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2.1 Applications
Low-pass : to extract short-term average or to eliminate high-frequency uctuations (eg. noise ltering, demodulation, etc.) High-pass : to follow small-amplitude high-frequency perturbations in presence of much larger slowly-varying component (e.g. recording the electrocardiogram in the presence of a strong breathing signal) Band-pass : to select a required modulated carrier frequency out of many (e.g. radio) Band-stop : to eliminate single-frequency (e.g. mains) interference (also known as notch ltering)
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notch | G( ) |
Figure 2.1: Standard lters. The majority of the time we will consider the rst case. Consider some desired response, in the general form of the (squared) magnitude of the transfer function, . This response is given as i.e.
where denotes complex conjugation. If represents a stable lter (its poles are on the LHS of the s-plane) then is unstable (as its poles will be on the RHS). The design procedure consists then of
This means that, for any given lter response in the positive frequency domain, a mirror image exists in the negative frequency domain.
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Consider an ideal low-pass lter with a brick wall amplitude cut-off and no phase shift, as shown in Fig. 2.2.
| G( ) | 1
Figure 2.2: The ideal low-pass lter. Note the requirement of response in the negative frequency domain. Calculate the impulse response as the inverse Fourier transform of the frequency response:
243 % '&( ) 01 5 3 5 7698(@#ACBDFE98 ) 01 B G )IH 2 BG @#ACBDFE98 01 ) 6P& Q@#ACB G DSRT@ 5 ACB G D
hence,
8VU % '&( 1 "W(X`Y 8VUa& 8VU&
Figure 2.3 shows the impulse response for the lter (this is also referred to as the lter kernel). The output starts innitely long before the impulse occurs i.e. the lter is not realisable in real time. 13
2 1.5 1
g(t)
0.5 0 0.5 5
Figure 2.3: Impulse response (lter kernel) for the ILPF. The zero crossings occur at integer multiples of .
1cb 8VU
A delay of time
d
such that
8VU % F&( 1 W(X`Y d 8eU"'&eR d 8VU"F&VR
would ensure that most of the response occurred after the input (for large ). The use of such a delay, however, introduces a phase lag proportional to frequency, since . Even then, the lter is still not exactly realisable; instead the design of analogue lters involves the choice of the most suitable approximation to the ideal frequency response.
d $gf %Sh i698Ip 8 d
yP
i698
76P8
76P8
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task of approximating the ideal magnitude-squared characteristic is that of choosing a suitable denominator polynomial in , i.e. selecting the function in the following expression:
8 76P8 ) r h ) B B G B p p
where nominal cut-off frequency and rational function of The choice of is determined by functions such that to unity for and rises rapidly after that.
848VU ) r h 8 b
8eU
B G 8VU
. is close
i.e.
i698 ) r B B G ) q
where is the order of the lter. Figure 2.4 shows the response on linear (a) and log (b) scales for various orders .
for
8VU
88VU
i698
)
88VU
, the steepness of
is a direct function of .
for
! )
vvv
09e
R )
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(a)
1 0.8
|G()|
n=1 n=2
n=6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(b)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
10
log |G()|
10
1 2
10
10
log
10
Figure 2.4: Butterworth lter response on (a) linear and (b) log scales. On a log-log scale the response, for falls off at approx -20db/decade.
84f8eU
Proof Express
i698 7698
in a binomial expansion:
8 8 q p 5hi g R ) 0 ) 8eU q rkjl 8VU 8 m q R n 8eU )o 8 p q rwvvv 8VU
h
R )
i698
8us
R6v
ts
698
, the reverse
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(Rw
x ) r
) R6y B G q
CR
) r
) 5 A y BG q
) ) r 5 A y BG q
belong either to
R6v 8VU
or
R )
CR
q
@#A{z |#}
vvv
Thus
R6v 8VU @#A#z |} t~ i
Since
@
i.e. the poles have the same modulus and equi-spaced arguments. For example, for a fth-order Butterworth low-pass lter (LPF), :
n 1 0 ) 0 l s r 1 0 r ) 0 1 P r ) l9 ! n ! P ! 0 ) o ! vvv
8VU
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
Figure 2.5: Stable poles of 5th order Butterworth lter. We want to design a stable lter. Since each unstable pole is we can let the stable ones be in , and the unstable ones in
CR ) CR
a stable pole,
v !(8VU@ A
8VUC@
A t xa
!(8VU@ A
t mm
!(8VUC@ A
t xa
!(8VU@
A t p
0 WS
) BG r y BG p h ) r 0 y W j o
y BG r
BG
Note that the coefcients are palindromic (read the same in reverse order) this is true for all Butterworth lters. Poles are always on same radii, at angular spacing, with half-angles at each end. If is odd, one pole is real.
q ) 0 ) 0 v 0 v v n j v j l n v ) n v 0 l ) j o j o l j j v ) v $ t 9PP $ $ $ m $ $ p $ $g
) ) 9PP 0
) v v ) j n ) v v v v
o) 0 j
o) 0 j j
) o) )o
o)
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$
i.e.
yP 0
yP
R ) B BG
! d )
yP yP
B B G
Design a Butterworth LPF with at least 40 dB attenuation at a frequency of 1kHz and 3dB attenuation at = 500Hz. Answer
U
40dB
= 100;
8V
0
PP 1
and
yP y9 t x
8VU
)
PP 1
rads/sec
0 v o ) j o
9 ) 0 t x v
Therefore Hence
0
= 7 meets the specication into the transfer function from the above table for
Check: Substitute
6
i6 0
l
l v j R
) v j 6 n
which gives
0 )
. 19
for
; and
F dq y W y 5ut W(
. These two expressions are equivalent in that the latter can be derived from the former and so the result is a single Chebyshev polynomial which applies for . Alternatively, can be expressed as a polynomial in , which can be evaluated for any :
) w F dSq F d t y W F y W 5ut
for
' d
y W
where
y W
5ut
i.e.
d
'
0
W
R )
0
R
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Obviously, the same results are also valid with the Generally,
F dq } t r F dSq 5ut y W r ) r y W R )
function.
0 y W y W 0 dSq F
Thus:
F dq } t 0 dq FeR dSq 5ut ' dSq } t '
is a recurrence relationship which allows the computation of two previous polynomials. Using the recurrence relationship,
d F 0 d d FR t F 0 V 0 R ) eR
from the
F d m
0
'hR d
'
0
eR 0 j
R
)
m R
r
The graphs of Fig. 2.6 below show that, for large , diverges very rapidly for ; for example, . This is just the kind of behaviour we need for a good lter function. For a Chebyshev Type I lter (i.e. equi-ripple in the pass-band):
hv ) d m ) v dq 0 n v j n 8 h 8VU d q p 8VU 8
X v
i698
) ) r ds B B G
Chebyshev type I notes sets the ripple amplitude in the ripple pass1. The parameter band which is dened as . Since, for will uctuate between and .
) 8 8VU 8 8eU! !9i698 d q ) )
e.g. with , the amplitude will vary between and or 1dB ripple since .
n 0 yP l ) t x v R ) v
lPl
} i t
t t p
, ie.
2. At
d !
d q
'
h
5ut
{p
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T (x)
1
T (x)
2
8 6 4
0 2 1 0 2 2
2 2
x T (x)
3
x T (x)
4
30 20 10 0 10 20 30 2 1 0 1 2
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 2 1 0 1 2
if
is odd and 1 if
is even
3.
8VU
Ev
cut-off frequency.
By denition,
is given by:
) ) r d q Ba BG
) 0
ie.
d q
B BG
)
f8eU
, since
4. For gets large and decreases monotonically, as for the Butterworth LPF, but much more rapidly.
d q
8d8VU!
i698
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(a)
1 0.8
|G()|
n=1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 2.7: Response of Chebyshev type I lter. The lower limit of ripple in the pass-band is . Here .
b ) ) r w v lPl n
, and let
)
8Ts
R6v
(Rw
) r
ds 0
A y BG
5 dSq
A y B G
k 6
5ut
. Of the
R6v d 8VU
R6v R j 8VU
R6v 8VU 6
8VU r 6 H j
d 6 8VU 5ut d 6 0
i.e. 2 cubics
r j a D yV G } ig 5 g { A gi g7 CR t m 6 8eU eR 0 w
r j 8VU r 0
8eU
and
8VU
} g " A gi g7
D ye G
ig
R
t 8eU#!#
t t p
8VU
Therefore
) y R ) t
) h ) r 0 B G y p h ) r B G t y r y B G p
(factorised form)
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(Note
t m
Hence
(polynomial form)
n
In general, the poles lie on an ellipse (this is only meaningful for ; if , an ellipse can be drawn through any set of poles). A large means a larger ripple, narrower ellipse and less damped complex poles, ie. a more oscillatory impulse or step response but a steeper cut-off.
0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
at a frequency
) d q )
8V
B B
8V
ie.
R
w ) d q
8eU
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8e 8VU
R )
i.e.
5ut W(
or
5ut W
5ut
5ut W
B B G
= 65 Hz
250 Hz
Answer
lPl
for .
rads/sec. Minimum
5ut W( 5ut W( ) t x x ) v v j )
given by:
Therefore
. Minimum
x ~ y 5ut W n v n
given by:
lPl 0 v o o
"
5ut
t x
5ut
ie.
76P8 r )
) i z # G i # z ~ ~
where
The magnitude-squared response for Chebyshev Type I and II lters in Fig. 2.9. For both these lters, the pass-band edge is at where and the stop-band edge is at where .
8 8 t i
|G( )| 1/(1+ 2)
|G( )| 1/(1+ 2)
1/A
1/A c r Type I
c r Type II
:
h ) r $ y BG r y B r $ g y BG p h ) r r $ y B i y BG m m r $ y BG p r ) $ 698 t y BG 698 t
with zeroes at
d
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100Hz.
Answer
1. For Chebyshev Type II LPFs, the pass-band behaviour is the same as that of a Butterworth LPF; ie. . Therefore which gives
8VU 8 ( B G t t i t } )
2. When
d q ) ) 8 8 ) r ! ) ) i z ~ G i z t ~
Since
in this case
= 10 and thus:
5ut ) 5ut y W( 0 R ) ig v l
ie.
where is called a Chebyshev rational function and scribing the ripple properties of
q B G B !# q B G v 8
!#
is a parameter de-
Figure 2.10 shows the magnitude-squared response of a typical elliptic lowpass lter. The frequencies represent the edges of the pass- and stop-bands and it is noted that the cut-off frequency is given as . The latter, once again, is not the 3dB point though.
y 8VU 8 8 y
lter order
transition ratio
B B
C )
can be chosen and the fourth parameter is uniquely dened. The theory behind the determination of the function involves an understanding of Jacobian elliptic functions, which are beyond the scope of this
q B G B !#
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|G( )| 1/(1+ 2)
1/A
p s
Figure 2.10: Elliptic lter response.
course. Hence the design of elliptic lters will not be considered in detail in this lecture course. In any case, elliptic lters are usually designed with the help of graphical procedures (see, for example, Rabiner & Gold, Theory and Application of Digital Signal Processing) or computer programmes (see, for example, Daniels, Approximation methods for the design of passive, active and digital lters). You should remember, however, that for any given specication, the elliptic lter will always be of lower order than any other.
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