1

12. Power Supplies

An electrical power source is essential for the operation of most electronic
equipment. Some portable equipment such as radio receivers and pocket calculators may
be battery operated but most electronic equipment requires an electrical supply. In this
chapter we examine the operation and design of linear power supplies that convert an AC
voltage from the public mains supply into a stable DC voltage. At the end of the chapter
the student will be able to
 Explain the operation of linear regulators
 Design several forms of linear regulated power supplies
 Utilize IC regulators in regulated power supplies
 Design short-circuit protection circuits

12.1 Basic System

A regulated power supply consists of several sub-systems: a transformer, a
rectifier, a filter and a voltage regulator as shown in figure 12.1. The transformer converts
the high AC mains voltage to a lower usable voltage while also providing isolation from
the mains. The rectifier converts the low AC voltage from the transformer to a varying
DC voltage while the filter removes the ripple from the rectified voltage thereby
converting it from high ripple content to low ripple content. Finally the regulator converts
the unregulated output of the filter to a regulated one where the DC voltage is very stable
and ripple-free. The power supply comprising only of transformer, rectifier and filter is
referred to as an unregulated supply. When a regulator is added the system is referred to
as a regulated power supply.
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Figure 12.1 Basic power supply system

12.2 Rectification
The principle of rectification has been introduced in chapter 1 where diode
applications were discussed. In this chapter, more quantitative analysis is done so that
design issues may be considered. The circuit shown in figure 12.2 is that of a half-wave
rectifier with a transformer to reduce the mains voltage to a more desirable level. The

Figure 12.2 Half-wave rectifier

diode permits current flow in one direction only. The voltage VS represents the secondary

voltage of the transformer and is given by VS  Vm sin t where   2f . For

f  60 Hz ,   377 rad / s . The output waveform is shown in figure 12.3. Its average
value is the ratio of the area under one cycle of the half-wave rectified voltage waveform
and the waveform period T=1/60 given by
T

V
0
m sin 377tdt
Vm
V AV   (12.1)
1 / 60 
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Note that the area under half of the output voltage cycle is zero. The supply output is
comprised of two components: a DC component V DC , which is essentially the average

value of the output voltage, and an AC component V AC which determines the ripple

content of the output voltage i.e. VAV  VDC  V AC . It is therefore desirable to reduce this
ripple to a minimum.
The circuits shown in figure 12.4 are full-wave rectifiers using a centre-tapped
transformer in figure (a) and a bridge rectifier in figure (b). The diodes conduct such that

Figure 12.3 Output Waveform of Half-wave Rectifier

Figure 12.4a Full-Wave Rectifier Using Centre-tapped Transformer

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there is current flow in only one direction and both half-cycles of the waveform are
utilised. The resulting output waveform is shown in figure 12.5. For this waveform, the
average value increases to
T

V AV 
V
o
m sin 377t dt

2Vm
(12.2)
1 / 120 

Figure 12.4b Full-Wave Rectifier Using a Diode Bridge

Figure 12.5 Output Waveform of the Full-Wave Rectifier

where T=1/120 since the waveform frequency is doubled. This value is twice as large as
the value for the half-wave rectifier since both half cycles are available in the output. The
AC component still has a peak value of Vm . By definition, the effective or root mean

square (rms) value of a periodic function of time is the square root of the ratio of the area
under the square of one cycle of the waveform and the waveform period and for a
sinusoidal waveform is given by
 5

T
1 2
Vrms   Vm sin 2 377tdt (12.3)
T 0

For a half-wave rectifier, equation (12.3) leads to Vrms  Vm / 2 while the value for a full-

wave rectifier is the same as that for a sinusoidal waveform i.e. Vrms  Vm / 2 .

12.3 Filtering
In order to convert the half and full wave rectifiers into viable supplies, the ripple
component (VAC) in the output needs to be reduced. This process is referred to as filtering
and one straightforward method of doing this is to connect a “reservoir” capacitor C
across the output of the rectifier. If the capacitor is sufficiently large, it acts as a short-
circuit for the AC output voltage component thereby removing it from the output signal.
The resulting circuit consisting of transformer, rectifier and filter is called an unregulated
supply.
The arrangement for the half-wave rectifier is shown in figure 12.6. As the

Figure 12.6 Half-wave rectifier with Capacitive Filter

transformer voltage that is applied to the diode rises, the diode conducts and the
capacitor is charged up to the peak voltage. When the transformer voltage falls such that
the cathode voltage of the diode set by the capacitor is greater than the anode voltage set
by the transformer, the diode turns off and the output load is supplied by the capacitor
which discharges through the load. The capacitor in effect prevents the output voltage
from going to zero at any point in the cycle. The discharge rate depends on the value of
the capacitor and the load current and this voltage is exponential in form with time
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constant CRL seconds. The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor and load is given
by
VL  (V pk  VD )e t / CRL volts (12.4)

where VD is the diode voltage drop. When the transformer voltage rises again above the
capacitor voltage, the diode turns on the capacitor is recharged and the cycle is repeated.
The resulting voltage waveform is shown in figure 12.7.

Figure 12.7 Output Voltage Waveform of the Half-wave Unregulated Supply

If the time constant CRL is chosen to be significantly larger than the period of the
waveform, then the capacitor voltage will not fall significantly before being recharged
through the diode and therefore the amplitude of the ripple voltage will be reduced.
However the conduction time of the diode is quite short compared with the period T of
the waveform. During this time the current pulse delivered by the transformer and diode
must supply the charge delivered to the load. Since I  dQ / dt if I DC the load current is

approximately constant, then the average current pulse I pk through the diode is given by

I pk t D  I DC T (12.5)

T
from which I pk  I DC (12.6)
t D

Since T  t D , the magnitude of the current pulse is quite large. Moreover because
t D decreases as capacitor size increases, then so does the peak diode current. If the
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capacitor is too large the diode peak current rating could be exceeded causing damage to
the diode (and/or the transformer). Voltage and current waveforms are shown in figure

Figure 12.8 Voltage and Current Waveforms for a Half-Wave Rectifier

12.8. Because of the capacitor voltage, the diode is subjected to a maximum reverse
voltage of 2Vs and therefore the diode PIV rating must be PIV  2Vs .

The filtering of full-wave rectifiers, either that using the centre-tapped

transformer or the bridge rectifier version can be similarly accomplished using a reservoir
capacitor as shown in figures 12.9 and 12.10. Because of the availability of both cycles in
the rectifier output, the capacitor is recharged twice as frequently as in the half wave
rectifier and therefore the ripple content is approximately half of that in the half wave
rectifier.
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Figure 12.9 Full-wave rectifier with Capacitive Filter

Figure 12.10 Full-wave Rectifier Using Diode Bridge and Capacitive Filter

Also, since the capacitor discharge is reduced, the diode current flow during recharge is
also reduced. The peak inverse voltage for the full-wave rectifier using the centre-tapped
transformer is 2V s while that for the bridge rectifier is Vs . The output voltage and current
waveforms for these circuits are shown in figure 12.11

12.4 Average DC Output Voltage

In order to calculate the peak-to-peak value of the output ripple and the average
output voltage, certain approximations need to be made. Specifically, from figure 12.7 for
the half-wave rectifier, the diode is off for most of the period T. During this time the
capacitor delivers a load current IDC and therefore discharges in the process. The decay is
exponential but can be approximated as a linear decay. Also, the load current is assumed
to be approximately constant during the discharge.
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Figure 12.11 Voltage and Current Waveforms for Full-Wave Rectifiers

For a capacitor, the relationship I  CdV / dt holds. This can be approximated by

I  CV / t where V is a small change in capacitor voltage and t is the associated
small time interval over which this voltage change occurs. For the half-wave rectifier,
V V
I DC  C C R (12.7)
t TH

where VR is the change in voltage of the reservoir capacitor and TH is the period of the
half-wave rectified waveform. From this, the peak-peak output ripple is given by
I DC T I DC
VR   (12.8)
C Cf
where f is the frequency of the input voltage. For a full-wave rectifier, the period TF of
the rectified waveform is half that of the half-wave rectifier and therefore TF  1 / 2 f .
Hence for the full-wave rectifier, the peak-peak output ripple is given by
I DC T I DC
VR   (12.9)
C 2Cf
From this, the average DC output voltage is
VDC  V pk  V / 2 (12.10)
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Example 12.1
Design a half-wave unregulated power supply delivering 12volts DC at 1A with less than
2.5V peak-to-peak ripple.
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Solution: Since the peak transformer voltage is greater than the root mean square value
by a factor of 1.414, it is reasonable to choose the transformer voltage Vrms to be equal to

the required DC output voltage i.e. Vrms  V DC  12V . Also, to prevent transformer

heating, the transformer secondary current rating should be larger than the maximum load
current by at least a factor of 1.5 i.e. I rms (sec)  1.5I DC (max)  1.5 A . Choose a diode with

I AV  I DC (max)  1A and PIV  V pk  12 2  16.8V . Capacitor C is given by

I DC 1
C   6666 F . A rough indication of the output voltage under full-load
fV 60  2.5
conditions is given by VDC  V pk  V / 2  16.8  2.5 / 2  16 .

Example 12.2
Design a full-wave unregulated power supply delivering 15volts DC at 1A with less than
1.5V peak-to-peak ripple. Use a centre-tapped transformer.
Solution: Since the peak transformer voltage is greater than the root mean square value
by a factor of 1.414, it is reasonable to choose the transformer voltage Vrms to be equal to

the required DC output voltage i.e. Vrms  VDC  15V . Also, to prevent transformer

heating, the transformer secondary current rating should be larger than the maximum load
current by at least a factor of 1.5 i.e. I rms (sec)  1.5I DC (max)  1.5 A . Choose a diode with

I AV  I DC (max)  1A and PIV  V pk  15 2  xx.xV . Capacitor C is given by

I DC 1
C   F . A rough indication of the output voltage under full-load
2 fV 2  60 1.5
conditions is given by VDC  V pk  V / 2  16.8  2.5 / 2  16 .

12.5 Bipolar Unregulated Power Supplies

Many electronic devices, especially operational amplifiers, require both positive
and negative supply voltages. These voltages are defined relative to a common ground
terminal. Such a supply is referred to as a bipolar supply and is shown in figure 12.12.
In this circuit, a centre-tapped transformer is used to drive four diodes with the
centre tap serving as the common ground. Diodes D1 and D2 provide positive full-wave
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rectification and make terminal 1 positive with respect to the centre tap while diodes D3

and D4 provide negative full-wave rectification and make terminal 2 negative relative to
the centre tap. Capacitors C1 and C2 respectively filter the positive and negative voltages.
It is possible to realise a bipolar unregulated supply using a single winding transformer.
This elegant circuit is shown in figure 12.13. Each section is effectively a half-wave
rectifier and therefore would in general produce twice as much ripple as the circuit of
figure 12.12. However it does not require a centre-tapped transformer and this is its main
advantage.

Figure 12.12 Bipolar Unregulated Power Supply

Figure 12.13 Bipolar Unregulated Power Supply Using Half-wave Rectifiers

12.6 Voltage Multipliers

It is possible to produce a high dc voltage using a low-voltage transformer. This
can be done using a combination of diodes and capacitors along with the transformer.
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Such circuits rely on capacitor charge storage and are therefore not able to deliver high
currents.

Figure 12.14 Voltage Doubler

In the circuit of figure 12.14, when the AC input is negative-going such that diode D1 is

forward biased, capacitor C1 is charged up to the peak transformer voltage 2Vs with the

polarity shown. During this time D2 is reverse biased. When the transformer input

reverses and is positive going, D1 is reverse biased but D2 is now forward biased allowing

capacitor C2 to charge up to the sum of the transformer voltage 2Vs and the voltage

2Vs on C1 , both of which are in series. After a few cycles capacitor C2 charges up to

2 2Vs making this circuit a voltage doubler. When a load is connected, however, C2 will
be constantly discharging and therefore the output voltage will in general be less than

2 2Vs and will have high ripple content. Increasing the size of the capacitors will reduce
but not eliminate the problem.

Figure 12.15 Voltage Tripler

The principle of the voltage doubler may be extended to voltage tripling,

quadrupling and beyond. In the voltage tripler circuit of figure 12.15, during the half-
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cycle when terminal A is positive relative to terminal B, diode D1 turns on and C1 is

charged to 2Vs . When the transformer voltage reverses such that terminal B is positive

relative to terminal A, diode D2 conducts and the transformer voltage in series with the

voltage across C1 together charge capacitor C2 to 2 2Vs . When A is again positive

relative to B, diode D3 conducts and the series combination of the transformer voltage

and the voltage 2 2Vs across capacitor C2 charges capacitor C3 to 3 2Vs . After a few

cycles, the output voltage across C3 rises to approximately 3 2Vs .

Any number of multiplications of the basic input voltage is realised in the
multiplier circuit of figure 12.16. The transformer secondary voltage 2Vs is multiplied

by the number of cascaded stages resulting in an output voltage at terminal 1 of n 2Vs

where n corresponds to the number of diodes. As can be seen from the circuit, n is
always an even number. If point B is grounded instead of A, then the output is taken
terminal 2 and is still n 2Vs but now n is an odd number. Thus, any multiplication of

2Vs is possible using this circuit. The diode and capacitor voltage ratings must be twice

the transformer output voltage 2Vs . Again, the capacitor values and diode current
ratings depend on the output current.

Figure 12.16 General Voltage Multiplier

12.7 Voltage Regulators

Unregulated power supplies have several undesirable characteristics. Firstly the
DC output voltage decreases and the AC ripple increases as load current increases.
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Secondly, the output voltage changes significantly in response to a changing input

voltage resulting from changing line voltage. These disadvantages can be minimised by
adding a voltage regulator to the unregulated supply. The resulting supply is called a
regulated power supply. The function of the regulator is therefore to maintain a constant
output voltage under conditions of changing load current and changing line voltage.
There are two types of voltage regulators: (a) the shunt regulator in which a control
element is in parallel (shunt) with the load and (b) the series regulator in which a control
element is in series with the load.
In a Shunt Regulator, the regulating device is placed in parallel with the load and
works in conjunction with a resistor in series with the load and the unregulated supply.
The regulator operates by varying the current through the control element depending on
the load current. This results in a varying voltage drop across the series resistor such that
the load voltage remains constant. One example of a shunt regulator is the zener diode
regulator which is discussed below. In a Series Regulator, the regulating device is
placed in series with the load and the unregulated supply and the voltage across the
control element is adjusted so that the load voltage remains constant. Two examples of
this type of regulator will be discussed below.

12.7.1 Ripple and Regulation

The performance of a voltage regulator can be specified by several parameters.
One of these gives an indication of the ripple content of the DC output. The output of a
rectifier contains considerable ripple, which would have to be reduced by the regulator in
order to make the DC voltage useable. The quality of the resulting output may be
expressed using percent ripple R which is defined as
ripple voltage (rms)
R x 100% (12.11)
Average or DC output voltage
This parameter is however difficult to determine because of the difficulty in determining
the rms ripple voltage in the output. A ripple measure that is more easily evaluated is the
ripple factor r given by
peak to peak ripple in output voltage
r (12.12)
Average or DC value of output voltage
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The peak-to-peak output voltage ripple involved in this specification is easily determined
using an oscilloscope. Both percent ripple and ripple factor measures should be as low
as possible. Another factor of importance in a power supply is Load Regulation which
specifies the change in the DC output voltage arising from changing load current. This
regulation is given by
VDC (no.load )  VDC ( full.load )
load .regulation   100 (12.13)
VDC ( full.load )
where VDC (no load) is the average value of the output voltage when the external load
resistance is removed and VDC (full load) is the average value of the output voltage when
the external load resistance is at a minimum. In practical circuits, diode resistance and
transformer winding resistance will result in voltage drops that cause the output voltage
to be reduced with increasing load. It is desirable to reduce this drop and thereby have a
low load regulation. Line Regulation specifies the change in the DC output voltage
resulting from a change in the line or input voltage. It is a measure of effectiveness of the
regulation (output voltage stability) in the presence of changing input voltage. It is given
by
Vout
line.regulation   100 (12.14)
Vin

for a constant load current where Vout is the change in the output voltage of the regulator

and Vin is the associated change in the input voltage to the regulator. Ideally, both line

and load regulation should be zero and in practice, the values are less than 0.01% for
good regulators. The ratio Vout / Vin is sometimes referred to as Stability Factor.

12.7.2 Zener Diode Regulator

The zener diode is essentially a semiconductor diode designed to operate in the
reverse-biased region. In the forward bias region, the device operates as a normal diode
while in the reverse bias region, it again operates like a diode for voltages less than the
breakdown voltage. For voltages exceeding the breakdown (zener) voltage, the zener
diode conducts and operates along that part of the I / V characteristic having a steep
slope. Providing the current is prevented from rising too high, the voltage across the
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zener in this condition is approximately constant at the breakdown or zener voltage and
the dynamic resistance rd is quite low, ranging from a few ohms to about 50 ohms. In this

region, the voltage across the zener is approximately constant and when operated here,
the device provides a constant voltage output.

Figure 12.17 Zener Diode Characteristic

The current through the zener in this region is limited by the power rating PD of

the diode and must be operated such that Vz I z  PD . If I z (max)  PD / Vz is exceeded the
diode will be destroyed. Also, I z must not fall below the minimum value I z (min)
otherwise the zener voltage will fall. This corresponds to the knee of the curve in
Fig.12.17. Zener diodes are available in voltages ranging from about 2.4V to about 200V.
The power ratings range from about ¼w to over 100W.
The zener diode operates as an effective voltage regulator. The basic system is
shown in Fig.12.18. A (varying) voltage Vi is applied to the zener diode through a resistor
R that limits the current. The voltage Vz across the zener is then applied to a load RL. If Vi
increases, say, more current flows through the zener but based on its characteristic Vz
stays approximately constant. Similarly, if Vi decreases, the current though the zener
drops but again Vz stays constant. Thus, the voltage Vz is approximately constant despite
changes in the input voltage or load current. The load RL therefore sees a regulated
(constant) voltage providing I z min  I z  I z max . This design of a zener-regulated power
 18

supply involves the determination of R. In order to do so, the minimum and maximum
values of Vi as well as the maximum value of I L must be known. When I L is at maximum
corresponding to minimum RL, and Vi at a minimum, the value of R must be such that
I z  I z min .

Figure 12.18 Zener Diode Regulator

Thus,
Vi min  Vz
 I L max  I z min (12.15)
R
i.e.
Vi min  Vz
R (12.16)
I L max  I z min
When Vi rises and IL goes to zero (load removed), the current through the zener is at its
maximum and the required power rating PD of the diode must satisfy
Vi max  Vz
PD  Vz (12.17)
R
Zener regulated power supplies are useful for low-power applications involving less than
a few Watts since under the condition where no load current is being supplied the zener
must accommodate the full load current.
In order to determine the ripple at the output of the zener diode regulator, the
dynamic resistance of the zener must be considered. The dynamic resistance is the
reciprocal of the slope of the diode characteristic in the operating region. It is an
indication of the resistance of the diode to small voltage and current changes. The value
is typically in the range 5 to 50. The actual circuit under small signal conditions is
equivalent to that shown figure 12.19. For input ripple voltage vi the output ripple vR is
given by
 19

rd // RL
v R  vi .
R  rd // RL
rd
 vi , rd  RL (12.18)
R  rd
Hence to minimize vR, R should be as large as possible. Hence in (12.16), equality is used
with I z min set at a value determined by the specification sheet. If the load is variable and

Vi is fixed, then Vi min  Vi . If Vi is variable and the load is fixed, then at no time will
current flowing through R all flow into the zener since some current will always be
flowing into the load. Hence (12.17) becomes
Vi (max)  VZ
PD  VZ (  IL ) (12.19)
R

Figure 12.19 Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode Regulator

This circuit has the advantage of short-circuit protection provided by the presence of
resistor R which will act to limit excessive current to the load.
Example 12.3
A voltage from an unregulated supply varies between a minimum value of 16 volts to a
maximum value of 20 volts. Using this unregulated supply, design a zener regulated
supply that delivers 10 volts DC with a current capacity of 10mA.
Solution: The first step is to choose a 10 volt zener for the circuit of figure 12.18. The
power rating will be determined later. To determine R we consider the case where zener
current is at a minimum. This occurs when the input voltage is at a minimum, in this case
16 volts, and the load current is at a maximum at 10mA. We determine from diode
specifications the minimum diode current for proper zener operation. Assume a value of
 20

5mA. The voltage across R is (16-10) volts and the current through R is (10+5) mA. R is
(16  10)
therefore given by R  10 3  400 . Note that if the load were suddenly
(10  5)
removed, then the current through D would rise to 15mA when the input voltage is at 16
volts. To determine the diode power rating, we calculate the maximum current through
the diode. This occurs when the unregulated input voltage is at a maximum of 20 volts
and the load current is at a minimum (zero) corresponding to a removal of the load. The
voltage across R is then (20-10)=10volts and hence the current ID through D is given
10
by I D   25mA . This current flows through R and hence the required zener power
400
rating PD is given by PD  I D .VD  25mA  10V  0.25W . We choose a ½W diode to
provide a safety margin and for longer diode life. In this design, the input ripple voltage
is (20-16)=4 volts pk-to-pk. Hence, assuming rd  10 the output ripple voltage is

10 e 0.1
ero   4  0.1volts . The ripple factor r is then r  ro   0.01 .
400  10 VDC 10
At half Watt the available zener diode voltages are the following: 2.7V; 3.0V;
3.3V; 3.6V; 3.9V; 4.3V; 4.7V; 5.1V; 5.6V; 6.2V; 6.8V; 7.5V; 8.2V; 9.1V; 10V; 11V;
12V; 13V; 15V; 16V; 18V; 20V; 24V; 27V; 30V. At 1.3 Watts the available zener diode
voltages are as follows: 1.3W; 4.7V; 5.1V; 5.6V; 6.2V; 6.8V; 7.5V; 8.2V; 9.1V; 10V;
11V; 12V; 13V; 15V; 16V; 18V; 20V; 22V; 24V; 27V; 30V; 33V; 36V; 39V; 43V; 47V;
51V; 56V; 62V; 68V; 75V; 100V; 200V.

12.7.3 Simple Series Transistor Regulator

One method of improving the current capacity of the zener regulator is the use of
a transistor in the emitter follower configuration. A simple single transistor regulator of
this type is shown in figure12.20. It utilizes the zener diode regulator and an npn
transistor connected as an emitter follower. The transistor collector is supplied from the
unregulated voltage source. The transistor effectively reduces increases the load current
capacity of the zener by a factor of the transistor current gain. Thus the zener voltage is
provided at the transistor emitter giving an output of Vo  Vz  0.7 volts . Since
 21

I B  I L for large transistor current gain, the changes in base current with large changes
in load current are small. Therefore the zener current does not change by very much.
Hence the output voltage is quite stable for large load current changes. The circuit output
impedance is given by
rd  hie
Zo  (12.20)
1  h fe

The voltage Vi must always be larger than Vz (by a few volts) to ensure that the transistor
is properly biased. In order to determine the ripple at the output, consider the equivalent
circuit of the regulator shown in figure 12.21. Then
vR
 vi  v R hoe  1  h fe ib (12.21)
RL
 vR
ib  (12.22)
hie
giving
vR hoe 1 1 R // r
    L ie (12.23)
vi 1 1  h fe roe roe 1 1 roe
  hoe 1   1  roe (  )
RL hie rie RL R L rie

1 h  1 1
where roe  and rie  ie . Now roe     1 . Hence
hoe 1  h fe  R L re 
vR RL // rie
 (12.24)
vi roe
vR
roe is of the order 105 and rie is of the order 102, hence  10 3 .Thus, the ratio is
vi
quite small indicating that the ripple output of the emitter follower regulator is quite low.
Thus for low ripple, R should be as large as possible subject to load and minimum
zener current requirement. From (12.16), a large input voltage to the zener results in a
large R. An even better way to increase R is to replace R by a constant current diode.
Another method of improving ripple performance is to reduce rd by placing a capacitor in
parallel with the zener.
 22

Figure 12.20 Single Transistor Regulator

Figure 12.21 Equivalent Circuit of Single Transistor Regulator

Example 12.3
Design a single transistor regulated supply using a zener diode capable of delivering 12V
at 100 mA. Use a half wave rectifier to drive the regulator.
Solution: For a 12volt output, in order to allow for sufficient voltage across the transistor
we choose a transformer with secondary voltage VS of 15volts. This gives a peak output

voltage of 15 2  21 volts. If we set a maximum peak-to-peak ripple of the unregulated

supply of 1volt, then using (12.8), the required capacitor C is given by
I DC 0.1A
C   1667 F . In order to realise a 12volt output, we choose a zener
VR f 1  60
 23

diode having a voltage VZ  12  0.7  12.7volts . The closest available voltage is 13volts.
Let the current through the zener be 5mA chosen for good zener operation. Then,
R  (VS (min)  VZ ) / 5mA  (15 2  13) / 5mA  1.6k . Note that the minimum voltage

drop across the transistor is VS (min)  VO  21  1  12  8volts . The full circuit is shown

in figure xx. A transistor with a current gain of 50 when delivering the full current of
100mA will have a base current of 100mA / 50  2mA . This must be supplied by the
zener.
Short circuit protection can be realized by the introduction of a fuse at the output.
Electronic short circuit protection is easily realised and will be discussed in section xx.
This circuit can be modified to deliver higher currents by using a Darlington pair instead
of a single transistor. In such a case the design proceeds as before but using the gain of
the Darlington pair.
Example 12.4
Design a regulated supply using a Darlington pair and a zener diode that delivers 15V at
1A. Use a full-wave rectifier to drive the regulator.
Solution: For a 15volt output, in order to allow for sufficient voltage across the transistor
we choose a transformer with secondary voltage VS of say 18volts. This gives a peak

output voltage of 18 2  25 volts. If we set a maximum peak-to-peak ripple of the

unregulated supply of 1.5volts, then using (12.8), the required capacitor C is given by
I DC 1A
C   5555F . In order to realise a 15volt output, we choose a zener
VR f 1.5  120

diode having a voltage VZ  15  0.7  15.7volts . The closest available voltage is 16volts.
Let the current through the zener be 5mA chosen for good zener operation and to supply
the transistor base current. Then, R  (VS (min)  VZ ) / 5mA  (18 2  16) / 5mA  1.8k .
Note that the minimum voltage drop across the transistor is
VS (min)  VO  25  1.5  15  9volts . The full circuit is shown in figure xx. A Darlington

pair with a current gain of 1000 when delivering the full current of 1A will have a base
current of 1A / 1000  1mA . This must be supplied by the zener.
 24

12.7.4 Series Feedback Voltage Regulator

In the single transistor voltage regulator, while the output ripple is low, there are
still variations in the output voltage arising from the VBE / I C characteristic of the

transistor. Thus, as load current increases, VBE increases and hence

Vo  V z  VBE decreases. In order to reduce the magnitude of this change, feedback can be
used to sense the change and effect a correction at the output. The basic elements of a
series feedback regulator circuit are shown in figure 12.22. It consists of an error
amplifier, a sampling circuit, a voltage reference and a series element. During operation,
the sampling circuit samples the regulator output voltage and sends it to the error
amplifier. This amplifier compares the sample with a reference voltage and generates a
signal proportional to the difference. This error signal is used to drive the series pass
element, which varies the output voltage such that the error is reduced and the output
voltage regulated.

Figure 12.22 Series Regulator

Considering the basic feedback system, the voltage across the series element is
(Vin – Vout) while the input voltage to the error amplifier is (βVout – Vref) where
R2
 (12.31)
R1  R2
The output voltage across the series element may be viewed as an amplified version of
the input voltage i.e.
 25

Vin  Vout  A( Vout  Vref ) (12.32)

where A is the gain of the error amplifier. Consider changes in the input and output
voltages resulting in
Vin  Vout  A( Vout  Vref ) (12.33)

Since Vref is constant, then

Vin  (1  A )Vout (12.34)

∴ Vout  Vin /(1  A ) (12.35)

Vout 1
Hence  (12.36)
Vin 1  A
which is the stability factor. The ripple voltage component of the output is also reduced
by a factor (1  A ) . It follows that the higher the loop gain A , the better the regulator
performance.

Voltage Regulator Using Discrete Transistors

A transistor regulator circuit utilizing feedback is shown in Fig. 12.23. Transistor
Tr2 is the series pass transistor and transistor Tr1 is the error amplifier. The overall system
operates according to the block diagram in figure 12.22.

Figure 12.23 Regulator Using Discrete Transistors

 26

The regulator in figure 12.23 accepts an unregulated DC input voltage Vi and

delivers a regulated DC output voltage VO . It operates by sampling the output voltage

VO via R1 and R2 and comparing the sampled voltage which appears at the base of Tr2

with a reference voltage VZ set at the emitter of Tr2 by the zener diode D. The resulting
error voltage across the base-emitter junction of Tr2 establishes a current that sets the
output voltage VO . If VO increases, the sampled voltage and hence the voltage at the base

of Tr1 increases. Since the emitter voltage of Tr1 is held fixed by the zener, the base-
emitter voltage increases. This further turns on Tr1, increasing its collector current. The
resulting increased voltage drop across R3 lowers the collector voltage of Tr1, which then

lowers the output voltage VO by the emitter follower action of Tr2. If the output voltage

decreases, then the base-emitter voltage of Tr1 is reduced thereby reducing its collector
current. The voltage at the collector of Tr1 increases which then increases the output
voltage VO . The capacitor C provides filtering action for the output of the associated

rectifier.
In the two-transistor implementation of this idea, the series pass transistor is Tr1-
Tr3, which is again operated as an emitter follower. The voltage at its base is the output
voltage of the error amplifier Tr2 that is a common emitter amplifier with load resistor R3.
The non-inverting input is the emitter of Tr2, which is held at a fixed voltage by the zener
diode. Resistor R ensures that this diode is always operated above its minimum current.
The base of Tr2, its inverting input, is fed from the potential divider R1 and R2, which are
connected at the output of the regulator.
The design procedure involves first choosing a current to be passed into the zener
through R. Let this value be Iz. Then R must be calculated to enable this current to flow
when Vi is at its minimum. Hence

Vi min  Vz
R (12.26)
Iz

where Vi min  Vs 2  V and ΔV is the peak to peak ripple voltage at the input to the
regulator. Resistor R3 is calculated by noting that it must supply collector current IC2 to
Tr2 as well as base current IB1 to Tr1. It must do so under worst-case conditions i.e. when
 27

Vi is a minimum and IB1 is a maximum. Noting that the voltage at the collector of Tr2 is

Vout  VBE , then

Vi min  Vout  VBE 

R3  (12.27)
I B1 (max)  I C1

I L max
where I B1 (max)  (12.28)
h fe (Tr1 )

In order to determine R1 and R2, we note that VB (Tr 2 )  VZ  VBE . Assuming that the base
current of Tr2 does not load the R3, R4 potential divider, it follows that
Vz  VBE Vout
 (12.29)
R2 R1  R2
R1
giving Vout  (1  ) Vz  VBE  (12.30)
R2

To prevent loading, choose I ( R3 , R4 )  10 I B (Tr 2 ) .

Example 12.4
Design a regulated supply using the topology in Fig.12.23 rated at 9 volts and 100mA.
Power for the regulator must come from an unregulated supply using a full wave bridge
rectifier and a 12-volt transformer having a ripple voltage of 1v peak to peak at maximum
load current. Use a transistors with current gain of 100.
Solution: For VO  9 , choose an intermediate value of zener diode voltage of say 5.6

volts (why?). Let the minimum current through the zener be 5mA for good zener
performance. Also, choose IC2=1mA as a reasonable operating current. Hence

Vi (min)  Vz 12 2  1  5.6
R   2k
5mA 5mA
Vi (min)  9  0.6  12 2  1  9.6
Also, R3    3k 2
I L / h fe  I c Tr2  100mA / 100  1mA

The current flowing through R1 and R2 must be at least 10 times the base current of Tr2.
The base current IB of Tr2 is approximately 2mA / 100  20 A . Hence
9
 10  20A
R1  R2

R1  R2  45k
 28

R1
Vo  (VZ  0.7)(1  )
R2
R1 9
  1  0.43
R2 6.3

Thus for R2  10k , R1  4.3k and note that for these values R1  R2  45k as
I L max 100mA
required. Finally C    833F .
120V 120  1
There are several ways to improve the performance of this circuit. A great
improvement can be realized by supplying R from the regulated output instead of the
unregulated input. This reduces the ripple across the zener diode and hence at the output.
A second improvement is to place a capacitor across the zener diode, again reducing the
ripple. The value of this capacitor is that value that has an impedance comparable to the
dynamic resistance of the zener. A third method of performance improvement is to
replace R by a constant current source. An excellent method of implementing this scheme
is the use of the constant current diode made using a JFET. This is a two-terminal device
made for example by Siliconix that can simply replace the resistor feeding the zener.
Finally, a small capacitor placed across the circuit output removes output noise and
reduces the supply impedance at high frequencies. In order to handle a large load current,
a second transistor can be used along with Tr1 in a Darlington arrangement. This reduces
the pass transistor base current demand that may otherwise cause resistor R3 to be too low
in value and thereby result in too large a standing current in the error transistor TR2. The
calculation would now involve the combined transistor current gain h fe1h fe 2 .

Example 12.5
Using the circuit shown in figure 12.24, design a +20volt, 1.5A regulator that is driven by
an unregulated supply having 2volt peak-peak input ripple. Use a 22volt transformer and
a bridge rectifier to provide the unregulated input. Assume the power transistor has a gain
of 25 and the other transistors have gains of 150. Justify all design steps.

Solution: Choose VZ  10volts for good feedback and reasonable value of R4 i.e. not too
low. Choose a zener current for good zener operation say 5mA. The minimum

unregulated input voltage is Vi (min)  22 2  2  29.1volts . Hence

 29

20  10 10
R4    2k . Let I C (Tr1 )  1mA for good transistor operation. Then,
5mA 5mA
29.1  (20  1.4) 7.7
R3    5.5k . In order that the base of Tr1 does not load
1.5 A /(150  25)  1mA 1.4mA
Vo 1mA Vo 20
R1, R2  10   66A i.e. R1  R2    300k . Now
R1  R2 150 66 A 66 A
VZ  0.7 Vo 10.7 20 R
 i.e.  from which 2  0.87 . For R1  10k , R2  8.7k .
R1 R1  R2 R1 R1  R2 R1

Note R1  R2  300k . Since the unregulated input is from a full-wave rectifier,

I 1.5
C   6250F .
2Vf 2  2  60

Tr3
Vi Vo

R3 Tr2
R2

R4
C
Tr1

D R1

Fig.12.24 Transistor Feedback Regulator Using Darlington Pair

Protection Circuits
In this linear regulator, if the output is short-circuited to ground, the pass
transistor will be immediately destroyed by excessive current flow. Various protection
schemes can be used to prevent this. One circuit that can be used is a current limiting
circuit shown in figure 12.24. Transistor Tr3 and R4 are introduced such that the load
current flows through R4 and thereby develop a voltage across the base emitter junction
of Tr3. For a sufficiently large load current, this voltage exceeds the turn-on voltage of
 30

the transistor (0.7V). Tr3 therefore turns on and diverts base current away from the base
of Tr1 thereby limiting the load current. The design equations are simple.

Figure 12.24 Transistor Voltage Regulator With Protection

Let the maximum load current be IL(max). Then at turn on I L (max) R4  0.7volts giving

0.7
R4  (12.31)
I L (max)

This current limiting circuit at switch-on converts the regulator from a constant voltage
output to a constant current output as shown in figure 12.25. Hence during its operation,
as the load resistance RL decreases, the constant current IL(max) develops a voltage across
RL given by
Vo  I L (max) R L (12.32)

Therefore, as RL goes to zero, so does the output voltage.

Figure 12.25 Voltage Characteristic of Regulator with Constant Current Protection

 31

This circuit can also be used to provide short-circuit protection to the single transistor
regulator of fig. Xx by connecting it in the same manner across the base-emitter terminals
of the transistor. When there is a current overload and the protection transistor turns on,
the base current to the pass transistor is limited and the zener voltage falls.
This circuit is simple and works very well. For example to limit current to
1A R4  0.7volts / 1A  7 . However, in the presence of a short circuit, a significant
current IL(max) flows into a short circuit. This can result in heating from residual circuit
resistance. It is therefore desirable that the load current IL(max) be also reduced. In the
fold-back limiting circuit shown in figure 12.26, reduction of both the output voltage and
load current in an overload condition is achieved. The fold-back action shown in figure
12.27 is introduced by the potential divider R5 and R6. The base of Tr3 is connected to the
junction of these resistors. Transistor Tr3 is turned on when the voltage Vx at the base of
Tr3 is 0.7 volts higher than the output voltage Vo. Initially, with no load current, Vo is

equal to Vo and Vx is lower than Vo making V x less than Vo . Tr3 is therefore off. As the

load current increases, Vo increases and hence Vx also increases. Eventually when

V x  Vo  0.7 volts, Tr3 turns on thereby diverting current form Tr1 and hence limiting IL.
The circuit is now in the constant current mode. As the load resistor RL is reduced further,
Vo decreases. But because of the potential divider R5 and R6, Vx decreases by a smaller
amount and therefore to maintain Vx − Vo = 0.7, ILR4 must decrease i.e. IL must fall. The
design equations are the following: At turn-on,
0.7  V x  Vo  Vo  Vo   (Vo  I L R4 )  Vo (12.33)

where
R6
 (12.34)
R5  R6
This gives
0.7  (   1)Vo  I L R4 (12.35)

0.7  12 12.7
Suppose Vo  12V and I L max   1A , then for R4 = 1Ω,     0.9692
12  1 13
 32

0.7 0.7
For R L  0,Vo  0 and hence I L ( RL  0)    0.619 A
R4 0.9692 1
From this, R6  10k and R5  317 .

Figure 12.26 Transistor Regulator with Fold-back Protection

Figure 12.27 Voltage Characteristic of Fold-back Protection

Op Amp Series Regulator

In order to improve the regulator performance, the loop gain A needs to be
increased. A simple method of doing this is to replace the transistor error amplifier by an
operational amplifier as shown in figure 12.28. The operational amplifier compares the
 33

reference voltage of the zener with the feedback voltage sampled by resistors R1 and R2.
Using basic op amp theory,
R1
Vo  Vz (1  ) (12.36)
R2

Figure 12.28 Op Amp Series Regulator

Figure 12.29 Improved Op Amp Voltage Regulator

Note that the op amp must be supplied from the unregulated supply. Similar to the
transistor case, the circuit can be improved by supplying the zener from the regulated
output as shown in figure 12.29. All the other improvement techniques are applicable
here. The current limiting techniques are also applicable.
 34

Example 12.6
Using the circuit shown in figure E2, design a +15volt, 2A regulator that is driven by an
unregulated supply having 2volt peak-peak input ripple. Use a 20volt transformer and a
full-wave rectifier to provide the unregulated input. Assume the power transistor has a
gain of 40 and the other transistor has a gain of 150. Justify all design steps.

Vi Vo

Tr2
R3
R1
Tr1
C

D R2

Figure E2

Solution: Choose VZ  7.5volts . Set I Z  5mA for good zener operation. Hence
R
R3  (15  7.5) / 5mA  1.5k . From (12.36), 7.5(1  1 )  15 . Hence R1  10k  R2 .
R2
I 2
C   8333F .
2Vf 2  2  60

12.7.5 IC Voltage Regulators

Instead of building regulators using transistors and operational amplifiers, IC
voltage regulators that greatly simplify the process are available. These ICs contain all
the elements of the basic block including reference voltage, error amplifier, series pass
device and overload protection circuitry. They provide excellent voltage regulation in
three basic formats, fixed positive voltage, fixed negative voltage and adjustable output
voltages.
The overall power supply consists of an unregulated supply providing the input
voltage to the IC regulator. A wide range of output voltages and currents are available.
 35

The design of a fully regulated power supply using an IC regulator is extremely

straightforward.
Three Terminal Voltage Regulator
The simplest of the IC regulators is probably the 3 terminal device shown in Fig.
12.30. An unregulated voltage is supplied to the input terminal, a regulated output is
available at the output terminal and the third terminal is grounded. Both positive and
negative voltage devices are available.

Figure 12.30 Three-terminal IC Regulator

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators

Fixed positive voltages are available in the 7800 series of regulators. The voltages
range from 5 volts to 24 volts as shown in Table 1. As an example, the 7815 IC regulator
is shown in Fig 12.31. The output voltage is +15 volts. A positive rectified input voltage
is supplied at Vi with capacitor C1 providing filtering (reservoir capacitor). The output is
filtered by capacitor C2, which is a smaller capacitor, designed to remove mostly high-
frequency noise. The ground terminal is connected to ground. If the supply transformer

has an output voltage of Vs rms, then the peak voltage into the regulator is 2Vs and the

minimum voltage is Vmin  2Vs  V where ΔV is the peak-to-peak ripple.

 36

Figure 12.31 Three-terminal Positive Fixed Voltage Regulator

Table 1: 7800 Series Positive Voltage Regulators

IC Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (V)

7805 +5 7.3
7806 +6 8.3
7808 +8 10.5
7810 +10 12.5
7812 +12 14.6
7815 +15 17.7
7818 +18 21.0
7824 +24 27.1

Based on the maximum load current I L max , the reservoir capacitor C1 is given by

I L (max)
C1  (12.37)
2 fV
Note that the minimum value of the unregulated input voltage must exceed the minimum
input voltage specification for the regulator. Some specifications include the following:
Output Voltage: The regulated output voltage
Output Regulation: The voltage change by which the output can vary
Short-circuit Output Current: The maximum current that flows at the output of the
regulator into a short circuit
 37

Drop Out Voltage: This is the minimum voltage across the input and
output terminal of the regulator that must be
maintained if regulating action is to be sustained.
Ripple Rejection: Ratio in dB of input ripple to output ripple.
Output Resistance: The DC output resistance of the regulator.

Figure 12.32 Three-terminal Negative Fixed Voltage Regulator

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulators
Similar to the 7800 series positive voltage regulators, the 7900 series provides
negative regulated voltages. Similar specifications apply with the list of available
voltages shown in Table 2. The connection of a −5 volt regulator is shown in Fig. 12.32.

Table 2: 7900 Series Negative Voltage Regulators

IC No. Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (Vi)

7905 −5 −7.3
7906 −6 −8.4
7908 −8 −10.5
7909 −9 −11.5
7912 −12 −14.6
7915 −15 −17.7
7818 −18 −20.8
7824 −24 −27.1
 38

Adjustable Voltage Regulators

Figure 12.33 Adjustable IC Voltage Regulator

Adjustable voltage regulators allow the user to change the output voltage of the regulator
to a desired level. The LM317 is an example of such a regulator. Its output voltage can be
adjusted over the range 1.2 volts to 37 volts. The circuit connection is shown in Fig.12.
33. The output voltage Vo is given by
R1
Vo  Vref (1  )  I adj R2 (12.38)
R2
Typical values are Vref  1.25V and I adj  100 A . The corresponding adjustable negative

regulator is the LM337. These devices are able to provide output current of up to 1.5A.
For the safe operation of this regulator protection diodes are required and the reader is
referred to the device datasheet. A typical application for a supply that can be varied from
1.25 to 13.5 is shown in fig. a.

12.8 Design Problem 1

In this section we explore the design of a variable voltage regulated power supply
using the basic op amp configuration of fig. xx. The system must be adjustable down to
zero and up to about 15 volts and must have adjustable current limiting from about
100mA to 1A. In order to secure a 15volt output from a regulator, a 36 volt centre-tapped
transformer rated at twice the required current is used. This would enable the design of a
 39

full wave rectifier using two rectifying diodes that provides sufficient voltage to ensure
pass transistor operation. One system topology is shown in fig b. It is an enhancement of
the circuit of fig.xx. In order to achieve variable output, the zener is supplied from the
unregulated input through a constant current diode D6 for improved ripple reduction. The
zener voltage supplies a potentiometer VR1 which in turn supplies a variable reference
voltage to the reference input of the op amp. In order that zero output voltage be possible,
the negative supply terminal of the op amp cannot go to zero (why?) but must be taken to
a negative voltage. A negative voltage of -6.8volts is furnished by zener diode D5 which
is powered via R3 by the half-wave rectifier D3, C2. The total voltage between the power
supply terminals of the op amp is 15 2  6.8  28volts which is less than the maximum
rated supply voltage of 2  18  36volts . A Darlington pair comprising Tr1 and Tr2 is
used and can be made up using a 2N3053 and a 2N3055 respectively. Potentiometer VR2
permits variation of the current limit. Tr3 can be a small signal transistor 2N3904.
Rectifying diodes D1 and D2 must have piv ratings of better than
2  15  2  42volts and current rating higher than 1A. The 1N5400 diode is rated at
100V and 3A and can be used. Since I  1A and f  60 Hz in order to realize a pk-to-pk
ripple voltage of about 2.5volts capacitor C1 must be
I 1
C1    3333F . The negative supply to the op amp must deliver at
2 fV 2  60  2.5
least 2mA to the op amp. Hence using I  0.002 A and f  60 Hz in order to realize a pk-
I 0.002
to-pk ripple voltage of about 2.5volts capacitor C2 must be C1    33F .
fV 60  1
Use C2=100uF. Diode D3 can be an 1N4002 with piv=100V and current rating of 1A.
Resistor R3 must supply the zener and the op amp with current. Allowing 5mA through
D5 in order to accomplish this, then R3  (15 2  6.8) / 5mA  2.8k . A 5.6V zener is
used for the reference zener D4. This value will be amplified by the op amp to produce
the desired output voltage. Vr1 is a 10k potentiometer to provide the voltage variation.
Capacitor C3 should have a reactance that is comparable to the dynamic resistance of the
zener which is of the order of tens of ohms. A 10uF capacitor has a reactance at
f  120 Hz of 1 / 2 120  10  133 which is acceptable. The constant current diode D6 is
 40

a Siliconix xxxx which supplies about 3.3mA to D4. The high impedance of D6 and the
low impedance of D4 in parallel with C3 ensure that the ripple content at the non-
inverting input at the op amp is very low. A choice of R1=10k and R2=18k means that
18
the maximum output of the system is 5.6(1  )  15.7volts just above the desired output
10
voltage level of 15. Resistor R5 sets the maximum current of say 1.1A and is given by
R5  0.7 / 1.1A  0.6 . The 10ohm potentiometer VR2 allows variation of the current
limit to a minimum value of I min  0.7 / 10.6  66mA . The resistor R4 assists in lowering
the output voltage during a current overload condition. Finally, capacitor C4 is intended
to reduce high frequency noise at the output of the power supply.

12.9 Design Problem 2

In this section we explore the design of a variable voltage regulated supply using
the LM1084 regulator IC. This IC is a low dropout voltage regulator that can deliver high
current at a positive voltage. It has the same pin-out configuration as the LM317. It is
available with fixed output voltages of 3.3volts, 5.0volts and 12.ovolts as well as variable
output. The device is current limited and thermally protected and can deliver 5A at a line
regulation of 0.015% and line regulation of 0.1%. A typical application as a variable
voltage regulator is shown in fig. xx. For this circuit the output voltage is given by
R2
VDC  1.25(1  ) (xx)
R1
The unregulated part of the supply follows the established design procedure. Resistor R1
is set at 120 ohms and R2 is a potentiometer. Using R2=5k then the output voltage varies
5000
from 1.25volts to VDC  1.25(1  )  15volts.
120
 41

Problems
1. Explain the operation of the regulator circuit shown in figure E1, describing the
circuit corrective action for unwanted increases or decreases in the output, and
giving an indication of the action of capacitor C.
2. Design a regulated supply using the topology in Fig.12.23 rated at 10 volts and
150mA. Power for the regulator must come from an unregulated supply using a
half wave bridge rectifier and a 12-volt transformer having a ripple voltage of
1.5volts peak to peak at maximum load current. Use a transistor with current gain
of 150. Include short circuit protection in your design.
3. Using the circuit shown in figure E1, design a +16volt, 1.2A regulator that is
driven by an unregulated supply having 2volt peak-peak input ripple. Use a 20volt
transformer and a bridge rectifier to provide the unregulated input. Assume the
power transistor has a gain of 20 and the other transistors have gains of 125.
Justify all your design steps.

4. Using the circuit shown in figure E2, design a +15volt, 2A regulator that is driven
by an unregulated supply having 2volt peak-peak input ripple. Use a 20volt
transformer and a full-wave rectifier to provide the unregulated input. Assume the
power transistor has a gain of 40 and the other transistor has a gain of 150. Justify
all design steps.

5. Design a single transistor regulator to power a small radio from the mains supply.
The required voltage is 6volts and the maximum current demand is 50mA.

6.
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Voltage 1 A part 3 A part 50 V 1N4001 1N5400 100 V 1N4002 1N5401 200 V 1N4003
1N5402 300 V — 1N5403 400 V 1N4004 1N5404 500 V — 1N5405 600 V 1N4005
1N5406 800 V 1N4006 1N5407 1000 V 1N4007 1N5408

0.5W 2.7V3.0V3.3V3.6V3.9V4.3V4.7V 5.1V5.6V6.2V6.8V7.5V8.2V9.1V 10V 11V

12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 24V 27V 30V
1.3W 4.7V5.1V5.6V6.2V6.8V7.5V8.2V 9.1V10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V20V 22V
24V 27V 30V 33V 36V39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V 68V75V100V200V

One very important rating of capacitors is "working voltage". This is the maximum
voltage at which the capacitor operates without leaking excessively or arcing through.
This working voltage is expressed in terms of DC but the AC equivalent is about only
one half of that DC rating. As the AC frequency increases the working voltage rating
decreases further still.