre frequency gain. This procedure is called orthogonal tuning.

Band Stop Filters (Notch Filters)

The general transfer function for a notch filter is given by

s 2  o
2

Acl 
o
s2  s  o
2

Q
where ωo is the notch frequency and Q is the quality factor. The response for such a filter is
shown in fig.27

Figure 27
One approach to band-stop filters is to place a low-pass and high-pass filters in parallel as
shown in fig. 28
 17

lowpass
filter

Vi Vo

highpass
filter

Figure 28
The resulting response is shown in fig. 29.

gain

Figure 29

A very popular notch filter is the twin-T circuit shown in fig. 30.

R Vo
R

2C R2
Vi

R/2
R1
C C

Figure 30
The transfer function is given by
 18

s 2  o
2

Acl 
o
s2  s  o
2

Q
1
where fo 
2RC
1
Q
4(1   )
R1
and 
R1  R2
This notch filter works very well but is difficult to tune since simultaneous adjustment of three
components is necessary.
The Gift-Maundy notch filter circuit shown in fig.31 is easier to tune than the twin-T
filter. The basic system consists of an inverted Wien network the output of which is a notch-
type response. An operational amplifier is arranged at the output of the network such that a null
is achieved at a specific frequency. The entire arrangement is included in a negative feedback
loop in order to sharpen the notch i.e. increase the Q. The transfer function is given by

s 2  o
2

Acl  K
o
s2  s  o
2

Q
1
where fo 
2RC
1 R
Q  (1  2 )
3 R3
 R2 R3 R // R3
and DC gain K is K  2
R1 ( R2  R3 ) R1

Note that fo is completely independent of Q and K. Thus R and C are selected to achieve a
particular notch frequency. R2 and R3 are selected to give a desired Q following which R1 is
chosen to achieve a particular gain.
 19

R3

R2
2RA
Vi
RA
R1 Vo

C R

Figure 31
All Pass Filter
A filter in which the magnitude of the output signal is constant for all frequencies but
whose phase varies is called on ALL-PASS FILTER or PHASE SHIFTER. Examples of all-
pass filter transfer functions are
s  10 s 2  3s  20
A( s)  ; A( s) 
s  10 s 2  3s  20
A first-order all-pass phase lag filter is shown in fig. 32. The transfer function for this circuit
can be found by first noting that the voltage at the non-inverting input is given by

RA
RA
Vi Vo

R
C

Figure 32
 20

1 / sC 1
V  
R  1 / sC 1  sCR
Vi  V V  Vo
For the op amp, 
RA RA
Substituting for V+ gives
Vo 1  sCR

Vi 1  sCR
This is the transfer function of an all-pass lag network. The amplitude response for this transfer
function is given by

Vo 1  (CR) 2
 1
Vi 1  (CR) 2

The phase response is

Vo
( )   tan 1 RC  tan 1 RC  2 tan 1 RC
Vi

This circuit produces zero phase shift at low frequencies and -1800 lag at high frequencies. At
f o  1/ 2RC the phase lag is -900. The frequency response is shown in Fig. 33.

Fig. 33
 21

A first-order all-pass phase lead filter is shown in fig. 34. The transfer function can be
found from the following:
R sCR1
V  
R  1 / sC 1  sCR
For the op amp
Vi  V V  Vo

RA RA
Hence the transfer function is given by
Vo  1(1  sCR)

Vi 1  sCR

RA
RA
Vi Vo

C
R

Figure 34
This is the transfer function of an all-pass lead network. The amplitude response for this
transfer function is given by

Vo 1  (CR) 2
 1
Vi 1  (CR) 2

The phase response is

Vo
( )  180 0  tan 1 RC  tan 1 RC  180 0  2 tan 1 RC
Vi

This circuit produces +1800 phase shift at low frequencies and zero at high frequencies. At
f o  1/ 2RC the phase lead is +900. The frequency response is shown in fig. 35.
 22

Figure 35

Appendix: Higher-order Filters

3rd Order Low-Pass Butterworth Filter

The low-pass filter shown consists of 2nd order Butterworth low-pass filter of -40dB/decade
ro11-off cascaded with a basic (1st order) low-pass filter of -20dB/decade roll-off giving an
overall roll-off of -60dB/decade. The overall closed-loop gain ACL is the gain of the first filter
times die gain of the second filter. To guarantee that the frequency response is flat in the pass
band, the design steps are as follows:

1. Choose the cut-off frequency ωc or fc.

 23

2. Pick C3; Choose a convenient value between 0.00 1 and 0.1µF

3. Make Cl = 2C3 and C2 = 1/2C3 (i.e Cl = 4C2)
4. Calculate R = 1/ωcC3
5. Make R1 = R2 = R3 = R
6. Rfl = 2R and Rf2 = R. For best results, the value of R should be between 10k and
100k.

Example
For the 3rd order low-pass filter, determine Cl, C2 and R fc = lkHz. C3 is 0.0lµF.

Solution
Cl = 2C3 = 2 x 0.01µF = 0.02 µF
C2 = 1/2C3 112 x 0.01µF = 0.005µF.
1
R
2  3.14  1  10 3  0.01  10 6

3-rd Order High-Pass Butterworth-Filter

 24

The diagram shows a high-pass filter of a 60dB/decade constructed using a 40dB/decade

Butterworth filter and a 20dB/decade basic filter. For maximally flat response, the design steps
are the following:

1. Choose the cut-off frequency ωc or fc.

2. Let Cl = C2 = C3 = C and choose a convenient value between 100µF and 0. 1 µF
3. Calculate R3 from R3 =1/wcC
4. Select R2 = 2R3
5. Select Rl = 1/2R3
6. To maximize DC offset current, let Rf1 = R2, Rf2 = R3.

Example
Let Cl= C2 = C3 = C = 0.lµF. Find R1, R2, R3 for ωc = lkrad./s (fc = 159kHz)

Solution
1
R3   10k
1  10  0.01  10 6
3

R1 = 2R3 = 20k, R1 = ½ R3 = 5k