ELL 100 - Introduction to Electrical Engineering

LECTURE 27: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

OUTLINE

• Voltage Follower
• Summing and Difference Amplifier
• Integrator and Differentiator
• Active filters (low-, high- and band-pass)

2
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Op-Amp application in ECG

3
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Op-Amp Application in Measuring Strain

4
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
PID Controller

VERR VERR PID

5
 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Temperature Controller

Air Conditioning Water Heaters Refrigerators

6
 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Current to Voltage Converter & Vice-Versa

Op-Amp as Current to Voltage Converter

Op-Amp as Voltage to Current Converter
7
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
The output voltage “follows” the input voltage (gain is unity)

vo vo = vi
vi

8
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
• A voltage follower or “buffer” circuit provides a means of isolating an
input signal from a load by using a stage having unity voltage gain.
• It offers no phase or polarity inversion, and act as an ideal circuit with
very high input impedance and low output impedance.

i~0 iL
SOURCE LOAD

High output Low input

impedance impedance

Buffer Isolates
Loading Effects
9
 EXAMPLE NUMERICAL
Problem: What is the power absorbed by the 4-kΩ resistor below?

Ans: Current through 4-kΩ resistor is i = 6/(4 + 2) = 1 mA

=> Power absorbed = i2R = (10-3)2 × (4000) W = 4 mW 10
 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier is an op-amp circuit that combines several inputs
and produces an output that is the weighted sum of the inputs.
Rf if
ia Ra
va
ib Rb i1
 Rf Rf Rf 
vb
v vo    va  vb  vc 
ic Rc  Ra Rb Rc 
vc v
vo

11
 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Rf if Applying KCL at node v,
ia Ra
va
ib i1
i1  ia  ib  ic (1)
Rb
vb The currents are given by,
v
ic Rc
v va  v vb  v vc  v
vc ia  , ib  , ic  (2)
vo Ra Rb Rc

Also i1  i f (3)

va  v vb  v vc  v  vo  v 
Using (1), (2) & (3) =>     
Ra Rb Rc 
 Rf 
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 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Rf
ia Ra if
va  v vb  v vc  v  vo  v 
va
    
Ra Rb Rc 
vb
ib Rb i1
 Rf 
v

But v  v '  0
ic Rc
vc v
vo
vo va vb vc
=>    
R f Ra Rb Rc

 Rf Rf Rf 
Thus, output is given by vo    va  vb  vc 
 Ra Rb Rc 
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 1
Problem: Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for
the following sets of voltages and resistors. Given, Rf = 1 MΩ.
(a) V1 = 1V, V2 = 2V, V3 = 3V; R1 = 500 kΩ, R2 = 1 MΩ , R3 = 1 MΩ.
(b) V1 = -2V, V2 = 3V, V3 = 1V; R1 = 200 kΩ , R2 = 500 kΩ , R3 = 1 MΩ.
Rf
R1
V1

R2
V2
R3
V3
Vo

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 Rf
R1
V1

R2
V2
Soln: R3
V3
Using the summing amplifier formula, Vo

Vo = -(Rf /R1)V1 - (Rf /R2)V2 - (Rf /R3)V3


(a) vo   
1M 1M 1M 
*1  *2  *3   7V
 500k 1M 1M 

 1M 1M 1M 
(b) vo    *  2   *3  *1  3V
 200k 500k 1M  15
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 2
Problem: Find an expression for the output voltage vo below. Assume an
ideal op-amp. What mathematical operation does the circuit perform?

16
Soln: We can use principle
of superposition to solve

Let vo1 be the value of vo when vs2 = 0

R vs1
=> v2  vs1 
RR 2
R1  R2  vs1
But v2  vo1  vo1  1  
R1  R2  R1  2

Let vo2 be the output when vs1 = 0

1  R2 
 R2  vs 2
vo 2  1   vo  vo1  vo 2  1    vs1  vs 2 
2  R1 
 R1  2
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 APPLICATION OF SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
• Accepts inputs of digital/binary values at, typically, 0-V (for bit ‘0’) or
Vref (for bit ‘1’) and provides an output voltage proportional to the
decimal equivalent of the input binary value.
• E.g. consider a DAC with digital data of 4-bits

R4 = 2R3 = 4R2 = 8R1

(in general, Rn = 2n-1R1 for n-bits)

 Rf Rf Rf Rf 
Vo    V1  V2  V3  V4 
 R1 R2 R3 R4 
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: In the DAC circuit below, Rf = 10 kΩ, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 20 kΩ,
R3 = 40 kΩ, and R4 = 80 kΩ. Obtain the analog output voltage for the
digital inputs [0000], [0001], [0010], . . . , [1111]. Consider Vref = 1 V.

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 Rf Rf Rf Rf
Soln: Vo  V1  V2  V3  V4 => Vo  V1  0.5V2  0.25V3  0.125V4
R1 R2 R3 R4

Thus, a digital input [V1V2V3V4] = [0000] produces an analog output Vo = 0V

and input [V1V2V3V4] = [0001] gives Vo = -0.125 V.

Similarly,
[V1V2V3V4] = [0010] ⇒ Vo = -0.25 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [0011] ⇒ Vo = -(0.25 + 0.125) = -0.375 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [0100] ⇒ Vo = -0.5 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [1111] ⇒ Vo = -(1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125) = -1.875 V

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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two
inputs but rejects any signals common to the two inputs.
Rf2
R if

Ra1
R
v
Rb3
R v
ic v’v
vV1b
vV2c voo
V
RR4c

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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER Rf2
R if

R
Applying KCL at node v, R1a
v
v1  v v  vo ic R3b
v’v
v
 v1
Vb
R1 R2 vo
Vo
v2
Vc RR4c
 R2  R2
=> vo    1 v  v1 …(1)
 R1  R1

v2  v ' v ' 0 R4
Applying KCL at node v’,  => v '  v2 …(2)
R3 R4 R3  R4
 R2  R4 R2
As v = v’ => vo    1 v2  v1 (using (1) and (2))
 R1  R3  R4 R1
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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER Rf2
R if

R2 1  1 R 
 R R
R1a

vo   2 R2
v2  v1 R3b
v
v
ic
v’v
R1 1  R3 R  R1 v1
Vb
 4
v2
Vc RR4c
vo
Vo

For a difference amplifier, we must

have vo = 0 when v1 = v2
R2

R1 R3
 => vo   v2  v1 
R2 R4 R1
If R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, the difference amplifier becomes a subtractor,
with the output vo  v2  v1 23
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: Design an op-amp circuit with inputs v1 and v2
and output vo= -5v1 + 3v2
R2 1  R1 R 
 2 R2
Soln: The output for the difference amplifier is vo  v2  v1
R1 1  R3 R  R1
 4
Comparing it with the given equation, we have
1  R1 
R2   6
 R2
 5  R2  5R1 and  R3  R4
5 3
5 3 
R1 1  R3   R3 5
 R4 
1 R4


Thus, if we choose R1 = 10 kΩ and R3 = 20 kΩ,

then R2 = 50 kΩ and R4 = 20 kΩ.
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 INTEGRATOR AMPLIFIER
An integrator amplifier is an op-amp circuit whose output is proportional to
the integral of the input signal over time.
C ic

i1 R1 t
1
v vo   
RC 0
vi ( )d 
vi v
vo

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 INTEGRATOR AMPLIFIER C ic

KCL at node v => i1  ic

i1 R1
The currents can be written as v
vi  v dvo
i1  , icic=C vi v
vo
R dt
vi  v dvo 1
=>  C => dvo   vi dt
R dt RC It is necessary to always discharge
the capacitor prior to application
Integrating from time 0 to t, of a signal i.e. vo (0)  0
t
1

t
vo (t )  vo (0)   vi ( )d  1
RC 0 => vo  
RC 0  vi ( )d 
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: If v1(t) = 10cos(2t) mV and v2(t) = 0.5t mV below, find vo(t)
for t > 0. Assume that the voltage across the capacitor is zero at t = 0.

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Soln: You can check that the
given circuit is a “summing
integrator” with the output
voltage as,
1 1
vo  
R1C  v1dt 
R2C  v2 dt

t t
1 1
 vo  6 6 
10cos  2  d  3 6 
0.5 d
3*10 *2*10 0 100*10 *2*10 0
1 10 1 0.5t 2
vo   sin 2t 
6 2 0.2 2
vo  0.833sin 2t  1.25t 2 mV
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 DIFFERENTIATOR AMPLIFIER
A differentiator amplifier is an op-amp circuit whose output is proportional
to the rate of change of the input signal w.r.t. time.
R i1

ic C
dvi
v
vo  RC
vi v dt
vo

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 DIFFERENTIATOR AMPLIFIER
R i1
KCL at node v => ic  i1
C
 vo  v 
ic
dvi
 C    v
dt  R 
vi v
vo

Since v = v’= 0,

dvi
vo  RC Differentiator circuits are unstable because
dt any fast varying electrical noise within the
circuit is exaggerated by the differentiator.
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: Sketch the output voltage waveform vo(t) for the circuit shown,
given the input voltage waveform below.
5k

vvoi(V)
(V)

0.2µF
4

vi
vo

0 2 4 6 8 t (ms)

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Soln: The time constant is RC  5*103 *0.2*106  103 s
Input voltage is given by,
2000t ; 0 < t < 2 ms
vi  
8  2000t ; 2 < t < 4 ms vo(V)

2
Thus, the output voltage is given as,

dvi 2V ; 0 < t < 2ms 0 2 4 6 8 t (ms)

vo   RC 
dt 2V ; 2 < t < 4ms
-2

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 ACTIVE FILTERS
Another application of op-amps is to build active filter circuits. A filter
circuit can be constructed using passive components: resistors and
capacitors. An active filter additionally uses an amplifier (i.e. an op-amp)
to provide voltage amplification and signal isolation or buffering.

vo/vi vo/vi vo/vi

0 f 0 f 0 f
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 ACTIVE FILTERS
Low Pass Filter
RFf
Max Voltage Gain Av  1 
RRG1
(at low freq near d.c. i.e. f ~ 0,
capacitor C1 acts as open circuit
and we get non-inverting amplifier)
1
Cutoff frequency fOH 
2 R1C1
frequency at which capacitive
impedence is equal to resistance
at input (gain is 1/√2 of max) 34
 ACTIVE FILTERS
High Pass Filter
RFf
Max Voltage Gain Av  1 
RRG1
(at high frequencies i.e. f → ∞,
capacitor C1 acts as short circuit
and we get non-inverting amplifier)
1
Cutoff frequency fOL 
2 R1C1
frequency at which capacitive
impedence is equal to resistance
at input (gain is 1/√2 of max) 35
 ACTIVE FILTERS
Band Pass
Filter

R2

C2

Max Voltage Gain: Av = (1 + RF/RG)2

1 1
Lower & Upper Cutoff frequencies: fOL  and fOH 
2 R1C1 2 R2C2
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Problem 1: Calculate the cutoff frequency for a first-order low-pass filter
with R1 = 1.2 kΩ and C1 = 0.02 µF.
1
Soln: fOH  fOH  6.63kHz
2 R1C1

Problem 2: Calculate the cutoff frequencies for a bandpass filter circuit

with R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ, C1 = 0.1 µF, and C2 = 0.002 µF.
1 1
Soln: fOL  fOL  159.15Hz and fOH  fOH  7.96kHz
2 R1C1 2 R2C2

37
SOLVED NUMERICALS

38
 NUMERICAL 1
Problem: (a) For an input Va = 4V, find the output voltage Vo and current Io
(b) Determine the range of Va for linear operation if the saturation voltage
of op-amp is ±12V

Va

39
 NUMERICAL 1
12 12 
Ans: (a) Output voltage of inverting summer is Vo    (4)  (10)   8V
4 6 
8 8
Io    1.47mA
10 12

12 12 
(b) For linear operation, 12    (Va )  (10)   3Va  20
4 6 
=> Va  (20  12) / 3 => 2.67 V < Va < 10.67 V
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 NUMERICAL 2
Problem: Calculate Vo for the circuit below. For a saturation voltage ±14V,
find the feedback resistance Rf for which the op-amp will saturate.

41
 NUMERICAL 2
4
Soln: By voltage division, V   5  2V
46
=> V  V  2V
KCL at the inverting (-) terminal,
5  2 Vo  2
  0 => Vo  10V
3 12

Now if we change Rf such that the output saturates i.e. Vo = ±14V,

5  2 Vo  2
KCL eqn is   0 => Rf  Vo  2  0 => Rf  2 Vo
3 Rf
To obtain Rf > 0, use Vo = -14V => Rf  2  (14)  16k
42
 NUMERICAL 3
Problem: Find vo and io in the op-amp circuit below

43
 NUMERICAL 3
Soln: This is an inverting summer
with two inputs, so
10 10 
vo    (2)  (1)   8V
5 2.5 

io is the sum of the currents through

the 10- and 2-kΩ resistors.
Since va = vb = 0,
vo  0 vo  0
io   mA  4.8mA
10 2
44
 NUMERICAL 4
Problem: In the circuit below, R = 1 kΩ, C = 1 µF, and v1 = sin (2000t).
Assuming v2(0) = 0, find v2 for t > 0.

45
 NUMERICAL 4
Soln: This is an integrating
amplifier, so
1 t
vo2   
RC 0
vvi (1 )d 
(t)dt

Thus,
t
1
6 
v2   3 sin 2000tdt  0.5(cos 2000t 1)
10 10 0
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 NUMERICAL 5
Problem: In the differential amplifier below, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ,
R3 = 100 kΩ and Rf = 100 kΩ. Determine the output voltage Vo if:
(a) V1 = 5 mV and V2 = 0
(b) V1 = 0 and V2 = 5 mV
(c) V1 = 50 mV and V2 = 25 mV
(d) V1 = 25 mV and V2 = 50 mV

47
 NUMERICAL 5
Soln:
Rf  100 103 
3 
(a) Vo   V1    5mV   50mV
R1  10 10 

 R3  R f   100  100 
(b) Vo   1  V2    1  (5) mV  50 mV
 R2  R3   R1   110  10 

 Rf 
(c) Vo  V2  V1      250mV
 R1 

(d) Vo = (V2 – V1)(-Rf /R1) = 250 mV

48
UNSOLVED NUMERICALS

49
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 1
Problem
Design a difference amplifier with gain 7.5.
Rf2
R if

R
R1a
v
R3b v
ic
v’v
v1
Vb

v2
Vc RR4c
vo
Vo

Ans. R1 = R3 = 20 kΩ, R2 = R4 = 150 kΩ.

50
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 2
Problem
Determine vo and io in the op amp circuit

Ans. 25 V, 100 μA .
51
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 3
Problem:
Two voltages, +0.6 V and -1.4 V, are applied to the two input resistors of a
summation amplifier. The respective input resistors are 400 kΩ and 100
kΩ, and the feedback resistor is 200 kΩ. Determine the output voltage.
Rf
R1
V1

R2
V2
R3
V3
Vo

Ans. 2.5V
52
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 4
Problem
Find vo and io in the op amp circuit

Ans. -3.8V, -1.425mA

53
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 5
Problem
If Vs = 4V Determine Vo and Io

Ans. 7.2V, 1.8mA

54
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 6
Problem
If Va = 16V and Vb = 4V Determine Vo and Io

Ans. 10V, 1.08mA 55

 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 7
Problem:
Calculate Vo and Io for Va = 0V and Vb = 12V

Ans. -12V, -7.4mA

56
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 8
Problem
The integrator has R = 100 kΩ, C = 20 μF. Determine the output voltage
when a dc voltage of 2.5 mV is applied at t = 0. Assume
that the op amp is initially nulled.

Ans. -1.25tmV 57
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 9
Problem
A differentiator has R=100kΩ and C=0.1μF. Given that vi =5t V, determine
the output vo.

Ans. -0.05V
58
 PRACTICE NUMERICAL 9
Problem
A three-bit DAC is shown
(a) Determine |Vo| for [V1V2V3] = [010]
(b) Find |Vo| if [V1V2V3] = [110].
(c) If |Vo| = 1.25 V is desired, what should be [V1V2V3]?
(d) To get |Vo| = 1.75 V, what should be [V1V2V3]?

Ans. 0.5 V, 1.5 V, [101], [111].

59
 REFERENCES
1. Edward Hughes; John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith, “Electrical and
Electronic Technology”, 10th edition, Pearson Education Limited, Year: 2008.
2. Alexander, Charles K., and Sadiku, Matthew N. O., “Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits”, 5th Ed, McGraw Hill, Indian Edition, 2013.
3. Robert-Boylestad, Louis-Nashelsky, “Electronic-Devices-and-Circuit-Theory”,
7th-Edition.
4. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th edition,
2008.

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