Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Revision 3: January 1993
Revision 3: January 1993
Revision 3
January 1993
DOE/CE - 0384
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the U.S. Department of Energy and the Bonneville Power Administration for funding this project. Particular thanks are due to Craig Wohlgemuth and Joe Flores of Bonnevilles Industrial Technology Section for their encouragement, direction, and support. Karen Meadows, Washington State Energy Offices Industrial Program Manager, Rob Gray, Vicki Zarrell, and Kim Lyons contributed energy audit information and a technical review as did Chris Picotte of the Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation and Artie Dewey of the Idaho Department of Water Resources. Appreciation is also extended to Austin Bonnett of U.S. Electrical Motors, Jim Raba of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, K.K. Lobodovsky of Pacific Gas and Electric, James Arndt of Reliance Electric, Gary Schurter of Marathon Electric, Mike Prater and Andy Chien of Teco American, Michael Clemente of the Lincoln Electric Company, Terry Thome of Grainger, Bill Green of General Electric, James McCormick of Baldor Electric, John Widstrand of Leeson Electric, Harold Musolf of Harris Electric Motors, and Dennis Brown of Seattle Electrical Works for information and/or review services provided.
Disclaimer
This report was prepared by the Washington State Energy Office as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the Bonneville Power Administration, the State of Washington, the Washington State Energy Office, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed within the report.
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TITLE
ENERGY-EFFICIENT ELECTRIC MOTOR SELECTION HANDBOOK
SUMMARY
Substantial reductions in energy and operational costs can be achieved through the use of energy-efficient electric motors. A handbook was compiled to help industry identify opportunities for cost-effective application of these motors. It covers the economic and operational factors to be considered when motor purchase decisions are being made. Its audience includes plant managers, plant engineers, and others interested in energy management or preventative maintenance programs.
BPA PERSPECTIVE
Conservation is a cornerstone of the Bonneville Power Administration's (BPA) resource program. A major concern of the BPA is to promote the use of cost-effective electric conservation technologies. The industrial sector is the largest of the four electric energy consuming sectors. Within the sector electric motors are the largest users of that energy. One study estimated recently that 52.7 average megawatts of electric power, valued at $13.8 million, could be saved in the Northwest through the replacement of standard motors with high efficiency models. Of the 2 million industrial motors sold nationwide each year, energy efficient motors represent only 15 percent of the sales. That figure is probably even lower in the Northwest where electricity is cheap. Assisting industry in considering the high-efficiency motor option was the goal of this project.
BACKGROUND
The efficiency of an electric motor can only be improved through a reduction in motor losses. Improvement in the design, materials, and construction have resulted in efficiency gains of 2 to 6 percent which translates into a 25 percent reduction in losses. A small gain in efficiency can produce significant energy savings and lower operating costs over the life of the motor. Consequently, the higher purchase price of high-efficiency motors (15 to 30 percent) can, in most cases, be recovered in 2 years through cost savings in energy and operation.
Bonneville
POWER
ADMINISTRATION
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Industrial Technology
Because energy-efficient motors are a proven technology in terms of durability and reliability, their use should be considered for new installations, major modifications, replacement of failed motors or those that require rewinding, or extreme cases of oversized or underloaded motors.
OBJECTIVE
To assist the industrial sector in identifying cost-effective opportunities for application of energy-efficient motors.
APPROACH
The Handbook contains a discussion on the characteristics, economics, and benefits of standard versus high-efficiency motors in the 1 to 200 horsepower range. A motor performance database is supplied for use in identifying, evaluating, and purchasing energy-efficient motors and includes information on full and part load nominal efficiency and power factor as well as material on specific models and costs. Descriptions of how operating factors such as speed and design voltage effect performance are included. Typical operating conditions are also covered. Steps are outlined for launching a motor improvement program, which includes a worksheet to determine potential energy savings and the economic feasibility of an energy-efficient motor project.
PROJECT LEAD
Craig Wohlgemuth, P.E. Industrial Technology Section - RMID Bonneville Power Administration PO. Box 3621 Portland, OR 97208 (503)230-3044
ORDERING INFORMATION
Report Number: DOE/BPA-34623-3, February 1992 For additional copies of this report, call BPA's toll free document request line, l-800-622-4520. You will hear a recorded message; please leave your request.
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Preface
Efficient use of energy enables commercial and industrial facilities to minimize production costs, increase profits, and stay competitive. The majority of electrical energy consumed in most industrial facilities is used to run electric motors. Energy-efficient motors now available are typically from 2 to 6 percent more efficient than their standard motor counterparts. This efficiency improvement translates into substantial energy and dollar savings. For instance, a recent study of Northwest industrial sector energy conservation measures revealed a potential for 52.7 MWa of energy savings by replacing standard motors with high-efficiency motors. This savings is annually valued at $13.8 million given an electricity price of only $0.03/kWh (see Chapter 5). The price premium for an energy-efficient motor is typically 15 to 30 percent above the cost of a standard motor. Over a typical lo-year operating life, a motor can easily consume electricity valued at over 57 times its initial purchase price. This means that when you spend $1,600 to purchase a motor, you are obligating yourself to purchase over $92,000 worth of electrical energy to operate it. A price premium of $400 is negligible compared to saving 3 percent of $92,000 or $2,760. Purchasing new or replacement energy-efficient motors makes good economic sense (see Chapter 5). Energy-efficient motors are truly premium motors. The efficiency gains are obtained through the use of refined design, better materials, and improved construction. Many motor manufacturers offer an extended warranty for their premium-efficiency motor lines. Yet only 15 percent of motor sales nationwide are of high-efficiency units. Because of our low-cost electricity, this percentage is undoubtedly even lower in the Northwest region.
Durable and reliable energy-efficient motors can be extremely cost effective with simple paybacks on investment of less than 2 years-even in the Northwest. Energy-efficient motors should be considered in the following instances. For new facilities or when modifications are made to existing installations or processes When procuring equipment packages Instead of rewinding failed motors To replace oversized and underloaded motors As part of an energy management or preventative maintenance program When utility rebates am offered that make high-efficiency motor retrofits even more cost effective
This Energy-Efficient Electric Motor Selection Handbook (Handbook) shows you how to assess energy savings and cost effectiveness when making motor purchase decisions. The Handbook also discusses high-efficiency motor speed characteristics, performance under part-load conditions, and operation with an abnormal power supply. Additionally, the Handbook tells you where further information is available. For example, you can obtain performance and price data for both standard and energy-efficient motors from the Electric Ideas Clearinghouse 1-800-872-3568, or 206-586-8588 outside of BPAs service area. Finally, the Handbook contains a motor test data sheet (Appendix A) and a list of Northwest motor manufacturers representatives (Appendix B).
Chapter 1 Introduction
When to Buy Energy-Efficient Motors
This Energy-Efficient Electric Motor Selection Handbook (Handbook) contains guidelines to help you identify motors that are candidates for replacement with energy-efficient electric motors. Using readily available information such as motor nameplate capacity, operating hours, and electricity price you can quickly determine the simple payback that would result from selecting and operating an energy-efficient motor. Using energy-efficient motors can reduce your operating costs in several ways. Not only does saving energy reduce your monthly electrical bill, it can postpone or eliminate the need to expand the electrical supply system capacity within your facility. On a larger scale, installing energy conserving devices allows your electrical utility to defer building expensive new generating plants, resulting in lower costs for you, the consumer. Energy-efficient motors are higher quality motors, with increased reliability and longer manufacturers warantees, providing savings in reduced downtime, replacement and maintenance costs. Saving this energy and money requires the proper selection and use of energy-efficient motors.1 There are three general opportunities for choosing energy-efficient motors: 1) when purchasing a new motor, 2) in place of rewinding failed motors, and 3) to retrofit an operable but inefficient motor for energy conservation savings. Energy-efficient motors should be considered in the following instances:2 For all new installations When major modifications are made to existing facilities or processes For all new purchases of equipment packages that contain electric motors, such as air conditioners, compressors, and filtration systems When purchasing spares or replacing failed motors Instead of rewinding old, standard-efficiency motors To replace grossly oversized and underloaded motors As part of an energy management or preventative maintenance program When utility conservation programs, rebates, or incentives are offered that make energy-efficient motor retrofits cost-effective
3 A nationwide survey by a major motor manufacturer indicates that approximately 35.2 million motors larger than 1 horsepower (hp) are used within the commercial and industrial sectors.5 Approximately 6.7 million units drive centrifugal pumps and fans in industrial applications while over 23 million motors are used for constant torque conveyor and positive displacement pumping applications. Figure 1 breaks down motor population by end-use. While 62 percent of the motors used in variable torque centrifugal pump and fan applications in the industrial sector are in the 1- to 5-hp size range, these small motors account for only 2.4 percent of total motor energy consumption. Motors in the 5- to 125-hp size range use 52 percent of the sectors energy, while large motors account for 45.6 percent of electricity consumption. Figure 2 summarizes motors and energy consumption by motor size.5 Motors are the largest single use of electricity in most industrial plants. A study conducted for Seattle City Light indicates that 42 percent of that utilitys industrial customer electrical consumption goes to motor driven end uses.6 The dominance of motor loads can be even greater in some industries. For instance, energy audits conducted by the Washington State Energy Office reveal the following motor loads at various manufacturing plants. A saw and planer mill has 65 motors with 6,215 hp of connected load. Approximately 94 percent of the 13.8 million kWh of that facilitys annual electrical energy consumption goes to motors driving boiler feedwater pumps, forced draft fans, hydraulic systems, air compressors, planer drives, blowers, feeders, chippers, edgers, hoggers, debarkers, radial saws, and slabbers. A small cedar mill similarly has 37 motors with 2,672 total hp. A Northwest plywood drying facility uses 72 motors with 3,275 hp of nameplate capacity. These motors drive combustion air fans, scrubbers, circulating air fans, condensate pumps, charging pumps, hoggers, fines and chip blowers, bag house blowers, and glue mixers. Forty-seven percent of the electrical consumption at a controlled-atmosphere cold storage facility is due to refrigeration system compressor, evaporator fan, and condenser fan motors while a potato processing plant has 17 motors with 1,115 hp driving ammonia compressors, hydraulic pumps, and air compressors.
It is likely that the percentage of energy-efficient motor sales is even lower in the Pacific Northwest. Motor dealers state that...customers dont ask for efficiency data and we dont tell them..., ...I havent sold a highefficiency motor in a year and a half..., ...high-efficiency motors just dont make sense with the low electrical rates we have in the Northwest..., and ... customers get turned off when we tell them that highefficiency motors have a price premium of 15 to 20 percent and an efficiency improvement of only 2 to 3 percent Contrary to common knowledge, energy-efficient motor purchases can be quite cost effective with simple paybacks on investment of less than 2 years-even in the Northwest.
Design changes, better materials, and manufacturing improvements reduce motor losses, making premium or energy-efficient motors more efficient than standard motors. Reduced losses mean that an energy-efficient motor produces a given amount of work with less energy input than a standard motor.2 In 1989, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) developed a standard definition for energy-efficient motors. The definition, designed to help users identify and compare electric motor efficiencies on an equal basis, includes a table of minimum nominal full-load efficiency values.* A motors performance must equal or exceed the nominal efficiency levels given in Table 2 for it to be classified as energy-efficient Nominal full-load efficiencies for currently available energy-efficient and standard motors are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 clearly indicates that the NEMA standards are easy for motor manufacturers to exceed. In fact, most motors on the market qualify as high-efficiency machines. It is also apparent that you can improve efficiency by as much as 6 points through simply
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Table 2 NEMA Threshold Nominal Full Load Efficiencies for Energy Efficient Motors ODP HP 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 3600 82.5 80 82.5 82.5 85.5 85.5 87.5 89.5 90.2 91 91 91.7 91.7 93 93 93 93 93.6 93.6 1800 77 82.5 82.5 86.5 86.5 88.5 88.5 90.2 91 91.7 91.7 92.4 92.4 93 93.6 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.1 ODP HP 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 3600 82.5 82.5 84 84 85.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 90.2 91 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.5 1800 80 84 84 86.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 91 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93.6 94.1 94.1 94.5 95 95 1200 74 84 85.5 86.5 87.5 88.5 90.2 90.2 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.1 94.5 94.5 900 75.5 75.5 85.5 86.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91 91 91.7 92.4 93.6 93.6 93.6 93.6 93.6 1200 72 82.5 84 85.5 86.5 88.5 90.2 89.5 90.2 91 91.7 91.7 91.7 92.4 93 93.6 93.6 93.6 94.1 900 80.5 75.5 85.5 86.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91 90.2 91.7 92.4 93.6 93.6 93.6 93.6 93.6 12-6C 3600 82.5 82.5 84 85.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93.6 94.5 94.5 95 1800 80 84 84 87.5 87.5 89.5 89.5 91 91 92.4 92.4 93 93 93.6 94.1 94.5 94.5 95 95 12-6B 3600 75.5 78.5 82.5 82.5 85.5 85.5 87.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91.7 92.4 93 93 93 94.1 1800 72 81.5 82.5 84 85.5 87.5 87.5 88.5 90.2 91 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.5 TEFC 1200 74 85.5 86.5 87.5 87.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91.7 91.7 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.1 95 95 900 77 82.5 84 85.5 85.5 88.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 91 91 91.7 91.7 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.1 82.5 82.5 84 85.5 87.5 87.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 91 91.7 91.7 91.7 93 93 93 94.1 94.1 75.5 82.5 81.5 84 85.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91 91.7 93 93 93.6 93.6 94.1 TEFC 1200 900
motor is energized, and remaining constant for a given voltage and speed, and those which are variable and increase with motor load.11 These losses are described below. 1 . Core loss represents energy required to magnetize the core material (hysteresis) and includes losses due to creation of eddy currents that flow in the core. Core losses are decreased through the use of improved permeability electromagnetic (silicon) steel and by lengthening the core to reduce magnetic flux densities. Eddy current losses are decreased by using thinner steel laminations. 2 . Windage and friction losses occur due to bearing friction and air resistance. Improved bearing selection, air-flow, and fan design are employed to reduce these losses. In an energy-efficient motor, loss minimization results in reduced cooling requirements so a smaller fan can be used. Both core losses and windage and friction losses are independent of motor load.
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Table 3 Average Efficiencies and Typical List Prices for Standard and Energy-Efficient Motors 1800 RPM Open Drip-Proof Motors Average Standard Motor Efficiency, % 83.8 (15) 85.3 (14) 87.2 (21) 87.6 (15) 88.4 (14) 89.2 (14) 89.2 (12) 90.2 (12) 90.1 (11) 91.0 (11) 91.9 (11) 91.7 (9) 91.7 (7) 92.9 (8) 93.1 (8) Average Energy-Efficient Motor Efficiency, % 87.9 89.6 91.1 91.5 92.0 92.8 92.8 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.5 94.5 94.4 95.0 95.2 (12) (15) (7) (11) (11) (11) (12) (11) (13) (12) (12) (14) (16) (12) (12) Typical Standard ODP Motor List Price $329 408 516 677 843 993 1160 1446 1688 2125 2703 3483 4006 5760 7022 (4) (6) (6) (5) (6) (5) (4) (4) (6) (7) (5) (6) (6) (5) (3) Typical Energy-Efficient ODP Motor List Price $370 (4) 538 (5) 650 (5) 864 (5) 1055 (5) 1226 (5) 1425 (5) 1772 (5) 2066 (4) 2532 (5) 3084 (5) 3933 (5) 4709 (5) 6801 (5) 8592 (3)
Efficiency Improvement, % 4.7 4.8 4.3 4.3 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.7 3.3 2.8 3.0 2.9 2.2 2.2
List Price Premium $41 130 134 187 212 233 265 326 378 407 381 450 703 1041 1570
1800 RPM Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Motors Average Standard Motor Efficiency, % 83.3 85.2 86.0 86.3 88.3 89.3 89.5 90.3 91 .0 91.7 91.6 92.1 92.0 93.0 93.8 (11) (20) (10) (8) (13) (14) (9) (10) (9) (11) (6) (13) (10) (10) (9) Average Energy-Efficient Motor Efficiency, % 87.3 89.5 89.4 90.4 92.0 92.5 92.6 93.1 93.4 94.0 94.1 94.7 94.7 95.0 95.4 (32) (22) (30) (27) (20) (19) (23) (21) (22) (19) (24) (17) (19) (18) (14) Typical Standard TEFC Motor List Price $344 (6) 494 (7) 614 (6) 811 (7) 1025 (6) 1230 (7) 1494 (6) 1932 (7) 2487 (5) 3734 (7) 4773 (7) 5756 (5) 7425 (5) 9031 (6) 10927 (5) Typical Energy-Efficient TEFC Motor List Price $448 (5) 647 (5) 780 (5) 1042 (5) 1268 (5) 1542 (5) 1824 (5) 2340 (5) 2881 (4) 4284 (5) 5520 (5) 6775 (4) 9531 (5) 11123 (3) 13369 (4) List Price Premium $104 153 166 231 243 312 330 408 394 514 747 1019 2106 2092 2442
Efficiency Improvement, % 4.6 4.8 3.8 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.7 2.7 2.9 2.1 1.7
Note: Full-load efficiencies are given. The numbers in parenthesis indicate either the number of motors considered or number of motor manufacturers using the identical list price. List prices are extracted from 1990 manufacturers brochures.
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Table 4: Typical MotorMaster Database Report 11/25/92 MotorMaster Database Query CRITERIA Horsepower. . . . . . 20 Speed (RPM). . . . . 1800 Enclosure. . . . . . . . Totally Enclosed Voltage . . . . . . . . . 230 V Model PREMIUM EFFICIENCY XE PREMIUM EFF. SUPER-E E.Q.P. MAX-El/HE SILVERLINE BLUE CHIP XRI E-PLUS III ENERGYSAVER EXTRA $EVERE DUTY J SERIES, U-FRAME PE-21 SEVERE DUTY U SERIES/ HIGH EFF WASHDOWN-C FACE E-PLUS C-FLEX, CAST IRON C-FACE, FOOT MOUNT K SERIES STD EFF ** 12-6C STANDARD E-2000 ENERGY EFF. HOSTILE DUTY STD EFF ** 12-6B STANDARD CLOSE COUPLED STD EFF C.I.M/ENERGY EFF. HIGH EFFICIENCY BLUE CHIP CAST IRON HAZ. LOC STD EFF T LINE TEFC-C FACE TEFC-RIGID BASE STD EFF U SERIES STD EFF IRON HORSE LINCOLN F.L. Eff. 93.3 93.1 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0 92.4 92.4 92.4 91.7 91.7 91.2 91.0 91.0 91.0 91.0 90.5 90.2 90.2 90.2 89.8 89.6 89.6 89.5 89.5 89.5 89.0 88.6 88.5 88.5 88.5 88.5 87.9 87.5 86.5 F.L. P.F. 84.9 84.5 85.0 84.2 83.0 88.0 83.0 86.5 82.5 82.5 84.3 89.2 84.3 82.0 88.0 n/a 85.0 85.0 85.0 0.0 81.2 86.1 84.5 0.0 85.4 89.0 75.5 84.9 84.5 84.5 88.0 78.9 81.0 85.0 90.5 89.4 85.1 85.6 86.6 F.L. RPM 1770 1768 1760 1772 1765 1760 1770 1765 1765 1765 1775 1760 1775 1760 n/a 1750 1745 1760 1750 0 1757 1745 1760 0 1765 1751 1755 1760 1750 1750 1750 1750 1760 1760 1750 1760 1753 1750 1750 256 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256TC 286U 256T 286U 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T Frame 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 256T 286U 256T 286U 256TC S256T 256TC 256TC 256T 256T Catalog # A443 P25G3331 EM2334T 80204FLF2UMH 1535 JH0204FFA E206 E464 E963 E9154 JU0204FFA HP13780 0 CWDM23934T E421 150089 JB0204FHA KB0204FFA T448 SEPT. 1990 P25G3151 E409 N308 NOV. 1989 B050 B0204FLF2UD 1535 A939 H438 3N491 HT13710 1025 VM2334T M2334 1025 1612 P25G312 N480 KM180.230460 1025 1493 718 1137 1911 1025 1025 1465 1025 1880 1559 1125 1237 895 1025 0 1233 1025 1121 0 942 1025 1263 1268 1268 1268 1535 1844 1535 List Price 1268 1345 1266 1268
Manufacter US Motors Reliance Baldor Toshiba Teco Sterling Marathon Magnetek GE GE Sterling Siemens Sterling Baldor Magnetek Leeson Sterling Sterling Magnetek NEMA Reliance US Motors GE NEMA US Motors Toshiba Delco US Motors Marathon Dayton Siemens Delco Baldor Baldor Teco Sterling Reliance Magnetek Lincoln
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Motor Loss Categories
No Load Losses Core Losses Friction and Windage Losses Typical Losses (%) 15 -25 Factors Affecting these Losses Type and quantity of magnetic material Selection and design of fans and bearings Stator conductor size Rotor conductor size Manufacturing and design methods Table 5
3. Stator losses appear as heating due to current flow (I) through the resistance (R) of the stator winding. This is commonly referred to as an I2R loss. I2R losses can be decreased by modifying the stator slot design or by decreasing insulation thickness to increase the volume of wire in the stator. 4. Rotor losses appear as I R heating in the rotor winding. Rotor losses can be reduced by increasing the size of the conductive bars and end rings to produce a lower resistance, or by reducing the electrical current. 5. Stray load losses are the result of leakage fluxes induced by load currents. Both stray load losses and stator and rotor I2R losses increase with motor load. Motor loss components are summarized in Table 5. Loss distributions as a function of motor horsepower are given in Table 6 while variations in losses due to motor loading are shown in Figure 4. 13,14
2
5 - 15
Motor Operating Under Load Stator I2R Losses 25 - 40 2 Rotor I R Losses 15 - 25 Stray Load Losses 10 - 20 Table 6
12
BS - 269 (British) C-390 (Canadian Standards Association) ANSI C50.20 same as IEEE 112 (United States)
IEEE Standard 112- 1984, Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and Generators, is the common method for testing induction motors in the United States. Five methods for determining motor efficiency are recognized. The common practice for motors in the l- to 125-hp size range is to measure the motor power output directly with a dynamometer while the motor is operating under load. Motor efficiency is then determined by carefully measuring the electrical input and the mechanical power output.10 The motor efficiency testing standards differ primarily in their treatment of stray load losses. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) methodology and IEEE 112 - Test Method B determine the stray load loss through an indirect process. The IEC standard assumes stray load losses to be fixed at 0.5 percent of input, while the JEC standard assumes there are no stray load losses. 2 As indicated in Table 7, the efficiency of a motor, when tested under the different standard conventions, can vary by several percentage points.2,15
Table 7 Efficiency Results From Various Motor Testing Standards Standard Canadian (CSA C390) United States (IEEE-112, Test Method B) International (EC - 34.2) British (BS - 269) Japanese (JEC - 37) Full-Load Efficiency (%) 7.5 hp 20 hp 86.9 80.3 80.3 82.3 82.3 85.0 86.9 89.4 89.4 90.4
13
Table 8
14 given band may be treated as having essentially equivalent operating efficiencies. The nameplate nominal efficiency thus represents a value that may be used to compare the relative energy consumption of a motor or group of motors.
Table 9 NEMA Motor Nameplate Efficiency Marking Standard Nominal Minimum Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) 98.0 97.8 97.6 97.4 97.1 96.8 96.5 96.2 95.8 95.4 95.0 94.5 94.1 93.6 93.0 92.4 91.7 91.0 90.2 89.5 88.5 97.6 97.4 97.1 96.8 96.5 96.2 95.8 95.4 95.0 94.5 94.1 93.6 93.0 92.4 91.7 91.0 90.2 89.5 88.5 87.5 86.5 Nominal Efficiency (%) 87.5 86.5 85.5 84.0 82.5 81.5 80.0 78.5 77.0 75.5 74.0 72.0 70.0 68.0 66.0 64.0 62.0 59.5 57.5 55.0 52.5 Minimum Efficiency (%) 85.5 84.0 82.5 81.5 80.0 78.5 77.0 75.5 74.0 72.0 70.0 68.0 66.0 64.0 62.0 59.5 57.5 55.0 52.5 50.5 48.0
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Demand Charge: No charge for the first 50 kW of billing demand. $5.35 per kW for all over 50 kW of billing demand. Energy Charge: October March 5.2156 4.1820 2.9695 April September 4.9672 cents per kWh for the first 20,000 kWh 3.9829 cents per kWh for the next 155,000 kWh 2.8281 cents per kWh for all over 175,000 kWh
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The kW savings are the demand savings. The annual energy savings are calculated as follows:2 Equation 2 kWh
savings
You can now use the demand savings and annual energy savings with utility rate schedule information to estimate your annual reduction in operating costs. Be sure to apply the appropriate seasonal and declining block energy charges. The total annual cost savings is equal to: Equation 3 Total savings = (kWsaved x 12 x monthly demand charge) + (kWh savings x energy charge) The above equations apply to motors operating at a specified constant load. For varying loads, you can apply the energy savings equation to each portion of the cycle where the load is relatively constant for an appreciable period of time. The total energy savings is then the sum of the savings for each load period. Determine the demand savings at the peak load point. The equations are not applicable to motors operating with pulsating loads or for loads that cycle at rapidly repeating intervals!
= = = =
HE
Motor nameplate rating Load factor or percentage of full operating load Standard motor efficiency under actual load conditions Energy-efficient motor efficiency under actual load conditions
17 Savings also depend on motor size and the gain in efficiency between a new high-efficiency motor and a new or existing standard efficiency unit. Energy-efficient motor savings, based upon an average energy charge of $0.04/kWh, are shown in Figure 5. The performance gain for the energy-efficient motor is based on the difference between the average nominal full-load efficiencies for all energy-efficient motors on the market as compared to the average efficiency for all standard-efficiency units.
Most industrial plant managers require that investments be recovered through energy savings within 1 to 3 years based on a simple payback analysis. The simple payback is defined as the period of time required for the savings from an investment to equal the initial or incremental cost of the investment. For initial motor purchases or the replacement of burned-out and unrewindable motors, the simple payback period for the extra investment associated with an energy-efficient motor purchase is the ratio of the price premium less any available utility rebate, to the value of the total annual electrical savings. Equation 4 Simple payback years = Price premium - utility rebate Total annual cost savings For replacements of operational motors, the simple payback is the ratio of the full cost of purchasing and installing a new energy-efficient motor relative to the total annual electrical savings. Equation 5 Simple payback years = New motor cost + installation charge - utility rebate Total annual cost savings
18 Example: The following analysis for a 75 hp TEFC motor operating at 75 percent of full rated load illustrates how to determine the cost effectiveness of obtaining an energy-efficient versus a standard-efficiency motor for the initial purchase case. Kilowatts saved: kW saved = hp x Load x 0.746 x = 75 x .75 x 0.746 x = 1.21 Where E std and E HE are the efficiencies of the standard motor and the alternative energyefficient unit. This is the amount of energy conserved by the energyefficient motor during each hour of use. Annual energy savings are obtained by multiplying by the number of operating hours at the indicated load. Energy saved: k W h s a v i n g s = Hours of operation x kWsaved = 8,000 hours x 1.21 = 9,680 kWh/year Annual cost savings: Total cost savings = (kWsaved x 12 x Monthly demand charge) + (kWh savings x Energy charge) = 1.21 x 12 x $5.35/ kw + 9,680 x $0.03/ kWh = $368 In this example, installing an energy-efficient motor reduces your utility billing by $368 per year. The simple payback for the incremental cost associated with a energy-efficient motor purchase is the ratio of the discounted list price premium (from Table 3) or incremental cost to the total annual cost savings. A list price discount of 75 percent is used in this analysis. Cost Effectiveness Simple pay back = = List Price premium x Discount factor Total annual cost savings $747 x 0.75 = 1.5 years $368 Thus, the additional investment required to buy this energy-efficient motor would be recovered within 1.5 years. Energy-efficient motors can rapidly pay for themselves through reduced energy consumption. After this initial payback period, the annual savings will continue to be reflected in lower operating costs and will add to your firms profits.2
) )
Energy consumption and dollar savings estimates should be based upon a comparison of nominal efficiencies as determined by IEEE 112 - Method B for motors operating under appropriate loading conditions. Note that the NEMA marking standard only refers to efficiency values stamped on the motor nameplate. In contrast, manufacturers catalogues contain values derived from dynamometer test data. When available, use catalog information to determine annual energy and dollar savings. Making the Right Choice Comparison shop when purchasing a motor, just as you would when buying other goods and services. Other things being equal, seek to maximize efficiency while minimizing the purchase price. Frequently, substantial efficiency gains can be obtained without paying a higher price. Figure 6 illustrates the list price versus full-load efficiency for currently marketed 10 hp/ 1800 RPM standard and energy-efficient motors. It is readily
19
20
Note: Figure 8 illustrates the annual energy savings available through selection of an energy-efficient TEFC motor that just satisfies the NEMA minimum energy-efficient motor standards; for a motor that exhibits average high-efficiency performance; and for a motor with superior performance for a given speed, enclosure, and size class. The base case is the purchase of a typical standard-efficiency motor. Base case and average energy-efficient motor efficiencies are taken from Table 3.
apparent that you can obtain an efficiency improvement of as much as 6 points without paying any price penalty. With the right information, you can quickly identify a motor that produces substantial energy and cost savings for little or no extra investment. The value of a l-point efficiency improvement is shown with respect to motor horsepower in Figure 7. At an electricity price of $.04/kWh, a single point of efficiency gain for a 50 hp motor can result in an annual savings of approximately 2,600 kWh, worth $104. Because so many motors exceed the minimum NEMA energy-efficiency standards, it is not enough to simply
specify a high-efficiency motor. Be certain to purchase a true premium-efficiency motor, an energy-efficient motor with the highest available efficiency characteristics. The value associated with making the right choice is graphically characterized by the minimum/maximum savings analysis illustrated in Figure 8. You can often triple the available savings by choosing a motor with the top performance in its class instead of a motor that barely satisfies NEMA minimum energy-efficiency standards.
21
speed (Ns) for a squirrel-cage induction motor is given by Equation 6. Typical synchronous speeds are indicated in Table 13.
Equation 6 Ns= 60 x 2 f p
where: f = frequency of the power supply p = poles for which the motor is wound Table 13 Induction Motor Synchronous Speeds Poles 2 4 6 8 10 12 Motor Synchronous Speed, RPM 6O Hertz 50 Hertz 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600 3,000 1,500 1,000 750 600 500
hp
7.5 15 25 50 75 100
By using a multimeter and contact or stroboscopic tachometer you can measure the voltage, amperage, RPM, power factor, and power draw for a motor under its normal operating conditions. The slip, or difference between the synchronous and the operating speed for the motor, can be used to estimate the output kW, process load, and subsequently, the efficiency of the motor. An Induction Motor Test Data Sheet is included as Appendix A. The synchronous speed of an induction motor depends on the frequency of the power supply and on the number of poles for which the motor is wound. The higher the frequency, the faster a motor runs. The more poles the motor has, the slower it runs.16 The synchronous
The actual speed of the motor is less than its synchronous speed. This difference between the synchronous and actual speed is referred to as slip. Slip is typically expressed as a percentage where? Percent slip = (Synchronous speed-Actual speed) x 100 Synchronous speed You can now estimate motor load and efficiency with slip measurements. Equation 7 S l i p = R P Ms y n c - R P Mm e a s u r e d Motor load = Slip R P Ms y n c - R P Mf u l l
load (nameplate)
22 Equation 8 Approximate Output hp = Motor Load x Nameplate hp Motor efficiency = An example:17 Given: R P Msync = 1,800 R P Mn a m e p l a t e = 1 , 7 5 0 Measured kW = 13.1 Then: Slip = 1,800 - 1,770 = 30 Motor load = 30 30 = = 0.6 1800 - 1750 5 0 R P Mm e a s u r e d = 1 , 7 7 0 Nameplate hp = 25 (0.746 x Output hp) Measured input kW Slip versus load curves can be obtained from your motor manufacturer. The slip technique for determining motor load and operating efficiency should not be used with rewound motors or with motors that are not operated at their design voltage. It should be emphasized that the slip technique is limited in its accuracy. While it cannot provide exhaustive field efficiency testing results it can be employed as a useful technique to identify and screen those motors that are oversized, underloaded, and operating at less than desired efficiencies.
Output hp = 0.6 x 25 = 15 Motor efficiency = (0.746 x 15) x 100 percent = 85 percent 13.1
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24
While a decrease in the number of turns in a stator winding reduces the winding resistance, it also shifts the point at which the motors peak efficiency occurs toward higher loads and increases the motors magnetic field, starting current, locked rotor, and maximum torque. A change from 10 to 9 turns will increase the starting current by 23 percent, which can cause problems in the electrical distribution and motor protection systems. 1 9 In a typical rewind, the stator is heated to a temperature high enough to bum out its winding insulation. The windings are then removed and replaced.20 In the past, many rewind shops emphasized speed High temperatures were used to shorten repair times and get the motor back in service quickly. Hand-held torches were sometimes used to soften varnish for easier coil removal. 11,18 The resulting higher temperatures increase losses by changing the electrical characteristics of the motors core. For both standard and high-efficiency motors, the rewind shop should follow the motor manufacturers recommended burnout temperature specifications. When stripping out the old windings, it is essential to keep the stator core below 700F. If the stator core gets too hot, the insulation between the stator laminations will break down, increasing eddy current losses and lowering the
25 motors operating efficiency. After being damaged, the lamination insulation cannot be repaired nor the efficiency loss restored without under going a major repair such as restacking the iron. The motor also becomes less reliable. 18,20 Insulation removal techniques vary between rewind shops and should be investigated prior to deciding where to have the motor rewound. Always choose a shop with a controlled temperature winding burnout oven to minimize core loss. Some shops have core loss testers and can screen motors determine if they are repairable prior to stripping.18 The repair shop should also determine and eliminate the cause for a motors failure. Aside from proper stripping procedures, the motor owner should ensure that the rewind shop does the following. Uses proper methods of cleaning Installs Class F or better insulation Uses phase insulation between all phase junctions Uses tie and blocking methods to ensure mechanical stability Brazes rather than crimps connections Uses proper lead wire and connection lugs Applies a proper varnish treatment have been rewound compared to those that have not been rewound.20 An 18 percent increase in losses corresponds to an approximate 1.5 to 2.5 percent decrease in full-load efficiency. Rewound motors can exhibit severe efficiency losses, especially if they were rewound more than 15 years ago or have been rewound several times. Rewind losses of 5 percent or more are possible. When should a energy-efficient motor be purchased in lieu of rewinding a failed standard-efficiency motor? This decision is quite complicated as it depends on such variables as the rewind cost, expected rewind loss, energy-efficient motor purchase price, motor horsepower and efficiency, load factor, annual operating hours, electricity price, and simple payback criteria. At least some of the time, rewinding will be the best decision. The prospects for a good rewind are greatly improved if you keep good records on your motors and provide them to the repair shop. Repair shops often cant get complete specifications from manufacturers. They must reverse engineer motors, counting winding turns, noting slot patterns, measuring wire size, etc. before removing old windings. Sometimes a motor has failed repeatedly in the past because of a previous nonstandard rewind. The same error can be repeated unless the shop knows the motor is a repeat offender and diagnoses the problem. Similarly, a motor is sometimes subjected to unusual service requirements, e.g., frequent starts, dirty environment, low voltage. Most shops know how to modify original specifications to adjust to such conditions. Here are several rewind rules of thumb: Always use a qualified rewind shop. A quality rewind can maintain original motor efficiency. However, if a motor core has been damaged or the rewind shop is careless, significant losses can occur. Motors less than 100 hp in size and more than 15 years old (especially previously rewound motors) often have efficiencies significantly lower then current models. It is usually best to replace them. If the rewind cost exceeds 65 percent of a new energy-efficient motor price, buy the new motor. Increased reliability and efficiency should quickly recover the price premium. If your energy costs average $0.03/kWh or more, and a motor is operated for at least 4,000 hour per year, an energy-efficient motor is a worthwhile
As motor design characteristics (such as slot geometry and configuration), failure modes, rewind practices, and materials specifications and treatments vary, it is impossible to identify a typical rewind cost for a motor with a given horsepower, speed, and enclosure. Motor efficiency losses after rewinds also vary considerably. While dynamometer tests conducted by the Electrical Apparatus Service Association indicate that new motors, when properly stripped and rewound, can be restored to their original efficiency, field tests on motors from a variety of manufacturing plants indicate that losses are typically higher in motors that have been rewound-perhaps because of thermal shock suffered during the motor failure. An analysis of core loss tests taken over a l-year period in General Electric repair facilities indicates that average core losses are 32 percent higher than normal for motors that had been previously rewound. General Electric also conducted a test of 27 rewound motors in the 3- to 150-hp size range. The test indicates that total losses increased by 18 percent for motors that
26 investment. The higher purchase price will usually be repaid through energy savings within 2 years. Here is a chart to help decide when to select an energy efficient motor: Choose a new energy-efficient motor if: and annual hours of use equals or exceeds: 6,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 energy-efficient motor is simply the incremental cost divided by the total annual energy conservation benefits.
Table 14 indicates how breakeven rewind costs vary with respect to motor operating hours and simple payback criteria. The breakeven cost is expressed as a percentage of a replacement energy-efficient motor price. A new energy-efficient motor should be purchased if the rewind cost exceeds the stated breakeven point. Table 14 may be used for NEMA Design B motors in the 5- to 125-hp size range. Assumptions used in the preparation of this table include an expected 2 percent loss in an average standard motor efficiency due to rewinding, replacement with an average energy-efficient motor operated at a 75 percent load factor. and a list price discount rate of 65 percent.
Table 14 Breakeven Rewind Cost as a Percentage of an Energy-Efficient Motor Price Simple Payback 1 Criteria, Years 3 2
1
Annual Operating Hours 8,000 6,000 3,000 30% 5% 45% 65% 65% 70%
You can easily complete a cost-effectiveness analysis for a rewinding. If you can be assured that the past and prospective rewinds comply with all the foregoing recommended practices, the original efficiency could be maintained. Otherwise, two points should be subtracted from your standard motor efficiency to reflect expected rewind losses. Annual energy and cost savings are determined by inputting the appropriate energy-efficient motor performance, operating hours, electricity price, and load factor into Equations 1 through 3. The incremental cost of procuring the premium-efficiency unit is the quoted price for the new motor less the rewind price and any utility rebate. The simple payback for the
27 Funding is available through a utility energy conservation program to partially offset the purchase price of the new energy-efficient motor. The standard-efficiency motor has been rewound several times. The standard-efficiency motor is oversized and underloaded. To ensure against motor failure in critical processes When plant personnel do not know the actual load and thus select a larger motor than necessary To build in capability to accommodate future increases in production To conservatively ensure that the unit has ample power to handle load fluctuations When maintenance staff replace a failed motor with the next larger unit if one of the correct size is not available When an oversized motor has been selected for equipment loads that have not materialized When process requirements have been reduced To operate under adverse conditions such as voltage imbalance
As a general rule, motors that are undersized and overloaded have a reduced life expectancy with a greater probability of unanticipated downtime, resulting in loss of production. On the other hand, motors that are oversized and thus lightly loaded suffer both efficiency and power factor reduction penalties.
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Maximum efficiency does not usually* occur at full load As long as the motor is operating above 60 percent of rated load, the efficiency does not vary significantly.22 Motor efficiencies typically improve down to about 75 percent of full-rated load, then, especially for smaller motors, rapidly begin to decline below 40 percent of full-load. It is almost always a good idea to downsize a motor that is less than 50 percent loaded. 23 Power factor declines sharply when the motor is operated below 75 percent of full-load amperage, especially in the smaller horsepower size ranges. Typical partload motor efficiency and power factor characteristics are indicated in Figures 11 and 12. The cost penalties associated with using an oversized motor can be substantial and include:2 A higher motor purchase price Increased electrical supply equipment cost due to increased KVA and KVAR requirements Increased energy costs due to decreased part-load efficiency Power factor penalties
characteristics of the driven load before changing out existing motors. For instance, with a variable load, such as a variable air volume HVAC system, the motor must be sized to operate under fully loaded conditions. Inlet vanes or other throttling devices must be set at full open so that efficiency and load factor measurements can be taken at maximum load.23 Worn belts and pulleys can result in a reduced load being applied to the motor, giving the impression that it is underloaded. To eliminate this problem, worn belts or pulleys should be replaced before loan and efficiency tests are made.23 Load types include:19 Continuous-running steady loads Variable-speed loads Cyclic loads Continuous-running with intermittent loading
Replacing underloaded motors with smaller standard or energy-efficient motors improves efficiency. Care must be taken, however, to fully understand the
It is easiest to take measurements and properly size a motor driving a continuously-running steady load. Be sure to take torque characteristics into consideration for intermittent or cyclic loading patterns. Also, be sure to provide adequate fan circulation and cooling for motors coupled to adjustable-speed loads or variable speed drives. Overheating is a particular concern at either
29 reduced or full-loads with the non-ideal voltage and current waveforms encountered with electronic variable-frequency drives. 24,25 It is best to operate an induction motor at 65 to 100 percent of full-rated load You can save the most when the motor is properly matched with respect to the work that must be performed The replacement of an operable standard-efficiency motor with a premium efficiency unit may be justified if the existing motor is operating inefficiently due to improper oversizing. In this instance, the cost effectiveness is bolstered due to the reduced cost of the smaller replacement motor and the substantial efficiency gain. Electric load can be determined several ways. It can be directly measured with a power meter. A power factor meter (or Figure 12) and a clamp-on multimeter can be used in lieu of a power meter. Electric load can also be calculated from HP output. A stepwise procedure to determine HP output with only a tachometer is used on the data sheet in Figure 13. To determine electric load (i.e., input kW) the resulting HP output must be multiplied by 0.7457 and divided by the part load efficiency. Part load efficiency can be estimated from Figure 11, manufacturer, or MotorMaster data. It is tempting to compute efficiency from HP ouput and measured electric load This is not recommended. Computed HP ouput can easily be in error by several percent, but efficiency requires accuracy within one or two percent. Efficiency varies significantly with temperature, running time, voltage, phase balance, and power quality. Attempts to obtain meaningful efficiency values from any sort of field testing have been discouraging. For centrifugal loads, the replacement motor selected should be the next nameplate size above the motor output when operating under fully loaded conditions. It is recommended that voltage, amperage, kW draw, power factor, and slip be metered for a variety of motor operating conditions such that the maximum load point is known with confidence. The slip technique should not be used for rewound motors or motors operating at other than their design voltage. Motors are selected based on startup, normal, or abnormal torque and load characteristics. This motor change out analysis approach is most useful for continuously operating motors under steady load conditions and for motors driving loads with low startup torque requirements, such as centrifugal fans and pumps where torque is a linear function of speed. The approach should not be used for motors driving conveyors or crushers-where oversizing may be required to account for high startup torque, transient loads, or abnormal operating conditions. Most energy-efficient motors exhibit approximately the same locked rotor, breakdown, and rated load torque characteristics as their standard-efficiency counterparts.
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Chapter 6 Speed, Design Voltage, Enclosure, Part-load Efficiency, and Power Factor
Sensitivity of Efficiency Gains to Motor RPM
A motors rotor must turn slower than the rotating magnetic field in the stator to induce an electrical current in the rotor conductor bars and thus produce torque. When the load on the motor increases, the rotor speed decreases. As the rotating magnetic field cuts the conductor bars at a higher rate, the current in the bars increases, which makes it possible for the motor to withstand the higher loading. Motors with slip greater than 5 percent are specified for high inertia and high torque applications.24 NEMA Design B motors deliver a starting torque that is 150 percent of full-load or rated torque and run with a slip of 3 to 5 percent at rated load. 24 Energy-efficient motors, however, are stiffer than equivalently sized standard motors and tend to operate at a slightly higher full-load speed. This characteristic is illustrated in Figure 14, which shows the full-load speed for 1,800 RPM standard and energy-efficient motors of various sizes. On the average, energy-efficient motors rotate only 5 to 10 RPM faster than standard models. The speed range for available motors, however, exceeds 40 to 60 RPM.
Note: The solid lines indicate the mean or average speeds for all standard- and energy-efficient motors for each horsepower size, showing the higher typical RPM for energy-efficient motors.
32 For centrifugal loads, even a minor change in the motors full-load speed translates into a significant change in the magnitude of the load and energy consumption. The Fan or Affinity Laws, indicated in Table 15, show that the horsepower loading on a motor varies as the third power (cube) of its rotational speed. In contrast, the quantity of air delivered varies linearly with S p e e d .2 6 As summarized in Table 16, a relatively minor 20RPM increase in a motors rotational speed, from 1,740 to 1,760 RPM, results in a 3.5 percent increase in the load placed upon the motor by the rotating equipment. A 40-RPM speed increase will increase air or fluid flow by only 2.3 percent, but can boost energy consumption by 7 percent, far exceeding any efficiency advantages expected from purchase of a higher efficiency motor. Predicted energy savings will not materialize-in fact, energy consumption will substantially increase. This increase in energy consumption is especially troublesome when the additional air or liquid flow is not needed or useful. Be aware of the sensitivity of load and energy requirements to rated motor speed. Replacing a standard motor with an energy-efficient motor in a centrifugal pump or fan application can result in increased energy consumption if the energy-efficient motor operates at a higher RPM. A standard-efficiency motor with a rated full-load speed of 1,750 RPM should be replaced with a high-efficiency unit of like speed in order to capture the full energy conservation benefits associated with a high-efficiency motor retrofit. Alternatively, you can use sheaves or trim pump impellers so equipment operates at its design conditions. Table 15 Fan Laws/Affinity Laws C F M2 R P M2 = Law #1: C F M1 R P M1 Quantity (CFM) varies as fan speed (RPM) P P ( RPM 2) 2 ( RPM 1) 2
Law#3:
hp hp
Table 16 Sensitivity of Load to Motor RPM ( 1,760)3 (1,740) 3 (1,780) 3 (1,740) 3 = 7.0 percent horsepower increase = 3.5 percent horsepower increase
Law #2:
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Table 17 Performance Comparison for 10 hp NEMA Design B Versus Design A Motors at 230 and 208 Volts Volts Efficiency, % Power Factor, % Temp. Rise, deg. C Slip, % 208 80.6 85.0 91.0 5.9 Design B 230 84.4 82.7 72.0 4.1 208 83.7 84.1 73.0 4.6 Design A 230 85.3 78.5 66.0 3.5
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When motors operate near their rated load, the power factor is high, but for lightly loaded motors the power factor drops significantly. This effect is partially offset as the total current is less at reduced load. Thus, the lower power factor does not necessarily increase the peak KVA demand because of the reduction in load. Many utilities, however, levy a penalty or surcharge if a facilitys power factor drops below 95 or 90 percent. In addition to increased electrical billings, a low power factor may lower your plants voltage, increase electrical distribution system line losses, and reduce the systems capacity to deliver electrical energy. While motor full- and part-load power factor characteristics are important, they are not as significant as nominal efficiency. When selecting a motor, conventional wisdom is to purchase efficiency and correct for power f a c t o r .1 0 Low power factors can be corrected by installing external capacitors at the main plant service or at individual pieces of equipment. Power factor can also be improved and the cost of external correction reduced by minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors and by avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage. Power factors can usually be improved through replacement of standard- with premium-efficiency motors. Power factors vary tremendously, however, based on motor design and load conditions. While some energyefficient motor models offer power factor improvements of 2 to 5 percent, others have lower power factors than typical equivalent standard motors. Even high power factor motors are affected significantly by variations in load. A motor must be operated near its rated loading in order to realize the benefits of a high power factor design.
The electric utility must supply both active and reactive power loads. A low or "unsatisfactory" power factor is caused by the use of inductive (magnetic) devices and can indicate a possible low system electrical operating efficiency. Induction motors are generally the principal cause of low power factor because there are so many in use and they are not fully loaded.28
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3. Operation within a tolerance of 10 percent of rated voltage 4. Operation from a sine wave voltage source (not to exceed 10 percent deviation factor) Operation within a tolerance of 5 percent of rated frequency Operation with a voltage unbalance of 1 percent or less
Under Voltage
If a motor is operated at reduced voltage, even within the allowable 10 percent limit, the motor will draw increased current to produce the torque requirements imposed by the load.18 This causes an increase in both stator and rotor I2R losses. Low voltages can also prevent the motor from developing an adequate starting torque. The effects on motor efficiency, power factor, RPM, and current from operating outside nominal design voltage are indicated in Figure 19.14 Reduced operating efficiency because of low voltages at the motor terminals is generally due to excessive voltage drops in the supply system.2 If the motor is at the end of a long feeder, reconfiguration may be necessary. The system voltage can also be modified by: Adjusting the transformer tap settings Installing automatic tap-changing equipment if system loads vary considerably over the course of a day Installing power factor correction capacitors that raise the system voltage while correcting for power factor
5.
6.
Operation under unusual service conditions may result in efficiency losses and the consumption of additional energy. Both standard and energy-efficient motors can have their efficiency and useful life reduced by a poorly maintained electrical system.2 Monitoring voltage is important for maintaining high-efficiency operation and correcting potential problems before failures occur. Preventative maintenance personnel should periodically measure and log the voltage at a motors terminals while the machine is fully loaded.
Over Voltage
As the voltage is increased, the magnetizing current increases by an exponential function. At some point, depending upon design of the motor, saturation of the core iron will increase and overheating will occur.22 At about 10 to 15 percent over voltage both efficiency and
Since motor efficiency and operating life are degraded by voltage variations, only motors with compatible voltage nameplate ratings should be specified for a system.
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For example, three-phase motors are available with voltage ratings of 440, 460, 480, and 575 volts. The use of a motor designed for 460-volt service in a 480-volt system results in reduced efficiency, increased heating, and reduced motor life. A 440-volt motor would be even more seriously affected.30
volts. The voltage imbalance is: 460 - 455 x 100% = 1.1%. 460
A voltage unbalance of only 3.5 percent can increase motor losses by approximately 20 percent.29 Imbalances over 5 percent indicate a serious problem. Imbalances over 1 percent require derating of the motor, and will void most manufacturers warranties. Per NEMA MG1-14.35, a voltage imbalance of 2.5 percent would require a derate factor of 0.925 to be applied to the motor rating. Derating factors due to unbalanced voltage for integral horsepower motors are given in Figure 20 31 . The NEMA derating factors apply to all motors. There is no distinction between standard and energy-efficient motors when selecting a derate factor for operation under voltage unbalance conditions. Common causes of voltage unbalance include: 2,24,30 Faulty operation of automatic power factor connection equipment Unbalanced or unstable utility supply Unbalanced transformer bank supplying a threephase load that is too large for the bank
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Unevenly distributed single-phase loads on the same power system Unidentified single-phase to ground faults An open circuit on the distribution system primary
Regularly monitor voltages on all phases to verify that a minimum variation exists. Install required ground fault indicators Perform annual thermographic inspections
The following steps will ensure proper system balancing. 2 Check your electrical system single-line diagram to verify that single-phase loads are uniformly distributed
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Load Shedding
Energy and power savings can be obtained directly by shutting off idling motors to eliminate no-load losses.1 This action also greatly improves the overall system power factor, which in turn improves system efficiency. Typical no-load or idling power factors are in the 10 to 20 percent range. Load shedding is most effective for slower speed (1,800 RPM and less) motors used in low-inertia applications.10 While it is possible to save energy by de-energizing the motor and restarting it when required, excessive starting, especially without soft-starting capacity, can cause overheating and increased motor failures. Consideration must be given to thermal starting capability and the life expectancy of both motor and starting equipment.10 Motors 200 hp and below can only tolerate about 20 seconds of maximum acceleration time with each start Motors should not exceed more than 150 start seconds per day.2 Starting limitations for motors over 200 hp should be obtained from the manufacturer. Maximum number of starts per hour and
minimum off-time guidelines for 1800 RPM Design B motors of various sizes are given in Table 18. 29
Table 18 Allowable Number of Starts and Minimum Time Between Starts (For 1800 RPM Design B Motors) Motor Size, hp 5
10
Maximum Number of 1 Starts per Hour 16.3 12.5 8.8 6.8 5.2
25 50 100
1
This table is extracted from NEMA Standards Publications No. MG10 Energy Management Guide for Selection and Use of Polyphase Motors. NEMA has prepared a comprehensive load shedding table for 3600, 1800, and 1200 RPM motors in the 1- to 250-hp size range. NEMA also presents a methodology for minimizing winding stresses by adjusting the number of allowable starts per hour to account for load inertia.
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Motor Enclosures
Many types of motor enclosures are available, inc1uding: 16 Open. An enclosure with ventilating openings that permit passage of external cooling air over and around the motor windings. This design is now seldom used. Open Drip-Proof (ODP). An open motor in which ventilation openings prevent liquid or solids from entering the machine at any angle less than 15 degrees from the vertical. Guarded. An open motor in which all ventilating openings are limited to specified size and shape. This protects fingers or rods from accidental contact with rotating or electrical parts. Splash-Proof. An open motor in which ventilation openings prevent liquid or solids from entering the machine at any angle less than 100 degrees from the vertical. Totally-Enclosed. A motor enclosed to prevent the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the case, but not airtight. Totally-Enclosed Nonventilated (TENV). A totallyenclosed motor that is not equipped for cooling by means external to the enclosed parts. Totally-Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC). A totallyenclosed motor with a fan to blow cooling air across the external frame. They are commonly used in dusty, dirty, and corrosive atmospheres. Encapsulated. An open motor in which the windings are covered with a heavy coating of material to provide protection from moisture, dirt, and abrasion.
A good motor specification should define performance requirements and describe the environment within which the motor operates. As the purchaser, you should avoid writing design-based specifications that would require modification of standard components such as the frame, bearing, design, rotor design, or insulation c l a s s .2 Specification contents should include: Motor horsepower and service factors Temperature rise and insulation class Maximum starting current Minimum stall time Power factor range Efficiency requirement and test standard to be used Load inertia and expected number of starts
Environmental information should include: Abrasive or non-abrasive Altitude Ambient temperature Hazardous or non-hazardous Humidity level You should specify special equipment requirements such as thermal protection, space heaters (to prevent moisture condensation), and whether standard or nonstandard conduit boxes are required.
40 Explosion-Proof. A totally-enclosed motor designed and built to withstand an explosion of gas or vapor within it, and to prevent ignition of gas or vapor surrounding the machine by sparks, flashes, or explosions that may occur within the machine casing. ated at a limiting temperature of 180 C.16 Class B and F systems are most commonly used.
Service Factor
Motors are designed with an allowable increase in temperature above ambient during operation. This is referred to as temperature rise. The maximum allowable temperature rise during operation for a motor varies with respect to insulation class and the motors service factor. The service factor is essentially a safety margin and refers to the motors ability to continuously deliver horsepower beyond its nameplate rating under specified conditions. Most motors are rated with a 1.0 or 1.15 service factor. A 10-hp motor operating under rated conditions with a 1.15 service factor should be able to continuously deliver 11.5 horsepower without exceeding the NEMA allowable temperature rise for its insulation system. 29 NEMA allows an ambient temperature of 40C (104F) when specifying usual service conditions. If the ambient temperature exceeds 40 C, or at elevations above 3,300 feet, the motor service factor must be reduced or a higher horsepower motor used As the oversized motor will be underloaded, the operating temperature rise is less and overheating will be reduced. 1 6 NEMA temperature standards for motors with Class B and F insulation and a 1.0 or 1.15 service factor are given in Table 19.2 Note that a motor equipped with Class F insulation, but operating within class B temperature limitations, is operating far below its maximum operating limitations. It is thus running cooler relative to its thermal capability.29 Premium- or energy-efficient motors are typically equipped with Class F insulation and rated with a 1.15 service factor.
Table19 Temperature Limitations for Insulation Classes Service Factor 1.0/1.15 1.0 1.0 1.15 1.15 Insulation Temperature Ambient Temperature Allowable Temperature Operating Temperature Allowable Temperature Operating Temperature Rise Limitation Rise Limitation Class B 40C/104F 80C/176F 120C/248F 90c/194F 130C/266F Class F 40C/104F 105C/221F 145C/293F 115C/239F 155C/311F
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positions of the rotor; pull-up torque, which is the minimum torque developed by the motor during acceleration; and breakdown torque, which is the maximum torque that the motor can supply before stalling. A representative speed-torque curve for a Design B induction motor is shown in Figure 22.16 The motor design selected must have adequate torque capability to start a load and accelerate it to full speed NEMA Design B motors can be used with constant speed centrifugal fans, pumps and blowers, unloaded compressors, some conveyors, and cutting machine tools.l6 Most induction motors are Design B, with Design A being the second most common.2 While NEMA limits for locked rotor torque for Design A and B motors are the same, some manufacturers design their motors to different criteria. Frequently, Design A motors have higher starting current and start-up torque characteristics. Speed-torque characteristics for polyphase motors are given in Table 20.29
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Table 20 NEMA Torque Characteristics for Medium Polyphase Induction Motors1 Starting Current (% Rated Load Current) 600-700 600-700 600-700 Locked Rotor Torque (% Rated Load Torque) 70 - 275 200 - 250 275 Breakdown Torque (% Rated Load Torque) 175 - 300 190 - 225 275
NEMA Design B2 C D
NEMA Standards Publication for Motors and Generators MG1-1978 classifies motors as medium or large. 3600 or 1800 RPM motors rated up to 500 hp are defined as medium motors. The rating declines to 350 and 250 hp for 1200 and 900 RPM motors, respectively.
2
Design A motor have characteristics similar to those for Design B motors except that starting currents are higher.
Motor service lifetimes can be extensive, typically exceeding 10 years, when the unit is properly matched to its driven load and operated under design power supply conditions. Historically, the single largest cause of motor failure has been overloading due to improper matching of motors to the load or placing motors into operation under conditions of voltage imbalance. Causes of failure include:33 Overload (overheating) Contamination Moisture Oil and grease Chemical Chips and dust Single Phasing Bearing Failure Normal Insulation Deterioration Other 25% 17% 20% 1% 5% 10% 12% 5% 5%
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These benefits however, depend on many factors. Based on manufacturer design practices, energy-efficient motors may have higher or lower power factors than their standard-efficiency counterparts. Both energy-efficient and standard motors should be derated the same amount under conditions of voltage unbalance. Generally, the perception exists that standard and energy-efficient motors operate at different temperatures and there is more temperature margin available in the energy-efficient motor before reaching NEMA operating temperature limits.
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To obtain specific motor performance information or assistance in evaluating your motor selection alternatives, contact the Electric Ideas Clearinghouse at 1-800872-3568 or 206-586-8588 outside of BPAs service territory. The Clearinghouse is funded by BPA and operates through the Washington State Energy Office.
47
3. Are all new motors energy-efficient motors? No, you generally have to ask for them. 4. Where can I buy a energy-efficient motor? Energy-efficient motors can be purchased directly from most motor distributors. They can also be specified in any equipment package you may be ordering.
48 10. Can a standard motor be rewound as an energyefficient motor? It is possible for a standard motor to have what is commonly called a high-efficiency rewind. This rewind procedure can slightly increase the efficiency of a standard motor above its initial level. However, the efficiency would still be lower than that of a new energy-efficient motor because of its unique physical characteristics. Energy-efficient motors can also be rewound. 11. What is the efficiency of a energy-efficient motor at different load points? The efficiency of any motor varies with such factors as size, speed, and loading. As indicated in Figure 17, energy-efficient motors offer performance improvements over standard efficiency motors under full, partial, and unloaded conditions. 12. Do energy-efficient motors maintain the same percentage edge over standard motors when the load range drops from full load? Yes. Most manufacturers are designing their energy-efficient motors to provide peak efficiency at 75 percent to 100 percent load. As shown in Figures 11 and 17, efficiency stays fairly constant from full down to 50 percent load, but the power factor drops significantly. 13. How reliable are energy-efficient motors? Energy efficient motors are as reliable as regular or standard-efficiency motors. In some cases, they have a longer life because of lower motor operating temperatures. 14. What is the power factor of an energy-efficient motor? Power factors vary tremendously depending on motor loading and manufacturer. While some energyefficient motor models offer power factor improvements of 2 to 5 percent, others have lower power factors than their standard motor counterparts. On the average, a power factor improvement of less than 1 percent is expected. 15. I have heard different types of efficiencies quoted. What are they? The following motor efficiency definitions are used: Quoted, Nominal, Average, Expected, Calculated, Minimum, Guaranteed, and Apparent. The most commonly used are Nominal and Minimum, defined as: Nominal Efficiency is the average measured efficiency of a large number of motors of the same design. Minimum Efficiency is the value appearing at the end of the bell curve plotted from the measurement of a large number of motors.
16. What are NEMA MG1, IEC 34.2, and JEC 37? These are motor efficiency test or product standards: NEMA MG1, based upon the IEEE Standard 112 Method B motor efficiency testing methodology, is the most commonly used North American standard. CSA C390-M1985 is a Canadian-developed standard that is more rigorous than other test standards. IEC 34.2 is the European motor test standard. JEC 37 is the Japanese motor test standard.
17. Can I compare motor efficiencies using nameplate data? Per NEMA MG1 - 12.54.2 the efficiency of Design A and Design B motors in the 1- to 125-hp range for frames in accordance with MG 13 shall be marked on the motor nameplate. As nameplate nominal efficiencies are rounded values, you should always obtain efficiency values from the motor manufacturer. 18. Is the service factor any different from that of a standard motor? The service factor for many energy-efficient motors is at least 1.15 and can be as high as 1.30 to 1.40.
49 19. How much do energy-efficient motors cost? Generally, they cost 15 to 30 percent more than standard motors, depending on the specific motor, manufacturer, and market competition It may, however, be possible to negotiate a lower price premium when purchasing a large quantity of energyefficient motors. 20. What is the payback period for selecting a energy-efficient versus a standard efficiency motor? The payback period varies according to the purchase scenario under consideration, cost difference, hours of operation, electrical rates, motor loading, and difference in motor efficiencies. For new purchase decisions, the simple payback on the incremental cost of a continuously operated energy-efficient motor can be recovered through energy savings in less than 2 years.
51
Chapter 12 References
1. South Carolina Governors Division of Energy, Agriculture and Natural Resources. Energy Conservation Manual. 2. B.C. Hydro. High-Efficiency Motors. Power Smart Brochure. 3. Northwest Power Planning Council. 1989. 1989 Supplement to the Northwest Conservation and Electric Power Plan, Volume II. 4. Ciliano, Robert, et al. Industrial Sector Conservation Supply Curve Data Base - Executive Summary. Synergic Resources Corp. October 1988. 5. Reliance Electric. A-C Drives: A Key to Reducing Operating Costs and Increasing Productivity. 6. Seton, Johnson & Odell. Industrial Motor Drive Study. June 1983. 7. Bonnett, Austin H. of U.S. Electrical Motors. Letter to Gilbert McCoy of WSEO. February 7, 1990. 8. National Electrical Manufacturers Association. Publication MG1, News Release. March 1989. 9. Keinz, John R. and R.L. Hotulton. NEMA/Nominal Efficiency: What is it and why? IEEE Conference Record CH1459-5, Paper No. PCI-80-8 1980. 10. Bonnett, Austin H. Understanding Efficiency and Power Factor in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors. U.S. Electrical Motors, A Presentation to the Washington State Energy Office. April 1990. 11. Montgomery, David C. How to Specify and Evaluate Energy-Efficient Motors. General Electric Company. 12. Bonnet, Austin H. Understanding Power Factor in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors. U.S. Electrical Motors. 13. Lovins, Amory B., et al. State of the Art: Drivepower. Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, Colorado. April 1989. 14. From K.K. Lobodovsky, Pacific Gas & Electric Company, San Francisco, California 15. Lobodovsky, K.K. Electric Motors: Premium versus Standard. Pacific Gas & Electric Company San Francisco, California.. 16. The Lincoln Electric Company Fundamentals of Polyphase Electric Motors. Cleveland, Ohio. April 1987. 17. Stebbins, W.L., Electrical Senior Staff Engineer Hoechst Celanese Textile Fibers, Rock Hill, South Carolina Presented in an Energy Management short course entitled Energy Auditing and Analysis of Industrial Commerical Facilities. University of Wisconsin - Madison. 1990. 18. McCoy, Gilbert A. and Kim Lyons. Local Government Energy Management: High Efficiency Electric Motor Applications. Washington State Energy Office, WAOENG-83-49. December 1983. 19. Montgomery D.C. Avoiding Motor Efficiency Degradation. Presented at the 7th World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Georgia. November, 1984. 20. McGovern, William U. High-Efficiency Motors for Upgrading Plant Performance. Electric Forum, Vol. 10, No. 2 1984. 21. Lobodovsky, Konstantin of Pacific Gas & Electric Company and Ramesh Ganeriwal and Anil Gupta of the California Energy Commission. Field Measurements and Determination of Electric Motor Efficiency. Presented at the Sixth World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Georgia December, 1983.
52 22. Bonnett, Austin H. Understanding Efficiency in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors. U.S. Electrical Motors. 23. Wilke K. and T. Ikuenobe. Guidelines for Implementing an Energy-Efficient Motor Retrofit Program. Presented at the 10th World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Georgia. October 1987. 24. The Electrification Council. Motors and Motor Controls, Third Edition. 1986, Reprint, 1989. 25. Ebasco Services, Inc. Adjustable Speed Drive Applications Guidebook. Prepared for the Bonneville Power Administration. January 1990. 26. Lobodovsky, K.K. Fan Applications: Fan Types and Fan Laws. Pacific Gas & Electric Technical Services Application Note No. 23-67-84. 27. Bonnett, Austin H. and L.R. Laub. A Case For Design A Induction Motors. U.S. Electrical Motors. 28. Lobodovsky, K.K. Power Factor Correction Capacitors - What - Why - Where - How. Pacific Gas & Electric Technical Services Application Note No. 43-46-83. 29. NEMA Standards Publication No. MG10. Energy Management Guide for Selection and Use of Polyphase Motors. National Electrical Manufacturers Association, Washington, D.C. 1989. 30. Jones, Randy. Federal Department of Energy. Transfer of Energy Efficiency Drivepower Project. Draft working paper. March 22, 1991. 31. Nadel, Steven. et.al. Energy-Efficient Motor Systems: A Handbook on Technology, Programs, and Policy Opportunities. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. 1991. 32. Revelt, Jean. Evaluating Electric Motors. Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland. Ohio. 33. Andreas, J.C. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application. Marcel Decker Inc. 1982.
A-1
B-1
Appendix B
Motor Manufacturer Address List
A.O. Smith 531 North Fourth Tippcity, OH 45371 (513) 667-6800 FAX (513) 667-5873 Leeson 2100 Washington Ave. Grafton, WI 53024 (414) 377-8810 FAX: (414) 377-9025
Baldor PO Box 240 Fort Smith, AZ 72902 (501) 646-4711 FAX: (501) 648-5792
Lincoln/Delco 22801 St Clair Ave. Cleveland, OH 44117 (216) 481-8100 FAX: (216) 486-1751
Brook Crompton Inc. 3186 Kennicott Avenue Arlington Heights, IL 60004 (708) 253-5577 FAX: (708) 253-9880
MagneTek / Century / Louis Allis 1881 Pine St. St Louis, MO 63103 (800) 325-7344 FAX: (800) 468-2045
Dayton/Grainger 5959 W. Howard Chicago, IL 60648 (800) 323-0620 FAX: (800) 722-3291
Marathon P.O. Box 8003 Wausau, WI 54402 (715) 675-3311 FAX: (715) 675-9413
General Electric P.O. Box 2222 Fort Wayne, IN 46801 (219) 428-2000 FAX: (219) 428-2731
Reliance 24701 Euclid Ave. Cleveland, OH 44117 (800) 245-4501 FAX: (800) 266-7536
B-2 Siemens 4620 Forest Ave. Norwood, OH 45212 (513) 841-3100 FAX: (513) 841-3407 Toshiba 13131 W. Little York Rd. Houston, TX 77041 (713) 466-0277 FAX: (713) 466-8773
Sterling 16752 Armstrong Ave. Irvine, CA 92714 (800) 654-6220 FAX: (714) 474-0543
US Motors / Emerson / Leroy Somer 8000 W. Florissant Ave. St. Louis, MO 63136 (314) 553-2000 FAX: (314) 553-3527
Teco American 6877 Wynnwood Houston, TX 77008 (713) 864-5980 FAX: (713) 865-7627
Westinghouse Motors IH-35 Westinghouse Road P.O. Box 277 Rockround, TX 78680-0277 (512) 255-4141 FAX (512) 244-5512
For further information, contact one of the following U.S. Department of Energy support offices: Atlanta Chicago Denver Kansas City Philadelphia San Francisco Boston Dallas New York Seattle (404) 347-2837 (708) 252-2208 (303) 231-5750 (816) 426-5533 (215) 597-3890 (510) 273-4461 (617) 565-9700 (214) 767-7245 (212) 264-1021 (206) 553-1004
Produced by the Washington State Energy Office for the Bonneville Power Administration, reprinted with permission for the U.S. Department of Energy.