Analog and Digital Electronics LAB

List of Experiments:
1. Full Wave Rectifier with & without Filters.
2. Common Emitter Amplifier Characteristics.
3. Common Base Amplifier Characteristics.
4. Common Source Amplifier Characteristics.
5. Measurement of h-parameters of Transistor in CB, CE, CC
configurations.
6. Input and Output Characteristics of FET in CS Configuration.
7. Realization of Boolean Expressions using Gates.
8. Design and Realization logic gates using Universal Gates.
9. Generation of Clock using NAND/NOR Gates.
10.Design a 4 – bit Adder/Subtractor.
11.Design and Realization a Synchronous and Asynchronous counter
using flip-flops.
12. Realization of logic gates using DTL, TTL, ECL, etc.

Experiments beyond the Syllabus:

1. Bridge Rectifier with and without filter.

2. Design a 4 – bit comparator.

 1. Full Wave Rectifier with and without filter

Aim:
To examine the input and output waveforms of a full wave (center tapped) rectifier
without and with filters. Calculate the ripple factor with load resistance of 1KΩ, and
10KΩ respectively. Calculate ripple factor with a filter capacitor of 100μF and the load of
1KΩ, and 10KΩ respectively.

Components and Equipment required:

S.No Device Range/Rating Quantity (Nos)

1 Step down transformer with centre tap (9-0-9)V 1
2 PN diode 1N4007 2
3 Resistor 1KΩ,10KΩ 1 each
4 Capacitor 100μF 1
5 DC voltmeter (0-20)V 1
6 AC voltmeter (0-20)V 1
7 DC Ammeter (0-200)mA 1
8 CRO with probes (0-20)MHz 1
9 Connecting wires -- 12
10 Bread board -- 1

Circuit Diagrams:

Figure (a): Full Wave Rectifier (Center-tap) Without Filter

 Figure (b): Full Wave Rectifier (center-tap) With Filter

Theory:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During
positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and
D2is reverse biased.
The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During negative
half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and
current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a continuous
current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get
unidirectional current as show in the model graph.
The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full
wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360
degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180
degree).

Procedure:

Full-wave Rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (a).
2. Take the load resistance RL = 1KΩ and examine the input and output
waveforms using CRO and note peak voltages.
3. Note the readings of output DC current, DC voltage and AC voltage using
Voltmeters and Ammeters.
4. Now change the load resistance RL to 10KΩ and repeat the procedure as the
above.
 5. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form and calculate the value of ripple
factor.
Full-wave Rectifier with filter
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (b).
2. Take the load resistance RL=1KΩand connect a capacitor of 100μF values in
parallel with the load and note the readings of input and output voltages using
Oscilloscope, Voltmeter and Ammeter.
3. Note the readings of output DC current, DC voltage and AC voltage.
4. Now change the load resistance RL to 10KΩ and repeat the procedure as the
above.
5. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form and calculate the value of ripple
factor.

Expected Waveforms:
Tabular form:
Full wave Rectifier (Center-tap) Without Filter

S.N Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple

o Resistance Voltage Voltage DC DC Voltage Factor
Peak Peak current Voltage

1 1KΩ
2 10KΩ

Full wave Rectifier (Center-tap) With Filter

S.N Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple
o Resistance Voltage Voltage DC DC Voltage Factor
Peak Peak current Voltage

1 1KΩ
2 10KΩ

Result
1. Input and Output waveforms of a full-wave (center tapped) and bridge rectifier with
/without filters
are observed and plotted.
2. For Full-wave rectifier(center tapped) without filter-
i. γ, Ripple factor at 1KΩ =
at 10KΩ =
3. For full-wave rectifier (Center tapped) with filter
i. γ, Ripple factor at 1KΩ, 100μF =
at 10KΩ, 100μF =
 2. Common Emitter Amplifier Characteristics

Aim:
To obtain the frequency response characteristics of CE amplifier and to calculate
its bandwidth.

Apparatus Required:

1. Bread board
2. Function Generator (0-1)MHz
3. CRO with probes
4. Regulated DC power supply (0 - 30V) – 1No.
5. Resistors 2.2k, 33k, 8.2k, 4.7k, 1k Ohms.
6. Capacitors 10uF - 3No’s.
7. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:

Theory:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward
biased. The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The
input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across
collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a much larger change in
collector current. When +VE half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias
of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more
–VE. Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the
circuit, which causes the collector current to increases thus the output signal is common
emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal.
Bandwidth = fH-fL

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. First keep the input signal at 1 KHz (sine wave) with amplitude is equal
to 200mV constant throughout the experiment.
3. Now vary the input signal frequency from 50 Hz to 1MHz in steps. For
every value of input frequency note the output voltage.

4. Calculate the gain magnitude of the amplifier using the formula and gain
in (dB) = 20log (Vo/Vi).
5. Plot a graph frequency versus gain (dB) of the amplifier.
6. Take 3dB I.e. 3 divisions below the constant voltage gain and mark the
f1 and f2 from the graph.
7. Calculate the bandwidth f2 - f1 = BW.

Model Graph:
 Observation Table:
At constant Vi=200mV

Frequency Output (Vo) Gain Gain (in dB) =

(in Hz) (Peak to Peak)
(p-p) X
(volts/div)

Result:
Frequency response of CE amplifier is plotted.
Gain, AV =
Bandwidth= fH-fL =
 3. Common Base Amplifier Characteristics

Aim:
To plot the frequency response characteristics of CB amplifier and to calculate its
bandwidth.

Apparatus Required:

1. NPN transistor-BC107
2. Bread board
3. Function Generator (0-1)MHz
4. CRO with probes
5. Regulated DC power supply (0 - 30V) – 1No.
6. Resistors 100, 1k Ohms.
7. Capacitors 1uF - 3No’s.
8. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:

Theory:
The input ac signal is injected into the emitter-base circuit and output is taken from the
collector-base circuit. The E/B junction is forward-biased by VEE where as C/B junction is
reverse-biased by VCC. The Q-point or dc working conditions are determined by dc batteries
along with resistors RE and RC. In other words, values of IE, IB and VCB are decided by VCC,
VEE, RE and RC. The voltage VCB is given by the equation VCB= VCC – I CRC. When no signal
is applied to the input circuit, the output just sits at the Q-point so that there is no output
signal. Let us now see what happens when we apply an ac signal to the E/B junction via a
coupling capacitor C1 (which is assumed to offer no reactance to the signal).
When positive half-cycle of the signal is applied, then
1. Forward bias is decreased because VBE is already negative with respect to the ground.
2. Consequently, IB is decreased.
3. IE and hence IC are decreased (because they are both nearly β times the base current).
4. The drop IC RC is decreased.
5. Hence, VCB is increased as seen by the equation given above.
Common-base amplifier has
1. Very low input resistance (30 – 150 Ω).
2. Very high output resistance (up to 500 K).
3. A current gain α < 1.
4. Large voltage gain of about 1500.
5. Power gain of up to 30 dB.
6. No phase reversal between input and output voltages.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. First keep the input signal at 1 KHz (sine wave) with amplitude is equal
to 200mV constant throughout the experiment.
3. Now vary the input signal frequency from 50 Hz to 1MHz in steps. For
every value of input frequency note the output voltage.

4. Calculate the gain magnitude of the amplifier using the formula and gain
in (dB) = 20log (Vo/Vi).
5. Plot a graph frequency versus gain (dB) of the amplifier.
6. Take 3dB I.e. 3 divisions below the constant voltage gain and mark the
f1 and f2 from the graph.
7. Calculate the bandwidth f2 - f1 = BW.

Model Graph:
 Observation Table:
At constant Vi=20mV

Frequency Output (Vo) Gain Gain (in dB) =

(in Hz) (Peak to Peak)
(p-p) X
(volts/div)

Result:
Frequency response of CB amplifier is plotted.
Gain, AV =
Bandwidth= fH-fL =
 4. Common Source Amplifier Characteristics

Aim:
To obtain the frequency response characteristics of FET Common Source amplifier
and to calculate its bandwidth.
Apparatus Required:

1. FET-BFW10 or BFW11
2. Bread board
3. Function Generator (0-1)MHz
4. CRO with probes
5. Regulated DC power supply (0 - 30V) – 1No.
6. Resistors 47 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ, 1KΩ
7. Capacitors 10uF - 3No’s.
8. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. First keep the input signal at 1 KHz (sine wave) with amplitude is
equal to 50mv constant throughout the experiment.
3. Now vary the input signal frequency from 50 Hz to 1MHz in steps.
For every value of input frequency note the output voltage.

4. Calculate the gain magnitude of the amplifier using the formula and
gain in (dB) = 20 log (Vo/Vi).
5. Plot a graph frequency versus gain (dB) of the amplifier.
6. Take 3dB I.e. 3 divisions below the constant voltage gain and mark
the f1 and f2 from the graph.
7. Calculate the bandwidth f2 - f1 = BW.

Model Graph:
Observation Table:
At constant Vi=200mV

Frequency Output (Vo) Gain Gain (in dB) =

(in Hz) (Peak to Peak)
(p-p) X
(volts/div)

Result:

The frequency response of Common Source JFET Amplifier is plotted and band
width is calculated.
Band Width = f1 – f2 =
5. Measurement of h-parameters of transistor in CB, CE and CC
configurations

Aim : To calculate h – parameters of a given transistor in CB, CE & CC configurations.

Apparatus:
1. Bread Board
2. BC 107 Transistor
3. Dual channel variable regulated DC power supply (0-30V)
4. DC Ammeter (0 - 200 µA) – 1No. , (0 - 50 mA) – 1No.
5. DC Voltmeter (0 - 2V) - 1 No. , (0 - 20V) - 1 No.
6. Resistor 100KΩ and 1KΩ.
7. Connecting wires
Circuit diagram:

Common Base Configuration

 Common Emitter Configuration

Common Collector Configuration

Procedure:

1. Plot the CB characteristics.

2. Now take the appropriate values from the graph and substitute them in the formulae
of h - parameters and obtain the various h – parameters of the transistor in CB
configuration.
3. Now continue steps 1 & 2 for CE & CC configurations also.

General h – Parameters:
In general, for a two port network h – Parameters are as follows,
V1 = hi I1 + hr V2 (1)
I2 = hf I1 + ho V2 (2)
In these equations
hi = V1/I1 at V2 = constant. Input resistance with output short circuited.
hr = V1/V2 at I1 = constant. Reverse voltage gain with input open.
hf = I2/I1 at V2 = constant. Forward current gain with output short circuited.
ho = I2/V2 at I1 = constant. Output admittance with input open.
 Formulae for h – Parameters for CB Configuration
1. Input Resistance (hib) = ∆VEB/∆IE at VCB = Constant

2. Reverse Voltage Gain (hrb) = ∆VEB/∆VCE at IE = Constant

3. Forward Current Gain (hfb) = ∆IC/∆IE at VCB = Constant

4. Output Admittance (hob) = ∆IC/∆VCB at IE = Constant

Formulae for h – Parameters for CE Configuration

1. Input Resistance (hie) = ∆VBE/∆IB at VCE = Constant

2. Reverse Voltage Gain (hre) = ∆VBE/∆VCE at IC = Constant

3. Forward Current Gain (hfe) = ∆IC/∆IB at VCE = Constant

4. Output Admittance (hoe) = ∆IC/∆VCE at IB = Constant

Formulae for h – Parameters for CC Configuration

1. Input Resistance (hic) = ∆VBC/∆IB at VEC = Constant

2. Reverse Voltage Gain (hrc) = ∆VEC/∆VBC at IB = Constant

3. Forward Current Gain (hfc) = ∆IE/∆IB at VEC = Constant

4. Output Admittance (hoc) = ∆IE/∆VEC at IB = Constant

Result:
h-parameter values for the given Transistor in CB, CE, CC Configurations are calculated.
 6. Input and Output characteristics of FET in CS configuration

Aim:
1) To study JFET characteristics (Drain and Transfer)

2) To calculate drain resistance (rd), Transconductance (gm) and Amplification factor (μ )

Apparatus Required:
1. Bread Board
2. DC Ammeters (Digital) (0 - 20mA) - 1No
3. DC Voltmeters (Digital) (0 - 20V) - 2 No`S
4. Dual channel regulated dc power supply (0 - 30v)
5. FET-BFW10.
6. Resistors 1kohm, 470ohm.
7. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:
 Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep VGS = 0, and measure ID by varying the VDS. (VDD from 0 - 15 V).
3. Repeat step-2 with VGs = -0.5, -1.0 V as constants.
4. Plot the output characteristics from the graph determine the voltage at
which the current variations stop abruptly. This voltage is called pinch-
off voltage (Vp) and the limiting current (IDS).
5. Set VDS = 4V and vary VGG (i.e. i/p supply voltage) over it full range and
measure ID.
6. Plot the transfer characteristics.
7. Evaluate rd, gm and μ from the graphs.

Model graphs:

Transfer characteristics Drain Characteristics

 Observation Table:

O/P Characteristics (or) Drain Characteristics:

VGS= 0V VGS = -1.0 V

VDS (V) ID (mA) VDS (V) ID (mA)

Transfer Characteristics:
VDS= 2V VDS= 6V
VGS(V) ID (mA) VGS(V) ID (mA)
Formulae

Drain Resistance at constant

Transconductance at constant

Amplification factor μ = = at constant

Result:

Input & Output Characteristics of JFET are plotted. From the Characteristics we
calculated the following parameter.
Drain resistance ( ) =

Transconductance ( )=

Amplification factor (μ)=