Theory and Design of Automotive Engine PDF

THEORY AND DESIGN
OF
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES
I Introduction
1 General - Historical development of automobiles, Types of power plant, Principle of engine operation,
Classification of engines.
2. Two stroe ! four stroe engines" Principles of engine operation #$% ! C%&, $cavenging - systems,
t'eoretical processes, parameters, relative merits ! demerits" Port timing diagrams, port design.
(elative merits ! demerits compared to petrol ! diesel engines, scavenging pumps.
II Engine components
Classification)types, function, materials, construction details, design and manufacturing processes of
t'e following engine components
*. Cylinders and liners - design, cylinder wear and corrosion, details of water +acet, dry and wet liners,
Cylinder 'ead - design"
,. Piston, piston rings, piston pin - design - stress analysis, met'ods of manufacture, compensation of
t'ermal e-pansion in pistons, 'eat treatment, piston ring selection, limits of fit for pins
.. Connecting rod - design, effects of w'ipping, bearing materials, lubrication
/. Cran s'aft - design, firing order, balancing and torsional vibration analysis, vibration dampers,
bearings,. 0ubrication
1. 2lyw'eel - design" Cams'aft - drives of cams, materials, Types #only descriptive&
3. 4alve and valve mec'anism - design, types of valve operating mec'anisms, valve springs, guides,
pus' rods, rocer arms, tappets, valve timing diagrams
5. Cran Case- 6esign of cran case, oil sumps and cooling features
17. 8anifolds-construction and design of inlet and e-'aust manifolds.
T9:T ;<<=$>
%. Hig' $peed 9ngines - P .8.Heldt, <-ford ! %;H , 15/.
2. ?uto 6esign - (.; Gupta, $atya Praas'an, @ew 6el'i 1555
(929(9@C9 ;<<=$>
%.? course in %.c. 9ngine - 8at'ur ! $'arma, 6'anput (ai ! $ons, 6el'i, 155,
2.?utomobile 9ngineering 4oA ! %% - =irpal $ing', $tandard publications, @ew 6el'i, 1512
*. 8odem Petrol 9ngine B ?.C.Dudge, ;.%. Publications. 153*
,. %.c. 9ngine - 8aleev !0itc'y, 8cGrawHill
.. %.C.9ngines - H.;.=es'wani, $tandard Pub @ew 6el'i., 1532
/. 2undamentals of %.C.9ngines - D.;.Heywood
1. 8ac'ine design e-ercises - $.@.Tri'a, ='anna publications, 6el'i
3. ?utomotive mec'anics - @.=.Giri, ='anna publications,6el'i
5. ?utomotive mec'anics - Cilliam H. Crouse, Tata 8c,Graw Hill Publications Co. @ew 6el'i
17. %.C.9ngines and ?ir Pollution - ;.P.<belErlnte-t 'arper ! (oni Pub, @ew yor &
TH9<(F ?@6 69$%G@ <2 ?AT<8<T%49 9@G%@9$
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T'eory and 6esign of ?utomotive 9ngines
CHAPTER - 1
HISTORY
Automobiles through the Years - $ince t'ey originated in t'e late 1377s, automobiles 'ave
c'anged and developed in response to consumer wis'es, economic conditions, and advancing
tec'nology. T'e first gas-powered ve'icles looed lie 'orse buggies wit' engines mounted underneat'
because t'is was t'e style to w'ic' people were accustomed. ;y 1517, 'owever, features lie t'e front-
mounted engine were already establis'ed, giving t'e automobile a loo t'at was all its own. ?s public
demand for cars increased, t'e ve'icles became more styliGed. T'e classic cars of t'e 1527s and 15*7s
epitomiGe t'e slee, individually designed lu-ury cars called t'e Hclassic cars.I 6uring t'e 15,7s and
15.7s, automobiles generally became larger until t'e advent of t'e HcompactI car, w'ic' immediately
became a popular alternative. T'e gasoline crisis is reflected in t'e fuel efficient cars made in t'e 1517s
and 1537s. Current designs continue to reflect economy awareness, alt'oug' many different marets
e-ist.
T'e 'istory of t'e automobile actually began about ,,777 years ago w'en t'e first w'eel was
used for transportation in %ndia.
%n t'e early 1.t' century t'e Portuguese arrived in C'ina and t'e interaction of t'e two cultures
led to a variety of new tec'nologies, including t'e creation of a w'eel t'at turned under its own power.
;y t'e 1/77s small steam-powered engine models 'ad been developed, but it was anot'er century
before a full-siGed engine-powered ve'icle was created.
%n 11/5 2renc' ?rmy officer Captain @icolas-Dosep' Cugnot built w'at 'as been called t'e first
automobile. CugnotJs t'ree-w'eeled, steam-powered ve'icle carried four persons. 6esigned to move
artillery pieces, it 'ad a top speed of a little more t'an *.2 m)' #2 mp'& and 'ad to stop every 27
minutes to build up a fres' 'ead of steam.
Cugnot Steam Tractor
-the first self-propelled road vehile! th"s!
the earliest a"to#o$ile% &o'ered $( stea#!
the three-'heeled trator- i)ve)ted i) *+,-
$( Niolas-.oseph /"0)ot% desi0)ed to
arr( artiller(! $"t si#ilar vehiles soo)
fo")d #a)( other "ses i) i)d"str(%
?s early as 1371, successful
but very 'eavy steam automobiles
were introduced in 9ngland. 0aws
barred t'em from public roads and
forced t'eir owners to run t'em lie
trains on private tracs.
%n 1372 a steam-powered coac' designed by ;ritis' engineer (ic'ard Trevit'ic +ourneyed more t'an
1/7 m #177 mi& from Cornwall to 0ondon. $team power caug't t'e attention of ot'er ve'icle builders.
%n 137, ?merican inventor <liver 9vans built a steam-powered ve'icle in C'icago, %llinois. 2renc'
engineer <nKsip'ore PecLueur built one in 1323.
;ritis' inventor Calter Handcoc built a series of steam carriages in t'e mid-13*7s t'at were
used for t'e first omnibus service in 0ondon.
;y t'e mid-1377s 9ngland 'ad an e-tensive networ of steam coac' lines. Horse-drawn
stagecoac' companies and t'e new railroad companies pressured t'e ;ritis' Parliament to approve
'eavy tolls on steam-powered road ve'icles. T'e tolls Luicly drove t'e steam coac' operators out of
business.
6uring t'e early 27t' century steam cars were popular in t'e Anited $tates. 8ost famous was
t'e $tanley $teamer, built by ?merican twin brot'ers 2reelan and 2rancis $tanley. ? $tanley $teamer
establis'ed a world land speed record in 157/ of 27..,, m)' #121..1* mp'&. 8anufacturers produced
about 12. models of steam-powered automobiles, including t'e $tanley, until 15*2.
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Internal-Combustion Engine
6evelopment of lig'ter steam cars during t'e 15t' century coincided wit' ma+or developments
in engines t'at ran on gasoline or ot'er fuels. ;ecause t'e newer engines burned fuel in cylinders inside
t'e engine, t'ey were called internal-combustion engines.
%n 13/7 2renc' inventor Dean-Dosep'-Mtienne 0enoir patented a one-cylinder engine t'at used
erosene for fuel. Two years later, a ve'icle powered by 0enoirJs engine reac'ed a top speed of about
/., m)' #about , mp'&.
%n 13/, ?ustrian inventor $iegfried 8arcus built and drove a carriage propelled by a two-
cylinder gasoline engine.
?merican George ;rayton patented an internal-combustion engine t'at was displayed at t'e
131/ Centennial 9-'ibition in P'iladelp'ia, Pennsylvania.
%n 131/ German engineer @iolaus ?ugust <tto built a four-stroe gas engine, t'e most direct ancestor
to todayJs automobile engines. %n a four-stroe engine t'e pistons move down to draw fuel vapor into
t'e cylinder during stroe one" in stroe two, t'e pistons move up to compress t'e vapor" in stroe t'ree
t'e vapor e-plodes and t'e 'ot gases pus' t'e pistons down t'e cylinders" and in stroe four t'e pistons
move up to pus' e-'aust gases out of t'e cylinders. 9ngines wit' two or more cylinders are designed so
combustion occurs in one cylinder after t'e ot'er instead of in all at once. Two-stroe engines
accomplis' t'e same steps, but less efficiently and wit' more e-'aust emissions.
?utomobile manufacturing began in earnest in 9urope by t'e late 1337s.
German engineer Gottlieb 6aimler and German inventor Cil'elm 8aybac' mounted a gasoline-
powered engine onto a bicycle, creating a motorcycle, in 133..
%n 1331 t'ey manufactured t'eir first car, w'ic' included a steering tiller and a four-speed
gearbo-. ?not'er German engineer, =arl ;enG, produced 'is first gasoline car in 133/.
Early Car
The first pratial ar! $"ilt $( Ger#a) e)0i)eer 1arl 2e)3 i) *445!
i)itiated the era of a"to#o$ile #a)"fat"ri)0% 2e)3 #ade
i#prove#e)ts to the i)ter)al o#$"stio) e)0i)e a)d i)ve)ted the
differe)tial drive a)d other a"to#otive o#po)e)ts% The o#pa)( 2e)3
fo")ded 0re' i)to o)e of the lar0est a"to#o$ile #a)"fat"rers i)
Ger#a)(%
%n 1357 6aimler and 8aybac' started a successful car manufacturing company, T'e 6aimler
8otor Company, w'ic' eventually merged wit' ;enGJs manufacturing firm in 152/ to create 6aimler-
;enG. T'e +oint company maes cars today under t'e 8ercedes-;enG nameplate.
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%n 2rance, a company called Pan'ard-0evassor began maing cars in 135, using 6aimlerJs
patents. %nstead of installing t'e engine under t'e seats, as ot'er car designers 'ad done, t'e company
introduced t'e design of a front-mounted engine under t'e 'ood. Pan'ard-0evassor also introduced, a
clutc' and gears, and separate construction of t'e c'assis, or underlying structure of t'e car, and t'e car
body. T'e companyJs first model was a gasoline-powered buggy steered by a tiller.
2renc' bicycle manufacturer ?rmand Peugeot saw t'e Pan'ard-0evassor car and designed an
automobile using a similar 6aimler engine. %n 1351 t'is first Peugeot automobile paced a 1,7,/-m
#/.7-mi& professional bicycle race between Paris and ;rest.
<t'er 2renc' automobile manufacturers opened s'op in t'e late 1377s, including (enault.
%n %taly, 2iat #2abbrica %taliana ?utomobili di Torino& began building cars in 1355.
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?merican automobile builders were not far be'ind. ;rot'ers C'arles 9dgar 6uryea and Dames
2ran 6uryea built several gas-powered ve'icles between 135* and 135.. T'e first 6uryea, a one-
cylinder, four-'orsepower model, looed muc' lie a Pan'ard-0evassor model.
Horseless Carriage
The ori0i)al
horseless
arria0e 'as
i)trod"ed i)
*4-6 $(
$rothers
/harles a)d
Fra)7
D"r(ea% It
'as
A#eria8s
first i)ter)al-
o#$"stio)
#otor ar!
a)d it 'as
follo'ed $( He)r( Ford8s first e9peri#e)tal ar that sa#e (ear%
%n 135* ?merican industrialist Henry 2ord built an internal-combustion engine from plans 'e
saw in a magaGine. %n 135/ 'e used an engine to power a ve'icle mounted on bicycle w'eels and
steered by a tiller.
Early Electric Cars
2or a few decades in t'e 1377s, electric engines en+oyed great popularity because t'ey were
Luiet and ran at slow speeds t'at were less liely to scare 'orses and people. ;y 1355 an electric car
designed and driven by ;elgian inventor Camille DenatGy set a record of 17..3317 m)' #/..15 mp'&.
9arly electric cars featured a large ban of storage batteries under t'e 'ood. Heavy cables connected t'e
batteries to a motor between t'e front and rear a-les. 8ost electric cars 'ad top speeds of ,3 m)' #*7
mp'&, but could go only 37 m #.7 mi& before t'eir batteries needed rec'arging. 9lectric automobiles
were manufactured in Luantity in t'e Anited $tates until 15*7.
Automobiles in the !th century
2or many years after t'e introduction of automobiles, t'ree inds of power sources were in
common use> steam engines, gasoline engines, and electric motors.
%n 1577 more t'an 2,*77 automobiles were registered in @ew For City" ;oston, 8assac'usetts" and
C'icago, %llinois. <f t'ese, 1,117 were steam cars, 377 were electric cars, and only ,77 were gasoline
cars. Gasoline-powered engines eventually became t'e nearly universal c'oice for automobiles because
t'ey allowed longer trips and faster speeds t'an engines powered by steam or electricity.
%mprovements in t'e operating and riding Lualities of gasoline automobiles developed Luicly
after 1577. T'e 1572 0ocomobile was t'e first ?merican car wit' a four-cylinder, water-cooled, front-
mounted gasoline engine, very similar in design to most cars today. ;uilt-in baggage compartments
appeared in 157/, along wit' weat'er resistant tops and side curtains. ?n electric self-starter was
introduced in 1511 to replace t'e 'and cran used to start t'e engine turning. 9lectric 'eadlig'ts were
introduced at about t'e same time.
8ost automobiles at t'e turn of t'e 27t' century appeared more or less lie 'orseless carriages.
%n 157/ gasoline-powered cars were produced t'at 'ad a style all t'eir own. %n t'ese new models, a
'ood covered t'e front-mounted engine. Two erosene or acetylene lamps mounted to t'e front served
as 'eadlig'ts. Cars 'ad fenders t'at covered t'e w'eels and step-up platforms called running boards,
w'ic' 'elped passengers, get in and out of t'e ve'icle. T'e passenger compartment was be'ind t'e
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engine. ?lt'oug' drivers of 'orse-drawn ve'icles usually sat on t'e rig't, automotive steering w'eels
were on t'e left in t'e Anited $tates.
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%n 157* Henry 2ord incorporated t'e 2ord 8otor Company, w'ic' introduced its first
automobile, t'e 8odel ?, in t'at same year. %t closely resembled t'e 157* Cadillac, w'ic' was 'ardly
surprising since 2ord 'ad designed cars t'e previous year for t'e Cadillac 8otor Car Company. 2ordJs
company rolled out new car models eac' year, and eac' model was named wit' a letter of t'e alp'abet.
;y 1571, w'en models ( and $ appeared, 2ordJs s'are of t'e domestic automobile maret 'ad soared to
*. percent.
Ford Model T
A Ford Model T rolls off the asse#$l( li)e% 2et'ee) *-:4 a)d *-;+!
Ford $"ilt *5 #illio) Model Ts%
2ordJs famous 8odel T debuted in 1573 but was called a 1575 2ord. 2ord built 11,111 8odel
TJs and offered nine body styles. Popularly nown as t'e Tin 0iGGy, t'e 8odel T became one of t'e
biggest-selling automobiles of all time. 2ord sold more t'an 1. million before stopping production of
t'e model in 1521. T'e companyJs innovative assembly-line met'od of building t'e cars was widely
adopted in t'e automobile industry.
Silver Ghost
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O)e of the hi0hest-rated earl( l"9"r( a"to#o$iles! the *-:- Rolls-
Ro(e Silver Ghost8s feat"res i)l"ded a <"iet ,-(li)der e)0i)e!
leather i)terior! foldi)0 'i)dsree)s a)d hood! a)d a) al"#i)"# $od(%
Ge)erall( drive) o)l( $( ha"ffe"rs! the e#phasis of the l"9"r( ar 'as
o) o#fort a)d st(le rather tha) speed%
;y 1527 more t'an 3 million ?mericans owned cars. 8a+or reasons for t'e surge in automobile
owners'ip were 2ordJs 8odel T, t'e assembly-line met'od of building it, and t'e affordability of cars
for t'e ordinary wage earner.
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%mprovements in engine-powered cars during t'e 1527s contributed to t'eir popularity>
sync'romes' transmissions for easier gear s'ifting" four-w'eel 'ydraulic brae systems" improved
carburetors" s'atterproof glass" balloon tires" 'eaters" and mec'anically operated winds'ield wipers.
Phaeton
/ars of the *-;:s e9hi$ited desi0) refi)e#e)ts s"h as $alloo) tires!
pressed-steel 'heels! a)d fo"r-'heel $ra7es% Altho"0h asse#$l( li)es
='hih ori0i)ated 'ith He)r( Ford i) *-:4> o)ti)"ed to $ri)0 the prie
of a"to#o$iles do')! #a)( ars i) this ti#e 'ere o)e-of-a-7i)d vi)ta0e
#odels! #ade to i)divid"al speifiatio)s% The *-;- Graha# &ai0e D/
&haeto) sho') here feat"red a) 4-(li)der e)0i)e a)d a) al"#i)"#
$od(%
2rom 15*7 to 15*1, automobile engines and bodies became large and lu-urious. 8any 12- and
1/-cylinder cars were built. %ndependent front suspension, w'ic' made t'e big cars more comfortable,
appeared in 15**. ?lso introduced during t'e 15*7s were stronger, more reliable braing systems, and
'ig'er-compression engines, w'ic' developed more 'orsepower. 8ercedes introduced t'e worldJs first
diesel car in 15*/.
?utomobiles on bot' sides of t'e ?tlantic were styled wit' gracious proportions, long 'oods,
and pontoon-s'aped fenders. Creative artistry merged wit' industrial design to produce appealing,
aerodynamic automobiles.
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e !u"e Sedan
The roo#( i)terior a)d rear-hi)0ed $a7 door of this *-6+ &o)tia De
?"9e seda) represe)t a #ove to'ard a ar #ore s"ited to the )eeds of
fa#ilies% @ith these o)s"#ers i) #i)d! ars 'ere desi0)ed to $e
o)ve)ie)t! relia$le! a)d relativel( i)e9pe)sive% Vehiles i) the *-6:s
'ere 0e)erall( less $o9( a)d #ore strea#li)ed tha) their
predeessors%
$ome of t'e first ve'icles to fully incorporate t'e fender into t'e bodywor came along +ust after
Corld Car %%, but t'e ma+ority of designs still 'ad separate fenders wit' pontoon s'apes 'olding
'eadlig't assemblies. T'ree companies, 2ord, @as', and Hudson 8otor Car Company, offered postwar
designs t'at merged fenders into t'e bodywor. T'e 15,5 2ord was a landmar in t'is respect, and its
new styling was so well accepted t'e car continued in production virtually unc'anged for t'ree years,
selling more t'an * million. 6uring t'e 15,7s, sealed-beam 'eadlig'ts, tubeless tires, and t'e automatic
transmission were introduced.
Two sc'ools of styling emerged in t'e 15.7s, one on eac' side of t'e ?tlantic. T'e 9uropeans
continued to produce small, lig't cars weig'ing less t'an 1,*77 g #2,377 lb&. 9uropean sports cars of
t'at era featured 'and-fas'ioned aluminum bodies over a steel c'assis and framewor.
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Stude#a$er
T
his
*-A: St"de$a7er /ha#pio) t'o-door seda) 'as desi0)ed $(
Ra(#o)d ?oe'( a)d $"ilt $( St"de$a7er rafts#e)% Feat"res
e#er0i)0 i) the *-A:s i)l"de a"to#ati tra)s#issio)! sealed-$ea#
headli0hts! a)d t"$eless tires%
%n ?merica, automobile designers borrowed features for t'eir cars t'at were normally found on
aircraft and s'ips, including tailfins and port'oles. ?utomobiles were produced t'at 'ad more space,
more power, and smoot'er riding capability. %ntroduction of power steering and power braes made
bigger cars easier to 'andle. T'e ;uic 8otor Car Company, <lds 8otor 4e'icle Company
#<ldsmobile&, Cadillac ?utomobile Company, and 2ord all built enormous cars, some weig'ing as
muc' as 2,,5. g #.,.77 lb&. T'e first import by German manufacturer 4olswagen ?G, advertised as
t'e ;eetle, arrived in t'e Anited $tates in 15,5. <nly two were sold t'at year, but ?merican consumers
soon began buying t'e ;eetle and ot'er small imports by t'e t'ousands.
%& 'eetle
The
Vol7s'a0e) 2eetle do#i)ated the #ar7et for several (ears! d"ri)0 'hih fe'
#odifiatio)s 'ere #ade o) the ori0i)al desi0)% Vol7s'a0e)8s )a#e #ea)s Bar
for the people!C a)d the ar served at least t'o i#porta)t o)s"#er )eeds% The
rear-#o")ted e)0i)e a)d s#all! ro")ded! $"0li7e shape of the E"ropea) ar
represe)ted a) appeali)0 o#$i)atio) of loo7 a)d eo)o#( that re#ai)ed
pop"lar for #ore tha) fo"r deades%
T'at prompted a downsiGing of some ?merican-made ve'icles. T'e first ?merican car called a
compact was t'e @as' (ambler. %ntroduced in 15.7, it did not attract buyers on a large scale until 15.3.
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8ore compacts, smaller in overall siGe t'an a standard car but wit' virtually t'e same interior body
dimensions, emerged from t'e factories of many ma+or manufacturers. T'e first Dapanese imports, 1/
compact trucs, arrived in t'e Anited $tates in 15./.
%n t'e 15.7s new automotive features were introduced, including air conditioning and
electrically operated car windows and seat ad+usters. 8anufacturers c'anged from t'e /-volt to t'e 12-
volt ignition system, w'ic' gave better engine performance and more reliable operation of t'e growing
number of electrical accessories.
;y 15/7 sales of foreign and domestic compacts accounted for about one-t'ird of all passenger
cars sold in t'e Anited $tates. ?merican cars were built smaller, but wit' increased engine siGe and
'orsepower. Heating and ventilating systems became standard eLuipment on even t'e least e-pensive
models. ?utomatic transmissions, power braes, and power steering became widespread. $tyling
sometimes prevailed over practicalityNsome cars were built in w'ic' t'e engines 'ad to be lifted to
allow simple service operations, lie c'anging t'e spar plugs. ;ac seats were designed wit' no
legroom.
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Gull(ing
&o'erf"l hi0h-perfor#a)e ars
s"h as this *-5+ Meredes-2e)3
6::S? 'ere $"ilt o) o#pat a)d
st(li3ed li)es% Also alled the
G"ll'i)0 $ea"se its doors ope)
"p'ard i)to the shape of a 0"ll8s
'i)0s! the 6::S? 'as apa$le of
;6: 7#h =*AA #ph>! its o)-road
perfor#a)e #athi)0 its rai)0
apait(%
El orado
This *-5+ /adilla El Dorado o)verti$le epito#i3es the lar0e ars of the
BA#eria) Drea#C era% Tail fi)s are a) e9a#ple of a tre)d i) ar desi0)%
Altho"0h the feat"re did little for the perfor#a)e of the vehile! o)s"#ers
loved the loo7! a)d de#a)ded fi)s of i)reasi)0 si3e ")til the *-,:s%
Mustang
More tha) *::!::: Ford M"sta)0s sold d"ri)0
first fo"r #o)ths the #odel 'as o) the #ar7et
i) *-,A! #a7i)0 it Ford8s $est earl( sales
s"ess si)e the i)trod"tio) of the Model T% A
vehile fro# the B#"sle arC ate0or(! the
M"sta)08s pop"lar harateristis i)l"ded a
s#all! fast desi0)! e9elle)t ha)dli)0! a
po'erf"l e)0i)e! a)d a disti)tive loo7%
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%n t'e 1517s ?merican manufacturers continued to offer smaller, lig'ter models in addition to
t'e bigger sedans t'at led t'eir product lines, but Dapanese and 9uropean compacts continued to sell
well. Catalytic converters were introduced to 'elp reduce e-'aust emissions.
6igital speedometers and electronic prompts to service parts of t'e ve'icle appeared in t'e
1537s. Dapanese manufacturers opened plants in t'e Anited $tates. ?t t'e same time, sporty cars and
family minivans surged in popularity.
?dvances in automobile tec'nology in t'e 1537s included better engine control and t'e use of
innovative types of fuel. %n 1531 ;ayerisc'e 8otoren Cere ?G #;8C& introduced an on-board
computer to monitor engine performance. ? solar-powered ve'icle, $un(aycer, traveled *,777 m
#1,3/, mi& in ?ustralia in si- days.
MR-) Tur#o
Moder) ars li7e the .apa)ese *--; MR-; T"r$o T-$ar To(ota are 0e)erall(
li0ht! aerod()a#iall( shaped! a)d o#pat% .apa)ese i#ports ha)0ed the
a"to#o$ile i)d"str( si0)ifia)tl(% The 0e)erall( relia$le! i)e9pe)sive ars
i)reased o#petitio) $et'ee) #a)"fat"rers dra#atiall(! to the $e)efit of
o)s"#ers%
"e# technologies
Gas-9lectric Hybrids
The Toyota Prius!
a fo"r-seat h($rid eletri vehile =HEV>! 'as the first HEV to $e
#ar7eted 'he) To(ota i)trod"ed it i) .apa) i) *--+%
The Honda *nsight!
a t'o-seat HEV! follo'ed i) *--- 'he) it 'as sold i) $oth .apa) a)d
the U)ited States% The &ri"s had its U%S% de$"t i) ;:::%
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Gas-9lectric Hybrids T'e Toyota Prius, a four-seat 'ybrid electric ve'icle #H94&, was t'e first
H94 to be mareted w'en Toyota introduced it in Dapan in 1551. T'e Honda %nsig't, a two-seat H94,
followed in 1555 w'en it was sold in bot' Dapan and t'e Anited $tates. T'e Prius 'ad its A.$. debut in
2777.
Pollution-control laws adopted at t'e beginning of t'e 1557s in some of t'e Anited $tates and in
9urope called for automobiles t'at produced better gas mileage wit' lower emissions. %n 155/ General
8otors became t'e first to begin selling an all-electric car, t'e 941, to California buyers. T'e all-
electric cars introduced so far 'ave been limited by low range, long rec'arges, and wea consumer
interest.
9ngines t'at run on 'ydrogen 'ave been tested. Hydrogen combustion produces only a trace of
'armful emissions, no carbon dio-ide, and a water-vapor by-product. However, tec'nical problems
related to t'e gasJs density and flammability remains to be solved.
6iesel engines burn fuel more efficiently, and produce fewer pollutants, but t'ey are noisy.
Popular in trucs and 'eavy ve'icles, diesel engines are only a small portion of t'e automobile maret.
? redesigned, Luieter diesel engine introduced by 4olswagen in 155/ may pave t'e way for more
diesels, and less pollution, in passenger cars.
C'ile some developers searc'ed for additional alternatives, ot'ers investigated ways to combine
electricity wit' liLuid fuels to produce low-emissions power systems. Two automobiles wit' suc'
'ybrid engines, t'e Toyota Prius and t'e Honda %nsig't, became available in t'e late 1557s. Prius 'it
automobile s'owrooms in Dapan in 1551, selling *7,777 models in its first two years of production. T'e
Prius became available for sale in @ort' ?merica in 2777. T'e Honda %nsig't debuted in @ort' ?merica
in late 1555. ;ot' ve'icles, nown as 'ybrid electric ve'icles #H94s&, promised to double t'e fuel
efficiency of conventional gasoline-powered cars w'ile significantly reducing to-ic emissions.
Computer control of automobile systems increased dramatically during t'e 1557s. T'e central
processing unit #CPA& in modern engines manages overall engine performance. 8icroprocessors
regulating ot'er systems s'are data wit' t'e CPA. Computers manage fuel and air mi-ture ratios,
ignition timing, and e-'aust-emission levels. T'ey ad+ust t'e antiloc braing and traction control
systems. %n many models, computers also control t'e air conditioning and 'eating, t'e sound system,
and t'e information displayed in t'e ve'icleJs das'board.
9-panded use of computer tec'nology, development of stronger and lig'ter materials, and
researc' on pollution control will produce better, HsmarterI automobiles.
%n t'e 1537s t'e notion t'at a car would HtalI to its driver was science fiction" by t'e 1557s it
'ad become reality.
<nboard navigation was one of t'e new automotive tec'nologies in t'e 1557s. ;y using t'e
satellite-aided global positioning system #GP$&, a computer in t'e automobile can pinpoint t'e ve'icleJs
location wit'in a few meters. T'e onboard navigation system uses an electronic compass, digitiGed
maps, and a display screen s'owing w'ere t'e ve'icle is relative to t'e destination t'e driver wants to
reac'. ?fter being told t'e destination, t'e computer locates it and directs t'e driver to it, offering
alternative routes if needed.
$ome cars now come eLuipped wit' GP$ locator beacons, enabling a GP$ system operator to
locate t'e ve'icle, map its location, and if necessary, direct repair or emergency worers to t'e scene.
Cars eLuipped wit' computers and cellular telep'ones can lin to t'e %nternet to obtain constantly
updated traffic reports, weat'er information, route directions, and ot'er data. 2uture built-in computer
systems may be used to automatically obtain business information over t'e %nternet and manage
personal affairs w'ile t'e ve'icleJs owner is driving.
6uring t'e 1537s and 1557s, manufacturers trimmed ,.7 g #1,777 lb& from t'e weig't of t'e
typical car by maing cars smaller. 0ess weig't, coupled wit' more efficient engines, doubled t'e gas
mileage obtained by t'e average new car between 151, and 155.. 2urt'er reductions in ve'icle siGe are
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not practical, so t'e emp'asis 'as s'ifted to using lig'ter materials, suc' as plastics, aluminum alloys,
and carbon composites, in t'e engine and t'e rest of t'e ve'icle.
0ooing a'ead, engineers are devising ways to reduce driver errors and poor driving 'abits.
$ystems already e-ist in some locales to prevent into-icated drivers from starting t'eir ve'icles. T'e
tec'nology may be e-panded to new ve'icles. ?nti-collision systems wit' sensors and warning signals
are being developed. %n some, t'e carJs braes automatically slow t'e ve'icle if it is following anot'er
ve'icle too closely. @ew infrared sensors or radar systems may warn drivers w'en anot'er ve'icle is in
t'eir Hblind spot.I
Catalytic converters wor only w'en t'ey are warm, so most of t'e pollution t'ey emit occurs in
t'e first few minutes of operation. 9ngineers are woring on ways to eep t'e converters warm for
longer periods between drives, or 'eat t'e converters more rapidly.
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Types o$ po#er plant
?n engine is a device w'ic' transforms one form of energy into anot'er form. However, w'ile
transforming energy from one form to anot'er, t'e efficiency of conversion plays an important role.
@ormally, most of t'e engines convert t'ermal energy into mec'anical wor and t'erefore t'ey are
called E'eat enginesE.
Heat engine is a device w'ic' transforms t'e c'emical energy of a fuel into t'ermal energy and
utiliGes t'is t'ermal energy to perform useful wor. T'us, t'ermal energy is converted to mec'anical
energy in a 'eat engine.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories>
#i& %nternal Combustion 9ngines #%C 9ngines& #ii& 9-ternal Combustion 9ngines #9C 9ngines&
Ta#le 1+1 Classi,ication o, heat engines
9ngines w'et'er %nternal Combustion or 9-ternal Combustion are of two types, viG.,
#i& (otary engines #ii& (eciprocating engines
<f t'e various types of 'eat engines, t'e most widely used ones are t'e reciprocating internal
combustion engine, t'e gas turbine and t'e steam turbine. T'e steam engine is rarely used nowadays.
T'e reciprocating internal combustion engine en+oys some advantages over t'e steam turbine due to t'e
absence of 'eat e-c'angers in t'e passage of t'e woring fluid #boilers and condensers in steam turbine
plant&. T'is results in a considerable mec'anical simplicity and improved power plant efficiency of t'e
internal combustion engine.
Fig+1+1 Classi,ication o, heat engines
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?not'er advantage of t'e reciprocating internal combustion engine over t'e ot'er two types is
t'at all its components wor at an average temperature w'ic' is muc' below t'e ma-imum temperature
of t'e woring fluid in t'e cycle. T'is is because t'e 'ig' temperature of t'e woring fluid in t'e cycle
persists only for a very small fraction of t'e cycle time. T'erefore, very 'ig' woring fluid temperatures
can be employed resulting in 'ig'er t'ermal efficiency.
2urt'er, in internal combustion engines, 'ig'er t'ermal efficiency can be obtained wit'
moderate ma-imum woring pressure of t'e fluid in t'e cycle, and t'erefore, t'e weig't of power ratio
is less t'an t'at of t'e steam turbine plant. ?lso, it 'as been possible to develop reciprocating internal
combustion engines of very small power output #power output of even a fraction of a ilowatt& wit'
reasonable t'ermal efficiency and cost.
T'e main disadvantage of t'is type of engine is t'e problem of vibration caused by t'e
reciprocating components. ?lso, it is not possible to use a variety of fuels in t'ese engines. <nly liLuid
or gaseous fuels of given specification can be efficiently used. T'ese fuels are relatively more
e-pensive.
Considering all t'e above factors t'e reciprocating internal combustion engines 'ave been found
suitable for use in automobiles, motor-cycles and scooters, power boats, s'ips, slow speed aircraft,
locomotives and power units of relatively small output.
9-ternal Combustion and %nternal Combustion 9ngines
9-ternal combustion engines are t'ose in w'ic' combustion taes place outside t'e engine
w'ereas in internal combustion engines combustion taes place wit'in t'e engine. 2or e-ample, in a
steam engine or a steam turbine, t'e 'eat generated due to t'e combustion of fuel is employed to
generate 'ig' pressure steam w'ic' is used as t'e woring fluid in a reciprocating engine or a turbine.
%n case of gasoline or diesel engines, t'e products of combustion generated by t'e combustion of fuel
and air wit'in t'e cylinder form t'e woring fluid.
%rinciple o$ engine operation &' stro(e ) stro(e operating cycles*
%n reciprocating engines, t'e piston moves bac and fort' in a
cylinder and transmits power t'roug' a connecting rod and cran
mec'anism to t'e drive s'aft as s'own in 2ig1.2. T'e steady rotation of
t'e cran produces a cyclical piston motion. T'e piston comes to rest at
t'e top center #TC& cran position and bottom-center #;C& OT'ese cran
positions are also referred to as top-dead-center #T6C& and bottom-dead-
center #;6C&P cran position w'en t'e cylinder volume is a minimum or
ma-imum, respectively. T'e minimum cylinder volume is called t'e
clearance volume.
T'e volume swept out by t'e piston, t'e difference between t'e
ma-imum or total volume 4
t
and t'e clearance volume, is called t'e
displaced or swept volume 4
d
. T'e ratio of ma-imum volume to minimum
volume is t'e compression ratio r
c
. Typical values of r
c
are 3 to 12 for $%
engines and 12 to 2, for C% engines.
+ig ,-
.asic geometry o$ the reciprocating
internal combustion engine.
4c, 4d, and 4t, indicate clearance,
displaced, and total cylinder volumes.
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+ig-,-/ 0-The $ our-stro(e operating cycle-
T'e ma+ority of reciprocating engines operate on w'at is nown as t'e four-stroke cycle. 9ac'
cylinder reLuires four stroes of its piston-two revolutions of t'e crans'aft-to complete t'e seLuence of
events w'ic' produces one power stroe. ;ot' $% and C% engines use t'is cycle w'ic' comprises
,- An intake stroke, w'ic' starts wit' t'e piston at TC and ends wit' t'e piston at ;C, w'ic' draws
fres' mi-ture into t'e cylinder. To increase t'e mass inducted, t'e inlet valve opens s'ortly before t'e
stroe starts and closes after it ends.
- A compression stroke, w'en bot' valves are closed and t'e mi-ture inside t'e cylinder is compressed
to a small fraction of its initial volume. Toward t'e end of t'e compression stroe, combustion is
initiated and t'e cylinder pressure rises more rapidly.
/- A power stroke, or e-pansion stroe, w'ic' starts wit' t'e piston at TC and ends at ;C as t'e 'ig'-
temperature, 'ig'-pressure, gases pus' t'e piston down and force t'e cran to rotate. ?bout five times
as muc' wor is done on t'e piston during t'e power stroe as t'e piston 'ad to do during compression.
?s t'e piston approac'es ;C t'e e-'aust valve opens to initiate t'e e-'aust process and drop t'e
cylinder pressure to close to t'e e-'aust pressure.
' An exhaust stroke, w'ere t'e remaining burned gases e-it t'e cylinder> first, because t'e cylinder
pressure may be substantially 'ig'er t'an t'e e-'aust pressure" t'en as t'ey are swept out by t'e piston
as it moves toward TC. ?s t'e piston approac'es TC t'e inlet valve opens. Dust after TC t'e e-'aust
valve closes and t'e cycle starts again.
T'oug' often called t'e <tto cycle after its inventor, @icolaus <tto, w'o built t'e first engine
operating on t'ese principles in 131/, t'e more descriptive four-stroe nomenclature is preferred.
T'e four-stroe cycle reLuires, for eac' engine cylinder, two crans'aft revolutions for eac'
power stroe.
To obtain a 'ig'er power output from a given engine siGe, and a simpler valve design, t'e two-
stroke cycle was developed. T'e two-stroe cycle is applicable to bot' $% and C% engines.
2igure 1., s'ows one of t'e simplest types of two-stroe engine designs. Ports in t'e cylinder
liner opened and closed by t'e piston motion, control t'e e-'aust and inlet flows w'ile t'e piston is
close to ;C. T'e two stroes are>
A compression stroke, w'ic' starts by closing t'e inlet and e-'aust ports, and t'en compresses
t'e cylinder contents and draws fres' c'arge into t'e crancase. ?s t'e piston approac'es TC,
combustion is initiated.
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+ig-,-' The t#o-stro(e operating cycle-
? crancase-scavenged engine
A power or expansion stroke, similar to t'at in t'e four-stroe cycle until t'e piston approac'es
;C, w'en first t'e e-'aust ports and t'en t'e intae ports are uncovered. 8ost of t'e burnt gases e-it
t'e cylinder in an e-'aust blow down process. C'en t'e inlet ports are uncovered, t'e fres' c'arge
w'ic' 'as been compressed in t'e crancase flows into t'e cylinder.
T'e piston and t'e ports are generally s'aped to deflect t'e incoming c'arge from flowing directly into
t'e e-'aust ports and to ac'ieve effective scavenging of t'e residual gases.
9ac' engine cycle wit' one power stroe is completed in one crans'aft revolution. However, it
is difficult to fill completely t'e displaced volume wit' fres' c'arge, and some of t'e fres' mi-ture
flows directly out of t'e cylinder during t'e scavenging process. T'e e-ample s'own is a cross-
scavenged design" ot'er approac'es use loop-scavenging or uniflow systems
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Engine classi$ications
Fig+1+-
*C engine classi,ication
T'ere are many different types of internal combustion engines. T'ey can be classified by>
,- Application-
?utomobile, truc, locomotive, lig't aircraft, marine, portable power system, power generation
.asic engine designs
(eciprocating engines #in
turn subdivided by arrangement of
cylinders> e.g., in-line, 4, radial,
opposed-ref, fig1./.&, rotary
engines #Canel and ot'er
geometries&
Fig1+.+Engine Classi,ication #y Cylinder Arrangements

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#C&
/- 1or(ing cycle-
2our-stroe cycle> naturally aspirated #admitting atmosp'eric air&, superc'arged #admitting pre-
compressed fres' mi-ture&, and turboc'arged #admitting fres' mi-ture compressed in a compressor
driven by an e-'aust turbine&,
Two-stroe cycle> crancase scavenged, superc'arged, and turboc'arged,
Constant volume 'eat addition cycle engine or <tto cycle engine -$% engine or Gasoline engine,
Constant pressure 'eat addition cycle engine or 6iesel cycle engine-C% engine or
6iesel engine.
' 2al3e or port design and location-
<ver'ead #or %-'ead& valves, under 'ead
#or 0-'ead& valves, rotary valves, cross-
scavenged porting #inlet and e-'aust ports on
opposite sides of cylinder at one end&, loop-
scavenged porting #inlet and e-'aust ports on
same side of cylinder at one end&, t'roug'- or
uni-flow scavenged #inlet and e-'aust ports or
valves at different ends of cylinder&
Fig1+/
classi,ication o, S* engine
#y 0ort1 valve location
2a3Cross4 2#3 !oo04 2c3 5ni,lo( Scavenging
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4- +uel
Gasoline #or petrol&, fuel oil #or diesel fuel&, natural gas, liLuid petroleum gas, alco'ols
#met'anol, et'anol&, 'ydrogen, dual fuel
5- 6ethod o$ mi7ture preparation-
Carburetion, fuel in+ection into t'e intae ports or intae manifold, fuel in+ection into t'e engine
cylinder
8- 6ethod o$ ignition
$par ignition #in conventional engines w'ere t'e mi-ture is uniform and in stratified-c'arge
engines w'ere t'e mi-ture is non-uniform&, compression ignition #in conventional diesels, as well as
ignition in gas engines by pilot in+ection of fuel oil&
9- Combustion chamber design.
<pen c'amber #many designs> e.g., disc, wedge, 'emisp'ere, bowl-in-piston&, divided c'amber
#small and large au-iliary c'ambers" many designs> e.g., swirl c'ambers, pre-c'ambers&
:- 6ethod o$ load control-
T'rottling of fuel and air flow toget'er so mi-ture composition is essentially unc'anged, control
of fuel flow alone, a combination of t'ese
,!- 6ethod o$ cooling-
Cater cooled, air cooled, un-cooled #ot'er t'an by natural convection and radiation&
. ?ll t'ese distinctions are important and t'ey illustrate t'e breadt' of engine designs available
from a fundamental point of view. T'e met'od of ignition 'as been selected as t'e primary classifying
feature. 2rom t'e met'od of ignition-spar-ignition or compression-ignition-follow t'e important
c'aracteristics of t'e fuel used, met'od of mi-ture preparation, combustion c'amber design, met'od of
load control, details of t'e combustion process, engine emissions, and operating c'aracteristics. $ome of
t'e ot'er classifications are used as subcategories wit'in t'is basic classification. T'e engine operating
cycle--four-stroe or two-stroe--is ne-t in importance.
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Ta#le 1+)
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Ta#le 1+6 Engine characteristics Em0hasi7ed #y Ty0e o, Service
(eferences>
1. 8icrosoft 9ncarta
2. 2undamentals of %C 9ngines ;y D ; Heywood
*. T'eory ! Practice in %C 9ngines ;y C 2 Taylor
,. % C 9ngines ;y 8 0 8at'ur ! (P $'arma
.. % C 9ngines ;y Ganesan
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CHAPTER )
+O;R-STRO<E CYC=E S-I E">I"E - %RI"CI%=E O+ O%ERATIO"
Fig8 cross section o, a S* Engine
%n 2our-stroe cycle engine, t'e cycle of operation is completed in four-stroes of t'e piston or
two revolutions of t'e crans'aft. 9ac' stroe consists of 137Q, of crans'aft rotation and 'ence a cycle
consists of 127Qof crans'aft rotation. T'e series of operations of an ideal four-stroe. $% engine are as
follows #see 2ig.2.1 ! 2.2&
,- Suction stro(e
$uction stroe 7-1 starts w'en t'e piston is at top dead centre and about to move downwards.
T'e inlet valve is open at t'is time and t'e e-'aust valve is closed. 6ue to t'e suction created by t'e
motion of t'e piston towards bottom dead centre, t'e c'arge consisting of fres' air mi-ed wit' t'e fuel
is drawn into t'e cylinder. ?t t'e end of t'e suction stroe t'e inlet valve closes.
- Compression stro(e-
T'e fres' c'arge taen into t'e cylinder during suction stroe is compressed by t'e return stroe
of t'e piston 1-2. 6uring t'is stroe bot' inlet and e-'aust valves remain closed. T'e air w'ic'
occupied t'e w'ole cylinder volume is now compressed into clearance volume. Dust before t'e end of
t'e compression stroe t'e mi-ture is ignited wit' t'e 'elp of an electric spar between t'e electrodes of
t'e spar plug located in combustion c'amber wall. ;urning taes place w'en t'e piston is almost at top
dead centre. 6uring t'e burning process t'e c'emical energy of t'e fuel is converted into sensible
energy, producing a temperature rise of about 2777QC, and t'e pressure is also considerably increased.
/- E7pansion or po#er stro(e-
6ue to 'ig' pressure t'e burnt gases force t'e piston towards bottom dead centre, stroe *-,,
and bot' t'e inlet and e-'aust valves remaining closed. T'us power is obtained during t'is stroe. ;ot'
pressure and temperature decrease during e-pansion.
'- E7haust stro(e-
?t t'e end of t'e e-pansion stroe t'e e-'aust valve opens, t'e inlet valve remaining closed, and
t'e piston is moving from bottom dead centre to top dead centre sweeps out t'e burnt gases from t'e
cylinder, stroe ,-7. T'e e-'aust valve closes at t'e end of t'e e-'aust stroe and some EresidualE gases
remain in t'e cylinder.
9ac' cylinder of a four-stroe engine completes t'e above four operations in two engine
revolutions. <ne revolution of t'e crans'aft occurs during t'e suction and compression stroes, and
second revolution during t'e power and e-'aust stroes. T'us for one complete cycle, t'ere is only one
power stroe w'ile t'e crans'aft turns by two revolutions. 8ost of t'e spar-ignition internal
combustion engines are of t'e four-stroe type. T'ey are most popular for passenger cars and small
aircraft applications.
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Fig+)+1-The ,our-stro$e s0ar$-ignition 2S*3 engine cycle 29tto cycle or constant volume cycle3
Fig+)+)-*deal and actual indicator diagrams ,or ,our-stro$e S* engine
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Fig+ )+6 Four-stro$e 0etrol engine valve timing diagram in relation to the 0ressure volume diagram
Actual 2al3e Timing O$ +our-Stro(e %etrol Engine-
4alve timing is t'e regulation of t'e points in t'e cycle at w'ic' t'e valves are set to open and
close. ?s described above in t'e ideal cycle inlet and e-'aust valves open and close at dead centres, but
in actual cycles t'ey open or close before or after dead centres as e-plained below. T'ere are two
factors, one mec'anical and ot'er dynamic, for t'e actual valve timing to be different from t'e
t'eoretical valve timing.
&a* 6echanical $actor-
T'e poppet valves of t'e reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam mec'anisms. T'e
clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taen up and valve slowly lifted, at first, if
noise and wear is to be avoided. 2or t'e same reasons t'e valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will
EbounceE on its seat. #?lso t'e cam contours s'ould be so designed as to produce gradual and smoot'
c'anges in directional acceleration&. T'us t'e valve opening and closing periods are spread over a
considerable number of crans'aft degrees. ?s a result, t'e opening of t'e valve must commence a'ead
of t'e time at w'ic' it is fully opened #i.e., before dead centres&. T'e same reasoning applies for t'e
closing time and t'e valves must close after t'e dead centres. 2ig.2.* s'ows t'e actual valve timing
diagram of a four-stroe engine in relation to its pressure-volume diagram.
b* ?ynamic $actor@
;esides mec'anical factor of opening and closing of valves, t'e actual valve timing is set taing
into consideration t'e dynamic effects of gas flow.
Inta(e 3al3e timing.
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%ntae valve timing 'as a bearing on t'e actual Luantity of air suced during t'e suction stroe
i.e. it affects t'e volumetric efficiency. 2ig.2., s'ows t'e intae valve timing diagram for bot' low
speed ! 'ig' speed $% engines.
Fig8)+: %alve timing ,or lo( and high s0eed ,our-stro$e S* engine
%t is seen t'at for bot' low speed and 'ig' speed engine t'e intae valve opens 17
7
before t'e
arrival of t'e piston at T6C on t'e e-'aust stroe. T'is is to insure t'at t'e valve will be fully open and
t'e fres' c'arge starting to flow into t'e cylinder as soon as possible after T6C. ?s t'e piston moves out
in t'e suction stroe, t'e fres' c'arge is drawn in t'roug' t'e intae port and valve. C'en t'e piston
reac'es t'e ;6C and starts to move in t'e compression stroe, t'e inertia of t'e entering fres' c'arge
tends to cause it to continue to move into t'e cylinder. To tae advantage of t'is, t'e intae valve is
closed after ;6C so t'at ma-imum air is taen in. T'is is called ram effect. However, if t'e intae valve
is to remain open for too long a time beyond ;6C, t'e up-moving piston on t'e compression stroe
would tend to force some of t'e c'arge, already in t'e cylinder, bac into t'e intae manifold. T'e time
t'e intae valve s'ould remain open after ;6C is decided by t'e speed of t'e engine.
?t low engine speed, t'e c'arge speed is low and so t'e air inertia is low, and 'ence t'e intae
valve s'ould close relatively early after ;6C for a slow speed engine #say about 17
7
after ;6C&.
%n 'ig' speed engines t'e c'arge speed is 'ig' and conseLuently t'e inertia is 'ig' and 'ence to
induct ma-imum Luantity of c'arge due to ram effect t'e intae valve s'ould close relatively late after
;6C #up to /7
7
after ;6C&.
2or a variable speed engine t'e c'osen intae valve setting is a compromise between t'e best
setting for low and 'ig' speeds.
T'ere is a limit to t'e 'ig' speed for advantage of ram effect. ?t very 'ig' speeds t'e effect of
fluid friction may be more t'an offset t'e advantage of ram effect and t'e c'arge for cylinder per cycle
falls off.
E7haust 3al3e timing
T'e e-'aust valve is set to open before ;6C #say about 2.
7
before ;6C in low speed engines
and ..
7
before ;6C in 'ig' speed engines&. %f t'e e-'aust valve did not start to open until ;6C, t'e
pressures in t'e cylinder would be considerably above atmosp'eric pressure during t'e first portion of
t'e e-'aust stroe, increasing t'e wor reLuired to e-pel t'e e-'aust gases. ;ut opening t'e e-'aust
valve earlier reduces t'e pressure near t'e end of t'e power stroe and t'us causes some loss of useful
25
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wor on t'is stroe. However, t'e overall effect of opening t'e valve prior to t'e time t'e piston reac'es
;6C results in overall gain in output.
T'e closing time of e-'aust valve effects t'e volumetric efficiency, ;y closing t'e e-'aust valve
a few degrees after T6C #about 1.
7
in case of low speed engines and 27
7
in case of 'ig' speed engines&
t'e inertia of t'e e-'aust gases tends to scavenge t'e cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of t'e gas
left in t'e clearance volume. T'is results in increased volumetric efficiency.
@ote t'at t'ere may be a period w'en bot' t'e intae and e-'aust valves are open at t'e same time. T'is
is called valve over-lap #say about 1.
7
in low speed engine and *7
7
in 'ig' speed engines&. T'is overlap
s'ould not be e-cessive ot'erwise it will allow t'e burned gases to be suced into t'e intae manifold,
or t'e fres' c'arge to escape t'roug' t'e e-'aust valve.
Ta#le)+1;Ty0ical valve timings ,or ,our-stro$e S* engines
@ote. 4alve timing is different for different maes of engines.
b-before, a-after T6C-Top dead centre,;6C-;ottom dead centre.
*7
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+O;R-STRO<E CI E">I"ES- %RI"CI%=E O+ O%ERATIO"
T'e four-stroe C% engine is similar to four-stroe $% engine e-cept t'at a 'ig' compression
ratio is used in t'e former, and during t'e suction stroe, air alone, instead of a fuel-air mi-ture, is
inducted. 6ue to 'ig' compression ratio, t'e temperature at t'e end of compression stroe is sufficient
to ignite t'e fuel w'ic' is in+ected into t'e combustion c'amber.
%n t'e C% engine a 'ig' pressure fuel pump and an in+ector is provided to in+ect fuel into
combustion c'amber.
T'e carburettor and ignition system, necessary in t'e $% engine, are not reLuired in t'e C%
engine.
T'e ideal seLuence of operation for t'e four-stroe C% engine is as follows>
Fig+)+- *deal P-% iagram Fig+)+. Cycle o, 90eration
,-Suction stro(e
<nly air is inducted during t'e suction stroe. 6uring t'is stroe intae valve is open and
e-'aust valve is closed.
-Compression stro(e
;ot' valves remain closed during compression stroe.
/- E7pansion or po#er stro(e
2uel is in+ected in t'e beginning of t'e e-pansion .stroe. T'e rate of in+ection is suc' t'at t'e
combustion maintains t'e pressure constant. ?fter t'e in+ection of fuel is over (i.e. after fuel cut off& t'e
products of combustion e-pand. ;ot' valves remain closed during e-pansion stroe.
'- E7haust stro(e.
T'e e-'aust valve is open and t'e intae valve remains closed in t'e e-'aust stroe.
6ue to 'ig'er pressures t'e C% engine is 'eavier t'an $% engine but 'as a 'ig'er t'ermal efficiency
because of greater e-pansion. C% engines are mainly used for 'eavy transport ve'icles, power
generation, and industrial and marine applications.
T'e typical valve timing diagram for a four-stroe C% engine is as follows
%4< about *7
7
before T6C
%4< up to .7
7
after ;6C
94< about ,.
7
before ;6C
94< up to *7
7
after T6C
%n+ection about 1.
7
before T6C
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T1O-STRO<E CYC=E E">I"E-%RI"CI%=E O+ O%ERATIO"
%n two-stroe engines t'e cycle is completed in two stroes, i.e., one revolution of t'e crans'aft
as against two revolutions of four-stroe cycle. T'e difference between two-stroe and four-stroe
engines is in t'e met'od of filling t'e cylinder wit' t'e fres' c'arge and removing t'e burned gases
from t'e cylinder. %n a four-stroe engine t'e operations are performed by t'e engine piston during t'e
suction and e-'aust stroes, respectively. %n a two stroe engine suction is accomplis'ed by air
compressed in crancase or by a blower. T'e induction of compressed air removes t'e products of
combustion, t'roug' e-'aust ports. T'erefore no piston stroes are reLuired for suction and e-'aust
operations. <nly two piston stroes are reLuired to complete t'e cycle, one for compressing t'e fres'
c'arge and t'e ot'er for e-pansion or power stroe.
Types o$ t#o stro(e engines
R .ased on sca3enging method
i& Crancase ! ii& $eparately scavenged engine
R .ased on sca3enging process &air $lo#*
i& Cross flow scavenging,
ii& 0oop scavenging #8?@, $c'nuerle, Curtis type&
iii& Ani-flow scavenging #opposed piston, poppet valve, sleeve valve&
R .ased on o3erall port-timing
i& $ymmetrical ! ii& Ansymmetrical
Cran(case-sca3enged t#o-stro(e engine
2igure 2.1 s'ows t'e simplest type of two-stroe engine S t'e crancase scavenged engine.
2ig.2.3 s'ows its ideal and actual indicator diagrams. 2ig.2.5 s'ows t'e typical valve timing diagram of
a two-stroe engine. T'e air or c'arge is suced t'roug' spring-loaded inlet valve w'en t'e pressure in
t'e crancase reduces due to upward motion of t'e piston during compression stroe. ?fter t'e
compression, ignition and e-pansion taes place in t'e usual way> 6uring t'e e-pansion stroe t'e air in
t'e crancase is compressed. @ear t'e end of e-pansion stroe piston uncovers t'e e-'aust port, and t'e
cylinder pressure drops to atmosp'eric as t'e combustion products leave t'e cylinder. 2urt'er motion of
t'e piston uncovers transfer ports, permitting t'e slig'tly compressed air or mi-ture in t'e crancase to
enter t'e engine cylinder. T'e top of t'e piston sometimes 'as a pro+ection to deflect t'e fres' air to
sweep up to t'e top of t'e cylinder before flowing to t'e e-'aust ports. T'is serves t'e double purpose
of scavenging t'e upper part of t'e cylinder of combustion products and preventing t'e fres' c'arge
from .flowing directly to t'e e-'aust ports. T'e same ob+ective can be ac'ieved wit'out piston deflector
by proper s'aping of t'e transfer port. 6uring t'e upward motion of t'e piston from bottom dead centre,
t'e transfer ports and t'en t'e e-'aust port close and compression of t'e c'arge begins and t'e cycle is
repeated.
Fig+)+/-Cran$case-scavenged
t(o-stro$e engine
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Fig+ )+< *deal and actual indicator diagrams ,or a t(o-stro$e S* engine
Fig+)+=+ Ty0ical valve timing diagram o, a
t(o-stro$e engine
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Separately sca3enged engine
%n t'e loop-scavenged engine #2ig. 2.17& an e-ternal blower is used to supply t'e c'arge, under
some pressure, at t'e inlet manifold. 6uring t'e downward stroe of t'e piston e-'aust ports are
uncovered at about /.Q before bottom dead
centre. ?t about 17
7
later t'e inlet ports open
and t'e scavenging process taes place.
T'e inlet ports are s'aped so t'at most
of t'e air flows to t'e top of t'e cylinder for
proper scavenging of t'e upper part of t'e
cylinder. Piston deflectors are not used as t'ey
are 'eavy and tend to become over'eated at
'ig' output. T'e scavenging process is
moreefficient in properly designed loop-
scavenged engine t'an in t'e usual cran-case
compression engine wit' deflector piston.
Fig+)+1>+ !oo0-scavenged t(o-stro$e engine 2se0arately scavenged
engine3
Opposed piston or end to end sca3enged engine &uniflow scavenged) t#o stro(e engine.
%n t'is type of engine t'e e-'aust ports or
e-'aust valves are opened first. T'e inlet ports give
swirl to incoming air w'ic' prevents mi-ing of fres'
c'arge and combustion products during t'e
scavenging process. 9arly on t'e compression stroe
t'e e-'aust ports close. %n loop scavenged engine t'e
port timing is symmetrical, so t'e e-'aust port must
close after t'e inlet port closes. T'ese timings prevent
t'is type of engine from filling its cylinder at full inlet
pressure. %n t'e end-to-end scavenged engines counter
flow wit'in t'e cylinder is eliminated, and t'ere is
less opportunity for mi-ing of fres' c'arge and burnt
gases. T'e scavenging s'ould t'erefore be more
efficient.
Fig+ )+11+ ?End to end? scavenged or uni,lo( t(o-stro$e
engine
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2al3etiming $or t#o-stro(e engines
2ig. 2.12#a&, #b& and #c& s'ow typical valve timing diagram for a crancase-scavenged two-
stroe engine and superc'arged two-stroe engine and a four-stroe engine, respectively.
Fig )+1)
%n case of two-stroe engine t'e e-'aust port is opened near t'e end of t'e e-pansion stroe.
Cit' piston-controlled e-'aust and inlet port arrangement t'e lower part of t'e piston stroe is always
wasted so as far as t'e useful power output is concerned" about 1.T to ,7T of t'e e-pansion stroe is
ineffective. T'e actual percentage varies wit' different designs. T'is early opening of t'e e-'aust ports
during t'e last part of t'e e-pansion stroe is necessary to permit blow down of t'e e-'aust gases and,
also to reduce t'e cylinder pressure so t'at w'en t'e inlet port opens at t'e end of t'e blow down
process, fres' c'arge can enter t'e cylinder. T'e fres' c'arge, w'ic' comes from t'e crancase for
scavenging pump, enters t'e cylinder at a pressure slig'tly 'ig'er t'an t'e atmosp'eric pressure. $ome
of t'e fres' c'arge is lost due to s'ort-circuiting. 2or petrol engine t'is means a loss of fuel and 'ig'
unburnt 'ydrocarbons in t'e e-'aust.
;y comparing t'e valve timing of two stroe and four-stroe engines, #2ig. 2.12&, it is clear t'at t'e time
available for scavenging and c'arging of t'e cylinder of a two stroe engine is almost one-t'ird t'at
available for t'e .four-stroe engine. 2or a crancase-scavenged engine t'e inlet port closes before t'e
e-'aust port w'ilst for a superc'arged engine t'e inlet port closes after t'e e-'aust port O2ig. 2.12 #b&P.
$uc' timing allows more time for filling t'e cylinder.
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Sca3enging process
?t t'e end of t'e e-pansion stroe, t'e combustion c'ambers of a two-stroe engine is left full
of products of combustion. T'is is because, unlie four-stroe engines, t'ere is no e-'aust stroe
available to clear t'e cylinder of burnt gases. T'e process of clearing t'e cylinder of burned gases and
filling it wit' fres' mi-ture #or airU-t'e combined intae and e-'aust process is called scavenging
process. T'is must be completed in a very s'ort duration available between t'e end of t'e e-pansion
stroe and start of t'e c'arging process.
T'e efficiency of a two-stroe engine depends to a great degree on t'e effectiveness of t'e
scavenging process, since bad scavenging gives a low mean indicated pressure and 'ence, results in a
'ig' weig't and 'ig' cost per b'p for t'e engine. Cit' insufficient scavenging t'e amount of o-ygen
available is low so t'at t'e conseLuent incomplete combustion results in 'ig'er specific fuel
consumption. @ot only t'at, t'e lubricating oil becomes more contaminated, so t'at its lubricating
Lualities are reduced and results in increased wear of piston and cylinder liners. Poor scavenging also
leads to 'ig'er mean temperatures and greater 'eat stresses on t'e cylinder walls.
T'us it goes wit'out saying t'at every improvement in t'e scavenging leads to improvement in
engine and its efficiency in several directions and 'ence, a detailed study of scavenging process and
different scavenging systems is wort'w'ile.
The scavenging process is the replacement of the products of combustion in the cylinder from the
previous power stroke with fresh-air charge to be burned in the next cycle. %n t'e absence of an e-'aust
stroe in every revolution of t'e crans'aft, t'is gas e-c'ange process for a two-stroe engine must tae
place in its entirety at t'e lower portion of t'e piston travel. <bviously, it cannot occur instantaneously
at bottom dead centre. T'erefore, a portion of bot' t'e e-pansion stroe and t'e compression stroe is
utiliGed for cylinder blow-down and rec'arging.
T'e scavenging process can be divided into four distinct periods
2ig. 2.1* s'ow t'e pressure recordings inside t'e cylinder for a 2lat 132 $ engine. C'en t'e
inlet port opens t'e gases e-panding in t'e main cylinder tend to escape from it and to pre-disc'arge
into t'e scavenge air manifold. T'is process, called pre-blowdown, ends w'en t'e e-'aust port opens.
?s soon as t'e e-'aust ports are open, t'e gases e-isting in t'e cylinder at t'e end of e-pansion stroe
disc'arge spontaneously into t'e e-'aust manifold and t'e pressure of t'e main cylinder drops to a
value lower t'an t'at e-isting in t'e scavenge air manifold. T'is process, called blowdown, terminates
at t'e moment t'e gas pressure inside t'e cylinder attains a value slig'tly lower t'an t'e air-pressure
inside t'e scavenge manifold. 6uring t'e t'ird p'ase, called scavenging, w'ic' starts at t'e moment t'e
spontaneous e-'aust gases from t'e cylinder terminates and ends at t'e moment t'e e-'aust ports are
closed" t'e scavenge air sweeps out all residual gases remaining in t'e main cylinder at t'e end of t'e
spontaneous e-'aust and replaces t'em as completely as possible wit' fres' c'arge. ?fter scavenging is
complete t'e fres' c'arge continues to flow till t'e scavenge ports are open and t'e pressure in t'e
cylinder rises. T'is results in better filling of t'e cylinder. T'is last part of t'e scavenging process is
called additional-c'arging.
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Fig+ )+16 Fiat /<) S engine standard scavenging @ ty0ical valve timing diagram o, a t(o-stro$e engine
*1
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2ig.2.1,s'ows, a typical pressure-volume diagram
for a two-stroe engine. %n t'is diagram t'e total piston
stroe 'as been divided into power stroe and scavenging
stroe #T'is division is arbitrary&. T'e area of t'e p-v
diagram for t'e power stroe depends very muc' on t'e
scavenging efficiency. Cit' proper scavenging efficiency
t'e pressure rise due to combustion is lower and 'ence
t'is area is smaller and lower t'ermal efficiency is
obtained.
Fig+ )+1: Ty0ical 0ressure-volume ,or a t(o-stro$e engine+
Theoretical sca3enging processes
Fig+ )+1- Three theoretical scavenging 0rocesses+
2ig.2.1. illustrates t'ree t'eoretical
scavenging processes. T'ey are
%er$ect sca3engingA
%er$ect mi7ing and
Complete shortcircuiting.
V The deli3ery ratio
mass reference
cycle per mi-ture& #or air delivered of mass
del
R , compares t'e actual
scavenging air mass #or mi-ture mass& to t'at reLuired in an ideal c'arging process.
#%f scavenging is done wit' fuel-air mi-ture, as in spar-ignition engines, t'en mi-ture mass is used
instead of air mass.&
T'e reference mass is defined as displaced volume
ambient air #or mi-ture& density.

?mbient air #or mi-ture& density is determined at atmosp'eric conditions or at intae conditions.
T'is definition is useful for e-perimental purposes. 2or analytical wor, it is often convenient to use t'e
trapped cylinder mass m
tr
as t'e reference mass. <( in ot'er words t'e delivery ratio is a measure to
t'e air #mi-ture& supplied to t'e cylinder relative to t'e cylinder content.
%f (
del
W 1, it means t'at t'e volume of t'e scavenging air supplied to t'e cylinder is eLual to t'e
cylinder volume #or displacement volume w'ic'ever is taen as reference&.
6elivery ratio usually varies between 1.2 to 1.., e-cept for closed crancase-scavenged, w'ere it
is less t'an unity.
The sca3enging e$$iciency
c'arge cylinder trapped of mass
retained mi-ture& #or air delivered of mass
sc
,
indicates to w'at e-tent t'e residual gases in t'e cylinder 'ave been replaced wit' fres' air.
%f
1
sc
, it means t'at all gases e-isting in t'e cylinder at t'e beginning of scavenging 'ave
been swept out completely.U
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&I*%er$ect sca3enging-
%deally, t'e fres' fuel-air mi-ture s'ould remain separated from t'e residual combustion products wit'
respect to bot' mass and 'eat transfer during t'e scavenging process. 2res' air pumped into t'e
cylinder by t'e blower t'roug' t'e inlet ports at t'e lower end of t'e cylinder pus'es t'e products of
combustion a'ead of itself and of t'e cylinder t'roug' t'e e-'aust valve at t'e ot'er end. T'ere is no
mi-ing of air and products. ?s long as any products remain in t'e cylinder t'e flow t'roug' t'e e-'aust
valves consists of products only. However, as soon as sufficient fres' .air 'as entered to fill t'e entire
cylinder volume #displacement plus clearance volume& t'e flow abruptly c'anges from one of products
to one of air. T'is ideal process would represent perfect scavenging wit' no s'ort -circuiting loss.
&ii* %er$ect mi7ing-
T'e second t'eoretical scavenging process is perfect mi-ing, in w'ic' t'e incoming fres' c'arge mi-es
completely and instantaneously wit' t'e cylinder contents, and a portion of t'is mi-ture passes out of
t'e e-'aust ports at a rate eLual to t'at entering t'e cylinder. T'is 'omogeneous mi-ture consists
initially of products of combustion only and t'en gradually c'anges to pure air. T'is mi-ture flowing
t'roug' t'e e-'aust ports is identical wit' t'at momentarily e-isting in t'e cylinder and c'anges wit' it.
2or t'e case of perfect mi-ing t'e scavenging efficiency can be represented by t'e following eLuation>
del
R
sc
e
1 , w'ere
sc
and (
del
are scavenging efficiency and delivery ratio respectively.
T'is is plotted in 2ig. 2.1.. T'e result of t'is t'eoretical process closely appro-imates t'e results of
many actual scavenging processes, and is t'us often used as a basis of comparison.
&iii*Short-circuiting-
T'e t'ird type of scavenging process is t'at of s'ort-circuiting in w'ic' t'e fres' c'arge coming from
t'e scavenge manifold directly goes out of t'e e-'aust ports wit'out removing any residual gas. T'is is
a dead loss and its occurrence must be avoided.
T'e actual scavenging process is neit'er one of perfect scavenging nor perfect mi-ing. %t probably
consists partially of perfect scavenging, mi-ing and s'ort-circuiting.
2ig. 2.1/s'ows t'e delivery ratio and trapping efficiency variation wit' cranangle for t'ree different
scavenging modes., i.e.,perfect scavenging #displacement&, perfect mi-ing and intermediate
scavenging.
2ig. 2.11s'ows t'e scavenging parameters for t'e intermediate scavenging. T'is represents t'e actual
scavenging process. %t can be seen from t'is 2ig. t'at a certain amount of combustion products is
initially pus'ed out of t'e cylinder wit'out being diluted by fres' air. Gradually, mi-ing
and s'ort circuiting causes t'e out flowing products to be diluted by more and more fres' air until
ultimately t'e situation is t'e same as for perfect mi-ing, i.e., t'e first p'ase of t'e scavenging process
is a perfect scavenging process w'ic' t'en gradually c'anges into a complete mi-ing process.
Fig4)+1. elivery ratio and e,,iciency variation (ith A Fig+ )+1/ Scavenging 0arameters ,or
cran$case ,or three di,,erent scavenging modes+ intermediate scavenging
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Sca3enging parameters --
The deli3ery ratio - T'e delivery ratio represents t'e ratio of t'e air volume, under t'e ambient
conditions of t'e scavenge manifold, introduced per cycle and a reference volume. T'is reference
volume 'as been variously c'osen to be displacement volume, effective displacement volume, total
cylinder volume or total effective cylinder volume. $ince it is only t'e Luantity or c'arge in t'e
remaining total cylinder volume at e-'aust port closure t'at enters into t'e combustion, t'e total
effective cylinder volume s'ould be preferred. T'e delivery ratio is mass of fres' air delivered to t'e
cylinder divided by a reference mass,
i.e.,
mass reference
del
R ,
T'e delivery ratio compares t'e actual scavenging air mass #or mi-ture mass& to t'at reLuired in
an ideal c'arging process. <( T'e delivery ratio is a measure to t'e air #mi-ture& supplied to t'e
cylinder relative to t'e cylinder content.
%f (
del
6elivery ratio usually varies between 1.2 to 1.., e-cept for closed crancase-scavenged, w'ere it
is less t'an unity.
#%f scavenging is done wit' fuel-air mi-ture, as in spar-ignition engines, t'en mi-ture mass is
used instead of air mass.& T'e reference mass is defined as displaced volume
ambient air #or mi-ture&

density.
?mbient air #or mi-ture& density is determined at atmosp'eric conditions or at intae conditions.
T'is definition is useful for e-perimental purposes. 2or analytical wor, it is often convenient to use t'e
trapped cylinder mass m
tr
as t'e reference mass.
The trapping e$$iciency - T'e amount of fres' c'arge retained in t'e cylinder is not same as
t'at supplied to t'e cylinder because some fres' c'arge is always lost due to s'ort-circuiting. T'erefore,
an additional term, trapping efficiency, is used to indicate t'e ability of t'e cylinder to retain t'e fres'
c'arge. %t is defined as t'e ratio of t'e amount of c'arge retained in t'e cylinder to t'e total c'arge
delivered to t'e engine, i.e.,
#mi-ture& air delivered of mass
tr
Trapping efficiency indicates w'at fraction of t'e air #or mi-ture& supplied to t'e cylinder is
retained in t'e cylinder. T'is is mainly controlled by t'e geometry of t'e ports and t'e overlap time.
The sca3enging e$$iciency $cavenging efficiency is t'e ratio of t'e mass of scavenge
air w'ic' remains in t'e cylinder at t'e end of t'e scavenging to t'e mass of t'e cylinder itself at t'e
moment w'en t'e scavenge and e-'aust ports of valves are fully closed. %t is given by
sc
,
indicates to w'at e-tent t'e residual gases in t'e cylinder 'ave been replaced wit' fres' air.
%f
1
sc
, it means t'at all gases e-isting in t'e cylinder at t'e beginning of scavenging 'ave
been swept out completely.
The purity o$ the charge>
c'arge cylinder in trapped air of mass
purity
, indicates
t'e degree of dilution, wit' burned gases, of t'e unburned mi-ture in t'e cylinder.
The charging e$$iciency
density ambient - volume displaced
ch
, indicates
'ow effectively t'e cylinder volume 'as been filled wit' fres' air #or mi-ture&
Relati3e cylinder charge.- T'e air or mi-ture retained, toget'er wit' t'e residual gas, remaining
in t'e cylinder after flus'ing out t'e products of combustion constitutes t'e cylinder c'arge. (elative
cylinder c'arge is a measure of t'e success of filling cylinder irrespective of t'e composition of c'arge.
T'e relative cylinder c'arge may be eit'er more or less t'an unity depending upon t'e scavenging
pressure and port 'eig'ts.
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E7cess air $actor, - T'e value #(
del
-1& is called t'e e-cess air factor. %f t'e delivery ratio is 1.,,
t'e e-cess air factor is 7.,.
Classi$ication based on sca3enging process
T'e simplest met'od of introducing t'e c'arge into t'e cylinder is to employ crancase
compression as s'own in 2ig.2.1. T'is type of engine is classified as t'e crancase scavenged engine.
%n anot'er type, a separate blower or a pump #2ig.2.3& may be used to introduce t'e c'arge t'roug' t'e
inlet port. T'ey are classified as t'e separately scavenged engines.
Fig+)+1. Methods o, Scavenging 2a3Cross Scavenging 2#3 !oo0 Scavenging4 M+A+B+ Ty0e
2c3!oo0 Scavenging SchCCrle Ty0e4 2d3 !oo0 Scavenging4 Curtis Ty0e
?not'er classification of two-stroe cycle engines is based on t'e air flow.
;ased on a transversal air stream, t'e most common arrangement is cross scavenging, illustrated
in 2ig.2.1/ #a&. 8ost small engines are cross-scavenged. T'e cross scavenging system employs inlet and
e-'aust ports placed in opposite sides of t'e cylinder wall. T'e incoming air is directed upward, to
combustion c'amber on one side of t'e cylinder and t'en down on t'e ot'er side to force out t'e
e-'aust gases t'roug' t'e oppositely located e-'aust ports. T'is reLuires t'at t'e air s'ould be guided
by use of eit'er a suitably s'aped deflector formed on piston top or by use of inclined ports. Cit' t'is
arrangement t'e engine is structurally simpler t'an t'at wit' t'e uniflow scavenging, due to absence of
valves, distributors, and relative drive devices. T'e inlet and e-'aust of gases is e-clusively controlled
by t'e .opening and closure of ports by piston motion. T'e main disadvantage of t'is system is t'at t'e
scavenging air is not able to get rid of t'e layer of e-'aust gas near t'e wall resulting in poor
scavenging. $ome of t'e fres' c'arge also goes directly into t'e e-'aust port. T'e result of t'ese factors
is poor bmep of cross-scavenged engines.
;ased on a transversal air stream, wit' loop or reverse scavenging, t'e fres' air first sweeps
across t'e piston top, moves up and t'en down and finally out t'roug' t'e e-'aust. 0oop or reverse
scavenging avoids t'e s'ort -circuiting of t'e cross-scavenged engine and t'us improves upon its
scavenging efficiency. T'e inlet and e-'aust ports are placed on t'e same side of t'e cylinder wall.
%n t'e 8.?.@. type of loop scavenge, 2ig.2.1/#b&, t'e e-'aust and inlet ports are on t'e same side, t'e
e-'aust above t'e inlet.
%n t'e $c'nuerle type, 2ig.2.1/#c&, t'e ports are side by side. t'e inlet ports are placed on bot'
sides of t'e e-'aust ports so t'at t'e incoming air enters in two streams uniting on t'e cylinder wall
opposite t'e e-'aust ports, flows upwards, turns under t'e cylinder 'ead, t'en flows downwards t'e
ot'er side to t'e e-'aust ports. $uc' a system of air deflection reduces t'e possibilities of s'ort-
circuiting to minimum. Cit' t'is system flat-top pistons wit'out deflectors are used. T'e speed of loop
or reversed scavenged engine is not restricted by mec'anical limitations because valves are not used,
t'e c'arging process being controlled by t'e piston only. T'e speed can t'us, e-ceed t'at of valve
controlled two-stroe engines. <wing to t'e absence of cams, valves and valve gear, engines are simple
and sturdy. T'ey 'ave a 'ig' resistance to t'ermal stresses and are, t'us, well suited to 'ig'er
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superc'arge. T'e ma+or mec'anical problem wit' a loop scavenged two-stroe engine is t'at of
obtaining an adeLuate oil supply to t'e cylinder wall consistent wit' reasonable lubricating oil
consumption and cylinder wear. T'is difficulty arises because w'en t'e piston is at top dead centre t'ere
is only a very narrow sealing belt available to prevent leaage of oil from crancase into t'e e-'aust
ports. $ince for loop scavenging greater cylinder distance is necessary to accommodate scavenge-air
passage between t'e cylinder, a strong connecting rod and crans'aft need for superc'arged engine can
be used.
T'e Curtis type of scavenging, 2ig.2.1/#d&, is similar to t'e $c'nuerle type, e-cept t'at
upwardly directed inlet ports are placed also opposite t'e e-'aust ports.
T'e most perfect met'od of scavenging is t'e uniflow met'od, based on a unidirectional air
stream. T'e fres' air c'arge is admitted at one end of t'e cylinder and t'e e-'aust escapes at t'e ot'er
end flowing t'roug' according to parallel flow lines normally 'aving a slig't rotation to stabiliGe t'e
vertical motion. ?ir acts lie an ideal piston and pus'ed on t'e residual gas in t'e cylinder after t'e
blowdown period and replaces it at least in principle, t'roug'out t'e cylinder. T'e air flow is from end
to end, and little s'ort-circuiting between t'e intae and e-'aust openings is possible. 6ue to absence, at
least in t'eory, of any eddies or turbulence it is easier in a uniflow scavenging system to pus' t'e
products of combustion out of t'e cylinder wit'out mi-ing wit' it and s'ort circuiting. T'us, t'e
uniflow system 'as 'ig'est scavenging efficiency. Construction simplicity is, 'owever, sacrificed
because t'is system reLuires eit'er opposed pistons, poppet valves or sleeve valve all of w'ic' increases
t'e complication.
T'e t'ree available arrangements for uniflow scavenging are s'own in 2ig.2.11 ? poppet valve
is used in #a& to admit t'e inlet air or for t'e e-'aust, as t'e Case may be. %n #b& t'e inlet and e-'aust
ports are bot' controlled by separate pistons t'at move in opposite directions. %n #c& t'e inlet and
e-'aust ports are controlled by t'e combined motion of piston and sleeve. %n an alternative arrangement
one set of ports is controlled by t'e piston and t'e ot'er set by a sleeve or slide valve. ?ll uniflow
systems permit unsymmetrical scavenging and superc'arging.
Fi0%;%*+ U)iflo' Save)0i)0
=a> &oppet Valve
=$> Opposed &isto)
=> Sleeve Valve
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(everse flow scavenging is s'own in 2ig.2.11 %n t'is type t'e inclined
ports are used and t'e scavenging air is forced on to t'e opposite wall of t'e
cylinder w'ere it is reversed to t'e outlet ports. <ne obvious disadvantage of
t'is type is t'e limitation on t'e port area. 2or long stroe engines operating at
low piston speeds, t'is arrangement 'as proved satisfactory.
Fi0;%*+ Reverse Flo' Save)0i)0
?n interesting comparison of t'e
merits of two cycle engine air scavenging
met'ods is illustrated in 2ig.2.13. %n fact,
specific output of t'e engine is largely
determined by t'e efficiency of t'e
scavenging system-and is directly related to
t'e brae mean effective pressure. ?s
s'own in 2ig.2.13 scavenging efficiency
varies wit' t'e delivery ratio and t'e type of
scavenging. %n t'is respect cross scavenging
is least efficient and gives t'e lowest brae
mean effective pressure. T'e main reason
for t'is is t'at t'e scavenging air flows
t'roug' t'e cylinder but does not e-pel t'e
e-'aust residual gases effectively. 0oop
scavenging met'od is better t'an t'e cross
scavenging met'od. 9ven wit' a delivery
ratio of 1.7 in all cases t'e scavenging
efficiencies are about .*, /1 and 37 per cent
for cross scavenging, loop scavenging and
uniflow scavenging systems wit'
corresponding values of bmep as *..,,.. and
..3 bar.
Fig+)+1< Scavenging E,,iciency
Comparison o$ di$$erent sca3engingsystems
2ig.2.15 compares t'e scavenging efficiencies of t'ree different types of scavenging system.
T'e cross-scavenging system employs inlet and e-'aust ports placed in opposite sides of t'e cylinder
wall. %n t'e loop scavenging system, inlet and e-'aust ports are in t'e same side of t'e cylinder wall and
in uniflow scavenging system, t'e inlet and e-'aust port are at opposite ends of t'e cylinder.
%t can be seen t'at uniflow scavenging gives by far t'e best scavenging, t'at loop scavenging is good,
and t'at in .general, cross-scavenging is t'e worst.
T'e scavenging curve for t'e uniflow scavenging is very near to t'at of perfect scavenging t'at
for loop scavenging is near t'e perfect mi-ing. Cit' good loop scavenging t'e scavenging curve is
generally above t'e perfect mi-ing curve and t'at of cross-scavenging engines it is, generally, below t'e
perfect mi-ing curve.
Table 2.2 compares t'e port areas available for different scavenging systems. 0argest flow areas
are available wit' uniflow system. %n suc' a case t'e w'ole circumference of cylinder wall is available
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and t'e inlet port area can be as 'ig' as *. per cent of t'e piston area. 6ue to t'e use of e-'aust valve
t'e e-'aust flow area is small - about 13 per cent. %n cross-scavenging t'e siGe of t'e inlet and e-'aust
ports is limited to about 2. and 13 per cent of piston area respectively because t'e ports are located on
t'e opposite sides of cylinder wall. $c'urnle type of loop scavenging reLuires t'at bot' t'e ports must
be located wit'in about t'ree-Luarters of t'e cylinder circumference. T'is limits t'e siGe of inlet and
e-'aust ports to about 13 and 1, per cent of piston area only. T'e data for a typical four-stroe engine
are also given for comparison. However, w'ile comparing wit' t'e four-stroe engine it must be ept in
mind t'at t'oug' t'e flow area is small, t'e time available for flow is almost t'ree times more t'an t'at
available for t'e two-stroe engine.
Fig+ )+1= scavenging e,,iciency4 versus delivery ratio o, di,,erent scavenging system+
Ta#le )+) Ty0ical values ,or areas ,or di,,erent scavenging systems
0oop or cross-scavenged engines wit' t'eir inlet ports limited 'alf of t'e cylinder circumference
fall in low speed category. Aniflow scavenged engines wit' adeLuate air inlet port are and limited
e-'aust port areas fall in medium speed category, w'ilst t'e opposed piston engine taes on to 'ig'
speeds because of its 'ig' rate of e-'aust port opening, freedom from valve gear speed limits, good
scavenging and perfect balancing. An-superc'arged uniflow engine 'as a considerable 'ig'er mean
effective pressure t'an t'e loop-scavenged engine. T'ere is more freedom in design of combustion
c'amber for loop scavenging. T'is results in low fuel consumption and t'e engine is simple to mae and
easy to produce. Table 2.* compares t'e typical bmep values obtainable wit' different types of
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scavenging systems. T'e output of bot' uniflow and loop scavenged engines is limited Eby t'e t'ermal
stresses imposed. ;ut t'e loop scavenged engine due to its simple cylinder 'ead can better wit'stand t'e
t'ermal stresses.
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Ta#le )+6 Ty0icalvalueso, #me0 ,or the C+*+ t(o-stro$e oil engines
Table 2.,compares t'e representative port timings for different types of two-stroe engines.
Ta#le )+:+ Port timings ,or di,,erent t(o-stro$e engines
%ort design
T'e 6esign of t'e inlet and e-'aust ports for two stroe engines depends on various parameters.
$ome of t'e important basic parameters are"
a& $cavenging met'od
b& $'ape, inclination ! widt' of ports
c& ?mount of air)c'arge delivered
d& $cavenging pressure
e& 8ean inlet velocity Sfn. <f pr. (atio, temp. of scavenging ! scavenging factor
f& 6uration#cran angle& of port opening ! average port 'eig't uncovered by piston
;lowdown time area #for e-'aust&SOw'ic' is a fn. of temperature of e-'aust Gas, e-pansion end
volume#fn. of displacement volume&, e-'aust Gas pr., scavenging pr., ! indicated mean
effective pressureP
g& %nlet duration, e-'aust lead
B
! 'ence e-'aust duration
'& @umber of ports ! 'eig't of ports
B
during e-'aust 0ead, only e-'aust port is ept open, ! during super c'arging only inlet port is ept
open.
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THE ?I++ERE"T SCA2E">I"> 6ETHO?S ARE AS +O==O1S
B!"# $%!&'"%()%( *R$&"!!( )R +,$- .
%. C(<$$ 20<C -for low power o)p engines eg. Two w'eelers,
$imple, but more s'ort circuiting, 'ence more c'arge loss, super c'arging
is not possible. %t is found t'at port position is limited wit' in .7T of
circumference.
%%. 0<<P 20<C -for medium o)p engines.
?ir taes loop, less s'ort circuiting, 'ence less c'arge loss
?. 8?@ type -intae ! e-'. ports positioned one below t'e ot'er. -Good
;. $CH@A(09 type-intae ! e-'. ports positioned side by side. -;etter
C. CA(T%$ type -intae on one side ! e-'aust on t'e ot'er side. -;est
%%%. A@%20<C #;9$T& Sfor very Hig' o)p engines
9-. large power marine engines, locomotive engines etc
?s intae port is on one side ! e-'aust port on t'e ot'er side. ! t'e flow
is uni-directional, ports can be wider. (esidual gases are low. Ports can be
located all around t'e circumference. <pposed piston engines also use t'is
type. Ports wit' poppet valves ! $leeve valves 'ave been used.
B!"# $% !&'"%()%( /"T0$#
%. C(?@=C?$9 $C?49@G96 9@G%@9 #cran case compression&
-petroil lubrication is adopted. Hence lubricating oil is also burnt. $o
pollution is more. Compression is bad, more petrol consumption, and
more residual gases. Generally used along wit' symmetrically scavenged
engine, but lower delivery ratio #generally 7.1&, $imple and suitable for
small engines. $uitable for low o)p engines #.-27b'p&
%%. $9P?(?T9 ;0<C9( ) PA8P $C?49@G96 9@G%@9
-'ig'er scavenging pressure ! delivery ratio is possible. (esidual gases
are low. Ased in buly arrangements i.e. above 177 'p engines
B!"# $% $'"R,, *$RT T)/)%(
%. $F889T(%C?0 P<(T T%8%@G - "*$-)*$-)*&-"*&
-<pening and closing of t'e ports by t'e piston is symmetrical.
?dvantage-arrangement of t'e mec'anism is very simple.
6isadvantage- more s'ort circuiting, 'ence more c'arge loss, super
c'arging is not possible. $uitable for low power o)p engines up to .b'p
i.e. scooters ) moped engines.
%%. A@-$F889T(%C?0 P<(T T%8%@G - "*$-)*$-"*&-)*&
-<pening and closing of t'e ports by t'e piston is un-symmetrical.
8ec'anism is comple-.
?dvantages- super c'arging is possible - by t'e following ways
$uperc'arging valve-rotary valves,
Poppet valves by suitably designing t'e cam mec'anism,
Asing sleeve )slide valve, but it is mec'anically
complicated,
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?

c
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
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! using opposed piston
The common di$$erent Shapes o$ ports are as $ollo#s
(ectangular -;9$T
Cit' rounded corners, w'ic' gives ma-imum flow area ! smoot' edges reduce friction
!
('omboidal ! <blong -good w.r.to ring entrance avoidance
Circular-only some applications #only for intae&
%nclination -is given for better mi-ing, scavenging, turbulence, swirl and combustion.
Cidt' -for Aniflow scavenging -7./X6 #entire circumference available for porting
-for l0oop scavenging -7.2X6 #bot' ports are on same side of t'e wall&
-for Crossflow scavenging -7.*X6 #.7T of circumference is available for porting&
Ports s'ould be sufficiently wider for ma-. flow area, ;ut s'ould not create problem of piston ring
entrance into it.
?mount of air)c'arge delivered
T'e delivery ratio is a measure of t'e air #mi-ture& supplied to t'e cylinder relative to t'e cylinder
content.
T'e delivery ratio
mass reference
del
R ,
%f (
del
6elivery ratio usually varies between 1.2 to 1.., e-cept for closed crancase-scavenged, w'ere it is less
t'an unity.
(
del
W 7.1 to 7.3 S for cran case scavenging
(
del
W 1., Snormal value
(
del
W 1.* Sfor fuel economy
(
del
W 1.. Sfor 'ig' o)p
T'e scavenging efficiency
sc
,
%ndicates to w'at e-tent t'e residual gases in t'e cylinder 'ave been replaced wit' fres' air.
%f
1
sc
, i.e. all gases e-isting in t'e cylinder at t'e beginning of scavenging 'ave been swept out
completelyU
$cavenging pressure
Proper scavenging pressures to be adopted for t'e respective scavenging met'od
8ean inlet velocity
8ean inlet velocity to be calculated, w'ic' is a function of pressure ratio, temp. of scavenging !
scavenging factor.
6uration#cran angle& of port opening ! average port 'eig't uncovered by piston
Cit' 6uration #cran angle& of port opening, average port 'eig't ! port timing can be calculated.
,3
2or separately scavenged engines
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@umber of ports ! 'eig't of ports.
@o. of ports are selected to ensure enoug' #ma-.& widt', wit' sufficient bridge to sustain mec'anical
and t'ermal load ! to avoid piston ring failure i.e. entering in port area. ?fter selecting no. of ports,
widt' of t'e ports may be calculated and adopted. T'e 'eig't of ports is a ma+or factor in timing of
ports.
T'e flow of gases t'roug' a two-stroe cycle engine is diagrammatically represented in fig. T'e
'atc'ed areas represent fres' air or mi-ture and t'e cross 'atc'ed areas represent combustion gases. T'e
widt' of t'e c'annels represents t'e Luantity of t'e gases e-pressed by volume at @TP condition.
Fig+ Scavenging iagram ,or T(o-stro$e Cycle S* Engine
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Sca3enging pumps
$ince t'e pumping action is not carried out by t'e piston of a two-stroe engine, a separate
pumping mec'anism, called t'e scavenging pump, is reLuired to supply scavenging air to t'e cylinder.
6ifferent types of scavenging pumps used range from crancase compression, piston type blowers to
roots blower. T'e design of a two-stroe engine is significantly affected by t'e type of scavenging pump
used" 'ence a careful selection of t'e scavenging pump is a pre-condition to good performance.
Crancase $cavenging. T'e most obvious and c'eapest in initial cost is t'e use of crancase for
compressing t'e incoming air and t'en transferring it to t'e cylinder t'roug' a transfer port. 2ig.2.27
s'ows suc' a system. T'is system is, 'owever, very uneconomical and inefficient in operation. T'is is
because t'e amount of air w'ic' can be used for scavenging is less t'an t'e swept volume of t'e
cylinder due to low volumetric efficiency of t'e crancase w'ic' contains a large dead space. T'us, t'e
delivery ratio of a crancase scavenged engine is always less t'an unity.
$ince t'e delivery ratio is less t'an unity it
is not possible to scavenge t'e cylinder
completely of t'e products of combustion
and some residual gases always remain in
t'e cylinder. T'is results in low mean
effective pressure for t'e crancase
scavenged engine. Typical values are * to ,
bar. T'e output of t'e engine is strictly
limited because t'e amount of t'e c'arge
transferred t'roug' t'e transfer port is only
,7-.7T of t'e cylinder volume.
#a& two ports #b& t'ree ports
Fig+ )+)> T(o-sto$e cran$case scavenged engines
? furt'er disadvantage is t'at t'e oil vapors from t'e crancase mi-es wit' t'e scavenging air.
T'is results in 'ig' oil consumption. ;ecause of t'ese disadvantages t'e crancase scavenging is not
preferred and for 'ig' output two-stroe engines a scavenging pump is a must.
Piston, (oots, and Centrifugal blowers
Piston type blowers as s'own in 2ig.2.21#a& are used only for low speed and single or two
cylinder engines. 2or all ot'er type of engines eit'er roots or centrifugal blowers are used. T'e roots
blower is preferred for small and medium output engines. C'ile t'e centrifugal blower, is preferred for
large and 'ig' output engines. 2rom 2ig. 2.22 it is clear t'at t'e centrifugal blower 'as a relatively flat
c'aracteristic curve compared to t'e steep c'aracteristic curve of t'e Eroots blower. ?n increase in t'e
flow-resistance due to deposits, etc., t'us, 'as a muc' greater effect on t'e scavenging air" output of a
centrifugal blower t'an on t'at of a roots blower. %f deposits accumulate, an engine 'aving a centrifugal
blower will start smoing earlier t'an t'at 'aving a roots blower. T'erefore, roots blower is preferred
due to its lower sensitivity to flow resistance c'anges for systems w'ere space for e-'aust ports is
limited.
T'e control of air delivery of centrifugal blowers can be done by t'rottling t'e air on t'e intae side.
T'is, 'owever, would not reduce t'e scavenging power reLuired by t'e centrifugal blower. %n t'e roots
blower t'e air delivery is controlled by a t'rottle-actuated by-pass valve between blower inlet and
outlet. $uc' a control divides t'e air-flow into two parts and only 'alf t'e flow passes t'roug' t'e
engine. T'is saves a substantial amount of scavenging power and 'ence results in lower specific fuel
consumption.
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Fig+ )+)1 Scavenging-0um0 ty0es+
Fig+ )+)) Pressure characteristics o, centri,ugal and roots #lo(er+
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Comparison o$ t#o-stro(e SI and CI engines
T'e two-stroe $% engine suffers from two big disadvantages-fuel loss and idling difficulty. T'e
two-stroe C% engine does not suffer from t'ese disadvantages and 'ence C% engine is more suitable for
two-stroe operation.
%f t'e fuel is supplied to t'e cylinders after t'e e-'aust ports are closed, t'ere will be no loss of
fuel and t'e indicated t'ermal efficiency of t'e two-stroe engine will be as good as t'at of four-stroe
engine. However, in an $% engine using carburettor, t'e scavenging is done wit' fuel-air mi-ture and
only t'e fuel mi-ed wit' t'e retained air is used for combustion. To avoid t'e fuel loss instead of
carburettor fuel in+ection +ust before t'e e-'aust port closure may be used.
T'e two-stroe $% engine runs irregularly and may even stop at low speeds w'en mean effect
pressure is reduced to about 2bar. T'is is because large amount of residual gas #more t'an in four-stroe
engine& mi-ing wit' small amount of c'arge. ?t low speeds t'ere may be bac firing due to slow
burning rate. 2uel in+ection improves idling and also eliminates bacfiring as t'ere is no fuel present in
t'e inlet system.
%n C% engines t'ere is no loss of fuel as t'e c'arge is only air and t'ere is no difficulty at idling
because t'e fres' c'arge #air& is not reduced.
Ad3antages and disad3antages o$ t#o-stro(e engines
Two-stroe engines 'ave certain advantages as well as disadvantages compared to four-stroe
engines. %n t'e following sections t'e main advantages and disadvantages are discussed briefly.
?dvantages of Two-stroe 9ngines
#i& ?s t'ere is a woring stroe for eac' revolution, t'e power developed will be nearly twice t'at of a
four-stroe engine of t'e same dimensions and operating at t'e same speed.
#ii& T'e wor reLuired to overcome t'e friction of t'e e-'aust and suction stroes is saved.
#iii& ?s t'ere is a woring stroe in every revolution, a more uniform turning moment is obtained on t'e
crans'aft and t'erefore, a lig'ter flyw'eel is reLuired.
#iv& Two-stroe engines are lig'ter t'an four-stroe engines for t'e same power output and speed.
#v& 2or t'e same output, two-stroe engines occupy lesser space.
#vi& T'e construction of a two-stroe cycle engine is simple because it 'as ports instead of valves. T'is
reduces t'e maintenance problems considerably.
#vii& %n case of two-stroe engines because of scavenging, burnt gases do not remain in t'e clearance
space as in case of four-stroe engines.
6isadvantages of Two-$troe 9ngines
#i& Hig' speed two-stroe engines are less efficient owing to t'e reduced volumetric efficiency.
#ii& Cit' engines woring on <tto cycle, a part of t'e fres' mi-ture is lost as it escapes t'roug' t'e
e-'aust port during scavenging. T'is increases t'e fuel consumption and reduces t'e t'ermal efficiency.
#iii& Part of t'e piston stroe is lost wit' t'e provision of t'e ports t'us t'e effective compression is less
in case of two-stroe engines.
#iv& Two-stroe engines are liable to cause a 'eavier consumption of lubricating oil.
#v& Cit' 'eavy loads, two-stroe engines get 'eated due to e-cessive 'eat produced. ?lso at lig't loads,
t'e running of engine is not very smoot' because of t'e increased dilution of c'arge.
.2
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SI and CI Engine application
Ce 'ave seen t'at bot' $% and C% engines 'ave certain advantages and disadvantages. T'e
selection of a type of engine for particular application needs consideration of various factors.
T'e $% engine offers t'e following advantages>
#1& 0ow initial cost.
#2& 0ow weig't for a given power output.
#*& $maller siGe for a given power output.
#,& 9asy starting.
#.& 0ess noise.
#/& 0ess ob+ectionable e-'aust gas odor and less smoe.
T'e $% engine finds wide application in automobiles because passenger comfort and in small
airplanes because of low weig't. Two stroe petrol engines finds e-tensive use in motor cycles,
scooters, mopeds, pleasure motor boats, etc., because of simplicity and low cost. T'e $% engine is also
used for lig't mobile duty lie lawn movers, mobile generating sets, water pumps, air compressors,
etc...
T'e C% engine offers t'e following advantages.
#1& 0ow specific fuel consumption at bot' full load and part load conditions.
#2& AtiliGes less e-pensive fuels.
#*& (educed fire 'aGard,
#,& 0ong operating life.
#.& ;etter suited for superc'arging.
#/& ;etter suited for two-stroe cycle operating, as t'ere is no loss of fuel in scavenging.
;ecause of fuel economy t'e C% engine finds wide usage in buses, trucs, locomotives, stationary
generating plants, 'eavy duty eLuipment suc' as bulldoGers, tractors and eart'moving mac'inery.
;ecause of t'e reduced fire 'aGard t'e C% engine is also used for confined installations and marine use.
T'e great advantage of t'e C% engine is lower fuel consumption w'ic' counteracts t'e disadvantage of
'ig'er initial cost, if t'e engine is used for long duties. #Table 1.2a gives complete comparison of
the two types of engines.&
Comparison o$ t#o-stro(e and $our-stro(e- engines &table -4*
T'e two-stroe engine was developed to obtain valve simplification and a greater output from
t'e same siGe of engine. Two-stroe engines 'ave no valves but only ports #some two-stroe engines are
fitted wit' conventional e-'aust valve&. T'is simplicity of t'e two-stroe engine maes it c'eaper to
produce.
T'eoretically a two-stroe engine will develop twice t'e power of a comparable four-stroe engine
because of one power stroe every revolution #compared to one power stroe every two revolutions of
four-stroe engine&. T'is maes t'e two-stroe engine c'eaper and more compact t'an a comparable
four-stroe engine.
%n actual practice power is not e-actly doubled but is only about *7T e-tra because of #a&
reduced effective stroe, and #b& due to increased 'eating caused by increased power stroes. T'e
ma-imum speed is ept less t'an ,-stroe engine. T'e ot'er advantages of t'e two-stroe engine are
more uniform torLue on crans'aft and complete e-'aust of products of combustion.
However, w'en applied to spar-ignition engine t'e two-stroe cycle 'as certain disadvantages
w'ic' 'ave restricted its use to only small engines suitable for motor cycles, scooters, mopeds, lawn
mowers, out-board engines, etc. %n spar-ignition engine #petrol engine& t'e c'arge consists of a mi-ture
of air and fuel. 6uring scavenging, as bot' inlet and e-'aust ports are open simultaneously for some
time, some part of t'e fres' c'arge containing fuel escapes wit' e-'aust. T'is results in 'ig' fuel
consumption and 'ence lower t'ermal efficiency. T'e ot'er drawbac of two-stroe $% engine is t'e
lac of fle-ibility- t'e capacity to run wit' eLual efficiency at any speed. %f t'e t'rottle is closed below
t'e best point, t'e amount of fres' mi-ture entering t'e cylinder is not enoug' to clear out all t'e
e-'aust, some of w'ic' remains to contaminate t'e fres' c'arge. T'is results in irregular running of t'e
engine.
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T'e two-stroe diesel engine does not suffer from t'ese defects. T'ere is no loss of fuel wit' e-'aust
gases as t'e intae c'arge in diesel engine is air only. T'e two-stroe diesel engine is t'erefore used
Luite widely. 8any of t'e biggest diesel engines wor on t'is cycle. T'ey are generally bigger t'an
/7cm bore and are used in marine propulsion.
? disadvantage common to all two-stroe engines, petrol as well as diesel, is greater cooling and
lubrication reLuirements due to one power stroe in eac' revolution of crans'aft. Consumption of
lubricating oil is also 'ig' in t'e two-stroe engine due to 'ig'er temperatures.
Ta#le )+- Com0arison o, ,our-stro$e and t(o-stro$e cycle engines

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+undamental di$$erences bet#een SI and CI engines
;ot' $% and C% engines are internal combustion engines and 'ave muc' in common. However,
t'ere are also certain fundamental differences t'at cause t'eir operation to vary considerably. T'ese are
given in Table 2./
Ta#le )+. Com0arison o, S* and C* engines
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ta#le )+.a detailed com0arison o, S* @ C* engines
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(eferences-
/. T'eory ! Practice of % C 9ngines ;y C 2 Taylor
1. 2undamentals of % C 9ngines ;y D ; Heywood
3. % C 9ngines ;y 8 0 8at'ur ! (P $'arma
5. % C 9ngines ;y Ganesan
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Cha0ter-6
Cylinder .loc(
2orms t'e basic frame wor of t'e engine it 'ouses engine cylinders, w'ere combustion tae
place ! serves as a bearing ! guide for piston reciprocating in it. %t carries lubricating oil to various
components t'roug' drilled passages.
?t lower end t'e cran case is cast integral wit' t'e bloc. ?t t'e top, is attac'ed t'e cylinder
'ead. ;esides, ot'er parts lie timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, flyw'eel, fuel pump etc.
are also attac'ed
?round cylinders, t'ere are passages for circulation of cooling water
Cylinder headsA Cylinders ) liners
8ost modern automotive engines 'ave all of t'eir cylinders and t'e greater part of t'eir
crancase poured in a single casting, so t'at cylinders and crancase form a single unit. However,
cylinders and crancase perform different functions.
Separate 2s- Integral Cylinder Heads.
Cylinder 'eads now almost always are made separate castings, w'ic' are secured to t'e cylinder
bloc wit' studs and nuts, wit' a gaset in between to ensure a gas-tig't +oint. T'e cylinder 'ead can be
cast integral wit' t'e bloc, and at one period in engine development t'at was t'e predominant practice.
Cit' integral cylinder 'eads t'ere is, of course, no mac'ining of +oint surfaces and no need for a
gaset, but t'e cylinder casting is muc' more difficult to produce, and. besides, wit' t'e design w'ic'
was usually employed, cooling of t'e combustion-c'amber walls was less effective-t'e wall
temperature of eac' combustion c'amber being less uniform-t'an in an engine wit' a detac'able 'ead.
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%n t'e case of 0-'ead engines wit' integral cylinder 'eads, t'e valves were introduced t'roug'
openings in t'e 'ead w'ic' were closed by t'readed plugs generally referred to as Yvalve caps.Y T'ese
plugs presented to t'e 'ot gases in t'e cylinder a considerable surface w'ic' was not water-cooled, and
w'ic' t'erefore formed Y'ot spots.Y %t was customary to screw t'e spar plug into one of t'ese Yvalve
caps.Y $ince t'e insulator of t'e plug naturally is a poor conductor of 'eat, and t'e additional t'readed
+oint also formed an obstruction to 'eat flow, t'is furt'er
aggravated t'e situation wit' respect to Y'ot spotsY and made it
necessary to eep t'e compression Luite low.
Cit' t'e valve-in-'ead type of cylinder t'ere are two
alternate designs of integral 'eads. Cit' one of t'ese, e-emplified
in 2ig, 1, t'e valves seat directly on t'e metal of t'e 'ead, but t'is
'as t'e disadvantage t'at w'en t'ey are to be reground, t'e w'ole
bloc 'as to be removed from t'e car. Cit' t'e ot'er, use is made
of so-called valve cages, t'at is, cylindrical sleeves w'ic' are set
into bores in t'e cylinder 'ead and retained t'erein between a
s'oulder and a ring nut. T'e valve seat is fom1ed on t'e inner end
of t'e cage, and t'ere is a port in t'e wall of t'e latter t'roug'
w'ic' t'e gases flow from or into a valve passage cast in t'e
cylinder 'ead. T'e ob+ection to valve cages is t'at t'ey add anot'er
Y+ointY to t'e pat' for 'eat flow from t'e valve 'ead to t'e +acet
water, and t'erefore result in 'ig'er valve temperatures
#particularly of t'e e-'aust valve&, w'ic' promotes detonation and
maes t'e construction unsuitable for 'ig' speed, 'ig'-compression engines.
Fig+1+ Cylinder (ith integral head
C'en t'e cylinder 'ead is a detac'able casting, t'e cylinder and +acet cores can be more
securely supported in t'e mold, and t'e cylinder castings are liely to be more nearly true to pattern,
wit' t'e result t'at after t'e cylinder is finis'ed, its walls will be more nearly uniform in t'icness.
Cit' an engine 'aving a removable 'ead it is possible to t'oroug'ly clean t'e combustion
c'amber of carbon, by scraping, after t'e 'ead 'as been removed. %f it is desired to locate t'e valves in
t'e 'ead, t'ey may be seated directly on a water-cooled surface.
<ne reason for t'e continued, limited use of integral 'eads is t'at t'ey avoid trouble due to
distortion of t'e upper or outer end of t'e cylinder bore due to t'e drawing up of t'e cylinder-'ead
retaining nuts. $uc' trouble is e-perienced occasionally, wit' detac'able cylinder 'eads #blow-by past
piston rings, leaage past valves, and e-cessive oil consumption&, but it can be guarded against by
performing t'e final finis'ing operation on t'e bore wit' a dummy cylinder 'ead in placeB T'is
produces a bore w'ic' is true w'en t'e retaining nuts are tig'tened.
>as(ets
Copper-Asbestos >as(ets.
$eparate cylinder 'eads were rendered practical by
t'e introduction of t'e copper-asbestos gaset. T'is consists
of an asbestos s'eet cut or stamped to t'e reLuired form,
w'ic' is armored wit' t'in s'eet copper. T'ere is a copper
s'eet on eac' side of t'e asbestos s'eet, and t'e two copper
s'eets lap along t'e outer edges of t'e asbestos s'eet, so t'at
t'e latter is completely encased. Copper grommets are
inserted in t'e waterway openings and sometimes also in t'e combustion-c'amber openings. %n 'eavy
duty engines t'e combustion-c'amber grommet of t'e gaset may be reinforced by a copper-wire loop
or a copper was'er. %n t'ese copper-asbestos gasets t'e copper provides t'e tenacity and t'e asbestos
t'e compressibility needed in a pacing. ? gaset for a four-cylinder 0-'ead engine is s'own in 2ig.2.
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Steel-Encased and Other >as(ets.
Cylinder-'ead gasets are made also of asbestos s'eet encased in steel instead of copper. Cold-
rolled, deep-drawing steel is used, and is rust-proofed to prevent trouble from corrosion. ?mong t'e
rust-proofing processes applied to s'eet steel for gasets are tinning, electro-galvaniGing, and terne-
plating. $teel, being 'arder, does not 'ave as good sealing properties as copper, and a sealing coat of
some 'eat-resistant, non-'ardening material is generally applied to t'e gaset, eit'er in t'e
manufacturing process or during installation. T'e edges of t'e steel s'eet, of course, are not rust-
proofed, and some steel-encased gasets are fitted wit' copper grommets at t'e waterways. T'e
principal advantage of steel- over copper-encased gasets is t'at t'e production cost of t'e former is
about 27 per cent less.
?not'er type of gaset comprises a central steel core wit' a layer of .coated and grap'ited
asbestos on eac' side t'ereof, t'e asbestos being bonded to t'e core by means of integral steel tangs
clinc'ed into it. T'ese gasets, w'ic' are used c'iefly in t'e engines of low-priced passenger cars,
generally are provided wit' steel grommets at t'e combustion-c'amber and waterway openings, one
manufacturer is using a cylinder 'ead gaset consisting of a s'eet of $?9 @o. 1717 steel 7.71. in. t'ic,
w'ic' is corrugated around t'e openings t'erein, including t'ose for t'e cylinder-'ead studs. T'e
corrugations 'ave a spring action. and t'e sealing properties of t'e gaset are furt'er improved by
applying a coating of a 'eat-resistant lacLuer to bot' sides.
Cylinder-Head Studs.
To obtain a gas-tig't permanent +oint wit' a cylinder-'ead gaset it is necessary to mae
provision for an adeLuate number of studs distributed as nearly uniformly as possible. Cit' 0-'ead
cylinders from 1/ to 27 studs are used for a four-cylinder bloc, from 2, to 2/ for a si--cylinder, and
from *7 to *2for an eig't-cylinder. Cit' , valve-in-'ead cylinders only two rows of studs are reLuired,
instead of t'ree, and t'e total number t'erefore is less, viG., 12 for a four-cylinder bloc, 1/ for a si--
cylinder, and 27 for an eig't-cylinder. To prevent distortion of t'e casting by drawing up t'e nuts, t'ere
must be plenty of metal in t'e bosses for t'e studs, and t'e studs must not be too near t'e valve seats. %n
t'e design of t'e 'eads careful attention must be given to t'e avoidance of pocets w'ic' mig't form
steam traps. %t is not necessary to use very large water ports. 8oderate-siGed ports +udiciously
distributed, are better, as t'ey mae it easier to prevent leas.
Cylinder 6aterial.
%n t'e past automobile-engine cylinders 'ave been generally cast of close-grained gray iron
appro-imating t'e following composition.
Percent
$ilicon 1.5 to 2.2
$ulp'ur not over 7.12
P'osp'orus not over 7.1.
8anganese 7./ to 7.5
Combined carbon 7.*. to 7...
Total carbon *.2 to *.,
T'e $?9 'as standardiGed five grades of cast iron, of w'ic' four are recommended for cylinder
blocs and cylinder 'eads as follows> @o. 111 for small cylinder blocs" @o. 127 for cylinder blocs
generally. @o.121 for truc and tractor-, and @o. 122 for diesel engine cylinder blocs. Pistons also are
cast of t'ese irons.
%t was determined from tests conducted, t'at to obtain t'e better p'ysical properties t'e total
carbon ! silicon contents must be reduced and t'e p'osp'orus content 'eld to a lower limit.
?mong ot'er points usually covered in specifications for cylinder castings arc t'e following>
Castings must be smoot', well cleaned and free from s'rinage cavities, cracs and 'oles, large
inclusions, c'ills, e-cess free carbides and any ot'er defects detrimental to mac'inability, appearance,
or performance. T'ey must finis' to t'e siGe specified. C'en tensile tests are provided for, t'e portion
of t'e casting from w'ic' t'e test piece is to be mac'ined is usually specified. .
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T'e use of steel for cylinders 'as often been suggested, and for racing and aircraft engines,
cylinders are sometimes made from 'ollow steel forgings. $everal ?merican manufacturers use cylinder
castings of semi-steel, more properly called 'ig'-test cast iron. T'is material is made by adding a
certain percentage of scrap steel to t'e melt of cast iron, w'ic' results in a finer grain and in somew'at
better tensile properties.
To mae it possible to successfully cast a multiple-cylinder bloc wit' t'in walls, t'e iron must
pour well and 'ave a Ylong lifeY #as t'e foundry men call it&. T'ese c'aracteristics are strengt'ened, by
'ig' p'osp'orus content, but, unfortunately, t'is element tends to mae t'e iron soft and less resistant to
wear.
"ic(el-Chromium irons.
Certain iron ore mined in Cuba contains small percentages of nicel and c'romium, and t'e
metal made from t'is are, nown as 8ayari iron, is sometimes added to gray iron for cylinder castings>
8ayan iron t'erefore is a natural alloy. %t is claimed t'at it is free from o-idation ! 'as a lower
solidification point, and t'at t'e Ylonger lifeY of t'e iron improves t'e YfeedingY of castings w'en t'ey
are properly gated, in spite of low p'osp'orus content. Castings w'en sectioned -s'ow sound metal
even w'ere t'ere are 'eavy bosses and t'ic sections. Cylinder castings made of a mi-ture containing
17 per cent of 8ayari iron s'owed a tensile strengt' of */,1,7 psi, according to maers of t'e iron" a
transverse strengt' of ,2.7 lb, and a ;rinell 'ardness of 22*-225. T'e same iron is also used for
cylinder 'eads and pistons. (esults similar to t'ose from 8ayari iron are being obtained by t'e addition
of small Luantities of nicel and c'romium, and suc' alloy irons are now used not only for cylinder
blocs, but also for pistons, particularly for 'eavy duty, commercial-ve'icle engines.
T'e c'ief advantage of alloyed irons is t'at t'ey possess greater 'ardness and wear resistance,
and t'at wit'out being 'arder to mac'ine. T'e mac'inability of grey iron is dependent upon t'e absence
of e-cess iron carbide of c'illed or 'ard spots. @icel acts to eliminate bot', and so to improve
mac'inability. %n many cases t'e alloyed iron, alt'oug' 'aving a ;rinell 'ardness from *7 to ,7 points
greater, is actually easier to mac'ine t'an ordinary gray iron.
C'en nicel is used alone as an alloying element, t'e content usually ranges between 1.2. and
2..T, w'ereas if it is used in combination wit' c'romium, t'e nicel content ranges between o..7 and
1..7 T and t'at of c'romium between 7.2. and 7..7 T it is claimed t'at a combed content of nicel and
c'romium of 1 per cent will give cast iron wit' a ;rinell 'ardness of 271-211" of 2 per cent, 22*-2*.,
and of * per cent, 2,1-2...
C'romium and nicel, 'owever, are not t'e only alloying elements purposely added to cylinder
irons" ot'ers added to improve t'e fluidity of t'e molten iron, t'e resistance of t'e iron to wear, its
mac'inability, or bot' of t'e latter Lualities, include, molybdenum, vanadium and titanium.
Copper and 6olybdenum Additions.
Copper is of value in cylinder irons in t'at it tends to prevent c'ill in t'in sections and to give a
finer grain structure in t'e 'eavier sections, t'us acting t'e part of a stabiliGer, %t also increases t'e
fluidity of t'e iron and acts as a Ygrap'itiGerY" it 'ardens and tig'tens up t'e matri- so t'at HsponginessI
is reduced. T'e improvement due to copper is well s'own in transverse tests, and t'ese additions are
particularly effective in t'e presence of 'ig' manganese and of nicel or c'romium.
8olybdenum increases t'e resistance to wear of cast iron, especially at 'ig'er temperatures.
T'is results from t'e refining action it 'as on t'e grain, and from t'e finer division of grap'ite w'ic' it
brings about. %t increases t'e ;rinell 'ardness-alt'oug' in t'is respect it is not as effective as an eLual
proportion of c'romium and it accomplis'es t'is wit'out rendering t'e metal less mac'inable. %t also
increases t'e tensile strengt' and t'e toug'ness of t'e metal. C'ere t'ere is a tendency for t'e castings
to crac owing to faults in eit'er t'e design or t'e foundry tec'niLue-molybdenum is often of benefit. %t
is mostly used in combination wit' eit'er c'romium alone or wit' bot' nicel and c'romium.
Heat Crac(s in Cylinder 1alls.
Cracs in 0-'ead cylinder castings #especially in large ones& sometimes start at t'e s'arp edge
formed by t'e cylinder bore and t'e valve-passage wall. T'is edge reac'es a very 'ig' temperature,
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because t'e 'ot gases pass over it during t'e e-'aust period, and a crac naturally starts easily at a s'arp
edge. (ounding off t'is edge 'as been found a good preventative against 'eat fatigue cracs. Cracs
may start also at eit'er t'e inlet- or e-'aust-valve seat. %t was s'own t'at suc' cracs usually are t'e
result of pre-ignition. T'e latter causes local over'eating of t'e combustion-c'amber wall, and t'e crac
forms w'en t'e over'eated metal cools again. ;y installing a Y'otY spar plug in one cylinder and t'en
running t'e engine under full load at from *777 to *.77 rpm, cracs could be produced at will. T'e
Y'otY plug causes pre-ignition, and usually one 17-minute run under t'ese conditions resulted in t'e
formation of a crac, t'oug' sometimes several suc' runs were reLuired.
Cylinder 1ear.
T'e c'aracteristic w'ic' is most important in +udging cylinder irons is t'eir resistance to wear
under engine- operating conditions. ?s t'e cylinder bore wears, t'e engine loses power, consumes
e-cessive Luantities of oil, and gives off smoe in t'e e-'aust. %n fact, t'e rate of oil consumption is
usually taen as an inde- of t'e state of wear of t'e cylinder bore.
%t was observed many years ago t'at t'e wear of cylinder bores is very non-uniform. %t is greatest at t'e
top end of piston travel #under t'e topmost ring wit' t'e piston at t'e end of its up-stroe&, and
decreases rat'er rapidly from t'ere down. #2ig. *.& %t 'as been pointed out t'at cylinder wear is due to
t'ree separate causes, viG.,
?brasion , w'ic' is due to foreign particles in t'e oil film"
9rosion , w'ic' is due to metal-to-metal
contact between t'e cylinder wall on t'e
one 'and and t'e piston and rings on t'e
ot'er" and
Corrosion , w'ic' results from c'emical
action on t'e cylinder walls by t'e
products of combustion.
T'e order of importance of t'e t'ree
causes varies wit' conditions of operation.
T'at corrosion may play an important part in t'e wear of cylinder bores, it was found t'at accelerated
cylinder wear occurs at low cylinder temperatures and is attributable to corrosion resulting from
deposition of acid-bearing moisture on t'e cylinder walls. T'e reasons for assuming corrosion to be
responsible were briefly as follows>
1. T'e pitted and discolored appearance of t'e cylinder walls and piston rings after low-temperature
operation.
2. T'e fact t'at increased wear begins +ust below t'e calculated dew point.
*. T'e detection of acids in t'e water of combustion.
,. ? large reduction in t'e rate of wear obtained wit' 'ydrogen fuel.
.. ? reduction in wear obtained w'en using corrosion-resisting materials.
T'e researc' wor s'owed t'at corrosion is largely due to carbonic acid formed by t'e solution
of carbon dio-ide, a product of combustion, in water condensed from t'e gases of combustion. C'en
'ydrogen is used as fuel t'ere is no carbon dio-ide in t'e e-'aust, so t'at no carbonic acid can form.
E$$ect o$ Cylinder 6aterial on Rate o$ .ore 1ear-
T'e result of t'e ;rinell test is generally
regarded as bearing some relation to t'e rate of
cylinder wear. T'at 'ardness is a factor in wear
resistance is indicated by t'e fact t'at 'eat-
treated liners of alloyed iron wit' a ;rinell
'ardness of slig'tly over .77, 'ave been found
to reLuire reconditioning of t'e bore #by re-
grinding& only one t'ird as often as t'e bores of
gray-iron cylinder blocs wit' a ;rinell 'ardness of around 277. Cylinders wit' soft or YporousY spots
w'ic' are readily detected by t'e ;rinell test, usually s'ow a 'ig' rate of wear, but differences in
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'ardness wit'in t'e usual range specified for gray-iron cylinder castings, say. 137 to 2*7 ;rinell, 'ave
little effect on t'e resistance to wear.
Cylinder Stress and 1all Thic(ness.
Cit' t'e usual compression ratio of between 1 and 3 #for passenger-car engines& a ma-imum
e-plosion pressure of about 177 psi may be figured wit'. @ow consider a section of a cylinder of b in.
bore and 1 in. long, as represented in 2ig. ,. T'e pressure developed in t'e cylinder by t'e e-plosion
tends to rupture t'e wall along lines parallel wit' t'e cylinder a-is and at opposite ends of a diameter.
Cit' a ma-imum combustion pressure of 177 psi t'e rupturing force on t'e section of t'e cylinder
considered is 177b lb. %f t'e wall 'as a t'icness t and t'e material 'as a tensile strengt' of *.,777 psi,
t'e resistance to rupture of t'e two sections 1 in. long and t in. t'ic is 17.777t lb and t'e. factor of
safety t'en is
f W17777t)177b W177t)b
2or a factor of safety of , t'e ratio of wall t'icness to bore t'en evidently must be 1)2.
T'is rule w'en applied to cylinders of small bore gives values for t'e cylinder-wall t'icness w'ic',
w'ile large enoug' so far as wit'standing t'e stresses of a normal e-plosion is concerned, would be too
small from t'e standpoint of s'op production. %f t'e water +acet is cast integral, as it usually is, t'e
cylinder can be mac'ined only on t'e inside, and t'e minimum t'icness of t'e wall t'en depends upon
t'e accuracy wit' w'ic' t'e cores are set. $ome allowance must be made for inaccurate core wor, and
a good value for t'e wall t'icness is
t W #b)2.& Z7.17in
T'is formula can be safely applied to t'e w'ole range of siGes of automotive engines wit' cast-
iron cylinders.
T'e cylinder 'ead must be Luite stiff in order to resist t'e stresses of detonation. T'e wall itself
is usually made slig'tly t'icer t'an t'e cylinder wall. %n t'e case of an over'ead-valve engine, t'e Call
is normally stiffened by t'e vertical walls of t'e valve pocets. ? similar stiffening effect is usually
obtained in t'e 'eads of 0-'ead cylinders from t'e walls of spar-plug wells, but if t'ere are any
e-tended flat surfaces in t'ese 'eads, t'ey s'ould be stiffened by ribbing.
?etails o$ 1ater Cac(et-
2or a long time it was t'e general practice to e-tend t'e water +acet down t'e cylinder wall
only to t'e level of t'e top of t'e piston w'en at t'e bottom of t'e stroe. ?s t'e lower part of t'e
cylinder is not contacted directly by t'e 'ot gases, it does not reac' an e-cessive temperature, and
t'erefore does not seem to reLuire water-+aceting. However, in modern 'ig'-speed engines t'e
crancase oil often reac'es an e-cessive temperature, w'ic' reduces t'e load-carrying capacity of t'e
oil film in t'e bearings, and may cause t'e latter to fail in 'ard service. %t 'as been found t'at by
e-tending t'e water +acet all t'e way down t'e cylinder, t'e temperature of t'e oil in t'e crancase
under e-treme conditions may be lowered by as muc' as .7 2a'ren'eit degrees, as compared wit' an
engine wit' Y'alf-lengt'Y +acets, and Yfull-lengt'Y +acets 'ave come into general use.
$ome designers taper t'e +acet down from t'e top to t'e lower end, so as to place a larger body
of water around t'e compression c'amber, w'ere most of t'e 'eat must be absorbed. %n most engines,
'owever, t'e dept' of t'e water +acet is uniform from top to bottom. T'is dept' varies somew'at in
different designs, but usually is eLual to about one-eig't' t'e cylinder bore. Certain parts of t'e +acet
w'ic' directly affect t'e over-all dimensions of t'e bloc can be made smaller in dept', including t'e
space between ad+acent cylinders and t'at between a cylinder and a valve pocet or a tappet 'ousing.
0iberal water spaces 'ave t'e advantage t'at t'e core sand can be more effectively removed from t'e
casting. %n engines of special design, suc' as t'ose wit' YwetY liners, t'e +acet dept' can be made less.
T'e +acet wall generally is made as t'in as t'e foundry process permits. %t can be made t'inner,
of course, in a small cylinder t'an in a big one, because in t'e former t'e area is smaller. ?verage
practice wit' regard to +acet-wall t'icness is as follows>
Cylinder bore, inc'es * , . /
T'icness of +acet wall inc'es .)*2 *)1/ 1)*2 1),
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Dacet walls must be made 'eavier w'en cylinder liners #especially t'e YwetY ind& are used and
t'e tensile stresses due to t'e force of e-plosion are sustained c'iefly or w'olly by t'ese walls.
<n t'e cylinder 'ead t'e water +acet is usually made of somew'at greater dept' t'an around t'e
cylinders, so as to provide adeLuate 'eat-storage capacity over t'e area w'ere most of t'e waste 'eat
enters t'e cooling water. T'ere s'ould be water spaces between all ad+acent valve pocets #instead of
common walls&, and t'e water s'ould come Luite close to t'e valve seats, as it is only in t'is way t'at
uniform cooling of t'e valve seat can be assured, and distortion and conseLuent leaage prevented.
Cylinder 'eads must be so designed t'at no steam pocets can form in t'em" t'at is, it must be possible
for t'e water to flow from any part of t'e +acet to t'e outlet along a continuously rising pat'. Trouble
from over'eating is most liely to arise at t'e e-'aust-valve seats, and it is t'erefore desirable t'at t'e
cooling effect of t'e circulating water be most intense at t'e valve pocets. T'is can be assured by
inserting a distributing 'eader in t'e water +acet, t'e 'eader connecting wit' t'e water entrance to t'e
+acet at t'e front of t'e bloc and 'aving an outlet ad+acent to eac' e-'aust-valve pocet. T'e 'eader is
usually made of s'eet metal and set into t'e mold. Two arrangements are illustrated in 2ig. ..
Cit' valve-in-'ead cylinders t'e location of t'e water outlet presents some difficulty> because
t'e valve mec'anism on top of t'e engine is usually provided wit' a cover. <ne solution of t'e problem
consists in forming a number of outlet bosses on t'e 'ead over to one side, so t'ey come outside t'e
valve cover, and using a water-return manifold. C'ile t'is tends to promote uniformity of circulation, it
maes for dissymmetry of appearance, w'ic' is
t'e more ob+ectionable because t'e manifold is
located very prominently on top of t'e engine.
T'e more common plan is to 'ave an outlet at
t'e front end of t'e 'ead, +ust outside t'e valve
cover, and usually oblong in form, wit' t'e long
diameter across t'e engine, so as to minimiGe
t'e over'ang.
%n cylinders provided wit' Yfull-lengt'Y
+acets, t'e central portion of t'e barrel lacs
t'e reinforcement w'ic' wit' Y'alf-lengt'Y
+acets is provided by t'e flange t'at forms t'e bottom of t'e +acet. %f t'e barrel also 'appens to be of
minimum t'icness its central portion will 'ave very little rigidity and will distort easily, particularly if
during mac'ining operations t'e tool stries a H'ard spot>I T'is maes it almost impossible to obtain a
true cylindrical bore. Conditions can be improved in t'is respect by providing t'e barrels of suc'
engines wit' one or two circumferential ribs at intermediary points of t'eir lengt'.
C'ile t'e flange around t'e cylinder at mid-lengt' in engines wit' 'alf-lengt' water +acets 'as
t'e advantage of affording t'e rigidity of structure desirable during mac'ining operations it is
detrimental under certain operating conditions. 2or instance, w'en an engine is being run under full load
immediately after a cold start, t'e piston 'eats up muc' more rapidly t'an t'e cylinder bloc and is apt
to get tig't in t'e cylinder and scuff. %t 'as been observed t'at in engines wit' 'alf-lengt' +acets suc'
scuffing occurs particularly at t'e level of t'e water-+acet bottom flange, w'ic' latter prevents t'e
cylinder from e-panding.
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>uarding Against Cylinder ?istortion-
%t 'as been pointed out already t'at a freLuent source of trouble in operation is distortion of t'e cylinder
bore w'ic' results in blow-by over'eating and e-cessive cylinder
wear. Cylinder distortion may 'e due to eit'er mec'anical or t'ermal
causes. 8ec'anical distortion is most liely to result from tig'tening
of t'e cylinder-'ead nuts, if t'e anc'orages for t'e cylinder 'ead studs
are not properly supported. %t .'as been suggested t'at t'ese
anc'orages be eit'er located in a wall w'ic' e-tends straig't down to
t'e cylinder bottom flange so t'at t'e pull of t'e stud produces pure
tensile stresses on t'e material of t'e bloc, or else be cast on t'e
+acet wall rat'er t'an on t'e cylinder wall, as illustrated in 2ig. /. To
furt'er reduce cylinder-wall distortion, t'is wall is t'icened near t'e
top, w'ile t'e t'icness of t'e dec around t'e cylinder wall is
reduced.
%n valve-in-'ead engines t'e bases for t'e bracets carrying t'e
rocer arms must 'e well supported, so t'ey will not yield unduly under load w'ic' would mae t'e
engine noisy.
Remo3able =iners-
%n most engines t'e pistons 'ear directly on walls forming part of t'e cylinder bloc, 'ut in
some-and particularly in engines wit' large cylinders-removable liners are used. T'ere are two types of
t'ese liners>
? YdryY liner is one w'ic' is in contact wit' metal of t'e bloc
over its w'ole lengt', or nearly its w'ole lengt', w'ile a YwetY
liner is one w'ic' is supported by t'e bloc over narrow belts only,
and is surrounded by cooling water between t'ese belts.
%n t'e Anited $tates YwetY liners came into use first,
especially in t'e engines of farm tractors and commercial ve'icles.
?side from t'e fact t'at any liner w'en worn or damaged can be
replaced at relatively low cost, t'e construction offers t'e
advantage t'at because of t'eir uniform wall t'icness #being
mac'ined inside and lout& and because t'ey are very little affected
by t'e tension of cylinder-'ead studs, separate liners distort less in
service t'an t'e integral barrels of conventional cylinder blocs.
Fig+ / D&etD cylinder liner (ith 0ac$ing rings+
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?t first t'e liners were made of t'e same gray iron t'at was used for cylinder blocs, but in t'e
course of time materials of greater wear resistance were developed, and as most of t'ese were more
e-pensive t'an ordinary gray iron, t'ey lent t'emselves particularly to use in liners. <ne met'od of
installing a removable YwetY liner in a cylinder bloc is illustrated in 2ig. 1. ?t t'e top t'e liner is
provided wit' an e-ternal flange w'ic' enters a counter bore in t'e cylinder. T'e top of t'e liner is flus'
wit' t'e top of t'e bloc, and t'e +oint is sealed by t'e cylinder-'ead gaset. %n some cases and
especially in 6iesel engines-t'e 'ole in t'e gaset is made slig'tly larger t'an t'e cylinder bore, and a
ring or loop of copper is inserted to reduce t'e pressure on t'e gaset.
?t t'e bottom t'e liner is enlarged in diameter and 'as t'ree grooves for pacing rings cut in it. %nstead
of in t'e liner, t'e grooves may be cut in t'e bloc. T'ese pacing rings are made of synt'etic rubber,
w'ic' is more resistant to mineral oil and ot'er petroleum products t'an natural rubber. T'e pacing
rings may be made of circular section, of a diameter slig'tly larger t'an t'e widt' of t'e grooves, and
insertion of t'e liner t'en will deform t'em so t'at t'ey substantially fill t'e grooves. To permit easy
insertion of t'e liner, eit'er it or t'e bore of t'e bloc is c'amfered, depending on w'ic' part contains
t'e pacing rings.
%naccuracies in t'e section diameter of t'ese pacing rings are said to 'ave been t'e cause of
some trouble. %f t'e diameter is too small t'ere may be leaage, w'ereas if it is too large t'e pressure
e-erted w'en t'e liner is forced into place may crac it. To overcome t'is difficulty, a cor-synt'etic
rubber composition of greater elastic compressibility 'as been developed. Pacing ring of t'is material
are molded wit' a sLuare section, and w'en inserted pro+ect slig'tly above t'e surface of t'e part in
w'ic' t'e grooves are cut. %nsertion of t'e liner compresses t'em flus' wit' t'at surface. $ingle and two
pacing rings also are used, and in t'e case of two rings, a t'ird groove sometimes is cut between t'e
two containing t'e pacing rings, to collect any oil or water t'at may seep past t'e rings and allow it to
drain off.
Y6ryY liners, w'ic' in Great ;ritain were used
practically e-clusively from t'e beginning, seem to 'ave
gained t'e ascendancy over t'e YwetY type in t'is country
after Corld Car %%. ? typical Ydry-linerY installation #in a
G8C engine& is s'own in 2ig. 3. %n t'is engine t'e
cylinder bloc and crancase are separate castings, and t'e
liner e-tends some distance into t'e crancase. %t is 'eld in
position by a flange. at t'e top. %n some ot'er engines wit'
dry liners and a separate crancase t'e retaining flange on t'e
liner is near t'e bottom and is 'eld between t'e cylinder
bloc and t'e crancase. ? ;ritis' manufacturer of 6iesel
truc engines #?lbion& copper-plates t'e dry liners on t'e
outside. T'e copper is said to act as a lubricant, facilitating t'e
insertion of t'e liner, and also to improve t'e 'eat flow
from liner to cylinder wall. Fig+ < DryD cylinder
liner in 0osition.
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6aterials $or Cylinder =iners
2or t'e engines of public-service ve'icles, w'ic' latter run up enormous mileages in t'e course
of a year, it 'as been found advisable to use alloy iron for t'e liners and to 'eat-treat t'em. General
8otors Truc ! Coac' 6ivision, for instance, uses suc' 'ardened liners in all of its larger engines, t'e
material being a nicel-c'romium iron of t'e following composition>
Percent
Total carbon *.17-*.,7
Combined carbon 7.1.-7.57
8anganese 7...-7.1.
P'osp'orus 7.27 ma-.
$ulp'ur 7.17 ma-.
$ilicon 1.57-2.17
@icel 1.37-2.27
C'romium 7...-7.1.
%n t'e Yas castY condition t'e liners s'ow a ;rinell 'ardness of 212-2,1, a transverse strengt' of
2,77 lb on ?.$.T.8. arbitration bars #bars of 1.2 in. diameter and 13 in. between supports&, a transverse
deflection of 7.27-7.*7 in., and a minimum tensile strengt' of *1,777 psi on test bars mac'ined from-t'e
casting. ? 'ydrostatic test also is applied to t'e liners, w'ic' must wit'stand 1.77 psi for a wall
t'icness of l)3 in. and. bores of ,-. in. To increase t'eir wear resistance, t'e liners are 'ardened, by
being 'eated to. 1.,7- 1./7 2 for *7 to ,7 minutes and Luenc'ed in still oil. ?fter t'is t'ey must s'ow a
;rinell 'ardness of at least tensile .12 w'ile t'e strengt' must range between 23,777 and */,777 psi and
t'e transverse strengt' between 2177 and 2577 lb for t'e arbitration bar. Cit' t'ese liners t'e mileage
between cylinder over'auls is said to be practically trebled, as compared. Cit' solid cylinders of gray
cast iron s'owing from 2*7 to 2,7 ;rinell. ? minor disadvantage is t'at it taes up to .777 miles for t'e
piston rings to wear in fully, 'ence t'e oil consumption is rat'er 'ig' during t'e early part of t'e life of
t'e liner.
"itrided Cylinder =iners.
? process for nitrogen 'ardening or HnitridingI cast iron was developed in 9urope. T'e process
consists in e-posing cast-iron ob+ects to be case- 'ardened to a current of ammonia vapor at about 577 2
for a considerable lengt' of time, and t'en Luenc'ing. ?t t'is 'ig' temperature t'e ammonia breas up
into its constituents. @itrogen and 'ydrogen, and t'e nitrogen penetrate into t'e surface of t'e casting !
combines c'emically wit' t'e metallic elements, forming very 'ard nitrides.
? $pecial alloy iron containing aluminum must be used. T'e liners are e-posed to t'e ammonia
vapors for /. 'ours at 5.7 2 and t'en 'ave a 'ardened case of 7.71. in. dept', t'e 'ardness tapering off
from t'e outside, w'ere it is somew'ere between 377 and 1777 ;rinell.
? slig't Ynitride fuGGY produced on t'e surface of t'e liners during t'e process is removed before
t'ey are s'ipped to engine builders. $ome distortion is caused, and t'e effects of t'is are eliminated by
'oning after t'e liners are inserted into t'e bloc, for w'ic' purpose an allowance of 7.772 in. on t'e
diameter is made. @itriding also produces a slig't Ygrowt',Y of t'e order of 7.771 in., and t'is, too, is
allowed for in advance. 0iners are installed in blocs wit' a press fit, an interference of 7.771. to
7.772. in. being allowed, depending on t'e bore.
Chromium %lating.
?not'er met'od of reducing t'e rate of wear consists in c'romium plating t'e bore. T'e process
differs radically from t'at of c'romium plating for ornamental purposes. .%t gives a YporousY coating
w'ic' 'olds oil, w'ile t'e so called brig't plating process gives a dense coating to w'ic' oil will not
ad'ere ! w'ic' for t'is reason is readily is scored in service. 2rom 277 to .77 times as muc' c'romium
as in conventional decorative plating is deposited per unit of area. %f slig'tly too muc' s'ould be
deposited, so t'at t'e bore is undersiGe by from 7.777. to 7.771 in., t'e e-cess can be removed by
'oning. Cear tests made on a plain gray-iron cylinder of 2,1 ;rinell 'ardness and a similar cylinder
plated indicated t'at c'romium plating reduces t'e rate of cylinder wear appro-imately in t'e
proportion of 1>1 and t'at t'e wear on t'e top piston ring is coincidentally reduced about ,>1.
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$uc' met'ods as nitriding and c'romium plating of cylinder bores are applicable particularly to
bus and railcar gasoline engines and to 6iesel engines, w'ic' 'ave a muc' longer service life t'an
passenger-car engines. Cylinder bores in plain cast iron must be reconditioned about every .7,777
miles, and wit' eit'er a nitrided or c'romium-plated bore, if reconditioning is reLuired at all, it will be
reLuired only after a muc' longer interval.
T'e primary function of a cylinder of an %C 9ngine is to maintain t'e woring fluid ! t'e secondary
function is to guide t'e trun piston.
?dvantages of ? ry liner
1. simpler to replace
2. no danger of water leaage eit'er in to crancase or t'e combustion c'amber
*. due to absence of 'eavy flanges at t'e top of t'e liner, cylinder centres can be reduced
,. better cooling of upper part of t'e liner
6isadvantages of ? ry liner
1. Complicated casting
2. decreased 'eat flow t'roug' t'e composite wall
?dvantages of 1et liner
1. t'e foundry problem is considerably eased, since t'e large internal cores of t'e cylinder bloc
can be properly supported
2. cylinder bloc is relieved of t'e stresses due to longitudinal e-pansion of t'e liner
6isadvantages of 1et liner
1. difficult replacement
2. 6anger of water leaage in to t'e crancase! t'e combustion space if t'e casting is defective
Dualities o$ a good liner
1. $trengt' to resist t'e gas pressure
2. $ufficiently 'ard to resist wear
*. $trengt' to resist t'e t'ermal stresses due to t'e 'eat flow t'roug' t'e liner wall
,. ?nticorrosive
.. Capable of taing a good bearing surface
/. $'ould be symmetrical in s'ape to avoid uneLual deflection due to gas load ! uneLual
deflection due to t'ermal load
1. no distortion of inner surface due to restraining fi-ings
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2al3e Seats
Cater +acets s'ould be carried close to and all around t'e valve seats. %t
'as been s'own t'at t'e 'eat absorbed by t'e valve 'eads t'roug' t'eir
contact wit' t'e burning gases passes off c'iefly t'roug' t'e seats, and if t'e
water comes close to t'e seats t'e 'eads will be cooled more effectively, w'ile if
it e-tends all around, t'e 'eads will be cooled more nearly uniformly and will
not warp.
Particularly effective cooling of t'e valve seats and valve guides is
claimed for t'e arrangement s'own in 2ig. 5. Here a water distributor is cast in
t'e bloc, and 'as disc'arge openings in bot' t'e top and t'e side ad+acent to
t'e valve guide. T'e outlets in t'e top disc'arge into t'e space between t'e
e-'aust valve pocet and t'e cylinder wall, and t'e water disc'arged t'ere is
induced to flow completely around t'e valve pocet, by scallops directly
above t'e valve passage, t'roug' w'ic' it passes into t'e cylinder-'ead +acet.
T'e outlets at t'e side disc'arge against t'e bottom of t'e valve pocet
ad+acent to t'e upper part of t'e valve guide.
%n laying out t'e valve pocet, enoug' clearance must be allowed all
around t'e valve seat so t'e gases will pass fairly uniformly t'roug' all
sections of t'e valve port.
2ig. 5
2al3e-Seat Inserts.
%n 'ig'-speed, 'eavy duty engines t'e e-'aust-valve seats, if directly on t'e cast iron of t'e
bloc, are liely to erode or wear way rat'er rapidly, causing t'e valve to sin deeper into t'e seat,
reducing t'e valve clearance, and necessitating valve-stem ad+ustment. To eliminate t'e necessity for
freLuent ad+ustments, valve-seat inserts of 'eat-resistant material were introduced in 15*1, first for
commercial-ve'icle engines and s'ortly t'ereafter also for passenger-car engines. $uc' inserts 'ad long
been used on engines 'aving t'e part containing t'e valves made of aluminum, as t'e ordinary
aluminum alloys are far too soft to sustain t'e pounding of t'e valve 'eads. %n t'at case t'e inserts are
made of aluminum bronGe -#57 percent copper, 17 per cent aluminum&, w'ic' 'as about t'e same
coefficient of 'eat e-pansion as t'e aluminum alloys used for cylinder 'eads. ?luminum-bronGe inserts
are forced into counter bores in t'e 'ead wit' a s'rin fit.
<ne of t'e reLuirements of a valve-insert material t'erefore is t'at it must 'ave substantially t'e
same coefficient of 'eat e-pansion as t'e material of t'e bloc or 'ead" anot'er is t'at it must be
sufficiently 'ard to wit'stand t'e pounding of t'e valve 'ead at 'ig' temperatures over long periods.
T'e materials commonly used include nicel-c'romium iron wit' moderate alloy contents, and t'e
'ig'-percentage tungsten steel nown as 'ig'-speed steel. C'ere t'e conditions are too severe for t'ese
materials t'e seat of t'e insert can be provided wit' a facing or veneer of a nonferrous, 'eat-resistant
alloy. ?lloys available for t'e purpose include Y9atoniteY #c'romium, tungsten, nicel and cobalt&,
Y9loniteY #tungsten and copper&, and Y$telliteY #cobalt, c'romium and tungsten&. T'ese alloys are
applied to t'e seat portion of t'e inserts by YpuddlingY wit' a welding torc'.
%n most applications t'e inserts are s'run in place, and to get t'e necessary s'rin fit wit'out t'e use of
too great pressure #w'ic' mig't cause distortion&, t'e inserts are cooled to about -177 2 in dry ice or
-227 2 in liLuid air, w'ile t'e blocs are 'eated in water to about 277 2. T'e interference is made about
7.771. in. Per inc' in t'e case of steel inserts, and 7.77* in. per inc' in t'e case of cast iron.
?s a rule, t'e inserts are c'amfered at bot' top and bottom-at t'e bottom to facilitate entering
t'em in t'e counter bore, and at t'e top so t'at t'e bloc material can be rolled over t'e edge of t'e
insert to 'elp retain it. %n addition to rolling t'e bloc material over t'e top c'amfer, t'e insert
sometimes is provided wit' a number of a-ial grooves into w'ic' metal of t'e bloc is forced by t'e
rolling process.
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2ig. 17 s'ows a $tellite-faced, t'readed insert.
T'e $tellite is puddled onto t'e steel base wit'
an acetylene torc'. T'e insert is provided wit'
splines in its t'roat, to tae a tool for screwing it
in place, and a 7.71,-in. was'er of e-tra-soft
iron is placed underneat' it to assure a good
pat' for 'eat flow. ?fter t'e insert is screwed
'ome, it is-loced in place by rolling t'e metal
of t'e bloc around it. T'e s'ape of t'e rolling
tool and t'e met'od of rolling are illustrated in
2ig. 11.
4alve inserts 'ave been
standardiGed by t'e $.?.9. #2ig. 12&. T'e
standard includes two series, one intended
for- passenger-car, t'e ot'er for 'eavy-
duty engines. %t specifies t'e diameter and
dept' of t'e bore in t'e cylinder or 'ead,
and t'e t'icness of t'e insert. T'is leaves
t'e diameter of t'e insert-w'ic' determines t'e interference-to be set by t'e manufacturer.
4alve-seat inserts s'run in place sometimes come loose in service, and t'is is particularly liely
to occur if t'e interference is relatively large. T'is is due to t'e fact t'at in severe service suc' 'ig'
temperatures may be reac'ed t'at t'e resulting stresses e-ceed t'e elastic limit of t'e metal and produce
a permanent set. T'en, w'en t'e> engine cools down, t'e insert will be loose. %t is t'erefore
recommended t'at t'e interference be made no greater t'an needed to firmly 'old t'e- insert in place
w'en t'e engine is cold.
?n insert specially designed to prevent trouble from distortion and loosening. in severe service
is illustrated in 2ig. 1*. T'e main portion, w'ic' 'as-a section similar to t'at of t'e $.?.9. standard
insert, is given a clearance of 7.77, in. around its circumference, so t'at t'e metal around-it can distort
freely wit'out sub+ecting t'e insert to undue stress. %n addition t'ere is an e-tension or sirt, w'ic' is
made an interference fit in t'e 'ead or bloc. <wing to its greater distance from t'e valve seat, t'is
portion will not reac' as 'ig' a temperature, and t'erefore is not liely to tae a permanent set. T'e
considerable lengt' of valve port or t'roat reLuired seems to be a disadvantage of t'is type.
=ength o$ .ore
%n most modem engines of bot' t'e 0-'ead and %-'ead type t'e combustion c'amber is formed
in t'e cylinder 'ead and at t'e end of t'e up-stroe t'e top of t'e piston is flus' wit' t'e finis'ed top
surface of t'e cylinder bloc. <ne reason for not maing t'e piston overrun t'e end of t'e bore is t'at
t'at would bring t'e top ring beyond t'e upper end of t'e water +acet at t'e end of t'e up-stroe, w'ere
it would not be so effectively cooled, in t'e ring groove. T'e lower end of t'e piston generally is made
to overrun t'e end of t'e bore slig'tly.
T'e total lengt' of t'e finis'ed bore evidently is eLual to t'e lengt' of stroe plus t'e lengt' of
t'e piston minus any overrun of t'e piston at bot' ends, t'e overrun being considered negative w'en t'e
piston does not come Luite to t'e end of t'e bore. To facilitate getting t'e piston rings into t'e cylinder,
t'e bore is c'amfered at t'e end from w'ic' t'e piston is entered
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=ocation o$ Spar(-%lug .osses
%n 0-'ead cylinders t'e sparplug bosses usually are located over t'e passage between t'e valve
c'amber and t'e cylinder barrel, as t'is location reduces t'e tendency to detonation to a minimum. T'e
spar points must never be directly in line wit' t'e cylinder wall, w'ere t'ey would become fouled by
oil t'rown off by t'e piston.
T'e lengt' of t'read of standard spar plugs is considerably less t'an t'e average t'icness of
t'e cylinder 'ead, and to compensate for t'is difference, a conical depression is formed in eit'er t'e
inner or outer wall of t'e 'ead, as s'own
in 2ig. 1,. T'ere appears to be one
ob+ection to eac' arrangement, w'ic' is
probably t'e reason designers 'ave not yet
agreed on one or t'e ot'er of t'ese
designs. %f t'ere is a depression in t'e
outer wall, any water getting onto t'e top
of t'e engine will collect in it and tend to
cause rusting of t'e spar-plug s'ell and
its t'read. ? conical depression in t'e
inner wall adds to t'e cooling surface of
t'e combustion c'amber. ;esides, t'e
mi-ture at t'e spar points, near t'e bottom of t'e depression, may be less ignitable.
%n valve-in-'ead engines t'e dept' of t'e 'ead is altoget'er too great to permit of 'aving t'e
spar-plug bosses e-tend t'roug' it vertically, and in suc' engines t'ey e-tend t'roug' t'e 'ead from
t'e side at an angle, a recess being formed in t'e side of t'e 'ead to obtain a sLuare seat #2ig. 1.&. %n
larger cylinders, of course, t'e vertical dept' of t'e compression space is sufficient to allow of t'e plug
being screwed 'oriGontally into t'e compression c'amber wall.
2ouling of spar plugs by lubricating oil is most liely to occur in valve-in-'ead engines, w'ere
t'e plugs are located directly over t'e pistons. <ne met'od of combating trouble from t'is source
consists in reducing t'e diameter of t'e spar-plug 'ole by about one-'alf at t'e inner end #see 2ig. 1.&,
and maing t'e t'read of t'e plug slig'tly s'orter t'an t'e dept' of t'e t'readed 'ole, so t'at a small
c'amber is formed at t'e inner end. %n engines w'ic' do not 'ave t'is provision t'e same effect can be
obtained by t'e use of Yadapters,Y w'ic' screw into t'e spar-plug 'ole and 'ave an internal t'read
w'ic' will tae t'e plug.
Optimum Combustion-Chamber +orm.
%t was found t'at t'e combustion c'ambers illustrated in 2igs. 1/ and 11 wor out satisfactorily, and t'at
wit' t'ese t'e small compression volumes reLuired can be obtained wit'out difficulty. T'e various
combustion c'ambers represented by 2ig. 1/ differ from eac' ot'er wit' respect to slope over t'e piston
and wit' respect to clearance a'ead of and be'ind t'e valves, as s'own in 2ig. 11. ? clearance of 1)1/ to
*)*2 in. is satisfactory above t'e valve, and *)*2 to 1), in. be'ind t'e valve, w'ile as muc' clearance as
possible s'ould be provided a'ead of t'e valves. T'e widt' of t'e valve passage s'ould be about 1. per
cent of t'e bore, and t'e ratio between swept volume and passage area s'ould be between 1. and 27.
T'e YmasedY area of t'e piston may vary considerably" a satisfactory angle of slope over t'e piston-
s'ould be aimed at, and t'e YmasedY area allowed to come w'at it will" in t'e design s'own it is about
.7 per cent of t'e piston-'ead area.
?lt'oug' t'is study of t'e best combustion-c'amber form was made on engines wit' aluminum 'eads,
t'e results obtained and t'e conclusions reac'ed are eLually applicable to 'ig'-compression engines
wit' cast-iron 'eads.
11
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Fi0% *, For#s of o#$"stio) ha#$er "sed i)
e9peri#e)tal al"#i)i"# (li)der head%
Fi0%*+ /leara)e ahead D $ehi)d valves%
%roduction o$ Engine .loc(s
%n t'e design of engine bloc or cylinder bloc it is well to consult wit' t'e foreman of t'e
pattern s'op, because a casting of t'is ind is a difficult piece of mold, and t'e advice of an e-perienced
mec'anic may obviate trouble later.
Cylinders must be molded wit' t'e 'ead downward, for t'e reason t'at blow'oles, porous spots,
etc are most liely to occur near t'e top of t'e casting, ! t'e 'ead of t'e cylinder, w'ic' is t'e woring
end, must of necessity be of sound metal.
C'en t'e castings 'ave cooled t'e core sand is removed, t'e seams etc., are c'ipped off, ! t'e
castings are t'en put t'roug' a cleaning process. O9it'er by picling ! neutraliGing or by blast cleaning
#blast cleaning by sand or small granules of c'illed iron or steel& ! t'en normaliGing ! cleaningP
2urt'er t'e cast ! cleaned blocs would undergo ot'er operations in seLuence lie 8illing,
6rilling, Cylinder boring, Precision boring, 2inis' of bore, Honing, 0apping, followed by measurement
of Luality of surface finis', Cater test 2inis'ing of valve seats ! guides ! surface broac'ing.
Transfer mac'ines were adopted since world war-%% to perform t'e operations automatically.
12
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?ESI>" O+ CY=I"?ER A"? CY=I"?ER HEA?
Cylinder s'ould be
- designed to wit'stand t'e 'ig' pr. ! temp. conditions.
- be able to transfer t'e unused 'eat effectively so t'at metal temp. does not approac' t'e
dangerous limit.
T'e Cylinder wall is sub+ected to gas pressure ! t'e piston side t'rust.
-Piston side t'rust tends to bend t'e wall but t'e stress in t'e wall due to side t'rust is very small
! can be neglected.
-T'e gas pressure Produces 2 types of stresses"
-longitudinal and circumferential - w'ic' act at rig't angle to eac' ot'er ! t'e net stress in eac'
direction is reduced. T'e longitudinal stress is usually small ! can be neglected.
l
f
Wlongitudinal stressW
area
force
W
( )
,
,
2 2
ma-
2
# #
p
#
$
c
f
Wcircumferential forceW
t
# p
2
ma-

6Wcylinder diameter, 6
<
W cylinder outside diameter,
ma-
p Wma-. gas pr.
@et
l
f
W
l
f
-
m
f
c
! @et
c
f
W
c
f
-
m
f
l
,
w'ere

m
1
poisionJs

ratio
W
,
1
1*
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CY=I"?ER 1A== THIC<"ESS
T'e Call T'icness is usually calculated by applying t'e formula for a t'in cylinder,
t'us
k
f
# p
t
c
+
2
ma-
C'ere tWwall t'icness, mm,
ma-
p
W ma-. gas pr.,@)mm
2
#*.1 to *..@)mm
2
&,
6Wcy. bore, mm,
c
f
Wma-. 'oop stress and is eLual to *. to 17. @)mm
2
depending on t'e siGe and material, larger values
are used for smaller bores,
Cylinder bore, mm 1. 177 1.7 277 2.7 *77 *.7 ,77 ,.7 .77
k Wreboring factor, mm 1.. 2.* ,.7 /.7 1.. 5.. 17.. 12.. 12.. 12..
T'e t'icness of t'e cylinder wall usually varies from ,..mm to more t'an 2.mm, depending upon t'e
cylinder siGe.
?ccording to an empirical relation,
2or liners of oil engines,
t
1.
#
near t'e top portion ! t'roug' 27T of t'e stroe.
2or dry liners,
T'e total t'icness [tJ is t'e t'icness of t'e liner ! t'at of t'e cylinder wall.
T'e t'icness of t'e 6ry liner is given as
E
t W7.7*6 to 7.7*.6
T'e t'icness of t'e inner walls of t'e automobile engine cylinders is usually given empirically as
t
W7.7,.6Z1./mm
T'e t'icness of Dacet wall is given as W
*
1
to
,
*
t
, larger ratio for smaller cylinder
or W7.7*26Z1./mm
T'e water space between t'e outer cylinder wall ! inner +acet wall is W17mm for a 1.mm cylinder to
about 1.mm for a 1.7mm cylinder
or W7.736Z/..mm
CY=I"?ER ?IA6ETER A"? =E">TH
T'e o)p of a given cylinder can be written as - PowerW -
p,n
,
/7
C'ere 0Wstroe in m,
?Wpiston area, mm
2
,
nWno. of woring stroes per minute
W % for 2 stroe engines and
2
%
for , stroe engines
pWimep-if power is indicated !
bmep if o)p is in brae power, @)mm
2
3 s a guide, the max. gas pr. can be taken as 4 to 56 times the bmep
1,
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CY=I"?ER +=A">ES A"? ST;?S
T'e cylinder is eit'er cast integral wit' t'e upper 'alf of t'e crancase or attac'ed to it wit' t'e 'elp of
flanges, studs and nuts.
T'e cylinder flange is made t'icer t'an t'e wall of t'e cylinder.
2lange t'icness s'ould not be less t'an 1.1 to 1.2.
t
Common value for flange t'icness W 1.2 to 1.,
t
<r W1.2. to 1..d w'ere d Wbolt diameter, nominal
T'e distance of t'e end of t'e flange from t'e center of t'e stud or bolt s'ould not be
< d Z/mm, and
not
>
1..d .
T'e use of studs decreases t'e bending stress at t'e flange root since t'e moment arm can be made very
small.
T'e material of t'e studs or bolts is usually nicel steel wit' a yield point of /*7 to 5,.8Pa.
T'e diameter of t'e bolt or stud is calculated by eLuation of t'e gas load to t'e area of all t'e studs at
t'e root of t'e t'reads multiplied by t'e allowable fibre stress.
,

,
. ma-
2
p # W
t c
f d 7
2
,
. ma-
2
p # W
t c
f d 7
2

c
d
W
t
f 7
p
#
ma-
,
w'ere
t
f
W allowable fibre stress, *. to 17 @)mm
2
,
c
d
W core diameter
0ow value of
t
f
is taen since t'ere is already 'ig' stress in t'e studs due to tig'tening of t'e nuts.
T'e number of studs E E 7 may be taen as
,
_
,
_
+ ,
.7
,
177
#
to
#
, 6 in mm
<r t'e pitc' of t'e bolts may be taen as d 15 to d . . 23 , w'ere d is in mm.
%n practice d generally varies from #
,
*
to 1& times t'e t'icness of t'e flange.
%n no case d s'ould be
<
1/mm
1.
<utside
6iameter
Core
6iameter
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CY=I"?ER HEA?
Asually a separate cylinder cover or 'ead is provided wit' all but t'e smallest engines. ? bo- type
section is employed of considerable dept' to accommodate ports. T'e general design of t'e cover is
governed by t'e following factors along wit' t'e strengt' consideration.
?ir and gas passages
?ccommodation of valves and t'eir gear
?ccommodation of t'e atomiGer at t'e centre of t'e cover in t'e case of t'e diesel engines.
Cylinder 'ead is t'e most difficult part to be designed and manufactured. T'e cylinder 'eads are
usually made of close grained cast iron or alloy cast iron containing nicel, c'romium and
molybdenum, for small and medium siGed engines, w'ile for large engines, t'e material is low carbon
steel.
T'e t'icness of t'e cylinder wall ranges from about /..mm for small engines to proportionately
larger values for large engines. T'e t'icness depends on t'e s'ape of t'e 'ead. %f t'e cylinder 'ead is
appro-imately a flat circular plate, t'e t'icness can be determined by t'e relation>
t
f
&p
# t
ma-
C'ere CWconst., in t'is case eLual to 7.1,

t
f
Wallowable stress, taen to be *. to ./ @)mm
2
? low value of
E E
t
f
is taen because bot' pr. ! temp. stresses are induced in t'e cylinder 'ead
and t'e above eLuation is based upon only t'e cylinder pressure. T'e 'eat transfer t'roug' t'e 'ead is
about . to 1* times as muc' 'eat per unit area as t'e cylinder walls, depending on t'e design and
amount of cooling.
1/
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11
*..@)mm2 pr. gas ma-. *77mm, bore cylinder 6
Given
> $olution R
*..@)mm of pressure gas ma-imum a wit'
engine, petrol *77mm a for stresses t'e ! all cylinder w iron cast a of t'icness t'e 6etermine
1 - 9-ample R
ma-
2
p
bores, smaller for used are ues larger val material, and siGe t'e on depending
2
@)mm 17. to *. to eLual is and stress 'oop ma-. fc
&,
2
*..@)mm to #*.1
2
@)mm pr., gas ma-.
ma-
mm, bore, cy. 6 ,
,
2
ma-
p
t T'icness, Call T'us
cylinder, t'in a for formula applying by calculated usually is T'icness Call
p where
k
c
f
#
mm k
f
# p
Thickness -all
mm % f ssume
mm k table above +rom
c
c
t . . 21 . . 5
,. 2
*77 . . *
2
,
, ) ,.
, . . 21
ma-
2
+
,-4 ,-4 ,-4 ,!-4 :-4 8-4 5-! '-! -/ ,-4 mm $actorA Reboring
4!! '4! '!! /4! /!! 4! !! ,4! ,!! 84 mm boreA Cylinder
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2
ma- o
2 2
2
ma-
2 2
ma-
2
) ,. . 11
*77 *,*
*77 . . *
stress al longitudin ?pparent
*,*mm 21..& #2 *77 2t *77 2t 6 6o @ow
pr. gas ma-. ! diameter outside cylinder 6
diameter, cylinder 6 C'ere,
, ) P O
P & , ) O#
stress, al longitudin apparent @ow
mm % f
p
# #
# p
# #
p #
area
force
f
l
o o
l
+ + +

2
2
c
2 ma-
) ., . 21 3/ . 2 , . 2,
,
11.,.
- 2,., W @et !
) *. . . 1 . / ,. . 11
,
2,.,
- 11.,. W @et

,
1
W ratio s poisionE
m
1
w'ere ,
m
f
- W @et
) , . 2,
. . 21 2
*77 . . *
2
stress, ntinal circumfere apparent @ow
mm % f
mm % f
f f
mm %
t
# p
area
force
f
c
l
l l
c

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13
-att
rpm n mm m , mm 8 *
*ower )ndicated
k-
o 9
*ower Brake
*ower )ndicated
*ower )ndicated
*ower Brake
9 !ince
!olution
cylinder. the of dimensions the #etrmine
6.:6 9 , mm 6.;<8 imep 5166rpm, !peed =.<k-, power >rake
ions? specificat following the has @ngine &) stroke = vertical A
1 "xample
1 1
imep
mech
mech
mech
1
/7
)
/2. . .
3 .
. . ,
>
. )

# , or as ratio
#
,
e i
Bore
!troke
assuming %ow
mm
#
m , or
mm m , or
,
watt
"ngine stroke acting single for
n
n
s
m
% -att
*. . 1 , *. . 1 . .
17 /73 . 1
,
17 /73 . 1
/77 *. . 7
/7 17 /2. . .
/7
/77 *. . 7
17 /2. . .
* 2
2
*
*
2
*
/77
2
1277
,
2
P 1 1 O
mm
&ylinder of ,ength
stroke the of to !troke
sides both on clearance !troke &ylinder of ,ength %ow
mm # , ,ength !troke
mm # #iameter Bore or
mm
#
mm
#
or
mm
#
m #
. . 113
& 1. . 7 1.. # 1..
T 1. 17
1.. 11. *. . 1 *. . 1
, 11.
17 /73 . 1
, 1777
*. . 1
17 /73 . 1
,
*. . 1
* 2
2
* 2
2
+
+
+

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(eferences>
1. Hig' Combustion 9ngines S P 8 Heldt
2. 8)C 6esign S$'arma ! ?garwal
15
mm t
iron cast grade good for mm % f assuming
mm % to stress fibre allowable f constant & mm % p mm where#
f
p &
# t cover cylinder of Thickness !olution
cover cylinder the for also studs the #esign . ;.1%Bmm ely approximat is pressure gas maximum The
cylinder. 6.;m for head cylinder plain a of thickness the #etermine
"xample
t
t
t
1
2 . 2/
,2
2 . * 1 . 7
*77
, ) ,2
U ) ./ *. ! , 1 . 7 V ) 2 . * , *77
>
.
*
2
2 2
ma-
ma-

pressure gas
#
stud the on ,oad
mm d d # # diameter circle *itch
diameter core d diameter bolt nominal d
cylinder the of wall inner the the from d to d be should stud the of centre
the that practice common a is it $r diameter cylinder the acting be to assumed be may pressure the
initially known not is diameter stud the as but studs the of d c p the upon act actually will gas The
!tuds
p
p
c
. ma-
,
* *77 *
& , #
. . . 1 2. . 1
, .
, , . . .
2

+ +

2
) /*
. , !
2
) 17 *.
! 3
3 . 7 3 . 7 , ,
,
,
2 . *
,
& * *77 #
, 17 1 ,
.7
*77
,
177
*77
,
.7
,
177
.
2
2
mm %
t
f
studs of %o C diameter core
c
d mm % to
t
f where
C ,et
d diameter nominal d diameter core let
f
d
C load But
d
to to
#
to
#
C studs of %o %ow
c
t
c
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
+ + + +
satisfied are conditions Both mm to mm e i

d to d between lies pitch maximum and mm d be should pitch minimum %ow
mm
C
#
studs the of *itch
mm d d # #
mm d get we error trial By
d d
p
p

+ + +
, 131 . . 12, ., .
. . 23 15 125 ,* * *
. . 1/3
3
,25
,25 ,* * *77 * *77 *
,* , , !
/*
,
& 3 . 7 #
3 2 . *
,
& * *77 #
2 2

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C'apter-3
4?049 ?@6 4?049 89CH?@%$8
Types of valve operating
mec'anisms, valve springs,
guides, pus' rods, rocer arms,
tappets, valve timing diagrams,
design
37
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2al3e and 3al3e mechanism
To admit t'e air-fuel mi-ture in t'e engine cylinder and to force t'e
e-'aust gases out at correct timings, some control system is necessary, w'ic'
is provided by t'e valves.
T'e engine valves may be broadly divided into * main categories>
1. Poppet valve
2. $leeve valve
*. (otary valve
<ut of t'ese t'ree, poppet valve is t'e one w'ic' is being universally used for automobile engines.
T'e conventional automotive engine is fitted wit'
mec'anically operated poppet valves for bot' inlet and e-'aust. ?
poppet valve consists of a disc of metal wit' a coa-ial stem on one
side w'ic' closes a circular opening in a wall separating two
c'ambers, against w'ic' wall it is drawn by a spring. To open t'e
valve, a force must be applied to it in, a direction contrary to t'at of
t'e spring pressure. %n t'e earliest automotive engines, t'e inlet-
valves were opened automatically by t'e suction in t'e cylinder
during t'e inlet stroe,. ?utomatic valves cannot be used in engines
t'at must operate over a wide speed range, as t'ey close too early at
low and too late at 'ig' speeds to permit of good volumetric
efficiency. T'ese valves, moreover, are troublesome in service,
because gum in t'e gasoline may cause t'em to stic.
Poppet valves are lifted from t'eir seats by means of cams,
and are closed by springs. T'e rate at w'ic' t'e valve is opened and
closed depends on t'e cam outline and on t'e type and siGe of cam
follower employed. 2rom t'e standpoint of gas flow it is, of course,
desirable t'at t'e valve s'ould open and close very Luicly, and
remain fully open for t'e greatest possible lengt' of time. However,
t'e valve gear must operate Luietly, and in order to do t'is it must
lift and drop t'e valves more or less gradually. Cams, t'erefore,
usually are so designed t'at t'e valve begins to close as soon as it
'as attained its full lift, and t'ere is no YdwellY in t'e full-open position
31
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Construction o$ %oppet 2al3es
T'e poppet valve derives its name from its
motion of popping up and down. T'is is also called
Ymus'room valveY because of its s'ape w'ic' is
similar to a mus'room. %t consists of a 'ead and a
stem as s'own in 2ig.
%t possesses certain advantages over t'e ot'er valve
types because of w'ic' it is e-tensively used in t'e
automotive engines>
1. $implicity of construction
2. $elf-centering.
*. 2ree to rotate about t'e stem to
new position.
,. 8aintenance of sealing efficiency
is relatively easier.
Generally inlet valves are larger t'an t'e
e-'aust valves, because speed of incoming air-fuel
mi-ture is less t'an t'e velocity of e-'aust gases
w'ic' leave under pressure. 2urt'er, because of
pressure, t'e density of e-'aust gases is also comparatively 'ig'. 8oreover, smaller e-'aust valve is
also preferred because of s'orter pat' of 'eat flow in t'is case and conseLuent reduced t'ermal loading.
Generally inlet valves and e-'aust valves are ,.T and *3T of t'e cylinder bore respectively.
2urt'er, to improve 'eat transfer to t'e cylinder 'ead, t'e stem diameter of t'e e-'aust valve is
generally 17 to 1.T greater t'an t'at of t'e inlet valve. 8oreover, t'e valve lift in bot' inlet and
e-'aust valves s'ould be at least eLual to 2.T of t'e valve 'ead diameter w'ic' would provide t'e
annular valve-opening area eLual to t'e port t'roat area. %f t'e valve lift is less, t'e volumetric
efficiency of t'e engine will be decreased. <n t'e ot'er 'and if it is e-cessive, t'e inertia of t'e valve
actuating mec'anism would be unduly large resulting in e-cessive noise and wear.
T'e valve face angle #wit' t'e plane of t'e
valve 'ead& is generally ept ,.Q or *7Q. ? smaller
face angle provides greater valve opening for a
given lift, but poor sealing because of t'e reduced
seating pressure for a given valve spring load.
6ue to t'is reason in some engines, t'e inlet valve
face angle may be ept *7Q or ,.Q w'ereas t'e
e-'aust valve face angle is only ,.Q, as t'is
increases its 'eat dissipation. %n some cases, a
furt'er differential angle of about 1)2 deg to 1 deg
is provided between t'e valve and its seating #2ig.&, w'ic' results in better sealing conditions.
T'e mac'ined surface of t'e bloc or t'e cylinder 'ead on w'ic' t'e valve rests w'en closed is
nown as t'e valve seat. T'is surface usually forms a truncated cone w'ose generatrices mae an angle
of eit'er ,.Q or *7Q wit' t'e plane of t'e valve 'ead. 6uring t'e early years of t'e industry flat-seated
poppet valves were used to a certain e-tent, w'ic' 'ave t'e advantage t'at for a given port diameter and
lift, t'e flow area is considerably greater t'an wit' conical valves. ? disadvantage of flat-seated valves,
w'ic' led to t'eir abandonment-is t'at t'ey are not self centering, and t'erefore are more liely to lea,
especially after t'e guides 'ave become worn.
%n t'e analysis it 'as been assumed t'at t'e flow t'roug' t'e valve is parallel to t'e seat
elements. T'is is substantially correct at small lifts, w'en t'e distance between valve and seat is only a
fraction of t'e widt' of t'e seat, but wit' increase in t'e lift t'e direction of flow c'anges. T'e gases
naturally see t'e pat' of least resistance, and in turning a corner t'ey approac' t'e inner boundary of
t'e flow pat'.
32
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%n an 0-'ead engine t'e direction of flow on t'e side of t'e valve toward t'e cylinder, w'ere t'e
gases can flow off freely, is somew'at different from t'at on t'e opposite side, w'ere t'ere is only a
moderate clearance between valve and valve-c'amber wall. T'ere t'e gases must describe nearly a
semi-circle, and in seeing t'e pat' of least resistance, t'ey approac' t'e edge of t'e valve 'ead. T'e
best measure of valve capacity evidently is t'e minimum sectional area normal to t'e direction of flow.
2rom 2ig., w'ere t'e das'ed lines are meant to
represent t'e center lines of t'e flow pat's, it
can be seen t'at t'e direction of flow relative to
t'e seat elements varies around t'e
circumference of t'e valve. %n modern engines
t'e valve seats are made comparatively narrow,
and in 2ig., w'ic' closely represents actual
proportions, t'e line ;C connecting t'e inner
edge of t'e valve seat at full lift wit' t'e outer
edge of t'e seat on t'e bloc, maes an obtuse
angle wit' t'e elements of t'e seats, instead of
a rig't angle as in flat-seated valve 2ig.. %t 'as
been suggested t'at t'e area of t'e conical
frustrum of w'ic' ;C, is an element be taen
as a measure of t'e valve capacity, but in view of t'e fact t'at t'e direction of flow is not normal to t'at
line t'is plan is of doubtful value.
T'e valve lift generally is slig'tly more t'an one-fourt' t'e port diameter in t'e case of ,.-deg, and
slig'tly less in t'e case of *7-deg valves. 4alve-stem diameters are made eLual to one-fourt' t'e valve
diameter. T'e outside diameter of t'e valve 'ead will be about 1.11. times t'e port diameter.
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2al3e-Operating Conditions
T'e 'eads of t'e valves are sub+ected to t'e 'ig'
temperature of t'e burning gases, and it is essential t'at
t'ey s'ould not warp under t'e influence of t'e 'eat, and
t'at t'eir seats s'ould not scale or corrode, as in eit'er case
t'ey would become leay. <ccasionally small particles of
scale will get onto t'e valve seats, and t'e valve 'eads must
be of sufficient 'ardness at t'e 'ig' temperature at w'ic'
t'ey operate so t'ey will not pit under t'is condition.
0ubrication of t'e valve stems is 'ard to effect, and
t'e stems must not wear too rapidly in t'eir guides, even
t'oug' poorly lubricated or not lubricated at all. T'at
portion of t'e stem immediately below t'e 'ead is sub+ect
also to t'e 'eat of t'e burning gases w'ic', w'en t'e
e-'aust opens rus' by it at a velocity of up to *77 fps" and
to t'e corrosive action of unconsumed, 'ot o-ygen and
intermediate products of combustion.
Trouble of a rat'er serious nature is
sometimes caused by valves breaing a s'ort
distance below t'e 'ead, at t'e point w'ere
t'eir woring temperature is t'e ma-imum.
T'is is probably due to corrosion fatigue" in
ot'er words, it results from repetitive
applications of mec'anical stress combined
wit' corrosive action by t'e e-'aust gases or
certain constituents t'ereof. ?ir-'ardening
properties of t'e valve steel sometimes 'ave
been blamed for suc' breaages, but t'ese
latter occur also wit' valves made of a steel
'aving no suc' properties. Hig' resistance to
corrosion fatigue is t'erefore desirable in
valve steels.
2inally, t'e tip of t'e stem receives a
Luic succession of blows from t'e tappet as
t'e clearance is being taen up, and it must be
sufficiently 'ard to wit'stand t'ese blows
wit'out undue wear. Hardening of t'e tips is sometimes effected by t'e so-called cyaniding process
#dipping in a bat' of molten potassium ferro-cyanide&.
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2al3e-Operating Temperatures
Tests 'ave .s'own t'at
under continued full-load
conditions, e-'aust valves may
reac' a temperature of 1,1. 2-a
c'erry red. 4alves of large
diameter run 'otter t'an smaller
ones, and t'e valve temperature
increases wit' engine speed. ?n
increase in t'e compression ratio,
as a rule, lowers t'e valve
temperature, but if t'e
compression is carried too 'ig'
and detonation sets in, t'e effect is
reversed. %t is usually assumed t'at
e-'aust valve temperatures are
'ig'est wit' retarded ignition and
wea mi-tures, probably because t'e e-'aust pipe is 'ottest under t'ese conditions, but a large number
of tests carried out on a particular engine s'owed t'at t'e reverse 'olds true, t'e e-'aust-valve
temperature being lower wit' a wea mi-ture and retarded ignition. T'e e-planation is t'at t'e
temperature of t'e valve depends not only on t'at of t'e e-'aust gases, but also on t'e temperature of
combustion, w'ic' latter is lowered by weaening t'e mi-ture and retarding t'e spar.
%t was found t'at t'e e-'aust valve ran
cooler w'en a long valve guide #2ig.& was
used" t'at is, w'en t'e valve guide was
carried closer to t'e valve 'ead. T'e guide
t'en 'as t'e effect of protecting t'e valve
stem from t'e 'ot gases passing t'roug' t'e
valve immediately after opening. <ne
ob+ection to suc' a long valve guide is t'at it
is difficult to lubricate, and as a result
wear on bot' t'e valve stem and guide is
rapid. T'e e-periment was t'erefore tried of
enlarging t'e bore of t'e guide 7.71/ in., by
counter boring from t'e valve-'ead end as far
as t'e wall of t'e valve pocet, and t'is
was found to result in decreasing t'e valve
temperature #21 deg at 1.77 rpm and 12
deg at ,.77 rpm&. ?n increase in t'e
valve-stem diameter from 7.*,* to 7.,7. in.
lowered t'e temperature of t'e valve about ,7
deg t'roug'out t'e speed range.
%f an e-'aust valve becomes leay, as, for instance, t'roug' Ydis'ingY of its 'ead by reason of
loss of strengt' at 'ig' temperature, t'roug' improper ad+ustment, or t'roug' e-cessive warping, t'e
'ead will be destroyed very Luicly, as t'e burning gases will t'en blow by it.
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9-'aust valves operate under relatively
more severe conditions on account of 'ig'er
temperatures involved. ?n e-'aust valve is
sub+ected to>
1. 0ongitudinal cyclic stresses due to t'e
return spring load and t'e inertia response of t'e
valve assembly.
2. T'ermal stresses in t'e
circumferential and longitudinal directions due
to t'e large temperature gradient from t'e centre
of t'e 'ead to its perip'ery and from t'e crown
to t'e stem. ? typical variation of temperature in
an e-'aust valve is given in 2ig.
*. Creep conditions due to operation at
very 'ig' temperatures, particularly in case of
valve 'ead.
,. Corrosion conditions.
"xhaust 'alve /aterial ReDuirements
<n account of operating conditions described
above t'e material for e-'aust valve s'ould
'ave t'e following reLuirements.
1. Hig' strengt' and 'ardness to resist
tensile loads and stem wear.
2. Hig' 'ot strengt' and 'ardness to
combat 'ead cupping and wear of seats.
*. Hig' fatigue and creep resistance.
,. ?deLuate corrosion resistance.
.. 0east coefficient of t'ermal e-pansion
to avoid e-cessive t'ermal stresses in t'e 'ead.
/. Hig' t'ermal conductivity for better
'eat dissipation.
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6aterials $or 2al3es
<wing to t'e e-pensive c'aracter of t'e material necessary for t'e e-'aust valves, t'e inlets are
now generally made of more common and c'eaper material. T'is practice is encouraged also by t'e fact
t'at t'e inlet valves now are generally made of somew'at larger diameter, so t'ey would not be
interc'angeable wit' t'e e-'aust valves even if t'ey were made of t'e same material.
;ot' t'e mec'anical and t'e t'ermal stresses on engine valves increase wit' t'e speed of
operation, and as engine speeds 'ave increased continuously, t'ere 'as been a constant searc' for better
materials, especially for t'e e-'aust valves. $ilicon-c'romium #$ilcrome& steel containing *-*.. per cent
silicon and 3-5 per cent c'romium came into use during t'e early twenties, and was considered an
e-cellent e-'aust-valve material at t'e time. T'is steel possessed good worability and good mac'ining
Lualities, but it left somet'ing to be desired wit' respect to 'ot strengt'. C'ile at normal temperature it
s'owed a tensile strengt' in e-cess of 277,777 psi, at 1277 2 t'is dropped to ,2,777 psi, and at 1/77 2 it
was only ,/77 psi. T'e steel began to scale at 1377 2. %ts resistance to warpage and corrosion at 'ig'
temperatures was poor.
%n t'e middle t'irties specific outputs 'ad increased so muc' t'at a better material was needed
for 'eavy-duty bus and truc engines. C'at was called for particularly was 'ig'er 'ot strengt' and a
'ig'er scaling temperature. T'ese properties could be obtained by a more liberal use of alloying
elements, particularly c'romium, and a new type of valve steel was t'en introduced of w'ic' $ilcrome
:;, developed by T'ompson Products, %nc., is representative. T'is 'as a 'ig'er carbon content t'an t'e
original $ilcrome steel, viG., 7./7-7.3/ per cent" less silicon, 1.2.-2.1." but more t'an twice as muc'
c'romium, 15.77-2*.77, and in addition from 1.77 to 2.77 per cent nicel. T'is steel resists warping
muc' better, and it also 'as greater resistance to 'eat corrosion. ?t 1/77 2 its tensile strengt' is 1/2.
psi, and its scaling temperature is 21.7 2.
Austenitic Valve Steels
8ore recently so-called austenitic, non 'ardening steels 'ave been introduced as a
material" for e-'aust valves. T'ey e-cel silicon-c'romium steel wit' respect to 'ot strengt', impact
value, 'ot 'ardness, and resistance to o-idation and corrosion. T'ese steels, w'ic' contain 'ig'
percentages of c'romium and nicel-t'e combined contents of t'ese two elements usually ranging
between 2..77 and *7.77 per cent-in addition to being non-responsive to 'eat treatment, are non-
magnetic.
?n austenitic valve steel contains 7.*7-7.,. carbon, 7.37-1.*7 manganese, 2..7-*.2.
silicon, 11..7-27..7 c'romium, 1.77-5.77 nicel and not over 7.7* p'osp'orus and sulp'ur eac'.
%t 'as a 'ot strengt' of 11,.77 psi at 1/77 2 and a scaling temperature of 2277 2. ;ut
w'ile t'ese austenitic valve steels possess many advantages, t'ey also 'ave some undesirable Lualities.
<ne t'ing against t'em is t'at t'eir coefficient of 'eat e-pansion is materially greater t'an t'at of
silicon-c'romium steel #7.777711 as compared wit' 7.7777713&. T'is calls for a slig'tly greater
clearance between t'e valve stem and its guide and between t'e valve and its tappet. 2or 'eavy-duty
engines a valve-stem clearance of 7.717 to 7.71. in. per inc' of stem diameter is recommended. T'e
'ardness of austenitic steel is rat'er low #about ,. (ocwell C, as compared wit' .. for t'e original
$ilcrome steel& ,and it does not resist t'e 'ammering action on t'e tip very well, especially w'ere t'ere
is line or point contact, as wit' rocer arms contacting t'e tip. To meet t'is condition, valves of 'eavy-
duty engines sometimes 'ave tips of $tellite or tool steel applied by eit'er electric or acetylene welding.
T'e wear of austenitic valve stemsE in t'e guides also is somew'at more rapid t'an t'at of ot'er steels.
T'is difficulty may be overcome by nitriding t'e stems, but t'e in+urious effect of tetraet'yllead on
nitrided surfaces would seem to discourage t'is practice. Cold-woring #rolling& of t'e stems to increase
t'eir 'ardness
also 'as been suggested. T'e various processes by w'ic' nonmetallic coatings are formed on wearing
surfaces to eep t'em from scoring may be applied also to valve stems. Carbon-steel stems may be.
welded to 'eads of austenitic steel, w'ic' 'as t'e furt'er advantage t'at t'e carbon steel is muc' lower
in cost. T'is process of building up valves by welding 'as been carried to its logical conclusion by
welding 'eads of a material resistant to scaling and pitting, to a stem of a material 'aving good bearing
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Lualities in cast iron under conditions of poor lubrication, and to t'e latter a tip of a material w'ic' is
capable tappet action well of wit'standing t'e
Precipitation-Hardening Steel
T'e latest addition to t'e list of e-'aust-valve materials is a steel intermediate between
t'e ferritic and t'e austenitic types" it s'ares t'e property of 'arden ability wit' t'e ferritic steels, and
'ig' 'ot strengt' wit' t'e austenitic. T'is steel, $ilcrome :C(, contains 7.,7-7..7 carbon, not more
t'an 1.77 manganese, 2*.2.-2,.2. c'romium, ,..7-..77 nicel, 2..7-*.77 molybdenum, and not more
t'an 7.7*. p'osp'orus and sulp'ur eac'. ?t 1/77 2 it s'ows a tensile strengt' of 27,777 psi, w'ic' is a
tremendous improvement over t'e ,/77 psi of t'e original $ilcrome. Cit' respect to 'eat e-pansion it is
intermediate between t'e ferritic $ilcromes and t'e austenitic type. %ts o-idation and corrosion
resistances are e-cellent, but its worability is only fair, and its mac'inability definitely poor. 4alves of
$ilcrome :C( are 'ardened to ,3-.3 $cleroscope all over, and owing to t'e relatively great 'ardness,
bot' t'e seat and t'e stem wear well. T'is steel must be forged wit'in a narrow temperature range" if
over'eated it loses its 'ardenability" w'ile if forged at too lower temperature, it is liely to s'atter, its
impact value being Luite low. %n spite of t'ese drawbacs and its rat'er 'ig' cost, t'is steel is being used
e-tensively for t'e e-'aust valves of 'eavy-duty engines.
6aterials $or Inlet 2al3es
T'e inlet valve does not present nearly so difficult a materials problem as t'e e-'aust valve, as
t'e temperature attained by it in service is always considerably lower. Two types of low alloysteel are
used e-tensively for inlet valves. @os. *1,7 and 3/,.. T'e former is a c'rome-nicel steel- containing
1.7 to 1.. percent of nicel and 7..7-7.37 percent c'romium #besides 7.*1-7.,. per cent carbon and
7./7-7.5. per cent manganese&" t'e latter a c'romium-nicel-molybdenum steel containing 7.*.-7.1.
percent nicel, 7.*.-7./. per cent c'romium, and 7.12- 7.2. per cent molybdenum, besides normal
amounts of carbon and manganese. $ome-use 'as been made of a medium-alloy c'romenicel- silicon
steel-wit'#3 to 5 per cent nicel, 12 to 1* per cent c'romium, and 2.. to* per cent silicon. T'is C@$
steel, w'ic' 'as low carbon and manganese contents, is said to be immune to t'e corrosive influences of
tetra-et'yl lead.
6iscellaneous Considerations
1. ?n adeLuately designed valve wit' proper material can also fail due to local stress
concentrations if t'ere is any unevenness around t'e valve-seat interface on account of distortion of
valve 'eads or seats, bending of valve stem or trapping of carbon particles between t'e valve and t'e
seat.
2. 9-cessive surface finis' of t'e valve stem will result in loss of lubricating oil film, w'ile
e-cessive roug'ness of t'e stem would increase t'e guide wear. ? t'in layer of c'romium giving t'e
surface finis' of about 7.. \m would provide t'e optimum condition.
*. ?s engine t'ermal efficiency is increased wit' increase of compression ratio, lower valve
temperatures would result in case of 'ig'er compression ratio.
,. ?rranging t'e inlet and t'e e-'aust ports in t'e cylinder 'ead alternately would increase t'e
transfer of 'eat from t'e e-'aust to t'e inlet valves, compared to t'e case w'en t'e lie valves are
placed toget'er. T'is would result in decreased e-'aust valve temperatures. However, t'is would also
complicate t'e design of t'e inlet and t'e e-'aust manifolds in case bot' are to be on t'e same side of
t'e engine.
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+orm and ?imensions o$ Head
T'e valve 'ead s'ould be made of t'e minimum t'icness consistent wit' strengt' reLuirements.
%n ?merican practice, t'e top of t'e 'ead is usually made sp'erical and t'e bottom surface conical. T'is
gives a 'ead w'ic' is muc' t'icer at t'e center #w'ere t'e bending moment is t'e ma-imum& t'an at
t'e edge. Poppet valves 'ave been standardiGed by t'e.$.?.9.
T'e seat on t'e valve 'ead must pro+ect slig'tly beyond t'e seat in t'e cylinder casting at bot'
top and bottom, in order t'at no s'oulder will be formed on t'e-casting w'en t'e valve is ground in. ?
fairly wide seat is an advantage, as it 'elps to eep down t'e temperature of t'e 'ead. T'e 'eat absorbed
from t'e burning gases by t'e valve 'ead 'as only two pat's t'roug' w'ic' to flow off-down t'e valve
stem to t'e valve guide and t'ence into t'e cylinder bloc and +acet, and t'roug' t'e valve seat directly
into t'e bloc-and wit' t'e- conventional design by far t'e greater portion passes off t'roug' t'e seat.
%n 2ig. is s'own t'e form of 'ead generally used for steel
valves in ?merican practice, as fi-ed by t'e $.?.9. standard.
2ig. is t'e so-called tulip valve, used to a considerable e-tent
in aircraft and racing engines, w'ic' is t'oug't to facilitate How
t'roug' t'e valve port.
2ig. s'ows a form of valve t'at is intermediate between t'e
$.?.9. standard and t'e tulip type, w'ic' 'as come into use in recent
years. %t 'as a Hat-top 'ead and a rat'er large fillet between 'ead and
stem, w'ic' latter tends to improve How conditions and to add to t'e
strengt' of t'e stem near its +unction wit' t'e 'ead. $ometimes t'at
part of t'e stem w'ic' does not enter t'e guide is made to taper
slig'tly from t'e fillet down.
To ensure good seating of t'e valve, -it s'ould be made wit'
an interference angle of 1 deg. T'at is to say, t'e included angle of t'e
valve face s'ould be made 1 deg greater t'an t'at of t'e seat face, so
t'at initially t'e valve seats only on t'e outer edge.
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Sodium-Cooled 2al3es
T'e e-'aust valve temperatures in modern engines reac' very 'ig' values of t'e order of 1.7QC.
%n 'eavy duty engines, it may be still 'ig'er. T'erefore, cooling of e-'aust valves becomes very
important. To do t'is cooling water +acets are arranged as near t'e valve as possible. %n many cases,
noGGles are directed towards t'e 'ot spot caused by t'e e-'aust valve.
0arge valves of 'eavy-duty engines can be
ept at a reasonably low temperature by sodium-
cooling, w'ic' is now employed e-tensively for
aircraft-engine valves, and occasionally for bus- and
truc-engine valves.
<riginally a mi-ture of potassium nitrate
and lit'ium nitrate was used, w'ic' melts at about
2/7 2, but later metallic sodium -was substituted for
t'ese salts.
T'e advantages of sodium are a low specific gravity
#7.51&, a 'ig' specific 'eat, a low melting point
#271 2&, and a 'ig' boiling point #1/1/ 2&. 2ig.
s'ows a section of a sodium-cooled valve designed for
use in aircraft engines. T'e stem is of somew'at
larger diameter t'an usual, and is drilled out from
t'e end ! t'e c'amber t'us formed, after being
nearly closed at t'e end by swaging process, is
filled about 'alf full wit' metallic sodium.
?ssuming t'e valve to be positioned as in an 0-'ead vertical engine, t'e sodium will be at t'e bottom
#tip end& of t'e c'amber w'en t'e valve is closed. it may be seen t'at in normal operation t'e valve is
alternately accelerated and decelerated at rates many times t'at due to gravity, wit' t'e result t'at t'e
sodium is t'rown violently from one end of t'e c'amber to t'e ot'er. C'en at t'e top end, it absorbs
'eat from t'e 'ot wall, w'ic' it gives up to t'e cooler, lower end of t'e stem w'en ne-t it drops to t'e
bottom of t'e c'amber, w'ence t'e 'eat passes to t'e valve guide and into t'e cylinder bloc. T'ese
sodium-cooled valves are sometimes furnis'ed wit' an inner lining of copper, w'ic' latter 'as four
times t'e 'eat conductivity of valve steels. T'e end of t'e stem is sealed wit' a steel plug, over w'ic' is
welded a cap of 'ard steel.
%n t'e sodium-cooled valve s'own in 2ig., w'ic' is of an earlier design, only t'e stem is 'ollow
and partly filled wit' sodium. 0ater it was found possible to mae bot' t'e 'ead and t'e stem 'ollow, as
in 2ig., w'ic' s'ows a valve designed for installation in t'e cylinder 'ead. %n operation t'e 'ig'est
temperatures are reac'ed by t'e center portion of t'e top surface of t'e valve and a point on t'e stem
some distance below t'e 'ead. %n comparative tests under similar conditions wit' a conventional YsolidY
valve, a sodium cooled valve wit' 'ollow stem, and a sodium-cooled valve wit' 'ollow stem and 'ead,
t'e ma-imum temperatures reac'ed by t'e center portions of t'e 'eads were appro-imately 1*37 2,
12,7 2, and 1117 2, respectively. ?t t'e seat t'e temperatures of t'e valves in t'ese cases ranged
between 1777 2 and 1177 2. %n solid valves t'e 'ig'er temperature of t'e center portion of t'e 'ead
sometimes results in t'e formation of cracs at t'e seat.
T'ere can be no doubt as to t'e great operating advantages of sodium-cooled valves, and t'e
only reason t'ey are not widely used in automotive engines is t'at t'ey are rat'er e-pensive to produce.
Considerable effort 'as been devoted in recent years to t'e development of improved processes of
production. %n one process a piece of steel tubing of slig'tly more t'an t'e diameter of t'e finis'ed
stem, after being cut off to t'e rig't lengt', is upset at one end and t'en spun to w'at may be called
Ytulip s'ape.Y ? disc of steel is t'en welded on to close t'e opening in t'e 'ead, w'ile t'e end of t'e
stem is closed in t'e same way as in t'e case of a valve in w'ic' only t'e stem is 'ollow.
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2al3e Seats
T'e valve seats must be faced very accurately, so t'at t'ere is complete contact between t'e
valve and t'e valve seat w'en t'e former closes. 4alve seat face is t'us ground to t'e same angle to
w'ic' t'e valve face is ground. T'is may 'ave any value from *7Q to ,.Q. 2or cylinder blocs or 'eads
made of grey iron, t'e inlet valve seats are directly mac'ined on t'e cylinder blocs or 'eads as t'e case
may be because woring conditions are not severe. T'ese are called integral seats. However, w'ere
aluminium blocs or 'eads are used, separate valve seat inserts are employed even for inlet valves. 2or
t'e e-'aust valves, always t'e separate valves seat inserts are used, t'e operating conditions being very
severe. %nsert seats are also used as salvage procedure w'en badly damaged integral seats are
reconditioned. 4alve seat inserts are simply rings made of alloy steel consisting of c'romium, silicon,
tungsten or cobalt wit' a conical seat on one of t'e inside edges. T'ese are force-fitted in t'e recesses
mac'ined in t'e cylinder 'ead. C'en worn, t'ese inserts can be easily replaced.
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2al3e Springs
Helical springs are used
to eep t'e valve in constant
contact wit' t'e tappet and t'e
tappet wit' t'e cam. $ince t'e
spring is sub+ect to
compressive loads, it is ground
flat at eac' end to ensure even
distribution of pressure. T'e
coil ends are also placed
diametrically opposed to avoid
t'e bending tendency of t'e
spring under compression. T'e
arrangement for t'e retention
of t'e springs is simple. ? ring
split into two 'alves wit'
internal pro+ection to fit into
t'e valve spring retaining
groove and t'e outer surface
tapered is employed. <ver t'e
split ring anot'er ring is
inverted w'ic' supports t'e
spring. T'e valve springs are
sub+ect to 'eavy service. T'ese
are, t'erefore, made from 'ig'
grade spring steel wire, t'e
materials being generally 'ard-
drawn carbon steel or c'rome-
vanadium steel. 4alve springs
are often s'ot peened to mae
t'em fatigue resistant.
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2al3e Rotators
<rdinarily t'e temperature is not uniform around t'e circumference of a valve 'ead, being
'ig'est w'ere t'e greatest mass of 'ot gases passes over it, as on t'e side nearest t'e cylinder in an 0-
'ead engine. ;y actual test it was found t'at in an engine of t'is type, under certain operating
conditions, t'e e-'aust valve- seat insert reac'ed a temperature about 237 2 'ig'er on t'e YnearY t'an
on t'e YfarY side, and t'ere can be little doubt t'at even greater temperature differences e-ist between
opposite sides of t'e valve 'ead. $uc' temperature differences cause distortion and leaage. %f w'ile in
operation t'e valve could be made to rotate on its seat, t'at would tend to eLualiGe temperatures and
eep down t'eir ma-imum value. %t would tend to eep t'e seat clean and if leaage s'ould start at any
point of t'e circumference, t'e resulting damage to t'e valve would be reduced. ? number of so-called
valve rotators 'ave been broug't out, but so far t'ey 'ave not come into e-tensive use, probably
because t'ey 'ave not always been reliable. $ome merely YfreeY t'e valve of t'e restraining effect of t'e
friction due to t'e spring pressure, w'ile ot'ers, in addition, convert some of t'e a-ial force producing
t'e opening or t'e closing motion into a tangential force. T'e problem of a simple mec'anism t'at will
positively rotate t'e valve on its seat evidently is not an easy one, and complicated and delicate
mec'anisms can 'ardly be tolerated in t'e valve gear. However, according to one valve specialist,
positive rotation is more effective in prolonging valve life t'an any ot'er nown means.
2ig. s'ows a valve-rotating mec'anism. T'e valve spring rests on a seating collar w'ic'
transmits t'e spring pressure to t'e retainer cap t'roug' a conical spring was'er. C'en t'e valve is
closed #left view& t'e pressure of t'e valve spring is relatively lig't, 'ence t'e spring was'er is
distended and bears wit' its inner edge on t'e retainer cap at 2. ?s t'e valve is being lifted #rig't view&
t'e pressure of t'e spring increases, t'e spring was'er flattens out, and its point of support is transferred
from 2 on t'e retainer cap to * on t'e steel balls, w'ic' latter rest on inclined surfaces on t'e retainer
cap. T'e effect of t'e
incline is to create a
'oriGontal force
component tending to
produce relative
angular motion
between spring was'er
and retainer cap. ;ot'
parts are sub+ect to
friction, but t'e
restraining moment on
t'e spring was'er is
muc' greater t'an t'at
on t'e valve, and as a
result an angular
motion is imparted to
t'e assembly consisting
of valve, retainer cap
and retainer loc.
6uring eac' valve lift
eac' ball moves down
t'e incline, and in
between lifts it is
returned to t'e top of
t'e incline by a lig't
spring.
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2al3e >uides
%n low-cost engines t'e valve guides are sometimes cast integral wit' t'e
cylinder bloc or 'ead, but t'e more general practice is to mae t'em in t'e form
of a bus'ing w'ic' is pressed into a 'ole drilled in t'e cylinder or 'ead casting.
$eparate guides 'ave t'e advantage t'at t'ey can be renewed w'en worn. ? fairly
close fit for t'e valve stem in t'e guide is necessary, particularly in t'e case of
inlet valves, because if t'ere is e-cessive clearance between t'e stem and guide of
t'ese valves, air will be drawn into t'e cylinder t'roug' t'is clearance during t'e
inlet stroe and dilute t'e c'arge received by t'e cylinder. %f t'e clearances of t'e
valve stems of an engine differ, t'e c'arges received by t'e different cylinders
will be uneLually diluted, a condition t'at cannot be corrected by carburetor
ad+ustment. %n passenger-car engines t'e clearance between inlet-valve stem and
guide ranges between 7.772 and 7.77* in. %t is very difficult to lubricate t'e
e-'aust valve guides effectively, owing to t'e 'ig' temperatures reac'ed by t'em,
and t'ese, t'erefore, are sub+ect to comparatively rapid wear. 9-'aust-valve stems
s'ould 'ave a clearance of between 7.772 and 7.77, in. in t'eir guides.
$eparate guides are usually made of cast iron, of 1)3 to *)1/-in. wall
t'icness, and are made a force fit in t'e 'ole in t'e cylinder or 'ead casting. $ometimes t'e guide is
provided wit' a flange or s'oulder w'ic' abuts against a finis'ed surface on t'e cylinder or 'ead casting
as t'e guide is pressed into position, but more generally t'is is omitted.
T'e e-'aust-valve guide is preferably made to e-tend substantially up to t'e point of t'e stem
w'ere t'e fillet under t'e 'ead begins, as it 'as been found t'at t'is eeps t'e valve 'ead cooler t'an a
design w'ic' leaves more of t'e stem e-posed to t'e action of t'e 'ot gases during t'e e-'aust period.
? slig't furt'er reduction of t'e valve-'ead temperature can be ac'ieved by counter boring t'e upper
part of t'e valve guide, or, alternatively, undercutting t'e upper part of t'e valve stem, so t'at t'ere is no
contact between stem and guide over
t'is portion of t'e lengt' of t'e latter,
w'ic' t'en serves merely as a s'ield for
t'e valve stem, protecting it from t'e
'ot gases rus'ing by during t'e e-'aust
period. T'e guides of inlet valves are
preferably made s'orter, so t'at t'ey
pro+ect into t'e valve pocet only very
slig'tly, as t'is reduces t'e resistance to
flow. ?s indicated in 2ig., in t'e case of
t'e e-'aust valve it is advantageous to
water-+acet t'e w'ole lengt' of t'e
boss for t'e valve guide, as t'is eeps
down t'e valve temperature. 0engt's of
valve guides are usually between 2 and
* times t'e valve-port diameter.
?n unusual type of valve guide
#2ig.& was used in early 2ord engines. T'e valves of t'is engine were formed wit' an enlargement on
t'e end of t'eir stem, w'ic' supported a 'orses'oe-s'aped spring retainer. <wing to t'is enlargement, it
was impossible to insert t'e valve into a one-piece guide. T'e guide t'erefore was split t'roug' its a-is,
and valve and guide were inserted and wit' drawn toget'er. T'e guide was 'eld in position in t'e bore
in t'e cylinder bloc by a 'orses'oe-s'aped stamping w'ic' entered a groove turned in t'e guide and
rested against a mac'ined surface on t'e bloc.
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?esign o$ 2al3e Tappets
%n 0-'ead engines t'e valves are operated from t'e cams t'roug'
t'e intermediary of tappets, w'ic' latter usually consist of a cylindrical
steel part moving in a cast-iron guide formed on or secured to t'e
crancase. T'e tappet carries t'e cam follower at its lower end and is
provided wit' clearance ad+usting means at its upper end.
%n t'e design of t'ese members,
lig'tness is an important consideration, since
t'e strengt' of t'e valve spring reLuired and
t'e s'oc and noise produced by t'e lifting
action are directly proportional to t'e weig't of
t'e parts moved by t'e cam, w'ic' include t'e
tappet. %n 2ig. is s'own a section of a roller-
type tappet. %ts body is drilled out from t'e
top for t'e sae of lig'tness, and its lower end
is slotted to receive t'e roller ; carried on
roller pin C. ? roller-type cam follower must be 'eld in alignment wit' t'e
cam, and to t'is end t'e guide is e-tended downwardly and slotted to
receive t'e roller. ?t its upper end t'e tappet is t'readed internally to receive
t'e ad+usting screw 9, w'ic' latter also is drilled out. ?fter a clearance
ad+ustment 'as been made by means of screw ", t'e latter is loced by
c'ec nut 2.
Two tappets for use wit' mus'room-type cams are s'own in 2ig..
T'e one on t'e left is a very lig't design w'ic' provides ample bearing
surface. T'e ot'er one is of tubular stoc and 'as t'e foot welded to it. ?
foot of cast iron sometimes is welded to a tubular s'an and is 'ardened by
c'illing. %n ot'er cases t'e
entire tappet is made of
cast iron. Tappets 'ave
been made also in w'ic'
t'e wearing surface of t'e
foot was provided wit' a
veneer of $tellite or some
ot'er 'ard alloy.
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Tappets are used also in valve-in-'ead engines, but in t'at case
t'e clearance-ad+usting means are located on t'e top of t'e engine,
w'ere t'ey are more accessible. Two designs of tappets for t'is type of
engine are s'own in 2ig.. T'e one on t'e left is t'imble s'aped and
formed on t'e inside wit' a sp'erical seat for t'e ball end of t'e side rod.
$olid side rods are used w'ere t'e distance between t'e tappet and t'e
rocer lever is comparatively s'ort, as w'ere t'e cams'aft is located on
t'e side of t'e cylinder bloc" wit' t'e cams'aft in t'e crancase,
tubular side rods are preferable, because of t'eir greater resistance to
bucling. %t will be seen t'at t'e side rod is s'own to mae a small angle
wit' t'e a-is of t'e tappet. T'is 'as t'e advantage t'at its reaction on t'e
tappet 'as a small 'oriGontal component w'ic' can be made to
counteract t'e friction between cam and tappet, t'us reducing t'e
friction encountered by t'e latter. %n t'e design s'own at t'e rig't t'e
sp'erical seat for t'e tubular side rod is at t'e top
T'e tappet bearing surface must be broug't down as
close to t'e cam as feasible, because t'e load on it is an
over'anging load, and if t'e over'ang were great t'e
pressure near t'e lower end of t'e bearing would be Luite
intense. Cit' mus'room type cam followers it is a good
plan to offset t'e follower lengt'wise from t'e middle of
t'e cam, so it will rotate in. its bearing, and no groove will
wear in its foot. $uc' an arrangement is s'own in 2ig..
%n t'e past it 'as been customary to mae t'e
contact surface of t'e tappet foot flat. However, t'e cam
usually is located closer to one supporting bearing t'an to
t'e ot'er, and w'en t'e cams'aft fle-es under t'e lifting
impact, its contact element or surface will be inclined
toward t'e flat tappet surface, w'ic' results in stress
concentration at one side of t'e cam. To prevent suc' stress
concentration, tappet-foot surfaces now are sometimes
made sp'erical, wit' a radius of *7 in. or more. To cause
tappets wit' sp'erical contact surface to rotate, t'e cams are made to taper slig'tly in t'e a-ial direction.
Clearance ReEuired
T'e amount of valve clearance reLuired 'as increased in t'e course of time, because modern
engines, on account of t'eir muc' 'ig'er speeds, operate at 'ig'er temperatures. %n passenger-car
engines of t'e 0-'ead type t'e average clearance between pus'rod and valve stem wit' t'e engine cold
is about 7.717 in. for t'e inlet, and 7.712 in. for t'e e-'aust valves. 2or service purposes t'e Y'otY
clearances usually are specified, and are somew'at smaller t'an t'e figures given. 4alve-in-'ead
engines reLuire greater clearances, especially w'ere t'e cam motion is amplified by t'e tappet levers.
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Automatic FGero-ClearanceF Tappets
;y means of a 'ydraulic device supplied wit' oil from t'e engine
lubricating system #or from a separate source&, it is possible to tae up
clearance between t'e tappet and valve automatically as soon as it develops.
A hydraulic tappet is used e-tensively by engine manufacturers. ? sectional
view of t'is tappet is s'own in 2ig.. T'e ad+usting means is a separate
'ydraulic unit w'ic' is set into t'e valve lifter body during t'e process of
assembly. T'e lifter body is of substantially t'e same design as t'e
conventional valve lifter, 'ence only t'e 'ydraulic unit needs to be described.
<il from t'e engine lubricating system is delivered to a c'amber
ad+acent to t'e tappet guide, and is fed into t'e lifter from a point near t'e
bottom of t'e c'amber. %t enters t'e annular groove in t'e tappet body and
passes t'roug' t'e radial 'ole t'erein, into t'e cavity below t'e 'ydraulic
unit. %n order t'at t'e 'ydraulic unit may function properly, t'e oil must be
free from air bubbles, and suitable means are provided to de-aerate it before
it enters t'e tappet. T'e tube e-tending down from t'e 'ydraulic unit also
assists somew'at in t'e separation of air, and it assures t'at practically all of
t'e oil in t'e cavity forms a reserve supply for starting. <il from t'e cavity
passes t'roug' t'e ball-type c'ec valve into t'e ad+usting c'amber below
t'e plunger. ? lig't spring 'olds t'e plunger against t'e valve stem, and t'e
face of t'e lifter in constant contact wit' t'e cam. T'e bottom of t'e plunger
clears t'e bottom of t'e bore by about 1)%/ in. %n t'is manner t'e air is wored out at t'e
time of installation, t'e lifter is always filled wit' oil, and t'e clearance is entirely
taen up by t'e oil column below t'e plunger. Hydraulic tappets of
t'is type assure silent operation, eliminate t'e need for valve
ad+ustment, and increase valve life. T'ey obviate t'e need for
a Luieting ramp on t'e cam.
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Roc(er Arm and Roc(er Sha$t
T'e function of t'e rocer arm is to reverse t'e
upward motion of t'e pus' rod to downward motion of
t'e valve and vice versa. T'e rocer arm may be eit'er
solid or 'ollow.
? stationary 'ollow rocer s'aft serves as a
pivot to t'e rocer arms and provides passage for
lubricating oil simultaneously. (ocer arm is made of
steel #forged or stamped& or iron #cast&. Cast rocer
arms are comparatively c'eaper but are not as strong as
forged or stamped ones. However, t'ese give
satisfactory service in cars. $tamped rocer arms 'ave
been found to be lig't, very strong, yet c'eapest of all
t'e types. (ocer s'afts are made from 'ollow steel
tubing. ? typical material for t'ese would consist of
7...T carbon, 7.2T silicon, 7./.T manganese and t'e
remainder iron. ?fter mac'ining t'e s'aft is case-
'ardened. %t is mounted on cast iron or aluminium
pedestals placed between eac' pair of rocer arms.
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%ush Rod
%t serves to transmit t'e reciprocating motion of
t'e valve lifter to t'e rocer arm. $ince t'e valve lifter
moves in a straig't line w'ereas t'e rocer arm end
moves in an arc about its pivot, to provide compatibility
of t'e two, t'e pus' rod forms part of ball and socet
+oints on bot' ends. Pus' rods are made of carbon-
manganese steel. ? typical pus' rod steel contains 7.*.T
carbon, 7.2T silicon and 1..T manganese. ?fter
'ardening and tempering, a 'ardness of about 2.7
;.H.@. is obtained. T'e pus' rod may be eit'er solid or
'ollow. ? 'ollow pus' rod is lig'ter, resulting in
decrease of inertia forces. 2urt'er, it may also serve as a
passage for oil for lubrication of t'e valve actuating
mec'anism.
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?ual 2al3es
0arge valves are more troublesome t'an small ones, because a large disc will be warped more by
t'e 'eat, and, besides, t'e weig't of t'e valve increases
rapidly wit' t'e linear dimensions, 'ence t'e stress on
t'e valve and its mec'anism due to rapid opening and
closing becomes very great for large diameters. 2or t'is
reason it 'as become customary in 'ig'-speed engines
wit' large cylinder bores to use two inlet and two
e-'aust valves per cylinder.
?n e-perimental investigation of t'e relative
capacities of large and small valves was made in
connection wit' t'e development of t'e 0iberty aircraft
engine, and t'e conclusions reac'ed were t'at at t'e
same pressure drop, one valve of diameter 6 and lift h
is eLual in capacity to, first, a pair of valves of diameter
<.1716 #eLual port area& and lift 7.17h and, second, a
pair of valves of diameter 7./6 and lift ', for values of
h not e-ceeding about <.2.6. 9ngines wit' two, t'ree,
four ! five valves are s'own in t'e following 2igures.
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2al3e Timing
T'e valves are operated by cams on a s'aft w'ic' turns at one-'alf t'e speed of t'e crans'aft,
so t'at eac' valve is opened and closed once during two revolutions of t'e crans'aft. %n order t'at an
engine may operate satisfactorily at 'ig' speeds, it is necessary t'at t'e e-'aust valve open before t'e
end of t'e power stroe and close after t'e completion of t'e e-'aust stroe" and t'at t'e inlet open
before t'e end of t'e e-'aust stroe and close after t'e completion of t'e inlet stroe. T'is involves an
overlapping of t'e e-'aust and inlet periods, w'ic' is made necessary in part by t'e very slow opening
and closing motions now employed for t'e sae of Luiet operation. %f t'e inlet began to open only after
t'e e-'aust 'ad closed, t'e effective valve opening during a considerable part of t'e inlet stroe would
be so small t'at t'e incoming c'arge would be seriously t'rottled. 2or an engine w'ic' is intended to
YpeaY at *777-,777 rpm t'e valve timing s'own in 2ig. s'ould prove satisfactory. T'at t'ere is
considerable latitude wit' respect to t'e different valve functions may be seen from t'e following table
w'ic' applies to 15.* passenger-car engines>
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O3erhead 2al3es
4alves in t'e 'ead are operated eit'er by tappet rods e-tending up t'e side of t'e cylinders, or by
means of an over'ead cams'aft. C'en tappet
rods are used, t'ey e-tend up t'roug' an
enclosed space and t'e rocer arms, etc., at t'e
top of t'e engine are enclosed by a valve
cover, w'ic' is usually of pressed steel. C'en
t'e w'ole valve mec'anism is t'us enclosed,
not only are any noises produced by it
muffled, but t'e +oints can all be effectively
lubricated and all bearings are protected
against dust. %n multi-cylinder over'ead-valve
engines t'e rocer arms are mounted on a
'ollow s'aft, to w'ic' is connected a lead
from t'e pressure lubricating system. ?t t'e
center of eac' rocer arm bearing an oil 'ole
is drilled t'roug' t'e wall-of t'e 'ollow s'aft,
so t'at oil will feed to t'e bearing surface, and
sometimes a 'ole is drilled lengt'wise of t'e
rocer arm from t'e rocer bearing surface to
t'e point of contact wit' t'e valve stem. ;y
placing t'e breat'er pipe on t'e valve cover
and establis'ing communication wit' t'e
crancase by means of t'e tappet-rod
passages, an oil-misty atmosp'ere is created in
t'e valve c'amber, and t'e lubrication of all
bearings is provided for.
Cit' tappet rods e-tending up t'e side
of t'e cylinder bloc, as s'own in 2ig., t'e
weig't of t'e moving parts naturally is greater
t'an in 0 'ead engines, and every effort
s'ould be made to lig'ten t'ese parts. T'e
tappet rods preferably are made of steel tubing
of an outside diameter of about *)3 in. for t'e
siGe of cylinder used in passenger-car engines.
%nto t'e lower end of t'e tube can be fitted a t'rust pin wit' a 'alf-round 'ead w'ic' 'as a bearing in a
socet formed on a t'rust bloc set into t'e 'ollow tappet. ?t t'e top an internally t'readed sleeve wit'
a 'e-agon on it is fitted over t'e tube, and receives t'e clearance-ad+usting screw, w'ic' latter 'as a
sp'erical 'ead nested in a socet formed on t'e end of t'e rocer-lever arm. <wing to t'e fact t'at all
contact surfaces are very liberal in siGe, and of suc' s'ape t'at t'ey naturally retain any oil getting onto
t'em, t'ere is usually very little wear on t'ese surfaces. T'e rocer levers usually are drop forgings,
t'oug' one manufacturer 'as made t'em of steel pressings.
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%n determining t'e weig't of t'e valve-reciprocating parts w'ere rocer levers are used, it is
necessary to first find t'e radius of gyration of t'e rocer lever, w'ic' can be done eit'er by calculation
or e-perimentally by t'e pendulum met'od. T'e actual weig't of t'e rocer is t'en reduced in t'e
proportion of t'e radius of gyration to t'e lengt' of t'e rocer arm bearing on t'e side rod, and t'e value
t'us obtained is added to t'e weig't of t'e tappet and side rod. T'e weig't of t'e valve and parts
moving wit' it is reduced in t'e proportion of valve motion to tappet motion, and t'en added to t'e
ot'er weig'ts.
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O3erhead Camshahs
T'e simplest
and most direct
met'od of
actuating valves
in t'e cylinder
'ead is by
means of an
over'ead
cams'aft, 2ig..
%t reduces t'e
necessary
weig't of valve
reciprocating
parts, t'us
maing it
possible to get
along wit'
lig'ter springs
and to increase t'e ma-imum speed.
%t appears t'at one reason for t'e less
Luiet operation of t'e engine is t'at t'e
source of t'e noise #t'e cam gear& is
directly underneat' t'e 'ood, and t'e
noise is t'erefore more readily transmitted to t'e passengers ears t'an w'en it originates down in t'e
crancase. %t 'as been found t'at a contributing factor to noise in t'e valve gear is t'e discontinuity of
t'e torLue" t'at is, w'en t'e nose of a cam 'as passed a cam follower, t'e pressure of t'e valve spring
causes t'e cam and its s'aft to snap forward, t'ereby taing up t'e clearance between gear teet'.
Trouble from t'is source may be guarded against by YburdeningY t'e cams'aft wit' additional load,
suc' as t'e fan, water pump, or generator.
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2al3e Actuating 6echanisms
%n all t'e valve actuating mec'anisms a cam driven at 'alf t'e crans'aft speed is used to
operate eac' valve
inlet or e-'aust.
However, t'ere are
different met'ods of
operating t'e valves
from t'e cam.
T'ese may
be broadly divided
into two types viG.,
1. 8ec'anisms wit'
side cams'aft and
2.T'e mec'anisms
wit' over'ead
cams'aft.
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,- 6echanisms #ith side camsha$t
%n t'ese t'e cams'aft is on t'e side of t'e engine and t'e valves are operated eit'er directly by
t'e cams or t'roug' t'e pus' rods and rocer arms.
T'ese may be furt'er classified as>
(a.#ouble row side valve mechanism (T-head.
T'is is t'e oldest type of valve actuating
mec'anism and is s'own in 2ig. %n t'is t'e inlet
and t'e e-'aust valves are operated by separate
cams'afts w'ic' maes t'e mec'anism
complicated. 8oreover t'e s'ape of t'e
combustion c'amber provides poor combustion
and low engine performance due to w'ic' t'is
type of mec'anism is obsolete.
(b. !ingle row side valve mechanism (,-head.
%n t'is t'e inlet and t'e e-'aust valves are all arranged in a single row and operated from t'e same
cams'aft #2ig.&. T'is met'od was once Luite popular on account of t'e following advantages>
#i& 0ow engine 'eig't.
#ii& 0ow production cost.
#iii& ]uiet operation.
#iv& 9ase of lubrication
T'is mec'anism is, 'owever, no more in
use, because it was found to be very inefficient
on account of t'e complicated s'ape of t'e
combustion c'amber w'ic' is more prone to
detonation. T'ere were also restrictions of space
on t'e siGe of inlet valves t'at would be used.
8oreover, difficulties were e-perienced in
cooling t'e e-'aust valves.
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(c. $verhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism (+-head.
T'is is a combination of t'e two systems described
above. <ver'ead valve mec'anism is used for t'e inlet valve
operation and t'e side valve mec'anism for t'e e-'aust valve.
%t is used in 2-'ead engines. T'is mec'anism is simpler t'an
t'e over'ead cams'aft operated types and allows t'e use of
larger inlet valves, but larger valves being 'eavier, t'ere is also
a limitation on t'e ma-imum speed of t'e engine t'at could be
allowed. 2-'ead engines were found to be less efficient and
were also more e-pensive due to w'ic' t'ese 'ave also become
obsolete.
#d& !ingle row overhead valve mechanism ()-head.
T'is type is used Luite e-tensively t'ese days and is
s'own in 2ig.. T'e cam operates t'e valve lifter w'ic' in turn
actuates t'e pus' rod. T'e pus' rod furt'er operates t'e rocer
arm, w'ic' actuates t'e valve.
T'is type of mec'anism is 'aving t'e following
advantages>
#i& Hig'er volumetric efficiency t'an t'e side valve
design.
#ii& Hig'er compression ratios can be used.
#iii& 0eaner air-fuel mi-tures can be burnt.
#iv& T'e rocer-arm leverage maes it possible to
impart desired cam profile lift multiplication to t'e system and
'ence use smaller cam lobes compared to t'e side valve
mec'anism.
T'e above advantages are, 'owever, accompanied by some drawbacs of t'e mec'anism.
T'ese are,
#i& T'e valve operation, on account of t'e elasticity of t'e system and t'e resulting vibrations, is
not very precise w'ile accelerating or operating at 'ig' engine speeds.
#ii& 0arger valve lifter clearances are reLuired.
#iii& @oisy operation.
#iv& Greater maintenance reLuired due to more wear at more +oints.
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- 6echanisms #ith o3erhead camsha$t
T'e valve operating mec'anisms
wit' over'ead single or double cams'afts
are 'ig'ly efficient. However, wit' t'ese
considerably more lubricating oil is
needed to flood t'e cam profiles as
compared to t'e over'ead valves operated
by side cams'afts. 8oreover, t'ey 'ave
t'e disadvantage of 'ig'er initial costs.
2igure. s'ows single row valves operated by a
single over'ead cams'aft and an inverted bucet type
follower. Cit' t'is type of follower, t'e cams'aft is
arranged directly over t'e valve stems. T'is type of
mec'anism is direct and very rigid so t'at valve
movement follows precisely t'e designed cam-profile
lift. 8oreover, valve stems are not sub+ected to side-
t'rust w'ic' means less wear. Tappet clearances are
also Luite small and do not reLuire ad+ustment very
often. However, drive to t'e cams'aft is Luite
complicated, positive lubrication is reLuired and ad+ustment of valve lifter clearance is relatively more
difficult.
? similar valve-operating mec'anism wit' end-pivoted rocer arm is s'own in 2ig.. T'e rocer
arm provides leverage ratio, w'ic' enables t'e designer to provide smaller cam profile. 8oreover, t'e
inertia of rocer arm follower is less compared to t'e sliding bucet type described earlier and
ad+ustment of tappets is easy. However, due to t'e elastic bending of t'e rocer arm, t'e stiffness of t'e
system and 'ence precision of valve operation is decreased, a side-t'rust is produced to t'e valve stem
and guide and more wear and noise occur.
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%n 2ig. is depicted a mec'anism for inlet and e-'aust valves in separate rows, but operated by a
single over'ead
cams'aft wit' inverted
bucet type follower
and t'e pivoted rocer
arm.
However, Luite
often t'e double-row
valves are operated by
two separate over'ead
cams'afts as s'own in
2igures.
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Comparison o$ the Side Camsha$t and the O3erhead Camsha$t 6echanisms
T'e over'ead cams'aft type valve actuating
mec'anisms is generally preferred over t'e side cams'aft type
mainly because of its greater rigidity since t'e cams'aft
directly operates t'e valve instead of operating t'roug' pus'
rod and rocer arm. 6ue to t'is t'e valve is opened and
closely Luicer wit' decreased vibrations and undesirable
oscillation. T'is means in case of 'ig'-lift, 'ig'-acceleration
cam profile, t'e valve operation in case of over'ead cams'aft
is muc' more precise and smoot' t'an in case of t'e side
cams'aft valve system.
However, in case of over'ead cams'aft wit' inverted
bucer follower, t'e valve lift is eLual to t'e cam lift, w'ereas in
case of t'e side cams'aft, t'e valve lift can be ad+usted by suitable
design, for a given cam lift. T'is means t'at in case of over'ead
cams'aft, t'e cam siGe 'as to be relatively larger for t'e same
valve lift, w'ic' leads to 'ig'er cam-to-follower velocities and
relative rubbing velocities resulting in side-t'rust reaction caused
by t'e cam action.
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?esmodromic
? form of valve actuation t'at uses mec'anical means to open ! close t'e valves, t'us
eliminating valve springs ! t'e resulting bounce at 'ig' speeds. T'ey featured in t'e 8ercedes racing
cars of t'e mid-.7Js but are now associated wit' 6ucati road ! racing motor cycles
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2al3e %roduction
T'e forgings for conventional poppet valves may be produced by several processes, including
drop-forging, upsetting e-truding, and electric gat'ering. %n eac' case t'e stoc used comes in rod or
bar form. T'e e-trusion process employs stoc of a diameter appro-imately 17 per cent t'at of t'e
finis'ed valve 'ead and forms t'e stem by forcing some of t'e material t'roug' a die w'ile at a red
'eat. To prevent fracture during t'e s'earing operation, t'e bars are first broug't up to red 'eat eit'er by
induction or in an open furnace. ;urrs on t'e slugs are removed by tumbling.
T'e average valve $orging is completed in one 'eating on a .77- ton or 1.7-ton press operating
at about ,. rpm. 4alve slugs are placed in a 'opper w'ic' feeds t'em into an induction-'eating coil.
T'e rate of feed can be varied by t'e operator from 3 to 27 slugs per minute, by means of a variable-
speed motor drive. T'e average automotive valve reLuires a 1-in. slug, and of t'ese slugs 1/ are 'eated
to about 2777 2 per minute, t'e power consumption amounting to .7w.
?fter t'e 2orging Process, ne-t process is Annealing.
8ost e-'aust-valve and all intae-valve forgings are annealed to relieve forging stresses. T'e
treatment varies wit' t'e material, annealing temperatures ranging from 1277 2 to 1377 2, and
annealing periods from one 'our to si- 'ours. T'e process usually is carried on in a c'ain-type conveyor
furnace, a dual control system permitting of c'anging t'e temperature during t'e annealing cycle.
?not'er operation in t'e 'eat-treating department consists in grit-blasting t'e forgings in a tumble blast
unit, to remove scale formed in t'e forging operation and to improve t'e appearance of t'e forgings.
T'e ne-t process in valve production is 6achining and >rinding Operations
8ac'ining and grinding operations are performed on mac'ine tools set up to mae possible
progressive line production. ?fter passing t'roug' t'is line and 'aving been sub+ected to t'e $inal
inspection, t'e valves go directly to t'e s'ipping room for oiling and pacing. T'e lay-out of t'e line
for a particular valve depends on suc' factors as siGe, type, material, and Luantity.
All automoti3e 3al3es ha3e the $ollo#ing operations carried out on them0 Roll
straightening o$ stem and headA inspection $or straightnessA center-less rough-grinding o$ stemA
hardening tipA $inish grinding stemA $inish grinding seatA inspection
T'e valve forging is straig'tened on a mac'ine of t'e Caterbury- 2arrell t'read-roller type, t'e
valves are 'eated to 1,2. 2 in a $urface Combustion c'ain-type furnace, w'ic' is loaded t'roug' a
'opper and disc'arges into a c'ute feeding t'e straig'tening mac'ine. T'e center-less grinders used to
grind t'e stems are pro vided wit' an infeed attac'ment w'ic' causes t'e valves to drop into position
between t'e w'eels, and wit' a YicerY w'ic' removes t'e valves at t'e end of t'e grinding cycle. ?ll
valves are forged wit' a flas' on t'e perip'ery of t'e 'ead. 8ost automotive valves are Yforge-finis'edY
on top and under t'e 'ead, but t'e 'eads must be finis'ed on t'e outside diameter and on t'e seat. T'at
operation, w'ic' is usually performed on multiple-spindle automatics wit' carbide tools is followed by
mac'ining of t'e tip of t'e valve stem and of t'e ,eeper groove c'amfering of t'e tip, and facing t'e
valve to lengt'.
Heat Treatment
4alves made of :C( and c'rome-manganese. steel usually are age-'ardened after t'e semi-
finis' mac'ining operation, and many intae valves of $?9 *1,7 steel also are 'ardened in t'e semi-
finis' stage. %f t'e valve is to be 'eat-treated, semi finis' grinding of t'e stem follows t'e 'eat
treatment" ot'erwise it precedes mac'ining of t'e retainer groove. Heat-treated valves usually are grit-
blasted to remove surface scale, and t'en are 'and straig'tened before any grinding is done on t'em.
T'e semi-finis' grind is performed on a Cincinnati centerless grinder.
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Hardening and >rinding o$ Tip
Tips of 'ig'-production valves usually are 'ardened by induction 'eat, t'ose of ot'ers by t'e
conventional flame-'ardening process. ? 27-w 'ig'-freLuency generator supplies t'e current for
induction 'ardening. %nduction 'ardening permits muc' better control of t'e 'ardness t'an flame
'ardening. %t is usually specified t'at tips s'all be ground to 1. (8$ surface finis', and sLuare wit' t'e
valve stem to wit'in 7.771. in.. 0arge-production valves 'ave t'e tip ground on automatic grinder
eLuipped wit' a rotating fi-ture in w'ic' t'e valves are located from t'e seat face.
Grinding of t'e seat is t'e last operation on t'e valve, and usually is done on a 'ydraulic grinder.
T'e total indicator reading of seat runout to stem can be 'eld to less t'an 7.771 in. in large-volume
production. 2or t'is operation most valves are located from t'e tip end.
Inspection
?ll valves are visually inspected for surface defects, possible operations missed, etc., at Et'e end
of t'e line. $cleroscope and (ocwell mac'ines are used to c'ec t'e 'ardness. $tellited and welded
valves are inspected 177 per cent. 8agnaflu- inspection is made to discover seams, subsurface
stringers, and ot'er defects difficult to recogniGe wit' t'e naed eye. $tandard gauges are used
t'roug'out t'e line, masters being provided to c'ec t'e dimensions from seat to tip, from seat to
groove, and from groove to tip, and determinations are made of t'e runout of t'e tip and t'e seat relative
to t'e stem. T'e mac'ined retainer grooves are c'eced for form, radii, etc., in Comparators wit' a
magnification of 2. to 1.
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S=EE2E 2A=2ES
?s t'e term indicates, sleeve valves are cylindrical in
s'ape. T'ey surround t'e piston and actually form t'e woring
cylinder. T'ere are two types of sleeves valves, vi7., t'e single
sleeve and t'e double sleeve types.
? single sleeve valve is s'own in 2ig.. T'e sleeves are
made of steel.
T'e advantages of sleeves are>
%. $implicity of construction.
2. $ilent in operation, because t'ere are no valve cams, tappets,
valves, etc. w'ic' mae noise.
*. ? longer period of running before decarboniGation becomes
necessary #.7,777 m as compared to about 17,777 m for poppet
valves&.
,. (educed tendency to denote, because t'ere are no 'ot spots, pat'
of flame travel is s'ort and combustion c'amber is of symmetrical
s'ape.
.. Hig'er t'ermal efficiency is attained.
However t'ere are certain disadvantages also because of
w'ic' it 'as become obsolete>
%. Hig' oil consumption, because larger area of sleeve surface 'as
to be lubricated.
2. Gumming.
ROTARY 2A=2ES
8any types of rotary valves 'ave been developed. 2ig.
s'ows a disc type rotary valve. %t consists of a rotating disc, w'ic'
'as a port. C'ile rotating, it communicates alternately wit' inlet
and e-'aust manifolds. T'e main advantage of rotary valves is
t'eir uniform and noise- free motion. However, t'ere are many
difficulties in pressure sealing. 9conomical valve lubrication is
anot'er problem.
(eferences
Hig' speed Combustion 9ngines-P 8 Heldt
?utomobile 9ngineering-6r. =irpal $ing'
8ac'ine 6esign-?bdulla s'eriff
T'eory ! Practice in % C 9ngines-C 2 Taylor
?utocar %ndia %llustrated ?utomotive Glossary
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VA?VE DESIGN
Material -For valve -Ni7el steel for i)let valvesE D Hi0h )i7el hro#i"# steel for e9ha"st valves
=d"e to hi0h te#p% a)d orrosive atio)>
For valve seat-/ast iro) or $ro)3e F Replaea$le! =/ast iro)-for $i0 e)0i)es F d"e to eo)o#i reaso)s%>
Si3e of valve ports
V
0
GaHA
p
G/
p ave%
@here V
0
Hveloit( of 0as I;6:: to 66::#J#i)-for statio)ar(J#ari)e e)0i)es
I66:: to 5:::#J#i)-for a"to#o$ile e)0i)es
aHport areaH
,
2
port
d
E ApHarea of pisto)H
,
2
#
E /p aveH avera0e pisto) veloit(H;?N#J#i)
KFi9 vel% of 0as! al"late port area D port dia#eter
( )
+ +
137 .27
137 1 . 1,
E
*
T '
'
ch g
g
@here V0H0as veloit( F fi9ed F i) ftJ#i) =*4:LMLN> Hd"ratio) of valve ope)i)0
THte#p% i) Ra)7i)e - T
o
FH*%4T
o
/L6;! a)d T=R>H T
o
FLA5-%,+
I)ta7e te#p%I;:
o
/ H ,4
o
F H 5;4Ra)7i)eE E9ha"st te#p%I6::
o
/H*:6;Ra)7i)e
ch
Hhar0i)0 effiie)( for NA E)0i)eI45OE a)d S/ E)0i)eI-5 to *::O
&Hpr% of 0as i) psi H*A%+psi - for i)ta7eH*at#%
H;-psi to 65psi F for e9ha"stH; to Aat#%
I)let valve -MHope)i)0 adva)e F 0e)erall( H *:
o
! D NHlosi)0 dela( F 0e)erall( H ;: to 6:
o
E9ha"st valve -MH ope)i)0 adva)e F 0e)erall( F A: to 5:
o
! D NHlosi)0 dela( F 0e)erall( F *: to ;:
o
He)e al"late
E
g
' -For stationary engines *;:::ftJ#i) F for i)ta7e valve D*4:::ftJ#i) F for e9ha"st valve
-For automobile engines *4:::ftJ#i) F for i)ta7e valve D;+:::ftJ#i) F for e9ha"st valve
d
*
Hd
port
Hport dia#eterH
valve gasthrough velocityof
d pistonspee
#
mean
& #
fi9 M
v
Hvalve fae a)0leH6:
o
or A5
o
valve lift h
A)0"lar area of ope)i)0
,
cos
2
1
1
d
h d
v

Hport area or
cos
2. . 7
1
d
h
2"t this 0ives ha##eri)0 effet =hH:%*d
*
to :%;d
*
>
Therefore e#pirial relatio) hH:%;d
*
#a( $e adopted
Thi7)ess of valve dis H
!
*
d k t
1 1
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@here 7*H:%5A-for ast iro)E :%A;-for ar$o) steel D hi0h 0rade steel
S HA:::psi-forast iro)E 4:::psi-forar$o) steel D *5:::psi-for hi0h 0rade steel
& H#a9% 0as press"reE d*HdportHport dia#eter
POr
ma-
1
. . 7
*
d t ! 'here!
Wallowable stressW,27sc for carbon steel ! 177 to 377sc for 'ig' grade steelP
&P 57 sin# O 2
1 2 v
t d d +
orHd
*
L;$
:%+45A( )
2
1
2
2
2
*
13., . 7 d d d
d
6
H ( )
2
2
2
1
d d +
$H:%5=d
;
-d
*
> H :%5d
*

;
'
1
ma-
* !
!
b
b
!
@here S$Hsafe $eari)0 press"reHA:::psi for ast iro)
$H:%:5d
*
to :%:+d
*
a) e#pirial for#"la
or $H
tan
t
H:%*d
*
LA##
d
o
Hdia#eter of valve ste# H inch
d
1/
*
13
1
+
$eari)0 press"re H
1
1 2
2
& #
d
d d
load
a bearingare
load

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( ) ( )
,;%;+##
5:%-, 65%4 d d d area ope)i)0 head valve of Dia#eter
4%5## A##
4
65%4
A##
4
d
d ste# valve of Dia#eter
+%54##> $ =ass"#i)0!
+%54 ; 65%4 ;$ d d head Valve of Dia#ter
+%54## A## 65%4 :%* A## :%*d $ Also!
*:%+A##
ta)6:
,%;
ta)M
t
$ seati)0 of @idth A)d
,%;##
A;
5
65%4 :%5
Q
p
d :%5 t head valve of Thi7)ess
h ?ift Valve Ma9%
65%4##
*5::
6::
4:
V
S
D d dia#eter &ort
DN
DN#J#i) 6::#J#i) S ! 6:
A;NJ## *5::#J#i)! V
4:##! D ! 5NJ## & Give)! Sol"tio)E
! 6: A)0le Seat Valve A;NJ## Stress Allo'a$le
6::#J#i)! Speed &isto) Mea) *5::#J#i)! Veloit( Gas
4:##! Dia#eter 2ore /(li)der ! 5NJ## &ress"re Gas Ma9%
dataE follo'i)0 the fro# e)0i)e a) of di#e)sio)s valve D lift valve the Deter#i)e
* - E9a#ple
; ; ;
;
;
* 6
*
:
* ;
*
#a9
*
*
:
;
;
#a9
: ;
;
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

mm
mm
d
m
5/ . .7
** . 17
*7 cos ,
3 . *.
cos ,
sec )
/7
,
,
1
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+iring Order
9very engine cylinder must fire once in every cycle. T'is reLuires t'at for a four-stroe four-
cylinder engine t'e ignition system must fire for every 137 degrees of cran rotation. 2or a si--cylinder
engine t'e time available is only 127 degrees of cran rotation.
T'e order in w'ic' various cylinders of a multi cylinder engine fire is called t'e firing order.
T'e number of possibilities of firing order depends upon t'e number of cylinders and t'rows of t'e
crans'aft. %t is desirable to 'ave t'e power impulses eLually spaced and from t'e point of view of
balancing t'is 'as led to certain conventional arrangements of crans'aft t'rows. 2urt'er, t'ere are t'ree
factors w'ic' must be considered before deciding t'e optimum firing order of an engine. T'ese are>
#i& 9ngine vibrations
#ii& 9ngine cooling and
#iii& 6evelopment of bac pressure
Consider t'at t'e cylinder number 1 of t'e four-cylinder engine, s'own in 2ig., is fired first. ?
pressure p, generated in t'e cylinder number 1 will give rise to a force eLual to Vp?
Ob)#a Z b&PE and

Vp?
Oa)#a Z b&PU on t'e two bearings ? and ; respectively. T'e load on bearing ? is muc' more t'an
load on bearing ;. %f t'e ne-t cylinder fired is cylinder number 2, t'is imbalance in load on t'e two
bearings would furt'er aggravate t'e problem of balancing of t'e crans'aft vibrations ! would result
in severe engine vibrations. %f we fire cylinder number * after cylinder number 1, t'e load may be more
or less evenly distributed.
2urt'er, consider t'e effect of firing seLuence on engine cooling. C'en t'e first cylinder is fired
its temperature increases. %f t'e ne-t cylinder t'at fires is number 2, t'e portion of t'e engine between
t'e cylinder number 1 and 2 gets over'eated. %f t'en t'e t'ird cylinder is fired, over'eating is s'ifted to
t'e portion between t'e cylinders 2 and ,. T'us we see t'at t'e tas of t'e cooling system becomes very
difficult because it is t'en, reLuired to cool more at one place t'an at ot'er places and t'is imposes great
strain on t'e cooling system. %f t'e t'ird cylinder is fired after t'e first t'e over'eating problem can be
controlled to a greater e-tent.
@e-t, consider t'e flow of e-'aust gases in t'e e-'aust pipe. ?fter firing t'e first cylinder,
e-'aust gases flow out to t'e e-'aust pipe. %f t'e ne-t cylinder fired is t'e cylinder number 2, we find
t'at before t'e gases e-'austed by t'e first cylinder go out of t'e e-'aust pipe t'e gases e-'austed from
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t'e second cylinder try to overtae t'em. T'is would reLuire t'at t'e e-'aust pipe be made bigger.
<t'erwise t'e bac pressure in it would increase and t'e possibility of bac flow would arise. %f instead
of firing cylinder number 2, cylinder number * is fired. t'en by t'e time t'e gases e-'austed by t'e
cylinder * come into t'e e-'aust pipe, t'e gases from cylinder 1 would 'ave sufficient time to travel t'e
distance between cylinder 1 and cylinder * and t'us, t'e development of a high back pressure is avoided
%t s'ould be noted t'at to some e-tent all t'e above t'ree reLuirements are conflicting and
t'erefore a trade-off is necessary.
2or ,-Cylinder engines t'e possible firing orders are> ,-/-'- or ,--'-/
T'e former is more commonly used in t'e vertical configuration of cylinders.
2or a /-Cylinder engine firing orders can be> ,-4-/-5--' or ,-4-'-5--/ or ,--'-5-4-/ or ,--/-5-4-'
T'e first one is more commonly used.
<t'er 2iring <rders
2or * Cylinder engine ,-/-
3 Cylinder in-line engine ,-5--4-9-/-8-'
3 Cylinder 4 s'ape engine 1-4-'-9-5-/-8-A ,-9-'-/-5-4-8-A ,-5--4-9-/-8-'A
,-9-8-/-5-4-'-A ,-4-'--5-/-8-9
Cylinder @o. 1 is taen from front of t'e in-line engines w'ereas in 4 s'ape front cylinder on
rig't side-ban is considered cylinder @o.1 for fi-ing H.T. leads according to engine firing order.
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2ibration ?amper
T'e power impulses tend to set up a twisting vibration in t'e crans'aft. C'en a piston moves
down on its power stroe, it t'rusts t'roug' t'e connecting rod, against a cranpin wit' a force t'at may
e-ceed 2 tons. T'is force tends to twist t'e cranpin a'ead of t'e rest of t'e crans'aft. T'en, as t'e
force against t'e cranpin recedes, it tends to untwist, or move bac into its original relations'ip wit'
t'e rest of t'e crans'aft. T'is twist-untwist action, repeated wit' every power impulse, tends to set up
an oscillating motion in t'e crans'aft. T'is is called Torsional 3ibration- %f it were not controlled, it
could cause t'e crans'aft to brea at certain speeds. To control torsional vibration, devices w'ic' are
called 3ibration dampersA or harmonic balancers, are used. T'ese dampers are usually mounted on
t'e front end of t'e crans'aft and t'e drive-belt pulleys are incorporated into t'em.
? typical damper is made in two parts, a small inertia ring or damper flyw'eel and t'e pulley.
T'ey are bonded to eac' ot'er by a rubber insert about ,-inc' O/-mmP t'ic. T'e damper is mounted to
t'e front end of t'e crans'aft. ?s t'e crans'aft speeds up or slows down, t'e damper flyw'eel 'as a
dragging effect. T'is effect, w'ic' slig'tly, fle-es t'e rubber insert, tends to 'old t'e pulley and
crans'aft to a constant speed. T'is tends to c'ec t'e twist-untwist action, or torsional vibration, of t'e
crans'aft.
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Engine .earings
;earings are placed in t'e engine w'erever t'ere is rotary motion between engine parts. T'ese
engine bearings are called sleeve bearings because t'ey are s'aped lie sleeves t'at fit around t'e
rotating s'aft. T'e part of t'e s'aft t'at rotates in t'e bearing is called a Fournal. Connecting-rod and
crans'aft #also called main. bearings are of t'e split, or 'alf, type. T'e upper 'alf of a main bearing is
installed in t'e counter bore in t'e cylinder bloc. T'e lower 'alf is 'eld in place by t'e bearing cap.
T'e upper 'alf of a connecting rod big end #or cranpin& bearing is installed in t'e rod. T'e lower 'alf is
placed in t'e rod cap. T'e typical bearing 'alf is made up of a steel or bronGe bac, wit' up to five
linings of bearing material. T'e bearing material is soft t'erefore, t'e bearing wears, and not t'e more
e-pensive engine part. T'en, t'e bearing, and not t'e engine part, can be replaced w'en it 'as worn too
muc'.
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Thrust bearing
T'e crans'aft 'as to be ept from moving bac and fort' in t'e bloc. To prevent bac-and-
fort' movement, one of t'e main bearings is a t'rust, or end-t'rust, bearing. T'is bearing 'as flanges on
its two sides. 2langes on t'e crans'aft fit close to t'e flanges on t'e t'rust bearing. %f t'e crans'aft
tends to s'ift forward or bacward, t'e crans'aft flange comes up against t'e t'rust-bearing flange.
T'is prevents endwise movement.
.earing =ubrication
<il from t'e engine oil pump flows onto t'e bearing surfaces. T'e rotating s'aft +ournals are
supported on layers of oil. T'e +ournal must be smaller t'an t'e bearing so t'at t'ere is a clearance
#called oil clearance. between t'e two. %n t'e engine oil moves t'roug' t'is clearance. T'e lubricating
system feeds oil to t'e main bearings. %t enters t'roug' t'e oil 'oles and t'e rotating +ournals carry it
around to all parts of t'e bearings. T'e oil wors its way to t'e outer edges of t'e main bearings. 2rom
t'ere, it is t'rown off-and drops bac into t'e oil pan. T'e oil t'rown off 'elps lubricate ot'er engine
parts, suc' as t'e cylinder walls, pistons, and piston rings. T'e connecting-rod bearings are lubricated
t'roug' t'e oil 'oles drilled in t'e crans'aft. ?s t'e oil moves across t'e faces of t'e bearings, it also
'elps to cool t'em. T'e oil is relatively cool as it leaves t'e oil pan. %t pics up 'eat in its passage
t'roug' t'e bearings. T'is 'eat is carried down to t'e oil pan and released to t'e air around t'e oil pan.
T'e oil also flus'es and cleans t'e bearings. %t flus'es out particles of grit and dirt from t'e bearings.
T'e particles are carried bac to t'e oil pan by t'e oil. T'ey t'en settle to t'e bottom of t'e oil pan, or
are removed from t'e oil by t'e oil screen or filter.
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.earing Oil Clearances
T'e greater t'e oil clearance, t'e faster oil flows t'roug' t'e bearing. Proper clearance varies wit'
different engines, but 7.771. inc' O7.7*1mmP is a typical clearance. ?s t'e clearance becomes greater
#owing to bearing wear, for e-ample&, t'e amount of oil
flowing t'roug' and being t'rown off increases. Cit' a
7.77*inc' O7.71/-mmP clearance only twice 7.771. inc'
O7.7*1 mmP, t'e oil t'row off increases as muc' as five
times. ? 7.77/inc' O7.1.2-mmP clearance allows2. times as
muc' oil to flow t'roug' and be t'rown off. ?s bearings
wear, more and more oil is t'rown onto t'e cylinder walls.
T'e piston rings cannot 'andle so muc' oil. Part of it wors
up into t'e combustion c'ambers, w'ere it burns and forms
carbon. Carbon deposits in t'e combustion c'ambers
reduce engine power and cause ot'er engine troubles.
9-cessive oil clearances can also cause some bearings to fail from oil starvation. ?n oil pump
can deliver only a certain amount of oil. %f t'e oil clearances are e-cessive most of t'e oil will pass
t'roug' t'e nearest bearings. T'ere wonEt be enoug' for t'e more distant bearings. T'en t'ese will
probably fail from lac of oil. ?n engine wit' e-cessive bearing oil clearances usually 'as low oil
pressure> T'e oil pump cannot build up normal pressure because of t'e large oil .clearances in t'e
bearings. %f bearing oil clearances are too small, t'ere will be metal to- metal contact between t'e
bearing and t'e s'aft +ournal. 4ery rapid wear and Luic failure will result. ?lso, t'ere will not be
enoug' oil t'row off to lubricate cylinder walls, pistons, and rings.
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.earing ReEuirements
;earings must be able to do ot'er t'ings besides carry loads. $ome of t'ese are listed below.
1. 0oad Carrying Capacity-8odern engines are lig'ter and more powerful. T'ey 'ave 'ig'er
compression ratios w'ic' impose greater bearing loads. <nly a few years ago, bearing loads were
around 1/77 to 1377 psi O11,7*2 to 12,,11PaP. Today, connecting-rod bearings carry loads of up to
/777 psi O,1,*/5 PaP.
2. 2atigue (esistance-C'en a piece of metal is bent bac and fort', over and over, it 'ardens
and finally breas. T'is is called fatigue failure. Fou 'ave probably done t'is wit' a piece of wire or
s'eet metal. ;earings are sub+ect to suc' loads and must wit'stand t'em wit'out failing from fatigue.
*. 9mbedability T'is term refers to t'e ability of a bearing to permit foreign particles to embed
in it. 6irt and dust particles enter t'e engine despite t'e air cleaner and oil filter. $ome of t'em wor
onto t'e bearings and are not flus'ed away by t'e oil. ? bearing protects itself by letting suc' particles
sin into, or embed in, t'e bearing lining material. %f t'e bearing were too 'ard to allow t'is, t'e
particles would lie on t'e surface. T'ey would scratc' t'e s'aft +ournal and probably gouge out t'e
bearing. T'is would cause over'eating and rapid bearing failure. T'erefore, t'e bearing material must
be soft enoug' for adeLuate embedability.
,. Conformability T'is is associated wit' embedability. %t is t'e ability of t'e bearing material to
conform to variations in s'aft alignment and +ournal s'ape. 2or e-ample, suppose t'at a s'aft +ournal is
slig'tly tapered. T'e bearing under t'e larger diameter will be more 'eavily loaded. %f t'e bearing
material 'as 'ig' conformability, it will YflowY slig'tly, from t'e 'eavily loaded areas to t'e lig'tly
loaded areas. T'is slig't flow evens t'e load on t'e bearing. ? similar action taes place w'en foreign
particles embed in t'e bearing. ?s t'ey embed, t'ey displace bearing material, producing local 'ig'
spots. However wit' 'ig' conformability, t'e material flows away from t'e 'ig' spots. T'is prevents
local 'eavy loading t'at could cause bearing failure.
.. Corrosion resistance - t'e by-products of combustion may form corrosive substances 'armful
to some metals. ;earing materials must be resistant to corrosion. Anleaded gasoline, reLuired on cars
using catalytic converters, c'anges t'e c'emistry of t'e engine oil. Catalytic converters, are installed in
t'e e-'aust systems to reduce t'e pollutants coming out t'e tail pipe. T'e unleaded gasoline, in
c'anging t'e c'emistry of t'e oil, tends to increase bearing corrosion. T'erefore, t'e composition of
engine bearings 'as been c'anged. 2or e-ample, instead of t'e copper-lead bearings used for years,
some engines now 'ave aluminum-lead bearings. T'ese appear to wit'stand corrosion better.
/. Cear (ate T'e bearing material must be so 'ard and toug' t'at it will not wear too fast. ?t t'e
same time, it must be soft enoug' to permit good embedability and conformability.
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THEORY AND DESIGN

ambient air #or mi-ture& density.

ambient air #or mi-ture&

C'ere CWconst., in t'is case eLual to 7.1,

satisfied are conditions Both mm to mm e i

Ob)#a Z b&PE and

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