ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΙΚΑ Α ΤΑΞΗ 2 ΚΥΚΛΟΥ ΕΠΑΛ ΟΕΒΔ PDF

2oyypoci
- H. M. Biuo : Aiouxtc Mu0qutixcv L. M. Hoittc_vciot.

- A. . Aotvu|q : Mu0qutixo, Ku0q,qtq octtco|u0iu
cxvuioctoq.
- A. L. Zc|u : Mu0qutixo, Ku0q,qtq octtco|u0iu
cxvuioctoq.
Izoooiuq Eniuzcio
A. A. Tuiuq : uiioio,o, Ku0q,qtq octtco|u0iu
cxvuioctoq.
Enonrcio on upoo roo Hoioyoyiuoo Ivorirooroo )H.I.)
Aq. Kuu,cc,o : Mu0qutixo, Acxtou Huv/iot A0qvcv.
T. lt|otio Huiou,c,ixot !votitottot.
Kpir
- I. M. Aquxo : Mu0qutixo, Acxtou Huv/iot A0qvcv.
- A. I. uciotq : Lvix. Ku0q,qtq Mu0qutixcv
L. M. Hoittc_vciot.
Hzcurpoviuq 2roiciobcoio Eniuzcio: Aqqtq ltu0ovotio.
Hpzoyo
To vuov |i|iio uvct0tvctui otov B Ktxio tcv Tc_vixcv L-
vu,,ciutixcv Lxvuiocttqicv (T.L.L.) xui c_ci iu ot,xcxicvq
iioooiu. H iioooiu uttq cvioicxci tqv ucoq xutuvoqoq tcv
u0qutixcv cvvoicv vot vuotoiuovtui xui tqv ixuvotqtu _qoq
tot oc vu,utixu vo|iqutu.
O oto_o tq uvuvttq tq 0cciu, otqv ovoiu uvoct,ovtui
oi uvoocici, civui q xutuvoqoq tcv cvvoicv cou uvo xutuiiqiu
cviic,cvu vuuoci,utu. Mctu tqv oioxiqcoq xu0c 0cutixq c-
votqtu oivovtui itcvc cuo,c vot uvotciotv otvoctixo xixo
c ti uoxqoci vot uxoiot0otv.
Oi uoxqoci c_otv _cio0ci c vo tq otoxoiiu xui tq oiu|u0-
ioq tot oti cq xutq,oic:
(u) Aoxqoci Lvcocoq, oi ovoic uvotciotv ucoq cuoxqoq
oti u0qutixc cvvoic vot c_otv vuotoiuo0ci otqv uvti-
otoi_q 0cutixq cvotqtu. lto_o tot civui vu |oq0qootv tot
u0qtc otqv cvcocoq tcv 0ccqtixcv cvvoicv. Livui uvic
xui uvoct,ctui q cvuvuiqq.
(|) ltv0ctc Aoxqoci, oi ovoic uvotciotvtui uvo 0cutu vot u-
vc_otv ovo xutu cvu |qu otq otoxoiiu oc o_coq c ti uoxq-
oci cvcocoq. Ooq,otv tot u0qtc oc c,uittcq c|u0tv-
oq tcv cvvoicv xui oc cvu uvio cvivcoo xitixq q otvotuoti-
xq oxcq.
(,) Huxtixc Luo,c, oi ovoic otvtciotv otov ioiuitco _u-
uxtqu tot |i|iiot. Lvioic_0qxc to c,uittco vooooto tcv
vo|iqutcv uttcv, vu civui vu,utixu u0qutixu ovtciu
xui o_i cioixu xutuoxctuocvu vo|iqutu. Hcvci vu tovio0ci
oti ocv uvotcici votvo0coq q ,vcoq tcv cvvoicv (ot_vu uvo
uiic cviotqc) vot vuotoiuovtui oti vuxtixc cuo,c.
Iiu to io,o utto civui c,uittcu oc cxtuoq xui uvuitotv uvo
tot u0qtc voocxtixq cictq xui ixuvotqtu voouo,q
otq ,icoou tcv vuxtixcv uttcv cuo,cv, xu0c ctoi 0u
tu otvuvtqootv xui otqv vu,utixotqtu. Qotooo, oi u0quti-
xc uvuitqoci oti vuxtixc cuo,c ot_vu civui ixotc-
c xui uvo uttc tcv uoxqoccv cvcocoq.
(o) Icvixc Aoxqoci, oi ovoic vuotoiuotv to c,uittco |u0o
otoxoiiu xui votcivctui citc q vuotoiuoq tot uvo tov xu-
0q,qtq, citc q uvu0coq otot u0qtc c tvoocici q c otv0c-
tixq c,uoiu.
Ku0c xcuiuio c_ci cviottio0ci c ciou,c,ixo oqcicu, u-
vuxcuiuicoq xu0c xui cctqoci xutuvoqoq. Tu oto tcicttuiu
otvtciotv oquvtixu otqv xutuvoqoq xui ot,xotqoq tcv ,vcoccv
uvo tov u0qtq. lto tcio tot |i|iiot tvu_otv tvoocici ,iu tq
itoq tcv uoxqoccv, ctctqio ocv xui cvocixtixq |i|iio,uiu
,iu vcuitcc cictq.
Liviotc to vuov |i|iio vu cxviqcoci xutu to otvutov xu-
ittcu tot oiouxtixot tot oto_ot xui vu uvotcicoci iu uviq
,ctu ctut tcv u0qutixcv xui tcv vo|iqutcv uvo tqv
vu,utixotqtu.
Lt_uiototc ioiuitcu tot xitc xui tov cviotqovixo tvct-
0tvo ,iu tq oqiot,ixq ot|oiq tot otqv tciixq oq tot |i-
|iiot xu0c xui tov Aqqtq ltu0ovotio ,iu tqv tc_vixq tvootq-
iq vot vuci_c ,iu tqv vuotoiuoq tot |i|iiot.
Tcio, 0ccotc ctvooocxtu ovoiuoqvotc o_oiiu xui oio0c-
oci vot 0u otvtcicootv otq otvc_q |citicoq xui uvu|u0ioq tot
|i|iiot. Oi vuutqqoci xui tvoocici uttc vuuxuiotc vu u-
vootciiovtui vo to Huiou,c,ixo !votitotto, Mcoo,cicv 396,
1531O, A,. Huuoxctq.
Oi oopoei:
H. M. Biuo
A. . Aotvu|q
A. L. Zc|u
Hivouo Hcpicouvov
Kcoto 1: Hivouc Ipouuiu 2oorquoro
Liou,c,q........................................................................................... 1
1.1. H cvvoiu tot Hivuxu.................................................................. 1
1.2. !ootqtu Hivuxcv........................................................................ 3
1.3. Lioq Hivuxcv ............................................................................. 4
Luo,c ...................................................................................... 5
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq .................................................................... 9
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ........................................................................ 9
Huxtixc Luo,c.................................................................. 1O
1.4. Hoo0coq Hivuxcv.................................................................. 13
Luo,c .................................................................................... 15
1.5. Hoiiuviuoiuoo ui0ot c Hivuxu.................................... 18
Luo,c .................................................................................... 19
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq .................................................................. 23
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ...................................................................... 24
Huxtixc Luo,c.................................................................. 24
1.6. Hoiiuviuoiuoo Hivuxcv .................................................... 26
Luo,c .................................................................................... 31
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq .................................................................. 35
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ...................................................................... 36
1.7. Iuixu ltotqutu................................................................ 37
Luo,c .................................................................................... 45
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq .................................................................. 5O
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ...................................................................... 51
Huxtixc Luo,c.................................................................. 52
1evite Aotpoei Keooioo ............................................................ 52
Avoteooioop................................................................................ 55
Epotpoei Kotovopop..................................................................... 57
Kcoto 2: Hcpiypoiuq 2rorioriuq
Liou,c,q......................................................................................... 59
2.1. Buoixc cvvoic xui oiooi.................................................... 59
2.2. lt_votqtu Huutqqoccv ...................................................... 62
2.3. Ouoovoiqoq Huutqqoccv ................................................. 72
2.4. Huuctoi Ocoq................................................................... 76
2.5. Huuctoi Aiuovou............................................................ 82
2.6. ltvtcicotq Mctu|iqtotqtu (CV)........................................ 88
Luo,c .................................................................................... 89
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq .................................................................. 97
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ...................................................................... 99
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 1OO
1evite Aotpoei Keooioo .......................................................... 1O2
Avoteooioop.............................................................................. 1O3
Epotpoei Kotovopop................................................................... 1O5
Kcoto 3: 'Opio 2ovcio 2ovprqoq
Liou,c,q....................................................................................... 1O7
3.1. H cvvoiu tot Oiot ................................................................ 1O7
3.2. !oiotqtc tot Oiot ltvutqoq........................................... 1O9
3.3. Hictixu 'Oiu ltvutqoq.................................................. 11O
3.4. Mq vcvcuocvo 'Oio ltvutqoq
Avoooioiotc Moc....................................................... 112
3.5. Kutuxotq Aotvtctq Iu. Huuotuoq ltvutqoq.. 116
Luo,c .................................................................................. 118
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 126
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 13O
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 131
3.6. H cvvoiu tq ltvc_ot ltvutqoq ...................................... 133
3.7. ltvc_ciu ltvutqoq oc Aiuotqu....................................... 138
3.8. ltvc_ciu Buoixcv ltvutqoccv ........................................... 138
3.9. !oiotqtc ltvc_cv ltvutqoccv........................................... 14O
Luo,c .................................................................................. 141
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 149
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 15O
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 151
3.1O. 'Oio ltvutqoq oto 'Avcio............................................. 152
3.11. Oiovtiu Aotvtctq .......................................................... 156
Luo,c .................................................................................. 158
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 163
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 164
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 165
1evite Aotpoei Keooioo .......................................................... 165
Avoteooioop.............................................................................. 168
Epotpoei Kotovopop................................................................... 172
Kcoto 4: 2roicio Aioopiuoo Aoyiouoo
Liou,c,q....................................................................................... 173
4.1. H cvvoiu tq Huu,c,ot c Pt0o Mctu|oiq.................. 173
Luo,c .................................................................................. 178
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 183
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 184
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 184
4.2. Huu,c,o ltvutqoq .......................................................... 186
4.3. Huu,c,oi Buoixcv ltvutqoccv ....................................... 187
4.4. Kuvovc Huu,c,ioq........................................................... 189
4.5. Huu,c,oi Avctcq Tuq ................................................. 189
Luo,c .................................................................................. 19O
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 194
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 195
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 196
4.6. Huu,otou ltvutqoq.......................................................... 197
4.7. Aiuoixc Liococi............................................................ 2OO
Luo,c .................................................................................. 2O2
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 2O7
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 2O8
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 2O8
4.8. Movotoviu ltvutqoq ......................................................... 21O
4.9. Axotutu ltvutqoq ........................................................... 211
Luo,c .................................................................................. 214
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 219
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 22O
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................ 221
Avoteooioop.............................................................................. 226
Kcoto 5: 2roicio Ozouzqporiuoo Aoyiouoo
Liou,c,q....................................................................................... 231
5.1. H cvvoiu tot Oiocvot Oioxiqcuto ............................ 231
5.2. !oiotqtc tot Oiocvot Oioxiqcuto............................ 235
Luo,c .................................................................................. 236
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 239
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 24O
5.3. Yvoio,ioo Oiocvot Oioxiqcuto............................ 241
Luo,c .................................................................................. 243
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 247
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 248
Huxtixc cuo,c ................................................................ 249
5.4. Yvoio,ioo L|uoot Lvivcocv Xcicv............................. 25O
Luo,c .................................................................................. 253
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................ 256
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci .................................................................... 257
Avoteooioop.............................................................................. 261
Ynocici yio rq zooq rov Aouqocov
Kcuiuio 1: Hivote 1pouuito 2ootpuoto
9 1.1 1.3 ................................................................................... 265
9 1.4 1.5 ................................................................................... 266
9 1.6............................................................................................ 266
9 1.7............................................................................................ 267
Icvixc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 268
Kcuiuio 2: Hepipoitp 2totiotitp
9 2.1 2.6 ................................................................................... 27O
Icvixc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 27O
Kcuiuio 3: Opio 2ove,eio 2ovoptpop
9 3.1 3.5 ................................................................................... 271
9 3.6 3.9 ................................................................................... 272
9 3.1O 3.11................................................................................ 273
Icvixc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 273
Kcuiuio 4: 2toi,eio Aioopito Aoiouo
9 4.1............................................................................................ 275
9 4.2 4.5 ................................................................................... 275
9 4.6 4.7 ................................................................................... 276
9 4.8 4.9 ................................................................................... 277
Icvixc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 277
Kcuiuio 5: 2toi,eio Ootppotito Aoiouo
9 5.1 5.2 ................................................................................... 279
9 5.3............................................................................................ 279
9 5.4............................................................................................ 28O
Icvixc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 28O
Bi|iio,uiu .................................................................................... 283
Ltctqio 'Ocv............................................................................... 285
Hivouc Ipouuiu 2oorquoro
Etooyeyq
'Lvu _qoio u0qutixo c,uicio civui o vivuxu, oqiuoq iu
o0o,cviu oiutuq ui0cv. H o0o,cviu uttq oiutuq u oivci
viqooic ,iu xu0c otoi_cio tot.
Avo ti vuci xui ti ioiotqtc tcv vivuxcv vootc vu u-
vtiqootc otvcuoutu vot c_otv o_coq c ti u_ixc viqoo-
ic vot vuc_otv oi vivuxc.
!otoixu, q cvvoiu tot vivuxu vocxtc uvo tq cictq tcv oi-
otocv ,iu tqv cviitoq cvo ,uixot ototquto xui uvotcicoc
uvcutqto u0qutixo ot|oio c ti oixc tot _qoci xui ioio-
tqtc. To 1855 o A. Cayley cioq,u,c ,iu vctq ou tqv cvvoiu tot
vivuxu otq cictq ,uixcv ctuo_qutiocv, cvc to 1858 uvc-
vttc ototqutixu oiq tq |uoixq tot 0cciu otqv c,uoiu tot
"Miu vu,utciu otq 0cciu tcv vivuxcv".
O io,ioo tcv vivuxcv uvuvtt_0qxc tu cvocvu _oviu oc iu
uttotciq u0qutixq 0cciu vot civui co tq Iuixq
'Ai,c|u.
1.1. H vvoto tou Hvoko
Iiu oiuoot io,ot, tci c,uic uitoioc Super Market uvouoi-
ouv tq cicoq |uoixcv xutuvuictixcv ciocv oc vooootu c cq:
A: Mcicoq otu oiuoot cioot _utixu 12, otu ,uiuxtoxoixu
8, otu uvutxtixu-votu 6 xui otu xcutu-cioq uixq 4,5.
B: Mcicoq otu _utixu 13, otu ,uiuxtoxoixu 7,5, otu uvut-
xtixu-votu 5 xui otu xcutu-cioq uixq 3.
I: Mcicoq otu _utixu 1O, otu ,uiuxtoxoixu 9, otu uvutxti-
xu-votu 7 xui otu xcutu-cioq uixq 5.
2 Kcuiuio 1
Iiu vu vootc vu ot,xivotc ti cxvtcoci ,iu tu oiuou cioq
xui vu votiqootc tqv xutuiiqiq uitoiou Super Market o,uvc-
votc ti vuuvuvc viqooic c cq:
Lxvtcoci
Aitoiou S-M
Xutixu Iuiuxtoxoixu
Avutxtixu-
Hotu
Kcutu-
Lioq uixq
A 12 8 6 4,5
B 13 7,5 5 3
I 1O 9 7 5
H o0o,cviu oiutuq tcv vio vuvc ui0cv civui cvu vivuxu cx-
vtcoccv ciocv xutuvuictq. Av ,uotc tot ui0ot uttot c-
ou oc u,xtic:
A =
]
1
1
1
12 8 6 4,5
13 7,5 5 3
1O 9 7 5
icc oti c_otc cvu vivuxu c 3 ,uc xui 4 otqic q cvu vivuxu
34 vot oiu|uctui 3 cvi 4 vivuxu. Tot vivuxc ot|oiiotc c
xcuiuiu ,uutu A, B x.iv.
Opiou: Miu o0o,cviu oiutuq v ui0cv oc ,uc xui v
otqic ic,ctui vivuxu v.
Oi ui0oi vot uvotciotv tov vivuxu ic,ovtui otoi_ciu tot vivuxu
xui xu0cvu uvo uttu _uuxtqictui uvo tq 0coq vot xutc_ci otov
vivuxu.
H._. o ui0o 1O |ioxctui otqv 3
q
,uq xui 1
q
otqiq tot vivuxu,
o ui0o 7,5 |ioxctui otq 2
q
,uq xui 2
q
otqiq tot vivuxu.
Iiu vu vootc vu _uuxtqiotc to xu0c cvu uvo tu otoi_ciu tot
vivuxu _qoiovoiotc oto ocixtc. O i-ocixtq u oci_vci tq
,uq otqv ovoiu |ioxctui to otoi_cio xui o j-ocixtq tq otqiq.
'Ltoi, o ui0o 1O _uuxtqictui c to u
31
otoi_cio tot vivuxu, c-
vc o ui0o 7,5 c to u
22
otoi_cio.
Icvixu o vivuxu c_ci tq oq:
Hivuxc Iuixu ltotqutu 3
A
j-otqiq
i-,puq
u
u u u
u u u u
u u u u
u u u u

F F
F F
G G G G
F F
G G G G
F F
Huutqqotc oti otqv i-,uq oiu tu otoi_ciu tot vivuxu c_otv
c vcto ocixtq i. Avtiotoi_u otq j-otqiq c_otv c octtco ocixtq
j. To otoi_cio u
ij
xutc_ci tq 0coq tq i-,uq xui j-otqiq. lc ot-
vtoo,uiu (q ot|oiixu) vootc vu ,uotc A = [u
ij
] c
i = 1, 2, 3, ., xui j = 1, 2, 3, ., v.
1.2. Iootqto Htvkev
Ato vivuxc A, B civui iooi otuv civui tot ioiot ttvot (ioio viq-
0o ,ucv xui otqicv) xui tu uvtiotoi_u otoi_ciu tot civui i-
ou.
'Ltoi, uv vuotc to ototqu:
'
12x + 8y + 6c = 4,5
13x + 7,5y + 5c = 3
1Ox + 9y + 7c = 5
o vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv tcv u,vcotcv xui tcv otu0ccv ocv
civui:
B =
]
1
1
1
12 8 6 4,5
13 7,5 5 3
1O 9 7 5
xui vootc vu vuutqqootc oti civui vivuxu ioo c tov vivu-
xu A tcv cxvtcoccv vot vuotoiuouc otqv ciou,c,q tot xcuiui-
ot. (Huutqqotc coc oti oi vivuxc A xui B oivotv oiuoctixc
viqooic).
4 Kcuiuio 1
'Ltoi, uv 0ciotc vu voooioiootc tot x, y, c e R cotc vu io_tci:
]
1
1
1
x + y
y + c
c + x
=
]
1
1
1
4
6
8
vcvci:
'
x + y = 4
y + c = 6
c + x = 8
xui uv itootc to ototqu 0u voxtotv oi ui0oi x = 3, y = 1 xui
c = 5.
1.3. Eoq Htvkev
(u) 'Lvu vivuxu c ioio ui0o ,ucv xui otqicv ic,ctui tctu-
,cvixo vivuxu vv. H oq uttot tot vivuxu civui:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
u
21
u
22
u
2v

u
v1
u
v2
u
vv
Tu otoi_ciu u
11
, u
22
, ., u
2v
uvotciotv tqv xtiu oiu,cvio tot vi-
vuxu A.
(|) 'Lvu tctu,cvixo vivuxu ic,ctui oiu,cvio, otuv oiu tu otoi-
_ciu vot oc |ioxovtui otqv xtiu oiu,cvio civui O, oqiuoq:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
O O
O u
22
O

O O u
vv
(,) 'Lvu tctu,cvixo vivuxu ic,ctui ti,cvixo uvc otuv oiu tu
otoi_ciu tot xutc uvo tqv xtiu oiu,cvio civui O, oqiuoq:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
O u
22
u
2v

O O u
vv
Avtiotoi_u oictui xui o ti,cvixo xutc:
B =
]
1
1
1
u
11
O O
u
21
u
22
O

u
v1
u
v2
u
vv
(o) 'Lvu vivuxu vot c_ci iu ovo ,uq ic,ctui vivuxu ,uq:
A = [
u
11
u
12
u
1v ]
xui cvu vot c_ci iu ovo otqiq ic,ctui vivuxu otqiq:
B =
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
21
u
1
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
H xutuvoq tcv ctuiiicv oto 17
o
LtcvuIxo vctu0iqu oti|ot
to 1998 ,iu ti tcooci vctc _cc qtuv:
M. Bctuviu : Xtou 9, Aoqcviu 4, Xuixivu 3
Icuviu : Xtou 8, Aoqcviu 7, Xuixivu 8
Pcoiu : Xtou 6, Aoqcviu 9, Xuixivu 7
Hoicviu : Xtou 3, Aoqcviu 4, Xuixivu 1
u xutuoxctuoctc cvu vivuxu xutuvoq ctuiiicv ,iu ti 4 uttc
_cc.
Atoq
O vivuxu vot uxoiot0ci civui otvovtixo tcv vuuvuvc viqoo-
icv:
Xepc Xp A X
M. Bctuviu 9 4 3
Icuviu 8 7 8
Pcoiu 6 9 7
Hoicviu 3 4 1
6 Kcuiuio 1
xui uvooioctui c tov 43 vivuxu:
M =
]
1
1
1
9 4 3
8 7 8
6 9 7
3 4 1
Eopuoyq 2
To oixtto uxtoviooiu vot otvocci oto c,uiu iiuviu, H (Hciuiu)
xui P (Puqvu), c ci vqoiu tcv Ktxiuocv, l (lto), H (Huo),
(uo), A ('Avoo), T (Tqvo) xui M (Mtxovo) u tvo0cootc oti u-
vooioctui uvo to uxoiot0o o_qu xutu tq _cicivq vciooo:
HL!PA!Al
l
PAuHA
A
T
M
Hp
Tu vioiu (o_qutu,c,u) ovc uivctui oto o_qu uxoiot0otv tiu

oiuoctixu oooio,iu: (i) xoxxivq ,uq: H - l - H - - H - l -
H, (ii) vic ,uq H - l - T - M - T - l - H, (iii) vuoivq ,uq P -
A - T - M - l - T - A - P.
(u) u tiuctc cvuv vivuxu oooio,icv uvo tov Hciuiu xui tq
Puqvu vo vqoiu, tot ovoiot xu0c otoi_cio vu oci_vci to viq-
0o tcv otvococcv tcv oto c,uicv iiuvicv c tu vqoiu.
(|) Hooc oc oic_ctui vioio uvo tu vqoiu uttu xu0' oiq tq oi-
uxciu tcv oooio,icv uvo xui vo HL!PA!A - PAuHA;
Atoq
(u) O vivuxu oooio,icv vuiotuvctui c tov vivuxu oiviq cioo-
oot:
l T M H A
Hciuiu 2 1 1 1 1 O
Puqvu 1 1 1 O O 1
A =
]
1
1
2 1 1 1 1 O
1 1 1 O O 1
(|) O cvocvo vivuxu oiviq cioooot u oci_vci vooc oc xu-
tu tq oiuxciu tot oooio,iot oic_ctui vioio uvo xu0c vqoi
c_ciotu uvo Hciuiu xui Puqvu xui otvoiixu (otqv titq
,uq):
l T M H A
Hciuiu 4 2 1 2 1 O
Puqvu 1 2 1 O O 2
ltvoio 5 4 2 2 1 2
K =
]
1
1
1
4 2 1 2 1 O
1 2 1 O O 2
5 4 2 2 1 2
Eopuoyq 3
O vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv tot ototquto:
3x 5y + 8c = 6
y + 2c = 3
c = 1

voci vu vuuotu0ci c cvuv tptyevtko ve vivuxu 33:
A =
]
1
1
1
3 5 8
O 1 2
O O 1
O vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv tq vctq ciocoq tot ototquto c
cvuv voko ypoq 13:
B = [ 3 5 8 ]
8 Kcuiuio 1
xui o vivuxu tcv otu0ccv ocv c cvuv voko otqq 31:
I =
]
1
1
1
6
3
1
Eopuoyq 4
u |c0ci o ttvo tot vivuxu A vot c_ci 72 otoi_ciu, otvoiixu 17
,uc xui otqic xui to viq0o tcv ,ucv tot civui ixotco
tot viq0ot tcv otqicv tot.
Atoq
Av o ttvo tot vivuxu A civui v, 0u io_totv:
v = 72
+ v = 17
< v
Oi toixoi ui0oi , v 0u civui ic tq ciocoq x
2
17x + 72 = O
uu 0u civui = 8, v = 9 q = 9, v = 8. Houvc, uot < v o vivu-
xu A civui ttvot 89.
Eopuoyq 5
u tvoio,ioctc tot vu,utixot ui0ot x, y uv o 23 vivuxu B,
tu otoi_ciu tot ovoiot oivovtui uvo tq o_coq:
|
ij
=
'
i
j
x , i + j = utio
(i j)c , i + j = vcitto
civui ioo c tov 23 vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
2 x 1 2x + c
2c + x 2x 2c 1
Atoq
O vivuxu B ,uctui:
B =
]
1
1
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
21
|
22
|
23
xui c tq |oq0ciu tq o_coq vot tvoio,ici tu otoi_ciu tot vui-
votc:
|
11
= 1
1
x = x |
21
= (2 1)c = c
|
12
= (1 2)c = c |
22
= 2
2
x = 4x
|
13
= 1
3
x = x |
23
= (2 3)c = c
'Au B =
]
1
1
x c x
c 4x c
xui io,c tq iootqtu tot c tov A c_otc:
'
x = 2 x
c = 1
x = 2x + c
xui
'
c = 2c + x
4x = 2x 2c
c = 1
Oi tic x = 1 xui c = 1 cvuiq0ctotv to ototqu.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc tov 33 vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
1
1 3 1
1 5 4
3 2 O
u xutuoxctuoctc cvuv vivuxu B = [|
ij
] c |
ij
=
1
2
(u
ij
+ u
ji
), i = 1, 2, 3
xui j = 1, 2, 3. Ti vuutqcitc o_ctixu c tq oq tot vivuxu B;
'Aouqoq 2
Av o vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
x
2
x
2
y
2
(x + y)
2
(x + 4)
2
y
2
x + 2y 4
y
2
x
2
x + y (x y)
2
c x, y e R civui ti,cvixo xutc, vu ocictc oti civui xui oiu,cvio.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc tov vivuxu A = [u
ij
] ttvot vv, ,iu tov ovoio ,vciotc oti
u
ij
= min i, j; ,iu xu0c i, j = 1, 2, ., v. Kutoviv, |citc to u0oiou
tcv otoi_cicv tq xtiu oiu,cviot.
1O Kcuiuio 1
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc cvu vv vivuxu A = [u
ij
].
(u) Hoou otoi_ciu c_ci otvoiixu o vivuxu A;
(|) Hoou otoi_ciu tvu_otv vuvc q xutc uvo tqv xtiu oiu,cvio;
(,) Mvootc vu xutuoxctuootc tctoiov vivuxu c vcioootcu
uvo v
2
v otoi_ciu iou c qocv, vot vu c_ci oic ti ,uc
(uvtiotoi_u otqic) oiuoc tq qocvixq;
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
Livui ,vcoto oti to vco |uci otot 1OO C. !o_tci oc vuvtotc
utto; H uvuvtqoq voci vu oo0ci c _qoq tq ciocoq Anloine
vot cxuci tqv tuoq utcv (oqiuoq tqv vicoq oto oqcio |u-
oot) c otvutqoq tq 0coxuoiu:
lnP
s
= 18,31O4
3826,36
T 45,47
= A
B
T + C
ovot A =18,31O4, B=3826,36, C=45,47, T=0coxuoiu oc Kelvin,
P
s
= tuoq utcv oc mm Hg.
Av civui ,vcoto oti oi |u0oi Kelvin voxtvtotv, uv otot |u0ot
Kcioiot voo0cootc 273,15, otviqcotc tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
O =
]
1
1
1
C K
B
C + T
A
B
C + T
P
s
(mm Hg) P
s
(alm)
1OO
9O
98
l_oiiuotc tu uvotcicoutu tot vivuxu.
'Aouqoq 2
ltov vuuxutc vivuxu vuotoiuovtui oi vciuutixc xui tvoio,i-
ocvc, c 3 oiuoctixu ovtciu ctqoq, tic ,iu tov otvtcic-
otq cvc,otqtu iu ociu voitccv oiuitutcv. O otvtcicotq
cvc,otqtu civui iu voit oquvtixq ioiotqtu otqv cuoocvq
Ocootvuixq.
ltotqu Hciuutixq Movtcio
Tiq
A B I
P!B/toiotoiio 5,3O 5,28 6,19 7,O1
P!B/tctu_icuv0uxu 2,53 2,74 2,93 2,1O
PVC/uxctovq 11,8O 9,98 1O,17 3,64
PVC/xtxiocuvio 16,1O 1O,96 8,96 5,36
BR/cuvio 6,36 5,79 4,97 9,89
BR/uxctovq 1O,4O 11,36 9,49 33,63
PS/|cvoiio 4,27 4,76 3,98 5,78
PS/ui0tio|cvoiio 4,96 4,63 4,23 7,O2
u o_qutioctc cvuv vivuxu ovot:
(u) ltqv vctq otqiq vu cuviovtui oi vciuutixc tic xui
(|) lti cvocvc otqic vu cuviovtui, uvti tcv tvoio,iocvcv
ticv, tu vooootiuiu ouiutu, xu0c xui to coo vooootiuio
ouiu tot xu0c ovtciot otqv tcicttuiu ,uq tot vivuxu.
2quciooq:
- To ooootioio oouo oooioetoi o ep.
H.2. =
,Heipouotitp tiup Yooiouevp tiup,
Heipouotitp tiup
100
- To ueoo ooootioio oouo oooietoi o ep.
M.H.2. =
A0poiouo ooootioiov oouotov to0e uovteoo
Hp0o uetppoeov
'Aouqoq 3 ,Toooito p oovetito ivoto)
To oiviuvo o_qu u oci_vci iu xcv-
tixq A xui tci vciciuxc ,cito-
vic B, I, A vot otvocovtui c ooot
ovq xutct0tvoq. Ku0c cvu uv' ut-
tot tot ooot 0u ot|oiictui c
oto ui0ot: 1 uvo tq ,citoviu vot
cxivuci, 1 o' uttq vot xutuiq,ci xui O
o' uttq vot ocv vuci. (v._. o ooo AI,
1 otq ,citoviu A, 1 otq ,citoviu I xui
O oti tvoioivc ,citovic).
A I
B
A
c
u ,
|
o
12 Kcuiuio 1
(u) utiutc cvuv vivuxu vot vu uvccvci tov tovo vot otvocovtui
oi ,citovic c tot ovoooot, iu|uvovtu tvoq oti oi
,uc 0u vuiotuvotv tot ooot xui oi otqic ti ,cito-
vic.
(|) Ti vuutqcitc oti ,uc uttot tot vivuxu ,iu tu oixttu
(i) ,, o, c (iii) u, |, ,
(ii) u, , c (iv) |, o,
(,) Mvocitc vu ,cvixctoctc ,iu ovoiooqvotc uvo tu oixttu vot
otvocotv ti tcooci ,citovic;
'Aouqoq 4 ,To popuo too ouoo)
Yvo0cotc oti c_otc 4 ,tvuixc u, |, ,, o xui 4 uvoc A, B, I, A.
Kuvoiu uv' uttu tu 16 ct,uiu otcvotv vu ooxiuootv uv vo-
otv vu vuvtcttotv xui xuvoiu oc otcvotv ,iu oiuoot io-
,ot. Av c u
ij
= O ot|oiiootc oti q i ,tvuixu oc otcvci c tov j
uvou xui u
ij
= 1 oti q i ,tvuixu otcvci c tov j uvou totc:
(u) Iutc cvuv vivuxu vot vu oci_vci oti:
H u ,tvuixu otcvci vc voci vu vuvtcttci c tov A q
tov A uvou.
H | ,tvuixu c tov B uvou.
H , ,tvuixu c tov A q tov I uvou
H o ,tvuixu c tov B q tov A q tov A uvou.
(|) Mc ocoocvo oti iu ,tvuixu voci vu vuvtcttci cvuv uvou
xui uvtiotou, voiu civui tu otvutu ct,uiu tot (u) cctqu-
to;
(,) Bcitc cvu c,ioto otvoio ,ucv vot vuiotuvotv oi cvocvoi
vivuxc:
M =
A B I A L
]
1
1
O O 1 O O
1 1 O 1 1
O 1 1 O 1
O O 1 1 O
O O O 1 O
u
|
,
o
c
, =
A B I A L
]
1
1
1 1 O O O
O 1 O 1 O
O O 1 O 1
1 1 1 O O
1 O O O O
u
|
,
o
c
1.4. Hpoo0coq Htvkev
Miu cctvu oc xcvtixo |i|iiovcicio tq A0qvu u cocic ti vc-
iqoci oc |i|iiu tot qvc Muio xui !otvio ovc uivovtui otot
vuuxutc vivuxc. Kutu_cotc ti cvocici ovo tcooucv ciocv
|i|iicv xui c_otc _cioci oc tci ouoc ti qiixic u,ouotcv.
Lioo
Hiixiu
Octixc
Lviotqc
Ao,otc_viu
Tc_voio,iu -
Hi. Yvoio,iotc
Koivcvixc
Lviotqc
16 - 25 25 44 62 12
25 - 4O 6O 1O5 53 2O
Avc tcv 4O 28 8O 3O 35
Mto
Lioo
Hiixiu
Octixc
Lviotqc
Ao,otc_viu
Tc_voio,iu -
Hi. Yvoio,iotc
Koivcvixc
Lviotqc
16 - 25 3O 4O 54 15
25 - 4O 5O 115 58 22
Avc tcv 4O 24 95 2O 38
Iovto
Av 0ciotc ti otvoiixc vciqoci uttot tot oto qvc, totc c-
_otc:
Lioo
Hiixiu
Octixc
Lviotqc
Ao,otc_viu
Tc_voio,iu -
Hi. Yvoio,iotc
Koivcvixc
Lviotqc
16 - 25 (25 + 3O) (44 + 4O) (62 + 54) (12 + 15)
25 - 4O (6O + 5O) (1O5 + 115) (53 + 58) (2O + 22)
Avc tcv 4O (28 + 24) (8O + 95) (3O + 2O) (35 + 38)
Mto kot Iovto
Mvootc vu cxuootc tu vuuvuvc c vivuxc:
Iiu tov Muio oi vciqoci civui: A =
]
1
1
1
25 44 62 12
6O 1O5 53 2O
28 8O 3O 35
14 Kcuiuio 1
Iiu tov !otvio oi vciqoci civui: B =
]
1
1
1
3O 4O 54 15
5O 115 58 22
24 95 2O 38
xui o vivuxu:
I =
]
1
1
1
25 + 3O 44 + 4O 62 + 54 12 + 15
6O + 5O 1O5 + 115 53 + 58 2O + 22
28 + 24 8O + 95 3O + 2O 35 + 38
cxuci ti vciqoci xui ,iu tot oto qvc.
Huutqotc oti o vivuxu I uvotcicitui uvo to u0oiou tcv uvti-
otoi_cv otoi_cicv tcv A xui B. O vivuxu I ovouctui u0oiou
tcv vivuxcv A xui B.
Opiou: 'A0oiou oto vivuxcv v A = [u
ij
] xui B = [|
ij
], ic,ctui
o v vivuxu I = [,
ij
] ,iu tov ovoio xu0c otoi_cio tot
voxtvtci uvo to u0oiou tcv uvtiotoi_cv otoi_cicv
tcv A xui B. Aqiuoq ,
ij
= u
ij
+ |
ij
,iu xu0c i = 1, 2, .,
xui j = 1, 2, ., v.
- Iototqtc poo0coq tvkev
Lvcioq q voo0coq oto vivuxcv oictui uvo tqv voo0coq tcv u-
vtiotoi_cv otoi_cicv tot, oi ioiotqtc tq voo0coq vivuxcv ci-
vui uvuio,c c ti ioiotqtc voo0coq tcv vu,utixcv ui0cv.
(u) A + B = B + A uvtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu
(|) (A + B) + I = A + (B + I) vooctuiiotixq ioiotqtu
Livui uvco oti to u0oiou ticv vivuxcv A + B + I voci vu
tvoio,iotci c cvuv uvo tot oto tovot:
A + B + I = (A + B) + I q A + B + I = A + (B + I)
Iiu voo0coq vcioootccv vivuxcv uxoiot0otc uvuio,q oiu-
oixuoiu:
A + B + I + A = [(A + B) + I] + A x.i.v.
(,) Mqocvixo vivuxu
ltot vu,utixot ui0ot to O civui to otoctco otoi_cio
tq voo0coq. !o_tci oqiuoq u + O = O + u = u ,iu xu0c u e R.
ltot vivuxc to otoctco otoi_cio tq voo0coq (oqiuoq o
vivuxu vot 0u vootc0ci o' ovoiovoqvotc uiio vivuxu xui oc 0u
tov ctu|uici) civui o qocvixo vivuxu. Livui oqiuoq utto o
vivuxu vot oiu tot tu otoi_ciu civui O. lt|oiictui 0 xui i-
o_tci:
A + 0 = 0 + A = A
H._.
]
1
1
3 2
O 1
+
]
1
1
O O
O O
=
]
1
1
3 2
O 1
xui
]
1
1
1
2
1
3
+
]
1
1
1
O
O
O
=
]
1
1
1
2
1
3
Iivctui uvco uvo to vuuoci,u oti oioi oi qocvixoi vivuxc
ocv civui tot ioiot ttvot uiiu ,iu uviototctoq ot|oiiovtui
c 0.
(o) Avti0cto vivuxu
Av c_otc cvuv vivuxu A
v
totc o uvti0cto tot ot|oiictui
A, civui vivuxu v xui tu otoi_ciu tot civui tu uvti0ctu tcv
uvtiotoi_cv otoi_cicv tot A. !o_tci:
A + (A) = (A) + A = 0
H._. Av A =
]
1
1
2 1 O
1 1 3
totc o A =
]
1
1
2 1 O
1 1 3
- Aopcoq tvkev
Opiou: Aiuou oto vivuxcv v A = [u
ij
] xui B = [|
ij
], ic,ctui o
v vivuxu I = [,
ij
] ,iu tov ovoio xu0c otoi_cio tot vo-
xtvtci uvo tqv uuicoq tcv uvtiotoi_cv otoi_cicv tot
vivuxu B uvo tu otoi_ciu tot A. Aqiuoq ,
ij
= u
ij
|
ij
,iu
xu0c i = 1, 2, ., xui j = 1, 2, ., v.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
u |citc vivuxu X cotc vu io_tci X A + B = 0 ovot:
A =
]
1
1
1
3 2
1 O
1 O
xui B =
]
1
1
1
1 2
O 2
1 1
16 Kcuiuio 1
Atoq
Iiu vu oictui q uuicoq xui q voo0coq ctut vivuxcv vcvci
vu civui tot ioiot ttvot. 'Au o vivuxu X civui 32. 'L_otc:
X A + B = 0 X = A B
'Au:
X =
]
1
1
1
3 2
1 O
1 O

]
1
1
1
1 2
O 2
1 1
X =
]
1
1
1
3 2
1 O
1 O
+
]
1
1
1
1 2
O 2
1 1
Tciixu:
X =
]
1
1
1
4 O
1 2
2 1
2quciooq: Miu tctoiu iootqtu ctut vivuxcv ic,ctui ciocoq. O
vivuxu X civui o u,vcoto tq ciocoq xui q oiuoixuoiu tvoio,i-
oot tot ic,ctui cviitoq tq ciocoq.
Eopuoyq 2
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
otvx qx
qx otvx
xui B =
]
1
1
otvx qx
qx otvx
u |citc to x e (O, v) ,iu vu io_tci A + B = 0.
Atoq
Livui A + B =
]
1
1
2otvx O
O 2otvx
, cvocvc ,iu vu io_tci A + B = 0 0u
vcvci 2otvx = O, uu x =
v
2
.
Eopuoyq 3
Ku0c oiuvtou oto cvivcoo voci vu ,utci c tq |oq0ciu vivuxu
,uq q otqiq tcv otvtctu,cvcv tot ovc uivctui oto cvocvo
o_qu:
x
y
y
x x
O
A
u
<
u =
OA = [ x
1
y
1
] q
u =
OA =
]
1
1
x
1
y
1
Iiu vu voo0cootc q uuicootc oto oiuvtoutu, voo0ctotc q
uuiotc ti uvtiotoi_c otvtctu,cvc tot. Av v._.
u =
]
1
1
x
1
y
1
xui
| =
]
1
1
x
2
y
2
totc:
u +
| =
]
1
1
x
1
+ x
2
y
1
+ y
2
xui
| =
]
1
1
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
To oiuvtou c u_q to O xui tcio to A ovouctui oiuvtou 0c-
oq q oiuvtoutixq uxtivu tot A.
u tvoio,ioctc ti otvtctu,cvc tot oiuvtouto
AB uv ,vcictc
ti otvtctu,cvc tcv oiuvtoutcv 0coq tcv oqcicv A xui B.
Atoq
Av tvo0cootc oti
OA =
]
1
1
x
1
y
1
xui
OB =
]
1
1
x
2
y
2
. Totc:
OA +
AB =
OB
AB =
OB
OA
'Au
AB =
]
1
1
x
2
y
2

]
1
1
x
1
y
1
=
]
1
1
x
2
x
1
y
2
y
1
x
y
O
A
B
18 Kcuiuio 1
Tu vuuvuvc cxuovtui c tqv votuoq:
Oi otvtctu,cvc cvo oiuvtouto
AB voxtvtotv uv uvo ti ot-

vtctu,cvc tot tciot B uuicootc ti uvtiotoi_c otvtctu,-
cvc tq u_q A
1.5. Hooootooo opt0o c Hvoko
Miu ctuiciu vuu,c,q xui cvoiu viuotixcv ociqvcv uvo
oxiqo PVC (voit|ivti-_icioio) xutuoxctuci ociqvc oiuoc-
tixcv oiutocv xui oiuoctixcv ttvcv, ooov uou to |uo xui to
vu_o tcv toi_cutcv tot ociqvu. O cvocvo vivuxu oci_vci to
oo po ov tpo (kg/m) ociqvcv c cctcixq oiucto 2OO _i-
iiootu (u2OO) xui 25O _iiiootu (u25O).
L. oiucto
lg/m
u2OO u25O
A 3,57 3,69
B 4,47 5,62
I 5,16 7,O1
H ctuiciu votiu tu voIovtu tq uvuio,u c to |uo xu0c ociq-
vu. 'Ltoi uv xootoio,ci c 6O4 ou_c to cvu lg o tioxutuio,o
opoev ov tpo oeqvo cvot:
L. oiucto
o_/m
u2OO u25O
A 2156,28 2228,76
B 2699,88 3394,48
I 3116,64 4234,O4
O vivuxu utto vocxtc uvo tov voiiuviuoiuoo tcv otoi_cicv
tot voq,otcvot vivuxu cvi tov ui0o 6O4, oqiuoq:
6O4
]
1
1
1
3,57 3,69
4,47 5,62
5,16 7,O1
=
]
1
1
1
2156,28 2228,76
2699,88 3394,48
3116,64 4234,O4
u xutuoxctuoctc vivuxu tioxutuio,o ,iu tictot xui cuc-
tot ociqvc tcv vuuvuvc ttvcv.
Opiou: Iivocvo cvo vu,utixot ui0ot i c cvuv vivuxu
A = [u
ij
]
v
, ic,ctui o vivuxu vot voxtvtci uv voiiu-
viuoiuootc xu0c otoi_cio tot A c tov ui0o i.
'L_otc totc iA = [iu
ij
] ,iu xu0c i = 1, 2, ., xui
j = 1, 2, ., v.
- Iototqtc
Av i, e R xui A, B civui vivuxc tot ioiot ttvot, totc io_totv:
(u) (i + )A = iA + A
(|) i(A + B) = iA + iB
(,) (i)A = i(A)
(o) 1A = A
Livui uvco uvo tov oioo xui ti voq,otcvc ioiotqtc oti i-
o_totv:
(1) (1) A = A
(2) (i) A = (iA)
(3) iA = 0 uv xui ovo uv i = O q A = 0.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
H uvuitoq coocv iu voitxutoixiu 5 ooooiucioutcv ,iu to
qvu uc|otuio civui:
Kotvopqoto Aoovop Opovoq Etotk 'Eooo
76.5OO 14.OOO 6O.O5O 12.15O
Av q uvuio,iu cvi|utvoq xutu oiuciou otvoiixu (_ci cioi-
xc uvuio,ic ,iu 0cuvoq - uouvoc x.i.v) civui ,iu to oiuciou
tot 1
ot
ooot 15O%, tot 2
ot
ooot 17O%, tot 3
ot
ooot 2OO%,
tot 4
ot
ooot 23O% xui tot 5
ot
ooot 25O%.
(u) u tiuctc cvuv vivuxu vot vu uvuitci tu coou xutu xutq,o-
iu oc xu0c oiuciou.
2O Kcuiuio 1
(|) Av to Mutio tvo0cootc oti cicvctui xutu 1O q xutuvuic-
oq ,iu tq 0cuvoq uiiu utuvovtui tu cioixu coou (coou xq-
vot - otvtqqoq uvo_ctctoccv x.iv) xutu 3O xui 0ccqootc
oti tu uiiu coou vuucvotv otu0cu, voio 0u civui o vivuxu
coocv xutu xutq,oiu oc xu0c oiuciou; Hooo 0u viqcoci
otvoiixu to xu0c oiuciou to qvu Mutio;
Atoq
(u) Tu coou xutu xutq,oiu voxtvtotv uvo tot voi/oot:
(i) 76.5OO
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
]
1
1
11.475
13.OO5
15.3OO
17.595
19.125
,iu tu xoivo_qotu
(ii) 14.OOO
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
]
1
1
2.1OO
2.38O
2.8OO
3.22O
3.5OO
,iu to uouvoc
(iii) 6O.O5O
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
]
1
1
9.OO7,5
1O.2O8,5
12.O1O
13.811,5
15.O12,5
,iu tq 0cuvoq xui
(iv) 12.15O
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
]
1
1
1.822,5
2.O65,5
2.43O
2.794,5
3.O37,5
,iu tu cioixu coou
'Au o uvuittixo vivuxu coocv ,iu to xu0c oiuciou civui:
Koivo_qotu Aouvoc Ocuvoq Lio. 'Loou
1
o
11.475 2.1OO 9.OO7,5 1.822,5 24.4O5
2
o
13.OO5 2.38O 1O.2O8,5 2.O65,5 27.659
3
o
15.3OO 2.8OO 12.O1O 2.43O 32.54O
4
o
17.595 3.22O 13.811,5 2.794,5 37.421
5
o
19.125 3.5OO 15.O12,5 3.O37,5 4O.675
76.5OO 14.OOO 6O.O5O 12.15O
ltvoio uvu
oiuc.
ltvoio
uvu xutq,oiu
'Loou
Aiuciou
(|) To qvu Mutio 0u cic0ci q xutuvuicoq ,iu tq 0cuvoq xutu
1O uu q otqiq tq 0cuvoq 0u voxtci uvo tov voi/oo:
6O.O5OO,9O
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
Avtiotoi_u, q otqiq tcv cioixcv coocv 0u voxtci uvo tov
voi/oo:
12.15O1,3O
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
Oi tvoioivc otqic 0u vuucivotv uctu|iqtc xui ,iu vu t-
voio,iootc vooo 0u viqcoci to qvu Mutio xu0c oiuci-
ou 0u c_otc:
(76.5OO + 14.OOO + 6O.O5OO,9O + 12.15O1,3O)
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
22 Kcuiuio 1
= 16O.34O
]
1
1
O,15
O,17
O,2O
O,23
O,25
=
]
1
1
24.O51
27.257,8
32.O68
36.878,2
4O.O85
Eopuoyq 2
Av ,iu tot vivuxc ttvot vv A xui B io_totv:
iA = B (1) xui (i
2
+ 1)B = 2i
2
A (2)
vu uvoocictc oti ,iu xu0c i e R io_tci A = B.
Atoq
'L_otc iA = B. 'Au:
(i
2
+ 1)(iA) = 2i
2
A [(i
2
+ 1)i]A = 2i
2
A
i[(i
2
+ 1) 2i]A = 0 i(i 1)
2
A = 0
'Au i(i 1)
2
= O q A = 0.
- Av i(i 1)
2
= O totc i = 1 (uot i e R) xui uvo (1) c_otc A = B.
- Av A = 0 totc vuii uvo (1) c_otc B = 0, uu A = B.
Eopuoyq 3
Av A =
]
1
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
, B =
]
1
1
1 1
2 2
xui I =
]
1
1
1 O
2 O
vu voooioiototv
oi vu,utixoi ui0oi x, y ,iu tot ovoiot io_tci: 2xA + yB = 3I.
Atoq
'L_otc:
2x
]
1
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
+ y
]
1
1
1 1
2 2
= 3
]
1
1
1 O
2 O

]
1
1
x 2x
2x 4x
+
]
1
1
y y
2y 2y
=
]
1
1
3 O
6 O


'
x + y = 3
2x y = O
2x + 2y = 6
4x + 2y = O

'
x + y = 3
2x y = O
2(x + y) = 6
2(2x y) = O

'
;
x = 1
y = 2
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
O vivuxu A =
]
1
1 x
2
6x + 9 O
O x
2
9
civui qocvixo otuv:
(u) x = 3 (|) x = 3 (,) x = 6
Ktxicotc tq ocotq uvuvtqoq xui uitioio,qotc.
'Aouqoq 2
lti cvocvc vcivtcoci vu tvoio,ioctc tot A + B xui A B, c-
ooov |c|uiu oiovtui:
(u) A =
]
1
1
1
1 2
2 3
3 4
, B =
]
1
1
1
1 1
2 2
3 3
(|) A = [ 2 1 O ], B = [ 2 1 O ]
(,) A =
]
1
1
1
2
4
2
, B =
]
1
1
1
O
4
O
(o) A =
]
1
1
2 3
1 1
, B =
]
1
1
1
3 1 3
O 2 O
1 O 1
'Aouqoq 3
u |citc ti tic tcv x, y e R ,iu ti ovoic io_tci:
]
1
1
x
2
x
y
2
4
x
2
+ 6 1

]
1
1
1
3 y
1 5y
5x 1
=
]
1
1
1
1 1
O y
2
O O
'Aouqoq 4
u itoctc ti ciococi:
(u)
]
1
1
2 1
2 1
+ X =
]
1
1
2 1
2 1
(|) X +
]
1
1
1
1 3
2 2
4 1
=
]
1
1
1
O O
O O
O O
24 Kcuiuio 1
(,)
]
1
1
2 3 4
1 O 1
X =
]
1
1
2 O 1
1 O 2
(o) X +
]
1
1
1
1
2
4
=
]
1
1
1
2
3
4
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
u oqcicoctc to ocoto (l) q iu0o (A) otot cvocvot io_ti-
oot xui vu oixuioio,qoctc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
(u) To u0oiou xui q oiuou oto oiu,cvicv vivuxcv ttvot vv ci-
vui oiu,cvio vivuxu vv.
(|) To u0oiou xui q oiuou oto ti,cvixcv uvc (q xutc) vivu-
xcv civui ti,cvixo uvc (q xutc) vivuxu.
(,) O qocvixo civui oiu,cvio vivuxu.
'Aouqoq 2
Aivovtui oi vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
2 O
1 1
2 4
xui B =
]
1
1
1
1 2
1 2
O 1
(u) u tvoio,ioctc tov vivuxu 3A 2B.
(|) u |citc vivuxu X tctoio cotc 3A 2X = 2B + 5X.
'Aouqoq 3
Av A =
]
1
1
3 6
12 9
xui B =
]
1
1
1 O
2 4
vu tvoio,ioctc vivuxc X xui
+ ,iu tot ovoiot io_totv:
;
2X A = + 2B
X 2B = A +
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
Oi qcqoic vciqoci cqciocv uvo to vcivtco iu otvoixi-
u ui0otv oc tiiu ovc oci_votv oi cvocvoi vivuxc:
1
q
qcu 2
q
qcu
A0iqtixc Hoiitixc Oixovoixc A0iqtixc Hoiitixc Oixovoixc
Hci
25 2O 2O
Hci
2O 22 25
Avo,ctu
5 6O 4
Avo,ctu
4 65 8
Av ovouootc M tov vivuxu vciqoccv tq 1
q
qcu xui tov
vivuxu vciqoccv tq 2
q
qcu, tvoio,iotc tov M + . Hoiu civui
q cqvciu vot oivctc ,iu tov vivuxu M + ;
'Aouqoq 2
Tu tivovtu, oivovtu xui oi cict0cc |oic vot vctt_uv, cvto xui
cxto cou, oti tcoocci vctc u,cviotixc tot vctu0iquto
vuoxct tci ouoc oivovtui vuuxutc:
HOTO!
OMAALl Lvto Lxto Lvto Lxto Lvto Lxto
28 16 6O 48 4O 36
24 2O 68 56 52 44
32 12 84 76 44 68
2
q
Ouou
3
q
Ouou
TP!HOTA A!HOTA LA. BOALl
1
q
Ouou
(u) u ,uotv tu ocoocvu c oq ticv vivuxcv A, B, I vot vu
vcic_otv uvtiotoi_u tu tivovtu, oivovtu xui ti cict0cc |o-
ic tq xu0c ouou.
(|) u |c0ci cvu vivuxu o ovoio oivci tot otvoiixot vovtot
xu0c ouou, cvto xui cxto cou.
'Aouqoq 3
H xutuvuicoq ctuto oc xiio|utcc, oto oixo,cvcicv uvu tc-
tuqvo oivctui uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
A' TLTP. B' TLTP. I' TLTP.
1
q
Oixo,cvciu 1828 17OO 156O
2
q
Oixo,cvciu 223O 192O 187O
Av q xiio|utcu xootici 35 o_. xui to vu,io xu0c tctuqvot ci-
vui 445O o_:
26 Kcuiuio 1
(u) u vuuotqoctc ' cvuv vivuxu X tu voou vot 0u viqcvci xu0c
oixo,cvciu uvu tctuqvo.
(|) u |citc voou _qutu 0u viqcvuv oi ioic oixo,cvcic, uv
cicvuv tqv xutuvuicoq ctuto xutu 1O.
1.6. Hooootooo Htvkev
To voocvixo iu ctuiciu xutuoxctcv uvtuiiuxtixcv uttoxivq-
tcv xutuvcctui oc tci xutq,oic oti ovoic uvqxotv cvcioi,
ccioixctcvoi xui uvcioixcttoi c,uocvoi. H ctuiciu c_ci oto
c,ootuoiu xutuoxctcv xui to voocvixo civui xutuvcqcvo c u-
xoiot0c:
'Lvcioi Lcioixctcvoi Avcioixcttoi
1
o
L,ootuoio 2O 18 4O
2
o
L,ootuoio 15 2O 3O
H uoi|q tcv c,uocvcv xutu xutq,oiu ti c,uoic qcc xui
q uvoqicoq tot ti qcc u,iu, oc _iiiuoc ou_c, civui:
L,uoic A,ic
'Lvcioi 2O 18
Lcioixctcvoi 15 13
Avcioixcttoi 1O 8
Iiu vu |otc tqv qcqoiu ouvuvq tq ctuiciu xui otu oto c,o-
otuoiu c_otc:
1
o
L,ootuoio: 2O2O + 1815 + 4O1O ,iu c,uoiq cu
2O18 + 1813 + 4O8 ,iu u,iu
2
o
L,ootuoio: 152O + 2O15 + 3O1O ,iu c,uoiq cu
1518 + 2O13 + 3O8 ,iu u,iu
Av oiu tu vuuvuvc 0ciotc vu tu uvoooootc c vivuxc totc:
A =
]
1
1
2O 18 4O
15 2O 3O
ovouotc tov 23 vivuxu c,uocvcv otu
oto c,ootuoiu.
B =
]
1
1
1
2O 18
15 13
1O 8
ovouotc tov 32 vivuxu tcv uvooo_cv tot
ti c,uoic qcc xui tcv uvoqicoccv
ti u,ic.
xui o vivuxu I =
]
1
1
2O2O + 1815 + 4O1O 2O18 + 1813 + 4O8
152O + 2O15 + 3O1O 1518 + 2O13 + 3O8
civui
o 22 vivuxu qcqoiu ouvuvq tq ctuiciu ,iu c,uoic xui
,iu qcc u,iu xui otu oto c,ootuoiu tq.
O vivuxu I ic,ctui ,ivocvo tot vivuxu A c tov vivuxu B xui ot-
|oiictui AB. Hopotqpqotc ott to ototco y
11
tou voko I po-
ktct ov ooootoouc to ototco tq 1
q
ypoq tou voko
A c to ovtototo ototco tq 1
q
otqq tou voko B kot po-
o0oouc to ytvocvo. Attq q oiuoixuoiu ,ivctui ,iu oiu tu otoi_ciu
tot vivuxu I ovc uivctui oto cvocvo o_coiu,uu, vot oci_vci
xui to q_uvioo tq vuq tot voiiuviuoiuoot vivuxcv. Iiu
vuuoci,u, to otoi_cio ,
21
tot vivuxu I voxtvtci uv voiiuviuoiu-
ootc tu otoi_ciu tq 2
q
,uq tot A c tu uvtiotoi_u otoi_ciu
tq 1
q
otqiq tot B xui voo0cootc tu ,ivocvu, oqiuoq:
u u u
u u u

, ,
, ,

| |
| |
| |

q ,
21
= 152O + 2O15 + 3O1O.
Opiou: Av A civui cvu vivuxu xui B cvu vivuxu v, o-
vouotc ,ivocvo tot vivuxu A c tov vivuxu B xui
tov ot|oiiotc AB cvuv vivuxu v tot ovoiot to
xu0c otoi_cio ,
ij
(i ,uq xui j otqiq) voxtvtci uv
voiiuviuoiuootc tu otoi_ciu tq i ,uq tot vivuxu
A c tu uvtiotoi_u otoi_ciu tq j otqiq tot vivuxu B
xui voo0cootc tu ,ivocvu. Aqiuoq:
,
ij
= u
i1
|
1j
+ u
i2
|
2j
+ + u
i
|
j
l_qutixu c_otc:
u
F
G G
F
G G
F
u
u u
u u

j-otqiq
i-,puq
|
F F
F F
G G G
F F
| |
| | |
| | |

F F
G G G
F F
G G G
F F
, ,
, , ,
, , ,

Hooo_q otot ttvot tcv vivuxcv: A
B
v
= I
v

28 Kcuiuio 1
Mvootc vu voiiuviuoiuootc vivuxc tctoiot cotc o ui0o
tcv otqicv tot vctot vivuxu vu c_ci to ioio viq0o c tov ui0o
tcv ,ucv tot octtcot vivuxu.
Hopoocyoto
u |citc, otuv oictui o voiiuviuoiuoo, tu ,ivocvu AB xui
BA oti cvocvc vcivtcoci:
(i) A =
]
1
1
1
2 1
1 3
O 4
xui B =
]
1
1
1 O 2
3 3 1
Loc oictui to ,ivocvo AB uot o A civui 32 vivuxu xui o B
civui 23 vivuxu.
AB =
]
1
1
1
2 1
1 3
O 4

]
1
1
1 O 2
3 3 1
=
]
1
1
1
21 + 13 2O + 13 22 + 11
11 + 33 1O + 33 12 + 31
O1 + 43 OO + 43 O2 + 41
=
]
1
1
1
5 3 5
1O 9 5
12 12 4
Lvioq oictui ,ui to ,ivocvo BA uot o B civui 23 vivuxu
xui o A civui 32 vivuxu.
BA =
]
1
1
1 O 2
3 3 1

]
1
1
1
2 1
1 3
O 4
=
]
1
1
12 + O1 + 2O 11 + O3 + 24
32 + 31 + 1O 31 + 33 + 14
=
]
1
1
2 9
9 16
Livui uvco oti AB = BA.
(ii) A =
]
1
1
2 1
3 1
xui B =
]
1
1
x
y
Loc oictui to ,ivocvo AB uot o A civui 22 vivuxu xui o B
civui 21 vivuxu.
AB =
]
1
1
2 1
3 1

]
1
1
x
y
=
]
1
1
2x y
3x + y
Acv oictui oc o BA uot o B civui 21 xui o A civui 22.
(iii) A =
]
1
1
1 2
3 6
xui B =
]
1
1
2 4
1 2
Loc oiovtui tu ,ivocvu AB xui BA uot oi vivuxc A, B civui
tctu,cvixoi 22.
AB =
]
1
1
1 2
3 6

]
1
1
2 4
1 2
=
]
1
1
O O
O O
BA =
]
1
1
2 4
1 2

]
1
1
1 2
3 6
=
]
1
1
1O 2O
5 1O
xui coc uivctui oti AB = BA.
Lvivicov, c_otc oto vivuxc q qocvixot vot c_otv ,ivoc-
vo tov qocvixo vivuxu. AL !lXYL! ioivov otov voiiuviu-
oiuoo vivuxcv q ioiotqtu AB = 0 A = 0 q B = 0. Aviu otuv
cvu cx tcv oto vivuxcv civui o qocvixo, totc to ,ivocvo
tot civui 0.
- Iototqtc ooootooo tvkev
Av i, civui vu,utixoi ui0oi xui A, B, I vivuxc, totc io_totv
oi cvocvc ioiotqtc, c tqv votvo0coq oti oiovtui xu0c ou
oi vuci vot oqcicvovtui.
(u) A(BI) = (AB)I vooctuiiotixq ioiotqtu
(|) A(B + I) = AB + AI xui cviciotixq ioiotqtu
(B + I)A = BA + IA
(,) (iA)(B) = (i)AB
2quciooci:
(i) ltu voq,otcvu vuuoci,utu c,ivc xutuvoqto oti ocv io_tci
,cvixu q uvtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu otov voiiuviuoiuoo vivu-
xcv. Av ioivov c_otc vu voiiuviuoiuootc iu ociu vivuxcv
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
x
, to ,ivocvo 0u civui to ioio xutu ovoiovoqvotc
tovo xui uv cxtcico0ci o voiiuviuoiuoo, uxci vu qv ui-
iuotc tq ociu tcv vuu,ovtcv. H._. [A
1
(A
2
A
3
)]A
x
.
(ii) Av cvivicov A
1
= A
2
= = A
x
= A, totc c_otc A
1
A
2
A
x
= A
x
.
3O Kcuiuio 1
Opiou: Atvuq cvo vv vivuxu A c cx0ctq 0ctixo uxcuio x,
oiotc tov vivuxu A
x
=
_
x-vuu,ovtc
AAAA.
'Otuv x = 1 c_otc A
1
= A.
Av x, i 0ctixoi uxcuioi xui vu,utixo ui0o, io_totv:
- A
x
A
i
= A
x+i
= A
i
A
x
- (A
x
)
i
= A
xi
= (A
i
)
x
- (A)
x
=
x
A
x
- Movootoo voko
Occotc tov 22 vivuxu A =
]
1
1
u |
, o
xui tov 22 vivuxu !
2
=
]
1
1
1 O
O 1
.
Huutqotc oti:
A!
2
=
]
1
1
u |
, o

]
1
1
1 O
O 1
=
]
1
1
u |
, o
xui
!
2
A =
]
1
1
1 O
O 1

]
1
1
u |
, o
=
]
1
1
u |
, o
oqiuoq A!
2
= !
2
A = A ,iu ovoiovoqvotc 22 vivuxu A.
Opiou: Oiotc c ovuoiuio vivuxu vv to oiu,cvio vivuxu
vot oiu tu otoi_ciu tq xtiu oiu,cviot tot civui iou
c 1 xui ot|oiiotc:
!
v
=
]
1
1
1 O O
O 1 O

O O 1
Av A civui ootoooqotc tctpoyevtko voko vv io-
_tci:
A!
v
= !
v
A = A
2quciooci:
(i) (!
v
)
x
= !
v
,iu ovoiovoqvotc 0ctixo uxcuio x.
(ii) Av o vivuxu A civui v ttvot totc io_tci A!
v
= A xui !
A = A.
v._.
]
1
1
1
1 2
O 4
3 5

]
1
1
1 O
O 1
=
]
1
1
1
1 2
O 4
3 5
xui
]
1
1
1
1 O O
O 1 O
O O 1

]
1
1
1
1 2
O 4
3 5
=
]
1
1
1
1 2
O 4
3 5
(iii) Tov vivuxu !
v
0u tov ,uotc uviototcu ! otuv civui uvco
o ttvo tot uvo ti vuci c tot uiiot vivuxc.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
Occotc tot vivuxc A =
]
1
1
1 1
2 1
xui B =
]
1
1
1 1
4 1
. u uvooci-
ctc oti A
2
+ B
2
= (A + B)
2
. Hoio civui to otvcuou ou;
Atoq
Livui:
A
2
= AA =
]
1
1
1 1
2 1

]
1
1
1 1
2 1
=
]
1
1
1 O
O 1
B
2
= BB =
]
1
1
1 1
4 1

]
1
1
1 1
4 1
=
]
1
1
5 O
O 5
'Au: A
2
+ B
2
=
]
1
1
4 O
O 4
= 4! (1)
Lvioq A + B =
]
1
1
2 O
6 2
, ovotc:
(A + B)
2
= (A + B)(A + B) =
]
1
1
2 O
6 2

]
1
1
2 O
6 2
=
]
1
1
4 O
O 4
'Au: (A + B)
2
=
]
1
1
4 O
O 4
= 4! (2)
Avo (1) xui (2) c_otc: A
2
+ B
2
= (A + B)
2
.
32 Kcuiuio 1
To otvcuou civui oti ,cvixu otot vivuxc ocv io_totv oi tutto-
tqtc vot ,vciotc otot vu,utixot ui0ot. Atto ot|uivci
,iuti otot vivuxc ocv io_tci q uvtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu tot voiiu-
viuoiuoot (AB = BA).
lto ot,xcxicvo vuuoci,u, uv 0ciuc vu tvoio,iootc tov vivu-
xu (A + B)
2
oiuoctixu, 0u ci_uc:
(A + B)
2
= (A + B)(A + B) = A
2
+ AB + BA + B
2
Aixuioio,qotc, xuvovtu ti vuci ctut tcv vivuxcv, ,iuti civui
AB + BA = 0.
Eopuoyq 2
Occotc tov vv vivuxu A. Aixuioio,qotc ,iuti io_tci q o_coq
(3A + 2!)
2
= 9A
2
+ 12A + 4!. Hoio civui to ,cvixotco otvcuou
ou;
Atoq
Livui:
(3A + 2!)
2
= (3A + 2!)(3A + 2!) =
(3A)(3A) + (3A)(2!) + (2!)(3A) + (2!)(2!) =
3
2
A
2
+ (32)A + (23)A + 2
2
!
2
= 9A
2
+ 12A + 4!
Aot ,iu tot vivuxc 3A, 2! io_tci q uvtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu tot
voiiuviuoiuoot:
;
(3A)(2!) = 6A
(2!)(3A) = 6A
uu (3A)(2!) = (2!)(3A)
io_tci xui q ,vcotq tuttotqtu tot oicvtot oto tctu,cvo. Icvixu,
,iu uttot tot vivuxc io_totv vuvtu oi tuttotqtc.
Eopuoyq 3
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1 2
3 6
, B =
]
1
1
1 O
1 1
xui I =
]
1
1
3 2
2 O
u tvoio,ioctc tu ,ivocvu AB xui AI xui vu oixuioio,qoctc ,iuti
ocv io_tci q ioiotqtu AB = AI B = I (voo tq oiu,uq).
Atoq
Livui uvco oti AB =
]
1
1
1 2
3 6
xui AI =
]
1
1
1 2
3 6
uu AB = AI.
'Oc uvo tqv iootqtu AB = AI oc vootc vu io_tio0otc oti
B = I.
Eopuoyq 4
Occotc tov vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
1 3
2 1
(u) u tvoio,ioctc tot vivuxc A
2
xui A
2O
.
(|) Av cvivicov io_tci: A
2O
+ uA
2
+ 7|! = 0 totc vu uvoocictc oti
u + | + 7
9
= O.
Atoq
(u) A
2
=
]
1
1
1 3
2 1

]
1
1
1 3
2 1
=
]
1
1
7 O
O 7
= 7
]
1
1
1 O
O 1
= 7!
A
2O
= (A
2
)
1O
= (7!)
1O
= 7
1O
!
1O
= 7
1O
!
(|) A
2O
+ uA
2
+ (7|)! = 0 7
1O
! + u(7!) + (7|)! = 0
(7
9
+ u + |)(7!) = 0 xui uot 7! = 0 totc 7
9
+ u + | = O.
Eopuoyq 5
Occotc vcvtc Tqiccvixu Kcvtu xui tu ot|o-
iiotc c tot ui0ot 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Avo uttu ui-
iu otvocovtui c uviq otvocoq (v._. to 1 c to 4)
xui uiiu c otvotuoo uvicv otvococcv (v._. to 2
c to 4), ovc uivctui oto oiviuvo o_qu. Oi otv-
ococi uttc vci,uovtui c cvuv 55 vivuxu
A = [u
ij
] vot oictui xu0c otoi_cio tot c cq:
1 2
5
3
4
u
ij
=
'
O uv i = j
O uv i = j xui tu tqic. xcvtu i, j
ocv otvocovtui c uviq otvocoq
1 uv i = j xui tu tqic. xcvtu i, j
otvocovtui c uviq otvocoq
34 Kcuiuio 1
(u) u oioctc tov vivuxu A.
(|) u tvoio,ioctc tov vivuxu A
2
xui vu cqvctoctc ti cxuotv
tu otoi_ciu tot.
Atoq
(u) O 55 vivuxu A civui:
A =
]
1
1
O 1 1 1 1
1 O O O 1
1 O O 1 O
1 O 1 O 1
1 1 O 1 O
xui vuiotuvci ti uvic otvococi xu0c tqiccvixot xcvtot
c tu tvoioivu.
(|) A
2
= AA =
]
1
1
O 1 1 1 1
1 O O O 1
1 O O 1 O
1 O 1 O 1
1 1 O 1 O
]
1
1
O 1 1 1 1
1 O O O 1
1 O O 1 O
1 O 1 O 1
1 1 O 1 O
=
=
]
1
1
4 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2 1
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 1 3 1
2 1 2 1 3
To tt_uio otoi_cio |
ij
tot vivuxu A
2
u viqooci ,iu to q-
0o tcv otvococcv tot xcvtot i c to xcvto j, c oo (2) o
ouvooct. Aqiuoq |
24
= 2 oquivci oti to tqiccvixo xcvto 2
otvocctui c to tqiccvixo xcvto 4 c ti cq uvic otvoc-
oci: 21 14 xui 25 54. Mvoci vu otvocctui xui c tq otvocoq
21 13 34 uiiu uttq civui iu tiviq otvocoq xui ocv uou
tov vivuxu A
2
. 'Ooiu |
55
= 3 oquivci oti to tqiccvixo xcvto
5 otvocctui c to tqiccvixo xcvto 5 c ti tci uvic otvoc-
oci: 51 15, 54 45, 52 25. 'Ooiu otvcuoutu c_otc xui
,iu tu tvoioivu otoi_ciu.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
Yvoio,iotc tu ,ivocvu vivuxcv, ovot uttu oiovtui:
(u)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
2 1

]
1
1
2
1
(|)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
O 2

]
1
1
1 1
O 2
(,)
]
1
1
2 4
1 2

]
1
1
2 4
1 2
(o) [ 3 1 2 ]
]
1
1
1
2 1
O 1
1 2
(c)
]
1
1
1
3 1
O 2
2 1

]
1
1
1 1 O
2 2 1

]
1
1
1
1
O
1
(ot)
]
1
1
2 1
3 1

]
1
1
1
1 2 3
O 1 O
3 2 1
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
2 O 1
5 1 O
O 1 3
xui B =
]
1
1
1
3 1 1
15 6 5
5 2 2
Yvoio,iotc tu ,ivocvu AB xui BA. Hoio ,cvixotco otvcuou
cu,ctui;
'Aouqoq 3
Av u, |, , civui qxq victcv ti,cvot ABI xui ,iu tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
u O
O u
xui M =
]
1
1
| ,
, |
io_tci A
2
= M
2
, vu ocictc oti to ti,cvo ABI civui o0o,cvio.
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc tot 33 oiu,cviot vivuxc A xui B.
(u) Acitc oti:
(i) AB oiu,cvio (ii) AB = BA
(|) !o_totv tu ioiu uv oi vivuxc civui 33 ti,cvixoi uvc (q xutc);
36 Kcuiuio 1
'Aouqoq 5
Hoioi uvo tot cvocvot vivuxc civui oi,otu iooi c tov vivuxu
(A + B)
2
;
(i) (B + A)
2
(iii) A(A + B) + B(A + B)
(ii) A
2
+ 2AB + B
2
(iv) A
2
+ AB + BA + B
2
Iiu xu0c cvuv vot voictc oti civui ioo c tov (A + B)
2
, oixuioio-
,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
'Aouqoq 6
]
1
1
u O
| O
ovot u, | = O.
(u) Acitc oti A
2
= uA.
(|) Livui ocoto vu io_tiototc oti uvo tqv iootqtu A
2
= uA vo-
xtvtci q iootqtu A = u!; Aixuioio,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc oto vivuxc 33 A xui B. lqcicotc voiot uvo tot cvo-
cvot io_tioot 0cccitc ocotot (l) q iu0o (A). Aixuioio,q-
otc tqv uvuvtqoq ou otot ocotot io_tioot xui ocotc cvu u-
i0qtixo uvtivuuoci,u otot iu0o io_tioot.
(u) Av q vctq xui q titq otqiq tot B civui ioic, totc xui q vctq
c tqv titq otqiq tot AB civui ioic.
(|) Av q vctq xui q titq ,uq tot B civui ioic, totc xui q vc-
tq c tqv titq ,uq tot AB civui ioic.
(,) Av q vctq xui q titq ,uq tot A civui ioic, totc xui q vc-
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Av o A civui vivuxu ttvot 1999, o B civui vivuxu ttvot xi xui
io_tci AB = BA, vu |citc tot x, i, .
'Aouqoq 2
Bcitc, c ooxic, vivuxc 22 tctoiot cotc:
(u) A
2
= !, c otoi_ciu tot A vu,utixot ui0ot.
(|) B
2
= 0, c xuvoiu otoi_ciu tot B oiuou tot qocvo.
(,) IA = AI, cxto tq vcivtcoq ovot IA = 0.
(o) LZ = 0, c oiu tu otoi_ciu tcv L xui Z q qocvixu.
'Aouqoq 3
Occotc tov vivuxu A =
]
1
1
1 |
, 2
.
(u) Acitc oti A
2
+ A (2 + |,)! = 0.
(|) !o_tci AB = BA totc xui ovo totc uv A
2
B = BA
2
.
'Aouqoq 4
Av A =
]
1
1
3 1
1 2
|citc vu,utixot ui0ot x, y cotc vu io_tci
A
2
= xA + y!. Kutoviv tvoio,iotc tov vivuxu A
3
c otvutqoq tcv
A xui !.
'Aouqoq 5
Av ,iu tot vivuxc A =
]
1
1
i i + 1
i
2
+ 3 i
xui B =
]
1
1
2 1
3 2
io_tci
(A + B)
2
= A
2
+ B
2
tvoio,iotc tov ui0o i. Iiu voic tic tot i i-
o_tci AB + BA = 0;
'Aouqoq 6
]
1
1
1
1 i

2
i
1
, i = O. u uvoocictc oti:
(u) A
2
= !, A
3
= A, A
4
= !
(|) A
99
+ A
1OO
+ A
1O1
= !
1.7. Ipotk Luotqoto
Tu ,uixu ototqutu vuotoiuovtui oc oiot tot xiuoot
tcv 0ctixcv xui tc_voio,ixcv cviotqcv. ltu Mu0qutixu, otq
Mq_uvixq, otq Mq_uvoio,iu, oti Lvi_ciqoiuxc cctvc x.iv.
xuiotuotc vu cviitootc ,uixu ototqutu. Tu ototqutu vot
vuotoiuovtui otqv vuq civui voit c,uittcu uvo uttu vot ot-
38 Kcuiuio 1
vuvtu o u0qtq. Tu ,uixu ototqutu _ciovtui oc ixu (viq-
0o ciococcv 1OO), otu couiu (1OO < viq0o ciococcv 5OO)
xui otu c,uiu (viq0o ciococcv > 5OO).
ltq ot,_ovq tc_voio,iu, tu ototqutu vot vuotoiuovtui ci-
vui otvq0c couiu xui c,uiu. Iiu tqv cviitoq tctoiot c,c0ot
,uixcv ototqutcv uvuitcitui q _qoq qicxtovixot tvoio,i-
otq (H/Y). Livui uiooqcicto oti tu vo,uutu vot _qoio-
voiotvtui otov H/Y |uoiovtui otov ui,oi0o Gauss xui uvuitot-
vtui ovo ii,u icvtu ,iu tqv cviitoq cvo couiot ototquto. Lv-
ocixtixu uvucotc oti cvu ototqu 361 ciococcv c ioui0ot
u,vcotot cioixq oq it0qxc uvo tqv ouou Ai0qtixq Avu-
itoq tot Huvcviotqiot !cuvvivcv oc 2 oii icvtu.
Hopciyuo
Miu |ioq_uviu _qoiovoici tcooci q_uvc, c ti ovoic xu-
tuoxctuci vcvtc |ioq_uvixu cioq. O ui0o tcv ccv vot _qoi-
ovoicitui xu0c q_uvq ,iu tqv xutuoxctq iu ovuou uvo xu0c
cioo oivctui uvo tov vivuxu:
Lioq
Mq_uvc
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
5
o
1
q
1 1 2 2 1
2
q
2 1 3 1 O
3
q
O 2 1 1 1
4
q
1 1 O O 3
u |citc vooc ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo 0u xutuoxctuo0otv oc iu
qcu, uv xu0c q_uvq icitot,ci 8 cc tqv qcu.
Av ovouootc x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
tov ui0o tov ovuocv vot vuu,o-
vtui uvo xu0c cioo cou oc iu qcu, totc uvo tqv 1
q
q_uvq vui-
votc tqv ciocoq: x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
= 8. Attq ovouctui
,uixq ciocoq c 5 u,vcotot. Miu itoq uttq tq ciocoq
civui q cq:
x
1
= 2, x
2
= 3, x
3
= O, x
4
= 1, x
5
= 1 q uiiic (2, 3, O, 1, 1)
Opiou 1: Ku0c ciocoq c oq o
1
x
1
o
2
x
2
F o
v
x
v
ic-
,ctui ,uixq ciocoq c v u,vcotot. Oi vu,uti-
xoi ui0oi o
1
, o
2
, , o
v
ic,ovtui otvtcicotc tcv u-
,vcotcv x
1
, x
2
, , x
v
xui o vu,utixo ui0o ic-
,ctui otu0co oo.
Opiou 2: Aoq tq ,uixq ciocoq ic,ctui xu0c oiutctu,-
cvq v-uou ui0cv (s
1
, s
2
, ., s
v
) tctoiu cotc q cioc-
oq vu cvuiq0ctctui uv 0cootc x
1
= s
1
, x
2
= s
2
, ., x
v
= s
v
.
To otvoio tcv ciococcv vot vuivotc uvo tqv vuu,c,q tcv
tcooucv q_uvcv oc 8 cc civui:
x
1
+ x
2
+2x
3
+2x
4
+ x
5
= 8
2x
1
+ x
2
+3x
3
+ x
4
+Ox
5
= 8
Ox
1
+2x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 8
x
1
+ x
2
+Ox
3
+Ox
4
+3x
5
= 8
xui ic,ctui ,uixo ototqu tcooucv ciococcv c vcvtc u,vc-
otot q otvtootcu ,uixo ototqu 45. Icvixotcu, c_otc o-
ti:
Opiou 3: 'Lvu viq0o ,uixcv ciococcv c v u,vcotot
tcv ovoicv qtotc ti xoivc itoci, ic,ctui ypot-
ko ootqo ctoeocev c v oyveotou q vio uviu
ypotko ootqo bv.
Opiou 4: Aoq cvo ,uixot ototquto v ic,ctui k0c
ototctoyvq v-oo opt0ev vot cvuiq0ctci oic ti
ciococi tot ototquto.
Miu itoq tot vuuvuvc ,uixot ototquto civui q 5uou
(2, 3, O, 1, 1) uot cvuiq0ctci xui ti tcooci ciococi.
Opiou 5: Lutooto 0u ic,ctui cvu ,uixo ototqu v uv
c_ci itoq. 'Lvu ot|i|uoto ototqu c_ci q iu itoq
q uvcic.
4O Kcuiuio 1
Opiou 6: Iooovoo 0u ic,ovtui oto ,uixu ototqutu uv c-
_otv okpte tt otc oct. Iuotc ot|oiixu
(L
1
) ' (L
2
) q (L
1
) E (L
2
).
H._.
'
2x + 4y = 6
x + y = 2
x y = O

'
;
2x y = 1
3x + 2y = 5
uot c_otv xui tu oto ovuoixq itoq tq otuou (x, y) = (1, 1).
Opiou 7: Aovoto 0u ic,ctui to ,uixo ototqu vot ocv c_ci
itoq.
- Mopq ypotko ouotqoto c tq oq0cto tvkev
To ototqu tot vo|iquto u ,uctui c tq |oq0ciu vivuxcv
c cq:
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1
2 1 3 1 O
O 2 1 1 1
1 1 O O 3

]
1
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
=
]
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
ovot o 45 vivuxu A civui o vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv tcv u,vc-
otcv, o 51 vivuxu otqiq X civui o vivuxu tcv u,vcotcv tot vo-
|iquto xui o 41 vivuxu otqiq B civui o vivuxu tcv otu0ccv
ocv. 'Ltoi uviototcu ,uotc to ototqu c tq oq AX = B,
oqiuoq c tq oq iu ciocoq vivuxcv.
Icvixotcu, cvu ,uixo ototqu v c_ci tq oq:
u
11
x
1
+ u
12
x
2
++ u
1v
x
v
+ |
1
u
21
x
1
+ u
22
x
2
++ u
2v
x
v
= |
2

u
1
x
1
+u
2
x
2
++u
v
x
v
=|
O oivio ocixtq xu0c otvtcicotq tot u,vcotot xu0oici tq 0coq

tot otvtcicotq oto ototqu. O vcto ocixtq xu0c otvtcicotq
oci_vci tqv ciocoq otqv ovoiu uvqxci o otvtcicotq xui o octtc-
o ocixtq oci_vci c voiov u,vcoto voiiuviuoiuctui. H._. o u
23
civui o otvtcicotq tq octtcq ciocoq tot titot u,vcotot x
3
.
Mc tq |oq0ciu vivuxcv, to vuuvuvc ,uixo ototqu v ,uc-
tui:
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
u
21
u
22
u
2v

u
1
u
2
u
v

]
1
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
v
=
]
1
1
1
|
1
|
2
q AX = B, ovot A civui o vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv, X o vivuxu tcv

u,vcotcv xui B o vivuxu tcv otu0ccv ocv.
- Av oioi oi otu0coi ooi tot ,uixot ototquto civui q-
ocv, totc to ototqu ic,ctui oo,cvc xui ,uctui AX = 0.
- O vivuxu vot voxtvtci uvo tot otvtcicotc tcv u,vcotcv
xui tot otu0cot oot cvo ,uixot ototquto:
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
j |
1
u
21
u
22
u
2v
j |
2
j
u
1
u
2
u
v
j |
ic,ctui cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto xui vuici oqu-

vtixo oio otqv cviitoq tot ototquto. H xutuxotq oiuxc-
xocvq ,uq uvic _cici tot otvtcicotc tcv u,vcotcv
uvo tq otqiq tcv otu0ccv ocv.
- Euoq ypotko ouotqoto c tq 0ooo oootq Gauss
Av oc cvu ,uixo ototqu cuoootc iu uvo ti cvocvc oiu-
oixuoic, totc voxtvtci ioootvuo ototqu.
- Mvootc vu uiiuotc tq 0coq oto ciococcv.
- Mvootc vu voiiuviuoiuotc c cvu q qocvixo ui0o xui
tu oto ciq iu ciocoq.
- Mvootc vu voo0ctotc xutu ciq oto ciococi uot vctu
c_otc voiiuviuoiuoci tq iu uvo uttc c cvu q qocvixo u-
i0o.
'Ltoi, otuv c_otc vu itootc cvu ,uixo ototqu, voovu0otc
c ti vuuvuvc oiuoixuoic, vu to ctuo_qutiootc oc cvu uiio
ioootvuo ototqu c uvcq itoq.
42 Kcuiuio 1
Hopciyuo
u cviitoctc to 43 ,uixo ototqu:
y +2c=1
2x +2y +2c=4
x + y +3c=O
2x y + c =6
Atoq
y +2c=1
2x +2y +2c=4
x + y +3c=O
2x y + c =6
~
c
1
+ c
2
O ot|oiioo c
1
+ c
2
oquivci oti
uiiuotc tq 0coq tq vctq c tq
octtcq ciocoq tot ototquto.
(Atto ,ivctui ,iu vu tvu_ci otqv
vctq ,uq xui tqv vctq otqiq
tot ototquto, u,vcoto c q q-
ocvixo otvtcicotq)
2x +2y +2c=4
y +2c=1
x + y +3c=O
2x y + c =6
~
c
1

1
2
c
1
O ot|oiioo c
1

1
2
c
1
oquivci oti
voiiuviuoiuotc xui tu oto ciq
tq vctq ciocoq c
1
2
. (Atto ,ivc-
tui, ,iuti u oictxoitvci ovc 0u
ootc vuuxutc, o otvtcicotq tot
vctot u,vcotot tq vctq cioc-
oq vu civui 1)
x +y + c =2
y +2c=1
x +y +3c=O
2x y + c =6
~
c
4
c
4
+ (2)c
1
c
3
c
3
+ c
1
O ot|oiioo c
3
c
3
+ c
1
oquivci
oti q titq ciocoq uvtixu0iotutui u-
vo to u0oiou tq titq c tqv vc-
tq. (Atto ,ivctui ,iu vu uvuiciotc
uvo tqv titq ciocoq tov u,vcoto
x). 'Ooiu c
4
c
4
+ (2)c
1
oquivci oti
q tctutq ciocoq uvtixu0iotutui uvo
to u0oiou tq tctutq c to ,ivo-
cvo tq vctq cvi (2). (Lvioq uvu-
icictui o u,vcoto x uvo tqv tctu-
tq ciocoq)
x + y + c =2
y +2c=1
2y +4c=2
3y c =2
~
c
4
c
4
+ 3c
2
c
3
c
3
+ (2)c
2
'Ooiu uvuiciotc tov u,vcoto y u-
vo tqv titq xui tctutq ciocoq.
x + y + c =2
y +2c=1
Oy +Oc=O
5c=5
~
c
4

1
5
c
4
H titq ciocoq vuuicivctui ,iuti u-
iq0ctci ,iu ovoicooqvotc tic tcv u-
,vcotcv xui ,iu tqv tctutq ciocoq
,vciotc qoq tov ot|oiioo.
x +y + c =2
y +2c=1
c =1
~
c
2
c
2
+ (2)c
3
c
1
c
1
+ (1)c
3
Mvootc coc vu otuutqootc tq
oiuoixuoiu xui c uvtixutuotuoci vu
tvoio,iootc tot u,vcotot. ltvc_i-
otc oc xui vuiotuvotc ot|o-
iixu tot ctuo_qutioot tot ot-
otquto cotc vu xutuiqotc otq
itoq.
x +y = 1
y =1
c= 1
~
c
1
c
1
+ (1)c
2

'
x = 2
y =1
c= 1
xui q itoq civui (x, y, c) = (2, 1, 1).
Livui uvio vu uvtiiq0ci xuvci oti oi u,vcotoi otqv cviitoq tot
ototquto ocv vuiotv ioiuitco oio. To |uoixo oio tov c_otv
oi otvtcicotc tcv u,vcotcv xui oi otu0coi ooi. Iiu to io,o utto
q vuuvuvc oiuoixuoiu voci vu cvitct_0ci c tq |oq0ciu tot c-
vutqcvot vivuxu, tot vivuxu oqiuoq tcv otvtcicotcv xui tcv
otu0ccv ocv tot ototquto. H oiuoixuoiu vot 0u _qoiovoiq-
0ci civui uvtiotoi_q uttq vot ,vciouc c ti vuci ctut tcv
ciococcv xui ,ivctui c tq |oq0ciu tcv ,ucv tot cvutqcvot
vivuxu vot ovouovtui ,uovuci. O ot|oiioo oiutqcitui,
uiiu uvucctui vicov oc ,uovuci.
Av L ovouootc tov cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ,uixot ototquto
totc:
L =
]
1
1
1
O 1 2 j 1
2 2 2 j 4
1 1 3 j O
2 1 1 j 6
~
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1
2 2 2 j 4
O 1 2 j 1
1 1 3 j O
2 1 1 j 6
~
,
1

1
2
,
1
44 Kcuiuio 1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 2
O 1 2 j 1
1 1 3 j O
2 1 1 j 6
~
,
4
,
4
+ (2),
1
,
3
,
3
+ ,
1

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 2
O 1 2 j 1
O 2 4 j 2
O 3 1 j 2
~
,
4
,
4
+ 3,
2
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 2
O 1 2 j 1
O O O j O
O O 5 j 5
~
,
4

1
5
,
4

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 2
O 1 2 j 1
O O 1 j 1
~
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
3
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
3
]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1
O 1 O j 1
O O 1 j 1
~
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
2

]
1
1
1
1 O O j 2
O 1 O j 1
O O 1 j 1
ovotc q itoq tot ototquto civui (x, y, c) = (2, 1, 1).
H oiuoixuoiu vot uxoiot0qouc oto voq,otcvo vuuoci,u vo-
ci vu vci,uci c tov cvocvo ui,oi0o:
Bqu 1
o
: Bioxotc tqv vctq otqiq tot vivuxu vot vcic_ci q
qocvixo otoi_cio.
Bqu 2
o
: Mctucotc otov vivuxu, vctq tq ,uq vot vcic_ci
to q qocvixo otoi_cio tq otqiq (1
q
,uovuq).
Bqu 3
o
: Kuvotc to q qocvixo otoi_cio tq otqiq ovuou (2
q
,uovuq).
Bqu 4
o
: Kuvotc oiu tu otoi_ciu tq otqiq vot civui xutc uvo tq
ovuou, qocvixu (3
q
,uovuq)
Bqu 5
o
: A,vootc tqv vctq ,uq tot vivuxu xui cvuvuiu|u-
votc tu |qutu 1 cc 4 ,iu ti cvocvc ,uc tot vi-
vuxu. Av oc oi ,uc vot uvccivuv civui qocvixc,
vq,uivotc oto 6
o
|qu.
Bqu 6
o
: Avo ,uq oc ,uq, _qoiovoicvtu to vcto uiotc-
u 1 xu0c ,uq xui tqv 3
q
,uovuq, xuvotc oiu tu
otoi_ciu tq otqiq vot |ioxctui q ovuou uttq, qocvi-
xu. Aqiuoq xuvotc qocvixu xui tu otoi_ciu vot |ioxo-
vtui vuvc uvo tq ovuou.
O vuuvuvc ui,oi0o oioxiqcvctui otuv oc xu0c q qocvixq
,uq to vcto uiotcu 1 civui xui to ovo q qocvixo otoi_cio
tq otqiq otqv ovoiu uvqxci. Ovouctui xui ui,oi0o tot
Gauss.
O ui,oi0o utto ,ivctui ctxoiu vo,uu qicxtovixot tvoio-
,iotq xui voci vu _qoiovoiq0ci ,iu tqv cviitoq ,uixcv ot-
otqutcv voiicv ciococcv c voiiot u,vcotot.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
A cvuvci0otc oto ciou,c,ixo u vo|iqu ,iu vu |otc vooc
ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo 0u xutuoxctuo0otv oc iu cu. To ototqu
u qtuv:
x
1
+ x
2
+2x
3
+2x
4
+ x
5
= 8
2x
1
+ x
2
+3x
3
+ x
4
+Ox
5
= 8
Ox
1
+2x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 8
x
1
+ x
2
+Ox
3
+Ox
4
+3x
5
= 8
xui c tq |oq0ciu tot cvutqcvot vivuxu xui tot ui,oi0ot tot
Gauss c_otc:
L =
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
2 1 3 1 O j 8
O 2 1 1 1 j 8
1 1 O O 3 j 8
~
,
4
,
4
+ (1),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O 2 1 1 1 j 8
O O 2 2 2 j O
~
,
2
(1),
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O 2 1 1 1 j 8
O O 2 2 2 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O O 1 5 3 j 8
O O 2 2 2 j O
~
,
3
(1),
3
46 Kcuiuio 1
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O O 1 5 3 j 8
O O 2 2 2 j O
~
,
4
,
4
+ 2,
3
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O O 1 5 3 j 8
O O O 8 8 j 16
~
,
4

1
8
,
4
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 2 1 j 8
O 1 1 3 2 j 8
O O 1 5 3 j 8
O O O 1 1 j 2
~
,
3
,
3
+ (5),
4
,
2
,
2
+ (3),
4
,
1
,
1
+ (2),
4
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 O 1 j 4
O 1 1 O 1 j 2
O O 1 O 2 j 2
O O O 1 1 j 2
~
,
2
,
2
+ (1),
3
,
1
,
1
+ (2),
3
]
1
1
1
1 1 O O 3 j 8
O 1 O O 1 j 4
O O 1 O 2 j 2
O O O 1 1 j 2
~
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
2
]
1
1
1
1 O O O 2 j 4
O 1 O O 1 j 4
O O 1 O 2 j 2
O O O 1 1 j 2
O tcicttuio vivuxu uvtiotoi_ci oto ototqu:
x
1
+ 2x
5
= 4
x
2
+ x
5
= 4
x
3
2x
5
= 2
x
4
+ x
5
= 2
xui uv 0cootc x
5
= l c_otc to ioootvuo ototqu:
x
1
= 4 2l
x
2
= 4 l
x
3
= 2 + 2l
x
4
= 2 l
x
5
= l
vot c_ci ctpc oct ,iu ti oiuoc vu,utixc tic tot l. L-
vcioq oi ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo vot vuu,otv oi q_uvc civui u-
i0oi 0ctixoi uxcuioi, vcvci vu io_totv oi uviootqtc:
4 2l , O
4 l , O
2 + 2l , O
2 l , O
l , O
vot oivotv tov vcioioo ,iu to l: 1 l 2.
Iiu l = 1 vuivotc c itoq (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
) = (2, 3, O, 1, 1) xui
,iu l = 2 vuivotc c itoq (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
) = (O, 2, 2, O, 2).
Eopuoyq 2
u cctuoctc uv to uxoiot0o ototqu civui ot|i|uoto:
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
= 9
2x
1
x
2
x
3
= 4
3x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= 6
4x
1
x
2
+2x
3
= 7
Atoq
To ototqu c tq |oq0ciu vivuxcv ,uctui:
]
1
1
1
1 1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1
4 1 2

]
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
3
=
]
1
1
1
9
4
6
7
xui o cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 9
2 1 1 j 4
3 1 1 j 6
4 1 2 j 7
~
,
4
,
4
+ 4,
1
,
3
,
3
+ 3,
1
,
2
,
2
+ 2,
1
48 Kcuiuio 1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 9
O 1 3 j 22
O 2 2 j 33
O 3 2 j 43
~
,
4
,
4
+ (3),
2
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 9
O 1 3 j 22
O O 4 j 11
O O 7 j 23
~
,
3

1
4
,
3
,
1
(1),
1
]
1
1
1 1 1 j 9
O 1 3 j 22
O O 1 j
11
4
O O 7 j 23
~
,
4
,
4
+ (7),
3

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 9
O 1 3 j 22
O O 1 j
11
4
O O O j
15
4
H tcicttuiu ciocoq oq Ox
1
+ Ox
2
+ Ox
3
=
15
4
civui uotvutq, u-
u xui to ototqu civui oovoto.
2quciooq:
(i) Av xutu tq oiuxciu cviitoq tot ototquto c tq c0ooo Gauss cuvio-
0ci otov cvutqcvo vivuxu ,uq oq:
O O O j u = O
totc to ototqu civui uotvuto. Av cuvio0ci ,uq oq:
O O O j O
totc uttq vuuicivctui xui q oiuoixuoiu otvc_ictui.
(ii) 'Otuv oc cvu ,uixo ototqu to viq0o tcv ciococcv civui c,uittco
uvo tov ui0o tcv u,vcotcv, cviic,otc otvq0c tooc ciococi ooc ci-
vui xui oi u,vcotoi xui itvotc c tq ,vcotq oiuoixuoiu to ototqu utto.
Kutoviv cctuotc uv q itoq vot voxtvtci (uv to ototqu civui ot|i|u-
oto) cvuiq0ctci xui ti tvoioivc ciococi tot ototquto. Av ti cvuiq-
0ctci totc uttq civui q itoq tot u_ixot ototquto. Av ocv ti cvuiq0ctci,
to u_ixo ototqu civui uotvuto (vuuoci,u 0cciu xui cuo,q 2).
(iii) 'Otuv oc cvu ,uixo ototqu to viq0o tcv ciococcv civui ixotco u-
vo tov ui0o tcv u,vcotcv totc to ototqu civui q uotvuto q c_ci uvcic
itoci (cuo,q 1).
Eopuoyq 3
A vuotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
5 1 1
1 4 3
4 2 5
xui X =
]
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
3
u uvoocictc oti q ciocoq AX = 3X civui oo,cvc ototqu. Ku-
toviv, vu itoctc to ototqu utto c tq c0ooo Gauss.
Atoq
(u) AX = 3X
]
1
1
1
5 1 1
1 4 3
4 2 5

]
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
3
= 3
]
1
1
x
1
x
2
x
3

]
1
1
5x
1
x
2
+ x
3
x
1
+ 4x
2
3x
3
4x
1
2x
2
+ 5x
3
=
]
1
1
3x
1
3x
2
3x
3

'
5x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= 3x
1
x
1
+ 4x
2
3x
3
= 3x
2
4x
1
2x
2
+ 5x
3
= 3x
3

'
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= O
x
1
+ x
2
3x
3
= O
4x
1
2x
2
+ 2x
3
= O
vot civui oo,cvc ototqu xui c_ci o poovq oq, tqv
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) (0, 0, 0).
(|) O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1
2 1 1 j O
1 1 3 j O
4 2 2 j O
~
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j O
2 1 1 j O
4 2 2 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (4),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j O
O 3 7 j O
O 6 14 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j O
O 3 7 j O
O O O j O
~
,
2

1
3
,
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j O
O 1
7
3
j O
~
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
2

]
1
1
1 O
2
3
j O
O 1
7
3
j O
O tcicttuio vivuxu uvtiotoi_ci oto ototqu:
x
1

2
3
x
3
= O
x
2

7
3
x
3
= O
xui uv 0cootc x
3
= l c_otc to ioootvuo ototqu:
5O Kcuiuio 1
x
1
=
2
3
l
x
2
=
7
3
l
x
3
= l
vot c_ci uvcic itoci ,iu ti oiuoc vu,utixc tic tot l
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
_
2
3
l,
7
3
l, l . O vu,utixo ui0o l ovouctui c-
ict0co u,vcoto.
2quciooq:
To oo,cvc ototqu ovc ciouc oto (u) cctqu tq cuo,q 3 c_ci vuvtu
iu uvcq itoq vot ic,ctui qocvixq itoq. 'Au ocv civui votc uotvuto. lc ut-
tot tot cioot tu ototqutu ioivov q 0u c_otc ovuoixq itoq tq qocvixq q 0u
c_otc uvcic itoci.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc to ototqu:
;
(2i 1)x + y = 7
(i 2)x + ( 1)y = 2
Bcitc ti tic tcv i, e R cotc to ototqu vu c_ci itoq
(x, y) = (2, 2).
'Aouqoq 2
u cviit0otv tu ,uixu ototqutu:
(u)
y + c = 4
2x + 2y + 6c = 4
3x + 6y + 15c = 9
(|)
x + 4y 2c = 4
x 4y + 5c = 13
2x + 8y 2c = 2
(,)
2x + 2y 2c = 18
x y c = 1
2x 2y + 5c = 33
'Aouqoq 3
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
3 6 O
O 2 2
1 1 1
xui B =
]
1
1
1
2
1
1
(u) Yvoio,iotc to ,ivocvo AB.
(|) Av X =
]
1
1
1
x
y
z
,utc to ototqu vot cxuci q ciocoq vivu-
xcv AX = 0 xui oiuviotcotc oti o vivuxu B civui iu itoq ut-
tot tot ototquto. Mvocitc vu |citc xui uiic itoci uttot
tot ototquto;
'Aouqoq 4
Aivctui o vivuxu A ttvot (x + i) (2x + i 1) xui o vivuxu B ttvot
(2i x) (3x i + 2). u |citc tot uxcuiot x, i cotc vu oic-
tui to u0oiou A + B xui to ,ivocvo AB.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
(u)
3x + 2y = 1
2x + y = 1
5x + 4y = 5
(|)
ix + y = 1
x + y = 1
x + iy = 1
c i e R
'Aouqoq 2
u |citc tqv tiq tot i e R ,iu tqv ovoiu to ototqu:
'
[ x y c ]
]
1
1
1
1 2 O
2 2 1
2 1 2
= [ y 2c x ]
x + y 3c = 2i
civui ot|i|uoto.
'Aouqoq 3
u |citc ti tic tot i e R ,iu ti ovoic q ciocoq:
]
1
1
1 i
i i

]
1
1
x
y
=
]
1
1
i + 1
i
2
+ 1
c_ci itoq. Ii' uttc ti tic tot i vu tvoio,ioctc tov vivuxu
X =
]
1
1
x
y
.
52 Kcuiuio 1
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
lc cvu ti,cvo ABI iu ,cviu tot civui 1O c,uittcq uvo tq oct-
tcq xui q octtcq oiviuoiu uvo tqv titq. Yvoio,iotc ti ,cvic
tot ti,cvot.
'Aouqoq 2
O uvociocto _uit|u vcic_ci oioqo (!e), uv0uxu (C), vixciio
(i) xui _cio (Ci). H uvuitoq cocic oti to 8O tot _uit|u uvo-
tcicitui uvo oioqo xui vixciio, tvu_ci 5 _cio xui q voootqtu
tot !e civui tctuviuoiu tq voootqtu tot C. u |c0ci q xutu
|uo ototuoq tot _uit|u oc !e, C, i, Ci.
'Aouqoq 3
'Lvu cvooo_cio c_ci x ovoxiivu, y oixiivu xui c tixiivu ocutiu.
(u) u cxuoctc to viq0o tcv ocuticv xui xiivcv c tq |oq0ciu
tcv x, y, c.
(|) Av to viq0o oicv tcv ocuticv civui 18, to viq0o tcv xiivcv
33 xui to viq0o tcv oixiivcv ocuticv ooo tcv ovoxiivcv xui
tixiivcv ui, vu |citc voou civui tu ovoxiivu, oixiivu xui
tixiivu ocutiu.
'Aouqoq 4
O votto civui xuu _uixot (Cu) xui xuooitcot (Sn). 'Lvu xo-
uti vottot t,ici 81,877 gi xui c_ci o,xo 1O cm
3
. Av q vtxvotq-
tu tot Cu civui 8,92 gi/cm
3
xui tot Sn civui 7,29 gi/cm
3
, vu |c0ci q
xutu |uo ototuoq tot vottot oc _uixo xui xuooitco.
(Otiotc oti: vtxvotqtu =
uu
o,xo
, =
m
V
).
Icviu Aouqoci Kcozoioo
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc cvu v vivuxu A = [u
ij
] cotc ,iu to xu0c otoi_cio tot vi-
vuxu vu io_tci u
ij
= ij. Av to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i ,uq
civui ioo c to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i otqiq, ocitc oti o vi-
vuxu civui tctu,cvixo.
'Aouqoq 2
l' cvuv vivuxu 66 tovo0ctotc tot ui0ot 1, 2, 3, ., 36 xutu
ociu, cxivcvtu uvo tqv vctq ,uq xui ,uovtu oiuoo_ixu
tot vuuvuvc ui0ot. Mvocitc vu tovo0ctqoctc tot ui0ot
uttot ctoi cotc to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv xu0c ,uq xui xu0c
otqiq vu civui vcitto ui0o;
'Aouqoq 3
Av o vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
u
3
u
2
|, |
2
u,
|
3
,
2
u u|, ,
2
u|
,
3
u
2
| u
3
|
2
, |,
2
c u, |, , e R civui ti,cvixo xutc, vu ocictc oti civui xui oiu,c-
vio.
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc cvuv vivuxu A ttvot 23 xui cvuv vivuxu B ttvot 34.
Hooot voiiuviuoiuoot xui vooc voo0coci vcvci vu xuvotc
,iu vu tvoio,iootc to ,ivocvo AB;
'Aouqoq 5
Occotc cvuv 22 vivuxu A =
]
1
1
u |
, o
, u, |, ,, o e R.
(u) Bcitc tov ttvo tot vivuxu X ,iu tov ovoio c_ci cvvoiu q cioc-
oq AX XA = ! (1).
(|) Acitc oti ocv tvu_ci vivuxu X ,iu tov ovoio uiq0ctci q (1).
'Aouqoq 6
Occotc oto vv vivuxc A, B xui tov ttvot v1 vivuxu otqiq:
X =
]
1
1
1
O
O
(u) Hoiu otoi_ciu tot ,ivocvot AB civui uvotcicou tq vuq
(AB)X;
54 Kcuiuio 1
(|) Ivciovtu oti io_tci q vooctuiiotixq ioiotqtu otov voiiu-
viuoiuoo vivuxcv, voiu otoi_ciu tot ,ivocvot AB cxuci
to ,ivocvo A(BX);
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc tot vv vivuxc A, B ,iu tot ovoiot io_tci A B = 2!
xui A
2
+ B
2
= 6!.
(u) Acitc oti AB = BA = !.
(|) Yvoio,iotc tov vivuxu A
3
B
2
A
2
B
2
.
'Aouqoq 8
u |citc ti tic tcv i, e R cotc vu civui ioootvuu tu ototq-
utu:
(l
1
)
x + 2y = 4
2x + i
2
y = O
(l
2
)
x + 2y = O
x + y = i +
'Aouqoq 9
Miu |ioq_uviu, _qoiovoici tci q_uvc, c ti ovoic xutu-
oxctuci tcoocu |ioq_uvixu cioq. Ku0c q_uvq ootictci 8 cc
tqv qcu xui o ui0o tcv ccv vot _qoiovoicitui xu0c q_uvq
,iu tqv vuu,c,q iu ovuou uvo xu0c cioo oivctui uvo tov vivu-
xu:
Lioq
Mq_uvq
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
q
1 2 1 2
2
q
2 O 1 1
3
q
1 2 3 O
u |citc vooc ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo 0u xutuoxctuototv cou
oc iu qcu.
Avoucozoiooq
- Oi ocixtc tot otoi_ciot u
ij
u viqoootv oti utto |ioxc-
tui otqv i ,uq xui tq j otqiq.
- Ato vivuxc tot ioiot ttvot v civui iooi otuv tu uvtiotoi_u
otoi_ciu tot civui iou.
- Tu |uoixotcu cioq vivuxcv civui:
(u) Hivuxu otqiq q vivuxu ,uq
(|) Tctu,cvixo vivuxu
(,) Ti,cvixo uvc q xutc
(o) Aiu,cvio
- Hoo0ctotc ovo vivuxc tot ioiot ttvot. Ku0c otoi_cio tot
u0oiouto voxtvtci uv voo0cootc tu uvtiotoi_u otoi-
_ciu tcv oto (q vcioootccv) vivuxcv.
Iiotpte.
+ A + B = B + A
+ (A + B) + I = A + (B + I)
+ A + 0 = 0 + A = A
+ A + (A) = (A) + A = 0
- To ,ivocvo ui0ot cvi vivuxu voxtvtci uv voiiuviuoiu-
ootc xu0c otoi_cio tot vivuxu c tov ui0o.
Iiotpte.
+ (i + )A = iA + A
+ i(A + B) = iA + iB
+ (i)A = i(A)
+ 1A = A
Lvioq io_tci iA = 0 i = O q A = 0.
- Iiu vu voiiuviuoiuootc vivuxc vcvci to viq0o tcv otq-
icv tot vctot vivuxu vu civui ioo c to viq0o tcv ,ucv
tot octtcot vivuxu. l_qutixu: A
B
v
= I
v
. Iiu to otoi-
_cio ,
ij
tq i ,uq xui j otqiq tot ,ivocvot AB io_tci:
,
ij
= u
i1
|
1j
+ u
i2
|
2j
+ + u
i
|
j
56 Kcuiuio 1
Iiotpte.
+ A(BI) = (AB)I
+ A(B + I) = AB + AI xui (B + I)A = BA + IA
+ (iA)(B) = (i)AB
+ A!
v
= !
v
A = A
Hooo_q!! AEN io_totv:
AB = BA
AB = 0 A = 0 q B = 0
- 'Lvu ,uixo ototqu ciococcv c v u,vcotot c_ci o-
q:
u
11
x
1
+ u
12
x
2
++ u
1v
x
v
+ |
1
u
21
x
1
+ u
22
x
2
++ u
2v
x
v
= |
2

u
1
x
1
+u
2
x
2
++u
v
x
v
=|
xui voci otvovtixu vu ,uci AX = B ovot A

v
civui o vivu-
xu tcv otvtcicotcv tcv u,vcotcv, X
v1
civui o vivuxu otqiq
tcv u,vcotcv xui B
1
civui o vivuxu otqiq tcv otu0ccv o-
cv.
- To oo,cvc ,uixo ototqu ,uctui AX = 0.
- !oootvuu ic,ovtui oto ototqutu vot c_otv ioic itoci.
- H ,q,ootcq c0ooo cviitoq cvo v ,uixot ototq-
uto civui q c0ooo oiuoo_ixcv uvuicicv tot Gauss. O ui-
,oi0o tot Gauss _qoiovoici ti ,uovuci ,iu to q-
ocvioo ooo to otvutov vcioootccv otoi_cicv tot vivuxu
tcv otvtcicotcv tcv u,vcotcv. O vuuvuvc ui,oi0o oio-
xiqcvctui otuv oc xu0c q qocvixq ,uq to vcto ui-
otcu 1 civui to ovo q qocvixo otoi_cio tq otqiq otqv o-
voiu uvqxci.
Eporqoci Korovqoq
1. Ti civui cvu vivuxu v; Hoou otoi_ciu c_ci;
2. Ti u viqoootv oi ocixtc tot otoi_ciot u
23
;
3. Ato vivuxc ioiot ttvot v civui iooi; Av o_i, ti vcvci vu i-
o_tci ,iu vu civui iooi;
4. lqcicotc uv oi vuuxutc io_tiooi civui ocotoi (l) q iu-
0o (A) xui oixuioio,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou:
(u) Oi qocvixoi vivuxc civui vuvtu iooi.
(|) Oi qocvixoi vivuxc civui vuvtu tctu,cvixoi.
(,) Av o vivuxu A civui ttvot v xui io_tci A!
v
= !
v
A = A
totc = v.
(o) Av o vivuxu A civui v xui o B civui v, totc oiovtui
tu ,ivocvu AB xui BA.
(c) Tu vuuvuvc ,ivocvu AB xui BA civui iooi vivuxc.
(ot)Iiu vu oictui o A
2
vcvci vu civui tctu,cvixo.
() Av A civui vv vivuxu, totc AA
2
= A
2
A.
(q) Av A civui vv vivuxu, totc A
1O
A
1O
= A
1OO
.
(0) Av A, B vivuxc vv xui i vu,utixo ui0o io_tci:
(i) (iA)
2
= i
2
A
2
(ii) (AB)
2
= A
2
B
2
5. lqcicotc tq ocotq uvuvtqoq xui oixuioio,qotc:
(u) Av oto vivuxc civui v totc oictui:
(i) To ,ivocvo AB (iii) Kui tu oto
(ii) To u0oiou A + B (iv) Tivotu uv' tu oto
(|) Av ,iu oto vivuxc vv io_tci A
2
= B
2
, totc:
(i) A = B (iii) Mvoci vu qv io_tci xuvcvu uv' tu oto
(ii) A = B (iv) !o_totv xui tu oto
(,) Av ,iu oto vivuxc vv io_tci (A B)
2
= 0, totc:
(i) A = B
(ii) A = B = 0
(iii) Acv civui uvuuitqto vu io_tci to (i) q to (ii)
58 Kcuiuio 1
(o) Av A, B oto vv vivuxc xui ! o ovuoiuio vv totc:
(i) (A + B)
2
= A
2
+ 2AB + B
2
(ii) (iA + B)
2
= i
2
A
2
+ 2iAB +
2
B
2
(iii) (iA + !)
2
= i
2
A
2
+ 2iA +
2
!
2
(iv) Kuvcvu uvo tu voq,otcvu
6. lqcicotc voioi uvo tot cvocvot io_tioot civui oc-
otoi (l) q iu0o (A) xui oixuioio,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
(u) Tu ioootvuu ototqutu c_otv vuvtu to ioio viq0o ci-
ococcv.
(|) Tu ioootvuu ototqutu c_otv vuvtu to ioio viq0o u-
,vcotcv.
(,) To oo,cvc ototqu c_ci vuvtu itoq.
(o) Av xutu tq oiuoixuoiu tcv oiuoo_ixcv uvuicicv Gauss
xutuiqotc oc ,uq O O O , O totc to ototqu
c_ci uvcic itoci.
(c) Av ooiu xutuiqotc oc ,uq O O O , u = O totc
to ototqu civui uotvuto.
Hcpiypoiuq 2rorioriuq
Etooyeyq
lc voiiu cvttvu tot qcqoiot xui vciooixot ttvot oqooi-
ctovtui tu uvotcicoutu oiuocv cctvcv, c,uoicv xui uvo,u-
cv, c tq oq vivuxcv xui oiu,uutcv.
H vuotoiuoq tcv uvotcicoutcv uttcv ,ivctui c voiiot
tovot xui oxovo c_ci tqv xuittcq xui ctxoiotcq xutuvoqoq
tot cotc vu civui uviq q cu,c,q otvcuoutcv xui q iqq xu-
tuiiqicv uvouoccv.
Oi vuuvuvc cvc,cic cxtciotvtui c tq |oq0ciu tq ltutioti-
xq. Aqiuoq, ltutiotixq civui o xiuoo tcv u0qutixcv o ovoio
c c,o c_ci tqv ootevtpoop otoi_cicv, tqv toivoupop tot xui tqv
vuotoiuoq tot oc xutuiiqiq oq cotc vu vootv vu uvuit-
0otv xui vu cqvct0otv ,iu tqv ctvqctqoq oiuocv oxovcv.
2.1. Bootk vvotc kot optoo
Hq0uoo
ltq otutiotixq, ,iu tq otvtuq tcv vivuxcv, otiic,ovtui otoi_ciu
vot uvucovtui oc otvoio uvtixcicvcv (ct_cv q ut_cv). To
otvoio utto tcv uvtixcicvcv ovouctui viq0too.
Ku0c otoi_cio tot viq0toot 0u to ovouotc utoo. To viq0o
tcv utocv cvo viq0toot ovouctui c,c0o tot viq0toot, xui
0u ot|oiictui c v.
Mctoqtq
'Ovc ciouc, q otutiotixq uo_oicitui c tq otiio,q xui tqv vu-
otoiuoq otoi_cicv cvo viq0toot. ltvq0c cvu viq0too cc-
tuctui c vo xuvoio _uuxtqiotixo tot, to _uuxtqiotixo utto
6O Kcuiuio 2
tot viq0toot ovouctui ctu|iqtq
1
.
H cctuoq cvo oci,uto c vo xuvoio _uuxtqiotixo tcv uto-
cv tot, voci vu ,ivci ,iu voootixu q voiotixu _uuxtqiotixu.
lt,xcxicvu c_otc oti:
- Hoootixu _uuxtqiotixu civui cxcivu tu ovoiu vootv vu c-
tq0otv. lc cvuv viq0too c,uocvcv ,iu vuuoci,u voooti-
xu _uuxtqiotixu civui o io0o, to to, oi cc c,uoic
x.iv.
Oi ctu|iqtc tcv voootixcv _uuxtqiotixcv civui oto ciocv:
- Aiotpite uetopte, oti ovoic xu0c utoo tot viq0toot vo-
ci vu vuci ovo oiuxcxicvc tic. Iiu vuuoci,u,
1. H cctuoq cvo viq0toot oixo,cvcicv c vo tq ctu-
|iqtq Hoou vuioiu c_ci q oixo,cvciu.
2. H cctuoq cvo viq0toot xutoixcv iu voiq c vo tq
ctu|iqtq Hooc viotctixc xutc c_ci xu0c utoo tot
viq0toot.
- 2ove,ei uetopte, oti ovoic xu0c utoo tot viq0toot vo-
ci vu uvtiotoi_q0ci oc ovoiuoqvotc vu,utixq tiq vot uvq-
xci oc oiuotqu tcv vu,utixcv ui0cv q cvcoq oiuotqu-
tcv. Iiu vuuoci,u,
1. H cctuoq cvo viq0toot xutoixcv iu voiq c vo tq
ctu|iqtq Hooo to c_ci xu0c utoo tot viq0toot.
2. H cctuoq cvo viq0toot ccv iu vcio_q c vo tq
ctu|iqtq Hooo |uo c_ci xu0c utoo tot viq0toot.
- Hoiotixu _uuxtqiotixu civui cxcivu tu ovoiu ocv cvioc_ovtui
ctqoq. lc cvuv viq0too c,uocvcv voiotixu _uuxtqi-
otixu civui to _cu tcv uticv tot, to cvivcoo ocoq
tot, x.iv.
2quciooq: To oiotito ,opottppiotito oeioov vo eivoi ovtiteiuevito, pop p ev-
voio opoio, po t.. ev eivoi oiotito ,opottppiotito, oo io tov ,opo-
ttppiouo evo otouoo o po to opoio 0o opp,ov oe ioopetite ovtipei.
Acyo
Livui uvco oti uv 0ciotc vu xutu,uotc to to tcv Liiqvi-

1
Luv Q c
1
, c
2
, , c
v
; civui o viq0too totc iu uvcixovioq X tot Q oc ot-
voio A ovouctui ctu|iqtq tot Q, oqiuoq X: Q<A c X(c
i
) l
i
.
Hci,uixq ltutiotixq 61
ocv otq _cu u 0u vcvci vu xuvotc uvo,uq tot tot tot,
oqiuoq vu ctqootc to to oicv tcv Liiqviocv xui otq otvc-
_ciu vu otvtuotc tot uvtiotoi_ot vivuxc c tu uvotcicoutu.
'Ovc xutuiu|uivotc utto civui uotvuto, o_i ovo ,iu tc_vixot
io,ot uiiu xui cvcioq civui cuictixu ouvuvqo. lc uttc ti vc-
ivtcoci ovot q uvo,uq civui uotvutq, cviic,otc cvu co
(tvootvoio) tot viq0toot vot civui uvtivoocvcttixo tot viq0t-
oot xui to cctuotc. To co utto viq0toot ic,ctui oci,u.
Hiq0too
Aci,u
H cctuoq cvo oci,-
uto tot viq0toot
ic,ctui oci,utoiqi-
u. H cviio,q tot oc-
otot oci,uto civui
iu voit otoxoiq c-
,uoiu, uot vcvci to
oci,u vu uvotcici
iu ixo,uiu tot
viq0toot.
Livui ,vcotq q ioto-
iu tcv cxio,cv tot
1936 oti H.H.A, ovot
iu c,uiq xtxioo-
iu cqciou, _q-
oiovoicvtu cvu vo-
it c,uio oci,u
(5O.OOO) voc|icc o-
ti vixqtq tcv cxio,cv 0u qtuv o All Iondon, cvc o G. Gallu _q-
oiovoicvtu ixotco oci,u oc ixq xtxiooiu cqciou,
tqv Ameiica Seals, xutucc vu vo|icci ocotu tq vixq tot
uiiot tvoqiot, tot !ianllin Roosevell.
Av 0ciotc vu ctqootc to to tcv u0qtcv cvo itxciot vot
c_ci 2OO u0qtc otqv A Atxciot, 15O otq B xui 1OO otq I xui vu-
otc 1O uvo tqv A, 2O uvo tq B xui 15 uvo tq I, totc civui vou-
vc oti q cviio,q uttot tot oci,uto civui iuv0uocvq.
'Lvu uvuiovioto oci,u 0u u ococi ot_vu uvotcicoutu vot uvc-
_otv voit uvo tqv vu,utixotqtu. Yvu_ci q xutuiiqiq c0o-
ooio,iu ,iu tqv cviio,q tot ocotot oci,uto, ctoi cotc to oci,u
tot viq0toot vu civui iu uxi|q ixo,uiu tot xui vu uvooioci
ocotu tqv cixovu tot viq0toot.
62 Kcuiuio 2
ltu vuuxutc 0ccotc oti to oci,u c_ci cviic,ci ocotu xui ocv
0u uo_oiq0otc c tov tovo cviio,q tot oci,uto.
H ororioriuq uc rq pqoq rov ciyurov civoi oooiooriu uio cnoyoyiuq
cniorquq ooo on ro upo cv oovzoo npoonobci vo yzci oo-
uncpouoro yio ro zov.
2.2. Luvotqto Hopotqpqocev
lto o_oicio u 0ciotc vu cctuootc tot u0qtc c vo to _u-
uxtqiotixo voou uociiu c_otv. Avo tov viq0too tot o_o-
iciot o_qutiotc cvu oci,u 5O utocv, oqiuoq v 5O. Avo ti u-
vuvtqoci vot vuivotc o_qutiotc cvu vivuxu. ltq iu otqiq
tot vivuxu |ioxctui o utcv ui0o tot u0qtq xui otq octtcq o
ui0o tcv uocicv vot c_ci.
A/A
Mo0qtq
Aoto
A/A
Mo0qtq
Aoto
A/A
Mo0qtq
Aoto
1 O 18 4 35 2
2 1 19 1 36 O
3 O 2O 2 37 3
4 1 21 2 38 4
5 O 22 1 39 1
6 1 23 1 4O O
7 2 24 1 41 1
8 O 25 1 42 2
9 1 26 1 43 2
1O O 27 O 44 3
11 2 28 1 45 1
12 3 29 O 46 2
13 O 3O 2 47 3
14 1 31 O 48 1
15 2 32 3 49 1
16 1 33 3 5O 2
17 O 34 3
Miu tctoiot cioot xutu,uq tcv ticv civui uiiov xuxq. Kuit-
tcu 0u qtuv vu xuvotc tqv cq xutu,uq: otqv vctq otqiq vu
,uotc tov ui0o tcv uocicv xui otq octtcq tcv ui0o tcv
u0qtcv vot c_otv toou uociiu oou oqicvci q vctq otqiq. H vu-
uvuvc c,uoiu civui ctxoiotcq xui ctoi xutuoxctuotc tov vi-
vuxu:
Ap. Aocev Atooyq Mo0qt
O

12
1

18
2

11
3

7
4

2
'Ltoi, c_otc ctqoci tov ui0o tcv uocicv otu utou tot oci-
,uto xui vootc vu votc oti c_otc tqv xutuvoq tot ui0ot
tcv uocicv tot oci,uto.
Ap. Aocev (x
i
) Mo0qt (v
i
)
O 12
1 18
2 11
3 7
4 2
Lvoo 5O
Livui cuvc oti otqv xutuvoq uttq q tiq 1 cuvictui ot_vo-
tcu uvo tqv tiq O xui q tiq 3 cuvictui vio ot_vu uvo tqv tiq
4. Tov ui0o tcv cuvioccv iu tiq ovouotc ot_votqtu c-
uvioq tq tiq q uviu ot_votqtu tq tiq xui ot|oiictui c
v
i
. Aqiuoq:
- H tiq x
1
O c_ci ot_votqtu v
1
12
- H tiq x
2
1 c_ci ot_votqtu v
2
18
64 Kcuiuio 2
- H tiq x
3
2 c_ci ot_votqtu v
3
11
- H tiq x
4
3 c_ci ot_votqtu v
4
7
- H tiq x
5
4 c_ci ot_votqtu v
5
2
Av to oci,u cuvici x oiuoctixc tic tq ctu|iqtq c u-
vtiotoi_c ot_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, , v
x

totc vouvc io_tci oti:
v
1
v
2
F v
x
v
H ot_votqtu otoiuotixu u viqooci oti o ui0o 3 cuvic-
tui 7 oc oti 5O. Bc|uiu, o uv0cvo cv ,cvci c_ci otvq0ioci vu
cxuci ti ctu|oic cvi tq cxuto (), oqiuoq uvtiiu|uvctui
xuittcu xuvoiu uvotcicoutu, otuv uttu oivovtui xut` uvuio,iu
tot 1OO xui o_i tot 5O q ovoiotoqvotc uiiot ui0ot. Iiu to io,o
utto _qoiovoiotc otvq0c tq cvvoiu tq o_ctixq ot_votqtu, q
ovoiu oictui c cq:
Av v civui to c,c0o cvo oci,uto (viq0toot) totc to vqiixo
v
i
v
ovouctui o_ctixq ot_votqtu xui ot|oiictui c l
i
oqiuoq:
l
i

v
i
v

ui0o cuvioccv
c,c0o oci,uto
Livui uvco oti l
1
l
2
F l
x
1.
Ap. Aocev
(x
i
)
Luvotqto
(v
i
)
L. ouvotqto
(f
i
)
L. ouvotqto
(%)
O 12 O,24 24
1 18 O,36 36
2 11 O,22 22
3 7 O,14 14
4 2 O,O4 4
A0poooto 5O 1 1OO
ltvoiovtu, c_otc oti:
Opiou 1: lt_votqtu tiq x
i
iu ctu|iqtq ovouctui to
viq0o tcv utocv tot viq0toot (q tot oci,uto)
,iu tu ovoiu q ctu|iqtq vuivci tqv tiq x
i
xui ot-
|oiictui c v
i
.
Opiou 2: l_ctixq ot_votqtu tiq x
i
iu ctu|iqtq ovouc-
tui o io,o tq ot_votqtu vo to c,c0o tot oci,-
uto xui ot|oiictui c l
i
,

oqiuoq l
i

v
i
v
.
H voocxtixq uvu,vcoq tot vivuxu u oivci ti viqooic ,iu
tot u0qtc tot ot,xcxicvot o_oiciot xui ,iu to voou uociiu
c_otv. Av 0ciotc vu u0otc voooi u0qtc c_otv ii,otcu uvo 2
uociiu vcvci vu voo0cootc ti ot_votqtc tcv ticv O, 1 ,iu
ii,otcu uvo 3 vcvci vu voo0cootc ti ot_votqtc tcv ticv O,
1, 2 x.iv. Iiu to io,o utto xutuoxctuotc otvq0c xui iu uiiq
otqiq q ovoiu c_ci to u0oiou tcv ot_votqtcv tcv ticv vot civui
ixotcc q ioc uvo uttqv. To u0oiou utto ovouctui u0oi-
otixq ot_votqtu. 'L_otc ioivov tov cq vivuxu:
Apt0o
oocev
(x
i
)
Luvotqto
(v
i
)
A0potottkq
ouvotqto
Lcttkq
ouvotqto
(f
i
)
Lcttkq
o0potottkq
ouvotqto
O 12 12 O,24 O,24
1 18 3O O,36 O,6O
2 11 41 O,22 O,82
3 7 48 O,14 O,96
4 2 5O O,O4 1
A0oioutu 5O 1
H u0oiotixq ot_votqtu tiq x
i
u oivci tqv viqooiu Hoou
utou tot viq0toot c_otv tiq tq ctu|iqtq ixotcq q ioq u-
vo x
i
'Ovc uivctui uvo tov vuuvuvc vivuxu q o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot-

_votqtu tot 3 civui O,96 to ovoio cxuci oti To 96 tcv vuioicv
c_otv ii,otcu uvo 4 uociiu.
Opiou 3: lc voootixq ctu|iqtq, u0oiotixq ot_votqtu iu
tiq x
i
ic,ctui to u0oiou tcv ot_votqtcv v
i

tcv
ticv vot civui ixotcc q ioc c tqv tiq uttq.
66 Kcuiuio 2
Opiou 4: lc voootixq ctu|iqtq, o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_vo-
tqtu iu tiq x
i
ic,ctui to u0oiou tcv o_ctixcv
ot_votqtcv l
i

tcv ticv vot civui ixotcc q ioc
c tqv tiq uttq.
Eivoi ovepo oti p opoovo totooteop tov ivotov e,ei vopuo uovo
ov oi tiue tp uetoptp e,oov ioto,0ei oe ooooo oeipo.
Iiu tqv xuittcq vuotoiuoq tcv vuuvuvc otvq0c _qoiovoi-
otc ,uixc vuuotuoci.
- Ipotk Hopootoct
ltov uovu tcv tctqcvcv (xx) 0ccotc tov ui0o tcv uocicv
(O, 1, 2, 3, 4) oqiuoq ti tic tq ctu|iqtq x
i
xui otov uovu tcv
tctu,cvcv (yy) voooi u0qtc c_otv tov uvtiotoi_o ui0o uoci-
cv, oqiuoq ti tic tcv uvtiotoi_cv ot_votqtcv.
O
5
1O
15
2O
O 1 2 3 4
H cuvioq tq vuuvuvc ,uixq vuuotuoq ocv u cvitcvci
vu xutuiu|otc ,q,ou xui ctxoiu tqv xutuvoq. Iiu to io,o utto
tvu_otv xui uiioi ttvoi oiu,uutcv.
Poooypoto
- Kotokopuo poooypoo
Kutuoxctuotc ovc xui voq,otcvu tov uovu tcv tctqcvcv,
tov ovoio oiuiotc oc vcvtc iooqxq oiuotqutu oc xu0cvu uvo
uttu uvtiotoi_otc iu tiq tq ctu|iqtq xui oc xu0c oiuotqu
xutuoxctuotc cvu o0o,cvio, c to tqv uvtiotoi_q tiq tot.
O
5
1O
15
2O
O 1 2 3 4
Livui uvco oti q ot_votqtu tq tiq x
i

ioottui c to c|uoov tot
o0o,cviot vot uvtiotoi_ci oc uttqv, uv 0ccqootc c ovuou c-
tqoq to viuto tot o0o,cviot. Axoq, io_tci oti to u0oiou
tcv c|uocv tcv o0o,cvicv civui ioo c to c,c0o tot oci,uto.
- Optovtto poooypoo
Kutuoxctuctui ovc xui to xutuxoto, uiiu c cvuiiu,q tot
oiot tcv uovcv.
O 5 1O 15 2O
O
1
2
3
4
Kuktko otypoo
Hoiic oc cuviotc tu uvotcicoutu iu ctqoq c tq
oq xtxiixot oiu,uuto. Atto ,ivctui c cq:
1. Aiuiotc to xtxio oc cq uvuio,u tcv ot_votqtcv tcv ticv
tq ctu|iqtq .
2. Kutuoxctuotc tot uvtiotoi_ot xtxiixot toci xui _cu-
tiotc tov xu0cvu c cvu oiuoctixo _cu. Aqiuoq:
lto 12 uvtiotoi_otc to M
O

12
5O
36O 86S 24.
68 Kcuiuio 2
1

18
5O
36O 129S 36.
2

11
5O
36O 79S 12.
3

7
5O
36O 5OS 24.
4

4
5O
36O 14S 24.
O
1
2
3
4
2quciooq: H uovoo uetppop tov oviov o vootov eivoi p uoipo p ooio ouo oo-
ioipeitoi oe 60 poto eto toi to to0e eto oe 60 etepo. Etoi ev eivoi oooto vo
poooue 45,4 uoipe oo 45 uoipe toi
4
10
60 24 poto eto pop 45S 24.
HPOLOXH !!!
lc iu xiuoixq ,uixq vuuotuoq oqcicv (oc oiuxitq ctu|iq-
tq), civui iu0o vu otvocootc tu covccvu oqciu ctut tot
c ct0t,uu tqutu.
O
5
1O
15
2O
O 1 2 3 4
Hopciyuo 1
Avo tq otutiotixq cvctqiou tq L0vixq ltutiotixq Yvqcoiu
tq Liiuoo vuivotc tov vuuxutc vivuxu ,iu tu oqooiu vqviu-
,c,ciu vot icitot,qouv xutu tu ctq 1988 - 1992.
Aqooto Nqtoyeyco
'Eto Lotk ovoc
1988 5238
1989 5281
199O 5334
1991 5376
1992 5391
Tu u|oo,uutu voiic oc tu xutuoxctuotc tiooiuotutu:
515O
52OO
525O
53OO
535O
54OO
1988 1989 199O 1991 1992
Aqooto Nqtoyeyco
Av xuvotc tqv ioiu cictq xui ,iu tu ioictixu vqviu,c,ciu 0u
oiuviotcootc oti:
Iotettk Nqtoyeyco
'Eto Lotk ovoc
1988 151
1989 148
199O 14O
1991 142
1992 138
7O Kcuiuio 2
Ovotc to uvtiotoi_o u|oo,uu 0u civui:
13O
135
14O
145
15O
155
1988 1989 199O 1991 1992
Iotettk Nqtoyeyco
Avo tq ot,xioq uttcv tcv oto oiu,uutcv otvcuivotc oti t-
vu_ci iu utqoq (ixq |c|uiu oc o_coq c tu tvu_ovtu) otu
oqooiu xui ot,_ovc iu ixq cicoq tcv ioictixcv vqviu,c,ci-
cv.
Hoiic oc ,iu tq cictq tq ioiu ctu|iqtq oc oto viq0t-
oot (v._ ucvc, 0qici) xutuoxctuotc ,iu xu0c tiq tq ctu-
|iqtq oto o0o,cviu, cvu ,iu xu0c viq0too, c oxovo vu c_otc
ctxoiq ot,xioq.
Hopciyuo 2
Avo to Kcvto Lctvcv ,iu Ocutu !ootqtu (K.L.O.!) c_otc tov
vuuxutc vivuxu:
Epyottko ouvotko, ooooocvot, vcpyot kot
q cvcpyo kot o to 1996 otqv Kpqtq
Kotqyopo 'Avopc Iuvokc
Hiq0too L,uoiq Hiixiu 19696O 215134
L,utixo Atvuixo 135432 95823
Avuo_oiotcvoi 133138 89181
Lvc,oi 2294 6642
Lvc,oi Muxu Aiuxciu 785 314O
Mq Lvc,oi 61527 119311
O vuuvuvc vivuxu civui vivuxu oiviq cioooot. H ctu|iqtq ci-
vui voiotixq xui oi ot_votqtc civui xutu,ucvc oc otqic. To
uvtiotoi_o u|oo,uu civui:
O
5OOOO
1OOOOO
15OOOO
2OOOOO
25OOOO
Hq0uoo
Epyotq
Htko
Epyottko
Auvotko
Aoooocvot Evcpyo Evcpyo Mokp
Atpkcto
Mq Evcpyo
'Avoc Itvuixc
Etkovoypoto
ltq cictq c,uicv oci,utcv voiic oc _qoiovoiotc cixo-
vo,uutu. A tvo0cootc oti c_otc viq0too 5O.OOO u0qtc c
ctu|iqtq voou cco_oiixu |i|iiu oiu|uouv xutu tq oiuxciu tcv
xuioxuiivcv oiuxovcv. Oi ot_votqtc xutu,uovtui otov vuu-
xutc vivuxu:
A/A Apt0o Btev Luvotqto
1 O 23OOO
2 1 12OOO
3 2 8OOO
4 3 3OOO
5 4 2OOO
6 5 1OOO
7 Hcioootcu uvo 5 1OOO
ltvoio 5OOOO
lc tctoic vcivtcoci _qoiovoiotc tu cixovo,uutu:
72 Kcuiuio 2
2.3. Oooooqoq Hopotqpqocev
'Lotc oti 0ciotc vu ctqootc to to tcv u0qtcv cvo itxciot
xui cviic,otc cvu xutuiiqio oci,u 5O u0qtcv. Av voovu0q-
ootc vu xutu,uotc tu tq tot c tqv voq,otcvq c0ooo 0u
vuutqqootc oti civui iu otoxoiq xui _ovo|ou oiuoixuoiu,
io,c tcv voiicv ticv vot 0u cuvio0otv. A tvo0cootc oti c-
_otc ti tic:
1,5O - 1,52 - 1,53 - 1,53 - 1,54 - 1,54 - 1,6O - 1,6O - 1,6O - 1,6O
1,6O - 1,61 - 1,61 - 1,62 - 1,63 - 1,64 - 1,64 - 1,65 - 1,66 - 1,67
1,68 - 1,69 - 1,7O - 1,71 - 1,71 - 1,72 - 1,72 - 1,73 - 1,75 - 1,75
1,78 - 1,79 - 1,79 - 1,79 - 1,79 - 1,8O - 1,81 - 1,81 - 1,81 - 1,81
1,82 - 1,83 - 1,84 - 1,85 - 1,86 - 1,91 - 1,95 - 1,97 - 2,OO - 2,O5
Livui vouvc oti q voovu0ciu xutuoxctq cvo vivuxu ot_votq-
tcv 0u uvott_ci. H uvott_iu ociictui oto oti q ctu|iqtq to
voci vu vuci ovoiuoqvotc tiq uvucou otqv ciu_iotq xui tq
c,iotq, ,iuti civui iu otvc_q ctu|iqtq. Iiu to io,o utto |i-
oxotc tq oiuou ctut c,iotq xui ciu_iotq tiq, vot civui
2,05 1,50 0,55 xui tq oiuiotc oc iooqxq oiuotqutu. Iiu c,u-
ittcq uxi|ciu 0ccotc 11 oiuotqutu (xiuoci) viutot O,O5,
oqiuoq tu:
[1,5O, 1,55), [1,55, 1,6O), [1,6O, 1,65), [1,65, 1,7O),
[1,7O, 1,75), [1,75, 1,8O), [1,8O, 1,85), [1,85, 1,9O),
[1,9O, 1,95), [1,95, 2,OO), [2,OO, 2,O5)
xui xutu,uotc voou utou uvqxotv oc xu0c oiuotqu. To coov
xu0c oiuotquto to ovouotc xcvto tq xiuoq.
Atootqoto Luvotqto Lcttkq Luvotqto
[1,5O, 1,55) 6 O,12
[1,55, 1,6O) O O
[1,6O, 1,75) 11 O,22
[1,65, 1,7O) 5 O,1O
[1,7O, 1,75) 6 O,12
[1,75, 1,8O) 7 O,14
[1,8O, 1,85) 8 O,16
[1,85, 1,9O) 2 O,O4
[1,9O, 1,95) 1 O,O2
[1,95, 2,OO) 2 O,O4
[2,OO, 2,O5) 2 O,O4
A0oioutu 5O 1
To uvtiotoi_o ioto,uu tq vuuvuvc xutuvoq civui to uxo-
iot0o:
O
2
4
6
8
1O
12
1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05
ltvq0c oc xu0c tctoio ioto,uu, voovu0otc vu uvtiotoi_i-
ootc xui cvu voit,cvo ot_votqtcv. 'Ltoi, xutuoxctuotc to i-
oto,uu xuvovixu, cuviovtu oc xui to oiuotqu [1,45, 1,5O)
74 Kcuiuio 2
viv to [1,5O, 1,55) xui to [2,O5, 2,1O) xutoviv tot oiuotquto
[2,OO, 2,O5). ltq otvc_ciu, oqcicvotc to coo tq vuvc oiovtiu
,uq xu0c o0o,cviot, xu0c xui tu cou tot voq,otcvot
oiuotquto [1,45, 1,5O) xui tot cvocvot [2,O5, 2,1O) xui tu cvcvot-
c, xutuoxctuovtu ctoi to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv tq xutuvoq
uttq:
O
2
4
6
8
1O
12
1,45 1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05 2,10
To voit,cvo ot_votqtcv c tov oiovtio uovu o_qutici _cio
ioot c|uoot c utto vot o_qutiotv tu o0o,cviu uot vuutq-
otc oti ,iu xu0c xouti vot voo0ctotc (c ovto uovo) uui-
citui xui cvu ioc|uoixo xouti (c ovto ,uiuio).
Iiu to ioto,uu tq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu - o_ctixq u0oioti-
xq ot_votqtu uxoiot0citui q vuuvuvc oiuoixuoiu. To voit,cvo
u0oiotixcv - o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv o_qutictui cvc-
vovtu tu ociu uxu (o_i tu cou) tcv uvc |uoccv tcv o0o,cvicv
c ct0t,uu tqutu:
O
1O
2O
3O
4O
5O
6O
7O
8O
9O
1OO
1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05
lto voq,otcvo vuuoci,u cviicuc xiuoci ioot viutot. Y-
vu_otv oc vcivtcoci vot civui uvuuitqto vu c_otc xiuoci
c oiuoctixu viutq.
'Hpo Atuqoto
O7.OO' O9.OO' 2.O8O
O9.OO' 13.OO' 4.141
13.OO' 15.OO' 3.21O
15.OO' 17.OO' 2.79O
17.OO' 21.OO' 4.625
21.OO' 24.OO' 3.O21
24.OO' O7.OO' 4.O16
ltvoio 23.883
Houvc q xutuoxctq cvo ioto,uuto c ioc xiuoci xui tq
o0o,cvicv tq ot_votqtu civui iu0o. To to xu0c o0o,cviot
vcvci vu civui uvtiotou uvuio,o tot viutot tq xiuoq. Iiu to
io,o utto cxto uvo tq ot_votqtu oiotc xui oto vcc otqic: q
iu civui to viuto tq xiuoq xui q uiiq to vqiixo tq ot_votqtu
vo to viuto tq xiuoq.
'Hpo v
i
c
i
v
i
c
i
O7.OO' O9.OO' 2O8O 2 1O4O
O9.OO' 13.OO' 4141 4 1O35,25
13.OO' 15.OO' 321O 2 16O5
15.OO' 17.OO' 279O 2 1395
17.OO' 21.OO' 4625 4 1156,25
21.OO' 24.OO' 3O21 3 1OO7
24.OO' O7.OO' 4O16 7 573,71
ltvoio 23883
76 Kcuiuio 2
Kutuoxctuotc to ioto,uu ot_votqtcv c to xu0c o0o,c-
viot to
v
i
c
i
.
O
2OO
4OO
6OO
8OO
1OOO
12OO
14OO
16OO
18OO
07.00' 09.00' 13.00' 15.00' 17.00' 21.00' 24.00' 07.00'
2.4. Hopctpot Ooq
- Etkpotooo ttq
Opiou 1: Lvixutotou tiq iu ctu|iqtq ovouctui q tiq
c tq c,uittcq ot_votqtu. Av oto q vcioootcc
tic c_otv tq c,iotq ot_votqtu totc tvu_otv vc-
ioootcc uvo iu cvixutotoc tic.
Iiu vuuoci,u:
- Av q ctu|iqtq vuivci ti tic 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7,
7, 8, 8, 9 totc c_otc tov vivuxu ot_votqtcv:
x
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
v
i
2 1 1 3 1 2 4 2 1
H cvixutotou tiq civui 7.
- Av q ctu|iqtq vuivci ti tic 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7,
8, 9, 9 totc c_otc tov vivuxu ot_votqtcv:
x
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
v
i
2 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 2
Oi cvixutotoc tic civui oi 2, 6.
- lc otvc_q ctu|iqtq oiotc c cvixutotou xiuoq uttq c
tq c,uittcq ot_votqtu. H cvixutotou tiq tvoio,ictui
,uixu ovc uivctui oto vuuxutc o_qu:
O
2
4
6
8
O 5 1O 15 2O 25
A
A
B
I
L
13,3
lto vuuoci,u utto q cvixutotou tiq |ioxctui uvo tqv tc-
tqcvq tot oqciot toq tcv ct0t,ucv tqutcv AI xui
BA xui civui vooc,,iotixu 13,3.
- Moq ttq
H coq tiq oiuocv ticv, civui ,vcotq c to vqiixo tot u0oi-
outo tcv ticv vo to viq0o tot. Iiu vuuoci,u o |u0o tot
uvoittqiot cvo u0qtq civui o coo oo tcv |u0cv tcv u0q-
utcv vot oiouoxctui. O coo oo tvoio,ictui ovo oc voooti-
xc ctu|iqtc. O coo oo voiotixcv _uuxtqiotixcv ocv oi-
ctui otq otutiotixq. Oi cxuoci tq oq coo uv0cvo
civui xoivcvioio,ixc cxuoci xui vouvc vcic_otv iu uoi-
otiu.
- Atokpttq ctoqtq
A cctuootc cvu oci,u viq0toot 5O uv0cvcv c ctu|iqtq
vooc viotctixc xutc c_otv xui cotc oti c_otc tu vuuxutc
78 Kcuiuio 2
uvotcicoutu.
O - O - O - O - O - O - O - O - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 -
2 - 3 - 3 - 3 - 3 - 3 - 3 - 3 - 4 - 4
Totc q coq tiq tot ioottui c to u0oiou tot oiu tot viq0ot,
oqiuoq:
O + O + O + O + O + O + O + O + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 = 76
Ovotc o coo oo civui
76
5O
= 1,52.
Av oc c_otc tov vivuxu tcv ot_votqtcv totc c_otc:
A/A x
i
v
i
1 O 8
2 1 19
3 2 14
4 3 7
5 4 2
A0oioutu 5O
Xqoiovoicvtu tov vivuxu tcv ot_votqtcv q coq tiq voci vu
tvoio,iotci uvo tov ttvo
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
+ v
4
x
4
+ v
5
x
5
v
1
+ v
2
+ v
3
+ v
4
+ v
5
, uot to u-
0oiou v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
+ v
4
x
4
+ v
5
x
5
cxuci tov ui0o tcv vi-
otctixcv xutcv vot tvu_otv oto oci,u xui to v
1
+ v
2
+ v
3
+ v
4
+ v
5
to viq0o tcv utocv tot oci,uto.
Tq coq tiq iu ctu|iqtq x tqv ot|oiiotc c
x.
Av q ctu|iqtq vuotoiuci x
1
, x
2
, ., x
x
tic c uvtiotoi_c ot-
_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, ., v
x
, totc q coq tiq tq ctu|iqtq oivctui uvo
tov ttvo:
x =
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
x
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
Iiu tov vio ctxoio tvoio,ioo tq coq tiq oqiot,otc iu
vcu otqiq otqv ovoiu tvoio,iovtui tu v
i
x
i
xui xutoviv to u0oiou
tot.
A/A x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
1 O 8 O
2 1 19 19
3 2 14 28
4 3 7 21
5 4 2 8
A0oioutu 5O 76
Kutuiq,otc ioivov vuii, oti q coq tiq civui
76
5O
= 1,52.
- Luvcq ctoqtq
A ctqootc to |uo 5O uvicv, ovotc c_otc ti tic:
1O,O3 - 9,57 - 9,35 - 7,79 - 8,86 - 9,83 - 1O,64 - 9,76 - 1O,3O -
8,12 - 1O,84 - 9,6O - 9,27 - 8,75 - 1O,25 - 7,O3 - 9,28 - 1O,64 -
8,25 - 1O,8O - 9,35 - 1O,37 - 8,79 - 8,26 - 7,59 - 1O,33 - 8,99 -
7,63 - 9,25 - 1O,11 - 1O,22 - 7,4O - 8,23 - 8,87 - 9,O3 - 1O,65 -
8,27 - 9,9O - 9,33 - 9,77 - 1O,61 - 9,75 - 9,34 - 7,57 - 1O,O2 -
1O,54 - 1O,49 - 1O,42 - 1O,69 - 7,83
Ivciotc oti q coq tiq tot |uot civui ioq c to vqiixo tot
u0oiouto tcv ticv uttcv oiu to viq0o tcv ticv. Av voo0c-
ootc oic ti tic |ioxotc 468,56, ovotc c_otc coq tiq
468,74
5O
= 9,37.
O tvoio,ioo tq coq tiq otqv vuuvuvc xutuvoq coc tq
ouoovoiqoq ,ivctui c cq:
Atotqo Luvotqto v
i
Moo otootqoto O
i
v
i
O
i
7,O 7,5 2 7,25 14,5
7,5 8,O 4 7,75 31
8,O 8,5 6 8,25 49,5
8,5 9,O 5 8,75 43,75
9,O 9,5 8 9,25 74
9,5 1O,O 7 9,75 68,25
1O,O 1O,5 1O 1O,25 1O2,5
1O,5 11,O 8 1O,75 86
A0oioutu 5O 469,5
8O Kcuiuio 2
lc xu0c oiuotqu tvoio,iotc to coov tot O
i
, ,iu vuuoci,u, to
coov tot oiuotquto uvo to 7 cc 7,5 civui
7 + 7,5
2
= 7,25, ovotc c-
_otc O
1
= 7,25. 'Ooiu tvoio,iotc xui tu tvoioivu cou oiuotq-
utcv.
ltq otvc_ciu, voiiuviuoiuotc xu0c coov oiuotquto c tqv u-
vtiotoi_q ot_votqtu tot oiuotquto, oqiuoq o_qutiotc iu
otqiq c otoi_ciu tu v
i
O
i

xui tvoio,iotc to u0oiou uttcv vot
civui 469,5. Aiuiotc to u0oiou utto c to c,c0o tot oci,uto
(v = 5O) xui |ioxotc tq coq tiq tot. Ovotc q coq tiq civui
469,5
5O
= 9,39.
Huutqotc oti oi oto coc tic vot tvoio,io0qxuv oiucotv
xutu O,O2 xui to ouiu utto vuotoiuctui io,c tot ccoot tvo-
io,ioot tot u0oiouto oicv tcv ticv.
H coq tiq civui iu vuucto 0cocc ,iuti u viqooci ,iu
tov coo oo tot oci,uto. Hoiic oc oc ocv civui uiovioto
otoi_cio. To cvocvo vuuoci,u civui _uuxtqiotixo.
Hopciyuo
lc cvu c,ootuoio c_otc 1OO c,utc c xu0uc uvooo_c 175.OOO
to qvu, 12 voIotucvot c 38O.OOO, 12 ot|otiot c 62O.OOO, 2
,cvixot oict0tvtc c 1.2OO.OOO xui oi ioioxtqtc civui 4 xui uvotc-
iotv to Aioixqtixo ot|otiio c uvooo_c 2.4OO.OOO o xu0cvu.
'L_otc:
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
165OOO 1OO 165OOOOO
38OOOO 12 456OOOO
62OOOO 12 744OOOO
12OOOOO 2 24OOOOO
24OOOOO 4 96OOOOO
13O 4O5OOOOO
Ovotc q coq tiq 0u civui
4O5OOOOO
13O
= 311538,5.
Mc uiiu io,iu, q coq tiq ocv civui cvuxq viqooiu ,iu tqv
xutuvoq tq ctu|iqtq. Iiu to io,o utto oictui otq otutiotixq
xui q oiucoo.
- Atcoo
Av c_otc ti 9 ui0qtixc tic 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, totc o coui-
o oo uttcv civui o 5
o
, oqiuoq o 3. Av c_otc ti 1O ui0qtixc
tic 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9 totc ocv tvu_ci couio oo. Totc c
couio oo 0ccotc to qiu0oiou tcv oto couicv, oqiuoq tot
5
ot
xui tot 6
ot
oot, oqiuoq
3 + 7
2
= 5. Icvixu c_otc tov uxoiot0o
oioo:
Opiou 1: Aiucoo o cvo oci,uto v vuutqqoccv vot c_otv
oiutu_0ci oc utotou ociu ovouctui:
- H couiu vuutqqoq uv to viq0o tcv vuutq-
qoccv civui vcitto.
- To qiu0oiou tcv couicv vuutqqoccv uv to
viq0o tcv vuutqqoccv civui utio.
lto voq,otcvo vuuoci,u, q couiu vuutqqoq civui vouvc
165.OOO (uot vcioootcoi uvo tot ioot c,uocvot viqcvo-
vtui c 165.OOO) xui q c,uiq oiuou vot tvu_ci ctut coq ti-
q xui oiucoot u oivci tqv viqooiu oti q xutuvoq ocv civui
ocotq.
Mvootc vu tvoio,iootc tq oiucoo uvo tqv u0oiotixq ot_vo-
tqtu q tq o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu. ltvq0c q oiuoixuoiu ut-
tq cuoctui oti ouoovoiqcvc vuutqqoci.
lto vuuoci,u vot ciouc voq,otcvu c to |uo tcv 50 uvicv
c_otc tov uxoiot0o vivuxu:
Atotqo
Luvotqto
v
i
A0potottkq
Lcttkq
f
i
Lcttkq
o0potottkq
7,O 7,5 2 2 O,O4 O,O4
7,5 8,O 4 6 O,O8 O,12
8,O 8,5 6 12 O,12 O,24
8,5 9,O 5 17 O,1O O,34
9,O 9,5 8 25 O,16 O,5O
9,5 1O,O 7 32 O,14 O,64
1O,O 1O,5 1O 42 O,2O O,84
1O,5 11,O 8 5O O,16 1
A0oioutu 5O
82 Kcuiuio 2
A _uuotc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot-
_votqtu:
O
O,2
O,4
O,6
O,8
1
7 7,5 8 8,5 9 9,5 1O 1O,5 11
0,5
Iiu tqv tiq O,5 tot uovu tcv o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv
(yy') |ioxotc tqv uvtiotoi_q tiq tq ctu|iqtq q ovoiu civui
9,5.
- Lykptoq opotpev 0oq
Iiu ti tci vuuctot 0coq c_otc tu cq:
- H coq tiq cvqcuctui uvo ti uxuic tic xui cututui u-
vo oic ti tic tq ctu|iqtq.
- H cvixutotou tiq cututui ovo tq c,uittcq tiq
- H oiucoo ocv cvqcuctui uvo ti uxuic tic xui cututui
uvo oic ti tic tq ctu|iqtq. O tvoio,ioo tq oiucoot
vuotoiuci otoxoiic oc oiocvc vcivtcoci (v._. oc otvc-
_q ctu|iqtq).
2.5. Hopctpot Atooop
H ot,xioq cctvcv c to ioio uvtixcicvo oc oiuoctixot viq0t-
oot civui cvu uvo tot oxovot tq ltutiotixq. Mc ti vuuc-
tot 0coq c_otc xuvoic viqooic ,iu ti xutuvoc.
Livui oc otvutov oc oto xutuvoc (oc oiuoctixot viq0t-
oot) tq ioiu ctu|iqtq vu c_otc tqv ioiu vuucto 0coq
(v._. tqv ioiu coq tiq) xui oi tic tq iu xutuvoq vu civui
xovtu otq coq tiq cvc otqv uiiq xutuvoq uxiu uvo
uttqv.
Livui io,ixo ioivov vu cctuotc tq oiuovou tcv ticv tq ctu-
|iqtq ,tc uvo tqv vuucto 0coq xui otvq0c utto ,ivctui ,iu
tq coq tiq.
A tvo0cootc oti c_otc oto tqutu tq B' Atxciot xui cctu-
otc tot u0qtc c vo tq ctu|iqtq Bu0o otu Mu0quti-
xu.
Tqo A
1
Tqo A
2
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
8 3 24 8 O O
9 3 27 9 O O
1O 4 4O 1O 4 4O
11 2 22 11 3 33
12 2 24 12 4 48
13 O O 13 1 13
14 O O 14 2 28
15 1 15 15 4 6O
16 2 32 16 6 96
17 1 17 17 1 17
18 2 36 18 O O
19 2 38 19 O O
2O 3 6O 2O O O
A0oioutu 25 335 A0oioutu 25 335
Mcoq tiq
x = 13,4 Mcoq tiq
x = 13,4
Oi xutuvoc uttc c_otv tqv ioiu coq tiq (vuucto 0coq), o-
c vuutqotc oti:
- lto tqu A
1
q coq tiq cvqcuctui voit uvo tqv tvuq vo-
it xuicv u0qtcv ovc xui uvo u0qtc c ixq |u0oio,iu
oqiuoq c_otc c,uiq oiuovou ticv.
- lto tqu A
2
oi |u0oio,ic civui uvucou oto 1O xui 17 xui c-
toi c_otc ixotcq oiuovou ticv.
Oi ui0oi vot u viqoootv ,iu tq oiuovou tcv ticv civui to
cto, q coq uvoittq uvoxiioq, q oiuxtuvoq, xui q ttvixq uvo-
xiioq.
84 Kcuiuio 2
- Epo
Opiou 1: Lto civui q oiuou tq ixotcq tiq uvo tq
c,uittcq.
Livui vouvc oti to cto tvoio,ictui ctxoiu uv oi tic tq c-
tu|iqtq c_otv oiutu_0ci. Iiu vuuoci,u:
- lto tqu A
1
to cto civui 2O 8 = 12.
- lto tqu A
2
to cto civui 17 1O = 7.
To cto c vuucto oiuovou c_ci to ciovcxtqu oti _qoi-
ovoiotc ovo ti uxuic tic tq ctu|iqtq xui xu0oiot ti t-
voioivc.
- Moq ooutq ooktoq
Opiou 1: Av iu ctu|iqtq vuivci ti v tic l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot
c_otv coq tiq
x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq

ctu|iqtq ovouctui to vqiixo:
,
x l
1
, + ,
x l
2
, + + ,
x l
v
,
v
!oootvuo civui xui o vuuxutc oioo:
Opiou 2: Av iu ctu|iqtq vuivci tic x
1
, x
2
, ., x
x
c uvti-
otoi_c ot_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, ., v
x
vot c_otv coq tiq
x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovo-

uctui to vqiixo:
v
1
,
x x
1
, + v
2
,
x x
2
, + + v
x
,
x x
x
,
v
Atto o ttvo tq uvoittq uvoxiioq civui vio ct_qoto ,iu tov
tvoio,ioo tq. Axci vu o_qutiootc otov vivuxu ot_votqtcv
iu vcu otqiq c tu ,ivocvu v
i
,
x x
i
,, vu tu voo0cootc xui vu
oiuicootc c to c,c0o tot oci,uto.
Tqo A
1
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
%
!
x x
i
% v
i
%
!
x x
i
%
8 3 24 5,4 16,2
9 3 27 4,4 13,2
1O 4 4O 3,4 13,6
11 2 22 2,4 4,8
12 2 24 1,4 2,8
13 O O O,4 O
14 O O O,6 O
15 1 15 1,6 1,6
16 2 32 2,6 5,2
17 1 17 3,6 3,6
18 2 36 4,6 9,2
19 2 38 5,6 11,2
2O 3 6O 6,6 19,8
A0oioutu 25 335 1O1,2
H coq tiq totc civui
x =
335
25
= 13,4 xui q coq uvoittq uvoxiioq
1O1,2
25
= 4,O48.
Tqo A
2
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
%
!
x x
i
% v
i
%
!
x x
i
%
8 O O 5,4 O
9 O O 4,4 O
1O 4 4O 3,4 13,6
11 3 33 2,4 7,2
12 4 48 1,4 5,6
13 1 13 O,4 O,4
14 2 28 O,6 1,2
15 4 6O 1,6 6,4
16 6 96 2,6 15,6
17 1 17 3,6 3,6
18 O O 4,6 O
19 O O 5,6 O
2O O O 6,6 O
A0oioutu 25 335 53,6
86 Kcuiuio 2
lto vuuoci,u utto q coq tiq civui
x =
335
25
= 13,4 xui q coq u-
voittq uvoxiioq
53,6
25
= 2,144.
'Ltoi c_otc oti q oiuovou tcv |u0cv oto A
1
civui o_coov oi-
viuoiu uvo tq oiuovou tcv |u0cv oto A
2
.
H uvtiqoq vot voci vu oiuttvc0ci ,iu tqv coq uvoittq uvo-
xiioq civui oti q _qoq tcv uvoittcv ticv otoxoictci tov tvoio-
,ioo tq.
- Atokovoq Tutkq ooktoq
Iiu tov tvoio,ioo tq coq uvoittq uvoxiioq _qoiovoiot-
vtui oi oiuoc ,
x x
i
,. H oiuovou tcv ticv ,tc uvo tq coq ti-
q voooioictui xuittcu uvo ti oiuoc (
x x
i
)
2
xui oi ovoic
civui xui vio xutuiiqic ,iu tvoio,ioot. H coq tiq tcv oiuo-
cv uttcv ovouctui oiuxtuvoq xui ot|oiictui c s
2
.
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot c-
_otv coq tiq
x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq o-

vouctui to vqiixo:
s
2
=
(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
1
, x
2
, ., x
x
c uvti-
otoi_c ot_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, ., v
x
vot c_otv coq tiq
x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to vq-

iixo:
s
2
=
v
1
(
x x
1
)
2
+ v
2
(
x x
2
)
2
+ + v
x
(
x x
x
)
2
v
O tvoio,ioo tq oiuxtuvoq ,ivctui ctxoiu uv otov vivuxu ot-
_votqtcv voo0cootc iu otqiq c tu otoi_ciu v
i
(
x x
i
)
2
.
Tqo A
1
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i v
i
(
!
x x
i
)
2
8 3 24 87,48
9 3 27 58,O8
1O 4 4O 46,24
11 2 22 11,52
12 2 24 3,92
13 O O O
14 O O O
15 1 15 2,56
16 2 32 13,52
17 1 17 12,96
18 2 36 42,32
19 2 38 62,72
2O 3 6O 13O,68
A0oioutu 25 335 472
H coq tiq totc civui
x =
335
25
= 13,4 xui q oiuxtuvoq
s
2
=
472
25
= 18,88.
Iiu to A
2
c tov ioio tovo c_otc coq tiq
x =
335
25
= 13,4 xui q
oiuxtuvoq s
2
=
136
25
= 5,44.
H _qoq tq oiuxtuvoq vuotoiuci cvu oo|uo vo|iqu: Oi
ovuoc tq oiuxtuvoq civui tu tctu,cvu tcv ovuocv tq uvti-
otoi_q ctu|iqtq. Iiu to io,o utto uvti tq oiuxtuvoq _qoi-
ovoiotc c cto oiuovou tqv tctu,cvixq iu tq oiuxtuv-
oq, vot tq ot|oiiotc c s xui tqv ovouotc ttvixq uvoxiioq.
88 Kcuiuio 2
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot c-
_otv coq tiq
x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iq-

tq ovouctui to:
s =
(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
1
, x
2
, ., x
x
c uvti-
otoi_c ot_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, ., v
x
vot c_otv coq tiq
x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui

to:
s =
v
1
(
x x
1
)
2
+ v
2
(
x x
2
)
2
+ + v
x
(
x x
x
)
2
v
Iiu vuuoci,u to A
1
c_ci ttvixq uvoxiioq s = 18,88 = 4,354 cvc to
A
2
s = 5,44 = 2,33.
2.6. Luvtccotq Mctoqtotqto (CV)
'Otuv cctuotc oto oci,utu c vo tqv ioiu ctu|iqtq vuot-
oiuovtui oiuoctixc tic oti vuuctot 0coq xui oiuovou.
- H coq tiq tcv tcv tcv u0qtcv cvo Itvuoiot civui
x = 162 cm xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 5,7 cm.

- H coq tiq tcv tcv tcv u0qtcv cvo Itvuoiot civui
x = 181 cm xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 5,8 cm.

Livui uvco oti oc vootc vu votc oti oi oto viq0tooi vuot-
oiuotv tov ioio |u0o ctu|iqtotqtu. To vuuvuvc vo|iqu vu-
otoiuctui uv ctuc oc oiuoctixc ovuoc q xiiuxc.
- Oi u0qtc cvo Atxciot otqv Liiuou cctuocvoi c vo tqv
cvioooq tot vuotoiuotv coq tiq
x = 14,5 xui ttvixq uvo-

xiioq s = 2,5 (xiiuxu |u0oio,iu O 2O).
- Oi u0qtc cvo Atxciot oti H.H.A (\.S.A) cctuocvoi c
vo tqv cvioooq tot vuotoiuotv coq tiq
x = 62 xui ttvixq
uvoxiioq s = 16 (xiiuxu |u0oio,iu O 1OO).
ltqv vcivtcoq uttq ocv civui otvutov vu ot,xi0otv tu oto oci,-
utu io,c tq oiuoctixq xiiuxu |u0oio,iu.
'Lvu cto c to ovoio vootc vu cvcuootc ti vuuvuvc ot-
oxoiic civui o otvtcicotq ctu|oiq q otvtcicotq ctu|iqto-
tqtu.
Opiou 1: Av cvu oci,u cctuocvo c vo iu voootixq c-
tu|iqtq tot, vuotoiuci coq tiq
x xui ttvixq uvo-

xiioq s, otvtcicotq ctu|oiq q otvtcicotq ctu-
|iqtotqtu ovouctui to vqiixo:
CV =
ttvixq uvoxiioq
coq tiq
=
s
x
1OO
lto vcto vuuoci,u:
- Oi u0qtc oto Itvuoio vuotoiuotv otvtcicotq ctu|iqto-
tqtu CV =
5,7 cm
162 cm
1OO = 3,51.
- Oi u0qtc oto Atxcio vuotoiuotv otvtcicotq ctu|iqtotq-
tu CV =
5,8 cm
181 cm
1OO = 3,2.
lto octtco vuuoci,u:
- Oi u0qtc otqv Liiuou vuotoiuotv otvtcicotq ctu|iqto-
tqtu CV =
2,5
14,5
1OO = 17,24.
- Oi u0qtc oti H.H.A (\.S.A) vuotoiuotv otvtcicotq ctu-
|iqtotqtu CV =
16
62
1OO = 38,9.
O otvtcicotq ctu|iqtotqtu otoiuotixu ctuci tqv ooio,cvciu
tot viq0toot. Luv q tiq tot otvtcicotq ctu|iqtotqtu civui
xutc tot 1O o viq0too tot oci,uto 0cccitui ooio,cvq.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
Avo tq ltutiotixq tvqcoiu tq Htoo|cotixq c_otc to vuuxu-
tc oiu,uu:
9O Kcuiuio 2
Hoooottoo kotovoq kqocev kot kotqyopo
27,83
21,44
47,76
2,97
Lvc|uoci oc uvcixtotqc
Huo_c |oq0ciu
Htxu,ic
+ctoci A,,ciic
ltvoio xiqoccv: 6O74O
u |c0otv oi ot_votqtc tcv oiuocv voiotixcv _uuxtqioti-
xcv.
Atoq
O ttvo vot u oivci tq o_ctixq ot_votqtu civui l
i
=
v
i
v
, ovotc c_ot-
c oti v
i
= l
i
v xui cooov v = 6O74O c_otc:
v
1
= l
1
v = O,27836O74O = 169O4
v
2
= l
2
v = O,21446O74O = 13O24 x.iv.
ovotc c_otc tov vivuxu ot_votqtcv:
Eoo kqoq f
i
% f
i
v
i
Lvc|uoci oc uvcixtotqc 27,83 O,2783 169O4
Huo_c |oq0ciu 21,44 O,2144 13O24
Htxu,ic 47,76 O,4776 29O1O
+ctoci A,,ciic 2,97 O,O297 18O2
ltvoio 1OO 1
Eopuoyq 2
Oi |u0oi tcv 25 u0qtcv tq I' tuq cvo Atxciot civui:
15, 9, 17, 8, 11, 12, 18, 11, 1O, 14, 17, 18,
16, 1O, 11, 12, 15, 9, 17, 11, 13, 12, 13, 12, 11
(u) u xutuoxctuoctc vivuxu ot_votqtcv xui u0oiotixcv ot_vo-
tqtcv.
(|) Hoooi u0qtc c_otv |u0o ixotco q ioo uvo 12;
(,) Hoooi u0qtc c_otv |u0o c,uittco tot 14;
Atoq
(u) Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu ot_votqtcv c oiuio,q:
x
i
Atooyq v
i
8

1
9

2
1O

2
11

5
12

4
13

2
14

1
15

2
16

1
17

3
18

2
'A0oiou 25
ltviqcvotc tov vivuxu c tqv u0oiotixq ot_votqtu xui c-
_otc:
x
i
v
i
A0potottkq
8 1 1
9 2 3
1O 2 5
11 5 1O
12 4 14
13 2 16
14 1 17
15 2 19
16 1 2O
17 3 23
18 2 25
'A0oiou 25
92 Kcuiuio 2
(|) O ui0o tcv u0qtcv vot c_otv |u0o ixotco q ioo tot 12
civui q u0oiotixq ot_votqtu tot 12 oqi. 14.
(,) O ui0o tcv u0qtcv vot c_otv |u0o ixotco q ioo tot 14
civui q u0oiotixq ot_votqtu tot 14 oqiuoq 17. Oi u0qtc vot
c_otv |u0o c,uittco tot 14 civui oi tvoioivoi, oqiuoq
25 17 = 8.
Eopuoyq 3
Iiu tu ocoocvu tq cuo,q 2 vu |citc tq coq tiq, tq oiuc-
oo, tqv cvixutotou tiq xui tqv ttvixq uvoxiioq.
Atoq
ltviqcvotc tov vivuxu tq cuo,q 2 c ti otqic v
i
x
i
,
v
i
(
x x
i
)
2
:
x
i
v
i
A0potottkq v
i
x
i
v
i
(
!
x x
i
)
2
8 1 1 8 27,8784
9 2 3 18 36,6368
1O 2 5 2O 21,5168
11 5 1O 55 25,992
12 4 14 48 6,5536
13 2 16 36 O,1568
14 1 17 14 O,5184
15 2 19 3O 5,9168
16 1 2O 16 7,3984
17 3 23 51 41,5152
18 2 25 36 44,5568
A0oioutu 25 332 218,64
Ovotc c_otc oti:
- H coq tiq
x ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-

0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq otqiq v
i
x
i
xui vuuvouotq to viq-
0o tcv otoi_cicv, uu
x =
332
25
= 13,28.
- H oiucoo civui q couiu tiq tcv 25 ticv oqiuoq q 13
q
. H 13
q
civui oti vctc ocxutcooci uiiu o_i oti ocxu vctc, uu
civui q tiq vot uvtiotoi_ci otq tiq c o_ctixq ot_votqtu 14
uu civui 12.
- H cvixutotou tiq vouvc civui 11 (H tiq tq ctu|iqtq
c tq c,uittcq ot_votqtu).
- H oiuxtuvoq s
2
ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-
i
(
x x
i
)
2
xui vuuvouotq to
viq0o tcv otoi_cicv, uu s
2
=
218,64
25
= 8,7456, ovotc ttvixq u-
voxiioq s = 8,7456 = 2,9572.
Eopuoyq 4
O cvocvo vivuxu vuotoiuci tqv qiixiu 5O c,uocvcv cvo
c,ootuoiot.
[18,23) [23,28) [28,33) [33,38) [38,43) [43,48) [48,53) [53,58)
2 5 6 11 9 7 6 4
(u) u ,ivci ioto,uu ot_votqtcv.
(|) u ,ivci voit,cvo u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv.
(,) u |c0ci q oiucoo.
Atoq
Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu ot_votqtcv xui u0oiotixcv ot_votq-
tcv.
x v
i
A0potottkq ouvotqto
[18,23) 2 2
[23,28) 5 7
[28,33) 6 13
[33,38) 11 24
[38,43) 9 33
[43,48) 7 4O
[48,53) 6 46
[53,58) 4 5O
'A0oiou 5O
94 Kcuiuio 2
(u) To ioto,uu ot_votqtcv xui to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv civui:
O
2
4
6
8
1O
12
18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58
(|) To ioto,uu voit,cvo u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
O
1O
2O
3O
4O
5O
6O
18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58
25
38,71
(,) H oiucoo uvtiotoi_ci oto 25 tot y'y. Avo to vuuvuvc ,uq-
u vuutqotc oti uttq civui 38,71.
Eopuoyq 5
To coo |uo 3O u0qtcv xui u0qticv cvo Itvuoiot civui 62
Kg. Hoio 0u civui to coo |uo tot Itvuoiot:
(u) Av c0ci iu u0qtiu c |uo 64 Kg.
(|) Av t,ci cvu u0qtq c |uo 66 Kg.
Atoq
Livui
x = 62 Kg, uiiu
x =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
3O
3O
, ovotc:
623O = l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
3O
(u) H vcu coq tiq 0u civui:
y =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
3O
+ 64
31
=
623O + 64
31
= 62,O6 Kg
(|) H vcu coq tiq 0u civui:
y =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
3O
66
29
=
623O 66
29
= 61,86 Kg
Eopuoyq 6
Aivctui o vivuxu:
x
i
v
i
4 9
5 ;
6 3
7 2
8 4
c ti tic iu ctu|iqtq xui ti uvtiotoi_c ot_votqtc. Av q
ot_votqtu tot 5 c_ci "_u0ci", vu |c0ci uttq oti vuuxutc vci-
vtcoci:
(u) Yvu_otv oto cvixutcotcc tic.
(|) H coq tiq civui 5,5.
Atoq
(u) Oi ,vcotc ot_votqtc civui ixotcc q ioc uvo tq ot_votq-
tu tot 4 vot civui 9. Iiu vu tvu_otv oto cvixutcotcc tic
vcvci q ot_votqtu tot 5 vu civui ioq c tq ot_votqtu tot 4 oq-
iuoq vu civui 9.
(|) Av q ot_votqtu tot 5 civui x totc c_otc:
x
i
v
i
v
i
x
i
4 9 36
5 x 5x
6 3 18
7 2 14
8 4 32
A0oioutu 18 + x 1OO + 5x
96 Kcuiuio 2
'Au q coq tiq civui
x =
1OO + 5x
18 + x
, cvocvc:
5,5 =
1OO + 5x
18 + x
q
55
1O
=
1OO + 5x
18 + x
q 55(18 + x) = 1O(1OO + 5x) q
99O + 55x = 1OOO + 5Ox q 55x 5Ox = 1OOO 99O q
5x = 1O q x = 2
Eopuoyq 7
H coq tiq 4O vuutqqoccv civui 2O. Av uvo uttc oi 7 cicvo-
vtui xutu 2 xui oi 9 utuvovtui xutu 6, vu |c0ci q vcu coq tiq.
Atoq
Av
x = 2O totc 2O =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
4O
4O
, ovotc l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
4O
= 8OO.
Iiu tq vcu coq tiq 0u c_otc
y =
l
1
' + l
2
' + + l
4O
'
4O
, uiiu:
l
1
' + l
2
' + + l
4O
' = l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
4O
72 + 96 = 8OO 14 + 54 = 84O
'Au
y =
84O
4O
= 21.
Eopuoyq 8
Lic,_ovtui 35 uttoxivqtu c vo to _cu tot xui u vuuoioc-
tui o vuuxutc vivuxu:
Xpeo v
i
f
i
%
Koxxivo 3
Kitivo 9
Huoivo 14
Mvic 2O
Muto
ltvoiu 35
u tvoio,iototv oic oi ot_votqtc xui oi o_ctixc ot_votqtc xui
vu ,ivci to u|oo,uu tcv ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv.
Atoq
To 2O tot 35 civui 35O,2 = 7, oqiuoq q ot_votqtu tot vic _cu-
to civui 7 xui c_otc oti q ot_votqtu tot utot _cuto 0u civui
35 (3 + 9 + 14 + 7) = 35 33 = 2. 'Au o vivuxu ,ivctui:
Xpeo v
i
f
i
%
Koxxivo 3 8,57
Kitivo 9 25,71
Huoivo 14 4O
Mvic 7 2O
Muto 2 5,72
ltvoiu 35 1OO
xui to u|oo,uu ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
O
2
4
6
8
1O
12
14
L
u
v
o
t
q
t
o
O
1O
2O
3O
4O
L
c
t
t
k
q

L
u
v
o
t
q
t
o

(
%
)
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
Oi ciou,c,c cu,c,c tq _cu uvo to 1974 cc to 1993 oivovtui
uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu. u ,ivci q ,uixq vuuotuoq uttcv c
voit,cvixc ,uc otqv ioiu ,uixq vuuotuoq.
98 Kcuiuio 2
Etooyey kot Eoyey 1974 1993
'Eto Etooyey Eoyey 'Eto Etooyey Eoyey
1974 132181 6O98O 1984 1O8388O 542676
1975 172O41 74441 1985 1412797 629O85
1976 223159 93811 1986 1582298 789995
1977 25215O 1O133O 1987 1867354 955O7O
1978 287729 123727 1988 1756998 776434
1979 35682O 144238 1989 2625714 123O942
198O 452881 2211O8 199O 3137524 12675O7
1981 493764 237928 1991 3921522 1579967
1982 66592O 286281 1992 4484O59 188O763
1983 848295 392652 1993 5O5O531 1933422
Hq,q: L0vixq ltutiotixq Yvqcoiu tq Liiuoo
'Aouqoq 2
u uvoocictc oti q coq tiq civui to u0oiou tcv ,ivocvcv tcv
ticv tq ctu|iqtq cvi ti uvtiotoi_c o_ctixc ot_votqtc.
'Aouqoq 3
To coo to tcv 8O xutoixcv cvo vqoiot civui 172 cm. lti xu-
ioxuiivc oiuxovc 0uvotv oto vqoi 6O totiotc c coo to
187 cm. Hoio civui to coo to tcv utocv vot |ioxovtui oto vq-
oi oti xuioxuiivc oiuxovc;
'Aouqoq 4
lc cvu c,ootuoio c 1OO c,uocvot q coq tiq tcv uoi|cv ci-
vui 185OOO. To 45 tcv c,uocvcv oto c,ootuoio viqcvovtui
c io0o ixotco tq coq tiq xui oi io0oi tot c_otv coq
tiq 165OOO. Av oi uvooo_c tcv c,uocvcv c io0o ixotco
tq coq tiq utq0otv otq coq tiq, voiu 0u civui q vcu coq
tiq;
'Aouqoq 5
O vuuxutc vivuxu u oivci tq o_ctixq ot_votqtu iu ctu|iq-
tq c coq tiq 2,1. u otviqc0ci o vivuxu xui vu |c0ci q
oiucoo.
X
i
1 2 3 4
f
i
% 26 23
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Miu ctu|iqtq vuivci ti tic x, x + 2c, x + 3c, x + 4c, x + 5c c
c > O. u |c0ci q ttvixq uvoxiioq.
'Aouqoq 2
Mctuc to |uo tcv xutoixcv cvo _ciot xui c_otc coq tiq
72Kg xui ttvixq uvoxiioq 5Kg. H ctqoq tot |uot c,ivc c iu
t,uiu vot ovc uvooci_0qxc ctu ti ctqoci coci_vc 2Kg ii,o-
tco oc xu0c ctqoq. Hoiu civui q vu,utixq coq tiq xui voiu
q vu,utixq ttvixq uvoxiioq;
'Aouqoq 3
Oi uvotoic tcv u0qtcv iu tuq Atxciot xutu tov qvu lcvtc-
|io civui O, 1, 2, 2, O, 3, 2, 7, 2, 1, O, 5, 6, 7, 4, 5, 2, 1, O, 6, 7, 8, 9, O, O,
2, 1, 2, 1, O, 9. u |c0ci to vooooto tcv u0qtcv vot c_otv vcio-
ootcc uvo 6 uvotoic.
'Aouqoq 4
Av oi uvotoic oto Atxcicv A, B oivovtui uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
(u) u |c0ci q coq tiq xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq tcv oto xutuvo-
cv
(|) u o_coiuotci to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv oc xoivo oiu,uu.
(,) Avo tu Atxciu A, B voio civui vio ooio,cvc c vo ti uvot-
oic;
1OO Kcuiuio 2
Aouoc A Akcto B Akcto
[ O, 1O ) 2O 25
[ 1O, 2O ) 16 11
[ 2O, 3O ) 25 17
[ 3O, 4O ) 26 22
[ 4O, 5O ) 7 8
[ 5O, 6O ) 8 2O
[ 6O, 8O ) 9 13
[ 8O, 1OO) 12 4
[1OO, 125) 3 4
'Aouqoq 5
Oi 8 uvo tot 2O c,uocvot oc cvu c,ootuoio c_otv coo qvi-
uio io0o 175OOO xui oi tvoioivoi 215OOO. Hoio civui o coo qvi-
uio io0o oicv tcv c,uocvcv;
'Aouqoq 6
H ctoto_iu iu ouou Mvuoxct oti cict0cc |oic civui 7O.
Oi 5 |uoixoi vuixtc c_otv ctoto_iu 75 xui oi 3 cvi0ctixoi uvu-
viqcutixoi 6O. Hooq ctoto_iu c_otv oi 2 utvtixoi uvuviqc-
utixoi;
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
u ,ivci o vivuxu ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv u0oioti-
xcv o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv tq vuuxutc xutuvoq:
HINAKAL HAIKIAL HAOONTHN (ooqyo cttc co)
kot to 1998 e 50 ctev
Htko
(tq)
Mc_i 5 6-12 13-17 18-2O 21-24 25-29 3O-34 35-44 45-5O
'Atoo 354 7O4 2.124 3.739 5.O43 4.783 3.824 4.654 2.259
Hq,q: Yvot,cio Aqooiu Tuq
Kutoviv vu xutuoxctuotci to oiu,uu ot_votqtcv.
Hci,uixq ltutiotixq 1O1
'Aouqoq 2
O vuuxutc vivuxu u vuotoiuci tqv xutuvoq tcv q_uvoxi-
vqtcv uiicttixcv oxucv c vo tqv ivvootvuq tot:
Mqovokvqto otcuttk okq, kot ktkto
toouvce pt 200 HP kot to to 1991
Ktkto
toouvce
v
i
[ O, 1O ) 1O
[ 1O, 2O ) 52
[ 2O, 3O ) 1777
[ 3O, 4O ) 1317
[ 4O, 5O ) 856
[ 5O, 6O ) 863
[ 6O, 7O ) 434
[ 7O, 8O ) 517
[ 8O, 9O ) 486
[ 9O, 1OO) 452
[1OO, 15O) 1243
[15O, 2OO) 41O
(u) u ,ivci to ioto,uu ot_votqtcv.
(|) u |c0ci q coq tiq.
(,) u |c0ci q oiuxtuvoq xui ttvixq uvoxiioq.
'Aouqoq 3
O vuuxutc vivuxu u oivci tqv xutuvoq tcv xutoixcv tq Liiu-
ou c vo tqv qiixiu xutu to cto 1992:
Kotovoq qtko kotokev Eoo kot to 1992
Htko 'Atoo Htko 'Atoo Htko 'Atoo
[ O, 5 ) 5295O1 [3O, 35) 73131O [6O, 65) 634154
[ 5, 1O) 62O54O [35, 4O) 698124 [65, 7O) 5112O6
[1O, 15) 74121O [4O, 45) 6665O3 [7O, 75) 35853O
[15, 2O) 768765 [45, 5O) 624437 [75, 8O) 285435
[2O, 25) 788764 [5O, 55) 6O9587 [8O, 85) 2O3942
[25, 3O) 7593O1 [55, 6O) 659O35 85 xui uvc 131539
1O2 Kcuiuio 2
(u) u ,ivci ,uixq vuuotuoq tcv ot_votqtcv.
(|) u ,ivci ,uixq vuuotuoq tcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv
(,) u |c0ci ti vooooto tot viq0toot ci_c qiixiu ixotcq q i-
oq tcv 23 ctcv.
(o) u |c0ci ti vooooto tot viq0toot ci_c qiixiu c,uittcq q
ioq tcv 5O ctcv.
'Aouqoq 1
lc o_oicio vu,utovoiq0qxc cctvu ,iu to to tcv u0qtcv. Ku-
toviv oc _u0qxuv tu otoi_ciu ctqoccv xui |c0qxc ovo to vo-
it,cvo u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv.
O
5
1O
15
2O
145 155 165 175 185 195 2O5 215
(u) u xutuoxctuoctc to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv.
(|) u |citc tq coq tiq.
(,) u |citc tq oiucoo.
(o) u |citc tq oiuxtuvoq xui tqv ttvixq uvoxiioq.
'Aouqoq 2
Av oi tic iu ctu|iqtq utq0otv xutu I vu oci_0ci oti q coq
tiq utuvctui xutu I cvc q ttvixq uvoxiioq vuucvci otu0cq.
'Aouqoq 3
(u) Hoiu civui q coq tiq tcv ,cvicv cvo ti,cvot;
(|) Hoiu civui q coq tiq tcv ,cvicv cvo v-,cvot;
'Aouqoq 4
Av oi tic tcv vuutqqoccv ctu|iqtq x voiiuviuoiuo0otv c
cvuv ui0o u > O, vc ctu|uiictui q coq tiq xui q ttvixq uvo-
xiioq;
'Aouqoq 5
Oi oxtc c,uocvoi iu cvi_ciqoq c_otv coo io0o 125OOO xui
o coo io0o tcv tvoioivcv civui 145OOO. Av o coo io0o oicv
tcv c,uocvcv otqv cvi_ciqoq civui 137OOO, vu |c0ci voooi c-
,uovtui otqv cvi_ciqoq.
1O4 Kcuiuio 2
Avoucozoiooq
- ltutiotixq civui o xiuoo tcv u0qutixcv o ovoio c c,o
c_ci tqv ootevtpoop otoi_cicv, tqv toivoupop tot xui tqv
vuotoiuoq tot oc xutuiiqiq oq cotc vu vootv vu u-
vuit0otv xui vu cqvct0otv ,iu tqv ctvqctqoq oiuocv
oxovcv.
- Oi ctu|iqtc oiu_ciovtui
+ Hoiotixc ctu|iqtc
+ Hoootixc ctu|iqtc xui uttc oc:
Aiuxitc
ltvc_ci
- To oci,u tot viq0toot vcvci vu civui iu uxi|q ixo-
,uiu tot xui vu uvooioci ocotu tqv cixovu tot viq0toot.
- Tov ui0o tcv cuvioccv iu tiq oto otvoio ticv iu
ctu|iqtq tqv ovouotc ot_votqtu cuvioq tq tiq q
uviu ot_votqtu tq tiq.
- l_ctixq ot_votqtu civui o io,o tq ot_votqtu vo to c,c-
0o tot oci,uto.
- lc voootixq ctu|iqtq, u0oiotixq ot_votqtu iu tiq x
i
ic,ctui to u0oiou tcv ot_votqtcv v
i

tcv ticv vot civui i-
xotcc q ioc c tqv tiq uttq.
- lc voootixq ctu|iqtq, o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu iu
tiq x
i
ic,ctui to u0oiou tcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv l
i

tcv
ticv vot civui ixotcc q ioc c tqv tiq uttq.
- Lvixutotou tiq iu ctu|iqtq ovouctui q tiq c tq c-
,uittcq ot_votqtu.
- H coq tiq oiuocv ticv civui to vqiixo tot u0oiouto
tcv ticv vo to viq0o tot.
- Aiucoo cvo oci,uto v vuutqqoccv vot c_otv oiutu_0ci
oc utotou ociu ovouctui:
+ H ueooio opotpppop uv to viq0o tcv vuutqqoccv civui
vcitto.
+ To puio0poiouo tcv couicv vuutqqoccv uv to viq0o
tcv vuutqqoccv civui utio.
- Lto ticv ctu|iqtq civui q oiuou tq ixotcq tiq
uvo tq c,uittcq.
- Av iu ctu|iqtq vuivci ti v tic l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot c_otv coq
tiq
x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouc-

tui to vqiixo:
,
x l
1
, + ,
x l
2
, + + ,
x l
v
,
v
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot c_otv coq
tiq
x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to vqiixo:

s
2
=
(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
vot c_otv coq
tiq
x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to:

s =
(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
- ltvtcicotq ctu|iqtotqtu ovouctui to vqiixo:
CV =
ttvixq uvoxiioq
coq tiq
=
s
x
1OO
1O6 Kcuiuio 2
Eporqoci Korovqoq
1. Tu vco,cvvqtu oxtiiu uvoi,otv tu utiu tot xutu coo oo
tq 15
q
cu. 'Lvu vco,cvvqto ocv uvoi,ci tu utiu tot tq 15
q
cu. O ioioxtqtq tot vcvci vu uvqot_ci;
2. Av oc iu xutuvoq ot_votqtcv uvuiciotc tq c,iotq xui
tqv ciu_iotq tiq, q oiucoo ctu|uiictui;
3. lc oci,u 5 utocv ,iu tov cic,_o tot ui0ot tcv uttoxivq-
tcv vot xutc_otv vuotoiuctui to vuuxutc oiu,uu. Av
o otvoiixo ui0o uttoxivqtcv civui 2O, vocitc vu to ot-
viqcoctc;
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
u | , o c
4. Livui oo,cvc to oci,u 5O utocv vot cctuovtui c vo
to to tot uv c_otv coq tiq tot 1,8O m xui oiuxtuvoq
36 cm;
5. H oiuxtuvoq cxuctui c ti ovuoc ctqoq tq ctu-
|iqtq;
6. O io,o tq oiuxtuvoq vo tqv ttvixq uvoxiioq civui iu
vuucto oiuovou;
7. Av uvo ti tic iu ctu|iqtq cuicootc iu tiq tq
vot civui "xovtu" otq coq tiq, 0u c_otc ixq ctu|oiq
tq coq tiq;
8. H o_ctixq ot_votqtu u oivci to vooooto cvi ti _iiioi %
tcv utocv tot oci,uto vot c_otv tqv uvtiotoi_q tiq tq
ctu|iqtq;
9. Livui voiotixq ctu|iqtq tot viq0toot tcv ,tvuixcv to
_cu tcv uticv tot;
1O. H otvtcoq oiucoot xui coq tiq u oivci tqv viqo-
oiu oti civui oo,cvc to oci,u c vo to _uuxtqiotixo
c,c0o vot cctuctui;
'Opio 2ovcio 2ovprqoq
Etooyeyq
lto xcuiuio utto 0u cictq0ci q vctu_ixq cvvoiu tot oiot
iu otvutqoq. Ou vuotoiuo0otv oi |uoixc ioiotqtc tot xui
|uoixc otvcvcic, ovc q cictq tq tvuq xutuxotq uot-
vtctq tq ,uixq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq.
Kutoviv 0u cctuootc tqv cvvoiu tq otvc_ciu q ovoiu civui
iu tovixq ioiotqtu ,iu iu otvutqoq.
Ou uo_oiq0otc tcio c tu oiu oto uvcio, otvcvciu tcv o-
voicv civui q cictq tq tvuq oiovtiu uotvtctq tq ,ui-
xq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq.
3.1. H vvoto tou Opou
ltqv xu0qcivq u cq civui uxctu otvq0iocvq q cvvoiu tot o-
iot oc oiuoc xutuotuoci. Av voovu0qootc vu uuicootc
tqv ioiuitcotqtu tcv xutuotuoccv uttcv, 0u otvcioqtovoiqootc
oti q cvvoiu tot oiot civui iu ,cvixotcq cvvoiu vot u cxuci
oti uv iu voootqtu tcivci vo cvu ot,xcxicvo oio, totc ooo-
oqvotc xovtu oto oio utto, 0u tvu_otv uvcic tic tq voootq-
tu. Aqiuoq, oi tic tq voootqtu ot,xiivotv / otoocctovtui
vo tqv tiq tot oiot.
Hopoctyo
A 0ccqootc cvu qicxtou,vqtixo tcvo oto ovoio xuvotc oo-
xiuotixc ctqoci. 'Lotc l q otvutqoq 0coq tot tcvot, q o-
voiu civui otvutqoq tot _ovot l. Iiu l = O, 1, 2, ., 1O oi tic tq l
0u civui:
t O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1O
f(t) O 4 16 36 64 1OO 144 198 256 324 4OO
Yvo0ctotc ioivov oti q otvutqoq 0coq l, c_ci tq oq:
1O8 Kcuiuio 3
l(l) = 4l
2
, l , O. H coq tu_ttqtu tot tcvot oivctui uvo to vqiixo:
uvootuoq vot c_ci oiuvt0ci
uvtiotoi_o _ovixo oiuotqu
A cctuootc tq otvciou tq coq tu_ttqtu ,iu _ovot vo-
it xovtu oto l
O
= 2. H coq tu_ttqtu oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
g(l) =
l(l) l(2)
l 2
=
4(l
2
4)
l 2
t 1,5 1,9 1,99 1,999 1,9999 2,OOO1 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1 2,5
g(t) 14 15,6 15,96 15,996 15,9996 16,OOO4 16,OO4 16,O4 16,4 18
Huutqotc oti ooo to l viqoiuci to l
O
= 2, oi tic tq g tcivotv
otqv tiq 16, citc uvo ociu, citc uvo uiotcu. Totc 0u icc oti to
oio tq g, otuv to l tcivci oto l
O
= 2, civui ioo c 16, xui 0u ,uot-
c:
lim
ll
O
g(l) = lim
l2

4(l
2
4)
l 2
= 16
H ,uixq vuuotuoq tq g cvi|c|uicvci to uvotcicou utto:
1 1,5 1,9 2,1
2
2,5 3
4
8
12
14
16
18
2O
l
y
y g(l)
4(l 4)
l 2
2
Lvioq vuutqotc oti to oqcio l

O
= 2 ocv uvqxci oto vcoio oi-
oot tq g. Qotooo, u civui uoiuoq q tiq tq g oto l
O
= 2, xu-
0c ocv vuici xuvcvu oio otq oiuoixuoiu ot,xiioq tq g vo to
oio. Tcio, uici vu oqcic0ci, oti to vu,utixo vuuoci,u vot
cictqouc cxuci to ,vcoto uvotcicou uvo tq utoixq oti to
oio tq coq tu_ttqtu g(l), otuv to l tcivci oto l
O
= 2, civui ioo c
tq oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tq _ovixq uttq oti,q.
'Oio ltvc_ciu ltvutqoq 1O9
H cvvoiu oti to x tcivci oto x
O
, oqiuoq oti |ioxctui uxctu xovtu
oto x
O
, cxuctui oiuoctixu ic,ovtu oti to x uvqxci oc iu c-
ptoq tot x
O
, oqiuoq oc cvu uvoi_to oiuotqu tq oq
(u, x
O
), (x
O
, |) q xui otqv cvcoq tot (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |).
Opiou: Ou icc oti iu otvutqoq l: (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |)
*
R, c_ci
oio tov vu,utixo ui0o l otuv to x tcivci oto x
O
, uv
oi tic tq l(x) |ioxovtui ooooqvotc xovtu otov ui0-
o l, otuv to x civui uxctu xovtu oto x
O
(uiiu ocv ,ivc-
tui uvuuitqtu ioo c to x
O
). Ou ot|oiiotc:
lim
xx
O
l(x) = l
H cvvoiu oti oi tic tq l(x) |ioxovtui ooooqvotc xovtu oto oio
l, oquivci oti oi tic l(x) uvqxotv oc ooooqvotc ixq vcio_q
tot l.
3.2. Iototqtc tou Opou Luvptqoq
Av tvu_otv tu lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
g(x) xui civui l
1
, l
2
e R uvtiotoi_u, totc:
(i) lim
xx
O
[l(x) g(x)] = l
1
l
2
(ii) lim
xx
0
[f(x)g(x)] = l
1
l
2
(iii) lim
xx
0

f(x)
g(x)
=
l
1
l
2
, cooov l
2
= 0
(iv) lim
xx
O
,l(x), = ,l
1
,
(v) lim
xx
O
[l(x)]
v
= l
1
v
, v e N
(vi) lim
xx
O

x
l(x) =
x
l
1
, ,iu xu0c x e N, x , 2,
ovot q l civui 0ctixq oc iu vcio_q tot x
O
.

*
To vcoio oioot tq l civui toixu otvutov vu civui ctttco tot
(u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |). Iiu vu ocootc cuoq 0u ,uotc uvo coc xui oto cq to c-
iu_ioto otvuto tvootvoio vot uvuitcitui otot oioot tcv oicv iu otvu-
tqoq.
11O Kcuiuio 3
3.3. Hcuptk 'Opto Luvptqoq
'L,ivc uvco uvo ti ioiotqtc tcv oicv oti vootc vu tvoio-
,iootc ucou oiu voitcvtixcv q qtcv otvutqoccv, uxou xui
iixcv, cooov oiutqotv otu0co ttvo. Ti ,ivctui oc otuv q ot-
vutqoq tqv ovoiu cictuc civui xiuoctq, oqiuoq vcic_ci vcio-
ootcot uvo cvuv ttvot ,vcotcv otvutqoccv;
Hopciyuo 1
'Lvu c,uocvo xuvci tqv cq otcviu c tov c,oootq tot: vu
viqcvctui 1OOO ou_c tqv cu ,iu ti vctc oxtc cc c,uoi-
u tot xui 15OO ou_c tqv cu otuv xuvci tvccic, oqiuoq otuv
c,uctui vcioootco uvo oxtc cc. u |c0ci q otvutqoq l vot
cxuci to io0o tot c,uocvot xui vu tvoio,io0otv tu lim
x5
l(x),
lim
x9
l(x) xui lim
x8
l(x).
Atoq
A ovouootc x ti cc c,uoiu tot c,uocvot. Totc otuv
O x 8, oqiuoq oto vcto oxtuco c,uoiu, oi uvooo_c tot c-
,uocvot 0u civui:
l(x) = 1OOOx ou_c
Iiu x > 8 0u c_otc oti oi uvooo_c tot 0u civui 15OOx ou_c, u-
uicvtu oc 85OO = 4OOO ou_c, xu0c to vcto oxtuco oc
_cc0qxc oti tvccic. H otvutqoq l tot io0ot tot c,uoc-
vot, 0u c_ci tq oq:
l(x) =
'
1OOOx uv O x 8
15OOx 4OOO uv 8 < x 24
'Otuv 0ciotc vu tvoio,iootc to lim
x5
l(x), civui uvco oti c,uo-
uotc c tov vcto xiuoo tq l, ovotc:
lim
x5
l(x) = lim
x5
(1OOOx) = 5OOO
'Ooiu, ,iu to lim
x9
l(x) c,uouotc c to octtco xiuoo tq l xui c-
_otc:
lim
x9
l(x) = lim
x9
(15OOx 4OOO) = 95OO
'Oio ltvc_ciu ltvutqoq 111
'Oc oc vootc vu c,uo0otc c cvuv ovo xiuoo ,iu vu tvoio-
,iootc to lim
x8
l(x). Hcioiouotc ioivov oc xu0c xiuoo c_ci-
otu xui c_otc:
(u) Iiu x < 8: lim
x8
l(x) = lim
x8
(1OOOx) = 8OOO
(|) Iiu x > 8: lim
x8
l(x) = lim
x8
(15OOx 4OOO) = 8OOO
Tu oto uttu oio ovouovtui victixu oiu tq l xui ,iu vu tu oiu-
xivotc ,uotc lim
x8
l(x) xui lim

x8
+
l(x) uvtiotoi_u. ltqv vctq vc-
ivtcoq 0u icc oti to x tcivci (viqoiuci) oto x
O
= 8 uvo tu uiotc-
u (xx
O
), cvc otq octtcq oti to x tcivci oto x

O
uvo tu ociu
(xx
O
+
).
Hopciyuo 2
A cictqootc xui cvu vuuoci,u oiot
otvutqoq oc oqcio oto ovoio tu victixu
oiu civui oiuoctixu. A cctuootc to o-
io tq otvutqoq:
l(x) =
'
3x + 1 , x < O
x
2
+ 2 , x , O
oto x
O
= O. 'L_otc oti:
lim
xO
+
l(x) = lim
xO
+
(x
2
+ 2) = 2
lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
(3x + 1) = 1
y
O
x
Lvocvc ocv tvu_ci to lim
xO
l(x).
Livui uvco oti to oio iu otvutqoq tvu_ci, uv xui ovo uv
tvu_otv tu victixu tq oiu xui civui iou, oqiuoq lim
xx
O
l(x) = l,
ovot l e R, uv xui ovo uv:
lim
x<x
0
f(x) lim
x<x
0
f(x) #
Av tu oto victixu oiu iu otvutqoq civui oiuoctixu, totc
0u icc oti ocv tvu_ci to oio tq l, otuv to x tcivci oto x
O
.
112 Kcuiuio 3
3.4. Mq ccpoovo 'Opto Luvptqoq
Apoootoptotc Mop
H cvvoiu tot uvciot civui ,vcotq oc oiot u, c tqv cvvoiu tq
uvcioiotq utqoq (+) q cicoq () iu voootqtu. ltqv
vcivtcoq tot + q voootqtu uttq cvcvu ovoiovoqvotc 0ctixo
vu,utixo ui0o, cvc ,iu to c_otc oti q voootqtu civui i-
xotcq uvo ovoiovoqvotc uvqtixo vu,utixo ui0o.
H oiuoixuoiu tq vooc,,ioq tot uvciot uvo iu otvutqoq cx-
uctui c to oio tq otvutqoq, to ovoio 0u icc oti civui q
vcvcuocvo.
Hopoctyo
A cictqootc to oio tq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) =
1
x
2
, otuv
to x tcivci oto O.
x 0,1 0,001 0,000001 0,000001 0,001 0,1
f(x) 100 10
6
10
12
10
12
10
6
100
Livui uvco oti xu0c to x tcivci oto O,
oi tic tq l(x) utuvovtui uvcioiotu
xui ,ivovtui c,uittcc uvo xu0c 0cti-
xo vu,utixo ui0o M. Totc ,uot-
c:
lim
xO
l(x) = +
y
O
x
'Ooiu ,iu tq otvutqoq l(x) =
1
x
2
, c-
_otc oti oi tic tq ciuttcvovtui uvc-
ioiotu otuv to x tcivci oto O. Totc
,uotc:
lim
xO
l(x) =
y
O
x
Opiou: (u) Ou icc oti iu otvutqoq l: (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) R c-
_ci oio to + otuv to x tcivci oto x
O
, uv oi tic tq
l(x) utuvovtui uvcioiotu cvcvcvtu xu0c 0c-
tixo vu,utixo ui0o, xu0c to x viqoiuci to x
O
.
(|) Ou icc oti iu otvutqoq l: (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) R c-
_ci oio to otuv to x tcivci oto x
O
, uv oi tic tq
l(x) ciuttcvovtui uvcioiotu cotc vu ,ivovtui i-
xotcc uvo xu0c uvqtixo vu,utixo ui0o, xu-
0c to x viqoiuci to x
O
.
- Ettpct pct c to ctpo
Iiu vu vootc vicov vu xuvotc vuci c q vcvcuocvu oiu,
0u vcvci vu ,vciotc voic civui oi otvutc q ovc icc cvitc-
vtc vuci.
'Lotc x e R. Oiotc ti uxoiot0c vuci:
(i) x + = +, x =
(ii) Av x > O, totc x(+) = +, x() =
(iii) Av x < O, totc x(+) = , x() = +
(iv)
x
+
=
x
= O
Lvivicov tcv vuuvuvc vuccv c_otc xui ti vuci ctut tot
(+) xui tot () c cq:
(i) (+) + (+) = +, () + () =
(ii) (+)(+) = +, ()() = +, (+)() =
Livui oquvtixq q vuutqqoq oti ocv oiovtui oi vuci:
O
O
,
, O(), (+) + ()
oi ovoic xuiotvtui uvoooioiotc oc.
- Mctq opoootoptotq opq
0
0
yto pqt ouvoptqoct
ltu oiu qtcv otvutqoccv, otvuvtuc ot_vu tqv uvoooioiotq
oq
O
O
, otuv c_otc oti:
114 Kcuiuio 3
l(x) =
(x)
q(x)
=
u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
|
+ |
1
x
1
+ + |
1
x + |
O
,
c u
v
, |
= O xui
lim
xx
O
(x) = (x
O
) = O, lim
xx
O
q(x) = q(x
O
) = O
Totc ioootvuu c_otc oti to x
O
uvotcici iu tcv voitcvtcv (x),
q(x), oqiuoq tu , q c_otv vuu,ovtu tov oo (x x
O
) tccvo oc
xuvoiu otvuq.
Xqoiovoicvtu xutuiiqic ui,c|ixc vuci, tuttotqtc, vu-
u,ovtovoiqoci x.iv. 0u uviovoiotc ti otvuci tot (x x
O
) uvo
tov ui0qtq xui tov vuovouotq xui xutoviv 0u cuootc ti
ioiotqtc tcv oicv.
Hopoocyoto
Hopciyuo 1
u tvoio,io0ci to oio: lim
x2

x
2
3x + 2
x
2
5x + 6
.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
x
2
3x + 2
x
2
5x + 6
=
(x 2)(x 1)
(x 2)(x 3)
=
x 1
x 3
.
Lvocvc: lim
x2

x
2
3x + 2
x
2
5x + 6
= lim
x2

x 1
x 3
= 1.
Hopciyuo 2
x2

x
2
4
(x 2)
3
.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
x
2
4
(x 2)
3
=
(x 2)(x + 2)
(x 2)
3
=
x + 2
(x 2)
2
.
Lvocvc: lim
x2

x
2
4
(x 2)
3
= lim
x2

x + 2
(x 2)
2
= +.
Hopciyuo 3
x2

x
2
4x + 4
x
3
8
.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
x
2
4x + 4
x
3
8
=
(x 2)
2
(x 2)(x
2
+ 2x + 4)
=
x 2
x
2
+ 2x + 4
.
Lvocvc: lim
x2

x
2
4x + 4
x
3
8
= lim
x2

x 2
x
2
+ 2x + 4
= O.
- Mctq opoootoptotq opq
0
0
yto pttk
'Otuv otvuvtuc tqv uvoooioiotq oq
O
O
oc otvutqoci vot
vciiu|uvotv iixu, totc otvq0c voiiuviuoiuotc xui oiuiot-
c c xutuiiqic ott,ci vuuotuoci (|i. vivuxu).
Hvoko Luuyev Hopootocev
Avotcicou
Iivocvot
Huu,ovtu ltt,q Huuotuoq
x u
x u x + u
x u
3
x
3
u (
3
x)
2
+
3
x
3
u + (
3
u)
2
x u
v
x
v
u (
v
x)
v1
+ (
v
x)
v2

v
u + +
v
x (
v
u)
v2
+ (
v
u)
v1
Hopoocyoto
Hopciyuo 1
x4

x 2
x 4
.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
x 2
x 4
=
( x 2)( x + 2)
(x 4)( x + 2)
=
(x 4)
(x 4)( x + 2)
=
1
x + 2
.
116 Kcuiuio 3
Lvocvc: lim
x4

x 2
x 4
= lim
x4

1
x + 2
=
1
4
.
Hopciyuo 2
x1

3
x 1
x 1
.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
3
x 1
x 1
=
(
3
x 1)[(
3
x)
2
+
3
x + 1]
(x 1)[(
3
x)
2
+
3
x + 1]
=
x 1
(x 1)[(
3
x)
2
+
3
x + 1]
=
1
(
3
x)
2
+
3
x + 1
Lvocvc: lim
x1

3
x 1
x 1
= lim
x1

1
(
3
x)
2
+
3
x + 1
=
1
3
.
3.5. Kotokopuq Aotetq Ipotkq Hopotooq
Luvptqoq
H otvciou iu otvutqoq otu oqciu vot uvqxotv oto vcoio
oioot tq voooioictui ucou uvo tov ttvo tq. Qotooo, otq
cictq tq ,uixq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq otvuvtuc ioi-
uitco vo|iqu otov voooioioo tq otvciou tq otvu-
tqoq, oc oqciu vot ocv uvqxotv oto vcoio oioot tq, uiiu t-
vu_ci vcio_q tot cou oc utto.
Hopoocyoto
Hopciyuo 1
H otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) =
1
x
c_ci ,vcotq otvciou oc xu0c
x e R. Iiu vuuoci,u: l(5) =
1
5
, l(8) =
1
8
x.o.x.
Qotooo, oc ,vciotc vc otvcicctui xovtu oto oqcio u = O,
to ovoio ocv uvqxci oto vcoio oioot tq l, uiiu tvu_otv vcio-
_c tot u = O xui oto (, O) xui oto (O, +).
Livui io,ixo vu cictqootc tq otvciou tcv ticv tq l, otuv
to x tcivci oto u = O. utoixu q cictq uttq vcvci vu ,ivci uvo tu
ociu xui uvo tu uiotcu. 'L_otc ioivov oti:
lim
xu
+
l(x) = lim
xO
+

1
x
= +
lim
xu
l(x) = lim
xO

1
x
=
Huutqotc ioivov oti oi tic tq l tcivotv oto +, otuv to x tci-
vci oto u = O uvo tu ociu, cvocvc otvcicovtui ovc q ct0ciu
x = O (uovu y'y), _ci oc q ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l vu tcvci
tqv x = O. H otvciou uttq tq C
l
ic,ctui uotvtctixq otvci-
ou xui q ct0ciu x = O ic,ctui xutuxotq uotvtctq tq C
l
, otuv
to x tcivci oto u = O uvo tu ociu.
'Ooiu q x = O civui xutuxotq uotvtctq tq C
l
xui otuv to x tci-
vci oto u = O uvo tu uiotcu, c tq oiuou oti oi tic tq l tci-
votv oto .
y
x O(O,O)
y
1
x
Hopciyuo 2
A cictqootc tq otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c
l(x) = lnx, c vo ti xutuxotc uotvtctc.
To ovuoixo oqcio oto ovoio 0u cctuootc uv
q l c_ci xutuxotq uotvtctq civui to u = O,
xu0c ocv uvqxci oto vcoio oioot tq l, uiiu
tvu_ci vcio_q tot u = O oto oiuotqu (O, +).
y
x O(O,O)
y lnx
118 Kcuiuio 3
Houvc, ,iu xu0c x e (, O) ocv c_ci voqu q cictq ,iu xutuxo-
tc uotvtctc, vu'oio vot ocv uvqxotv oto vcoio oioot tq l,
uot ocv tvu_ci vcio_q tot cou oc utto. 'Ltoi, c_otc oti:
lim
xu
+
l(x) = lim
xO
+
lnx =
ovotc q x = O civui iu xutuxotq uotvtctq tq C
l
, otuv to x tci-
vci oto u = O uvo tu ociu.
Opiou: 'Lotc otvutqoq l: AR, u e R, u e A, uiiu tvu_ci vc-
io_q tot u oto A. H ct0ciu x = u ic,ctui xutuxotq
uotvtctq tq C
l
, uv xui ovo uv:
lim
xu
+
l(x) = + q
q otuv:
lim
xu
l(x) = + q
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
Xqoiovoiqotc ti cvocvc ,uixc vuuotuoci ,iu vu cxtiq-
octc tu lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
+
l(x) xui lim
xx
O
l(x), ovot uttu tvu_otv xui |citc
tqv tiq l(x
O
), ovot oictui.
y
x O
y l(x)
x 1
O

1 1
1
2
(u)

y
x O
y l(x)
x 1
O

1
(|)
y
x O
y l(x)
1
x 1
O

(,)

y
x O
y l(x)
2
2
2
2
x 2
O

x O
x 2
O
O
(o)
Atoq
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = 2, lim
x1
+
l(x) = 2, lim
x1
l(x) = 2, l(1) = 1.
(|) lim
x1
l(x) = +, lim
x1
+
l(x) = +, lim
x1
l(x) = +, ocv oictui l(1).
(,) lim
x1
l(x) = , lim
x1
+
l(x) = +, ocv tvu_ci lim
x1
l(x), ocv oictui
l(1).
(o) (i) Acv oictui lim
x2
f(x), lim
x2
+
f(x) = 0, lim
x2
f(x) = 0, f(2) = 0.
(ii) lim
xO
l(x) = 2, lim
xO
+
l(x) = 2, ocv tvu_ci lim
xO
l(x), l(O) = O.
(iii) lim
x2
l(x) = O, ocv oictui lim

x2
+
l(x), lim
x2
l(x) = O, l(2) = O.
Eopuoyq 2
ltviqcotc tot cvocvot vivuxc, tvoio,iovtu ti ti-
c tq ooocvq otvutqoq l xu0c ou.
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
1 , x = 1
1 , x = 1
, lim
x1
l(x)
x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x)
(|) l(x) =
,x 1,
x 1
+ x
2
, lim
x1
l(x)
12O Kcuiuio 3
x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x)
(,) l(x) =
1
x
2
, lim
xO
l(x)
x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x)
(o) l(x) =
x
x 1
, lim
x1
l(x)
x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x)
Xqoiovoiqotc tu uvotcicoutu uttu ,iu vu cxtiqoctc vooc,,i-
otixu to oio tq otvutqoq l, ovot tvu_ci.
Atoq
(u) x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x) O,19 O,O199 O,OO19 O,OO2O O,O2O1 O,21
Livui uvco vc xu0c to x viqoiuci vuu voit xovtu oto 1 oi
tic tq otvutqoq viqoiuotv vuu voit xovtu oto O. 'Au
lim
x1
l(x) = O. Huutqqotc oti q ui0qtixq tiq tq otvutqoq
l(1) = 1 ocv c_ci o_coq c tqv vooc,,ioq tcv ticv tq l voit
xovtu oto O.
(|) x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x) O,19 O,O199 O,OO19 2,OO2O 2,O2O1 2,21
Livui uvco vc xu0c to x viqoiuci vuu voit xovtu oto 1
uvo uiotcu oi tic tq otvutqoq viqoiuotv voit xovtu
oto O. 'Otuv oc to x viqoiuci voit xovtu oto 1 uvo ociu oi
tic tq otvutqoq viqoiuotv voit xovtu oto 2. Lvocvc
coc ocv tvu_ci to lim
x1
l(x).
(,) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) 1OO 1OOO 1OOOOOO 1OOOOOO 1OOO 1OO
Livui uvco vc xu0c to x viqoiuci voit xovtu oto O oi ti-
c tq otvutqoq utuvovtui uvcioiotu. Atto u ooq,ci
vu uvtiiq0otc oti lim
xO
l(x) = +.
(o) x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x) 9 99 999 1OO1 1O1 11
Ku0c to x viqoiuci voit xovtu oto 1 uvo uiotcu oi tic
tq otvutqoq cicvovtui uvcioiotu. Atto u ooq,ci vu u-
vtiiq0otc oti lim
x1
l(x) = .
'Ooiu otuv to x viqoiuci to 1 uvo ociu oi tic tq otvutq-
oq utuvovtui uvcioiotu, uu lim
x1
+
l(x) = +.
x1
l(x).
Eopuoyq 3 ,Xopppop evoeioo iouoto)
'Lvu oiuitu octoq _oq,citui o' cvuv uo0cvq cvooic|iu. H
vctq iuiq - ociot vot c_ci to vuuvuvc oiuitu uuicitui xui
uvtixu0iotutui uvo uiiq oii to vcic_ocvo vctci vcivot oto
5 tot u_ixot (1 iito) vooot. H cxoq tot oiuituto civui otvc-
_q xui _ciuctui 6 cc ,iu vu oio_ctct0ci to 95 tot vcic_oc-
vot iu viqot iuiq otov uo0cvq.
(u) Kutuoxctuotc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq y = l(l)
ovot l _ovo xui y to vooooto to oiuituto octoq oc iu
iuiq, ,iu iu vciooo vuvc uvo 24 cc, tvo0ctovtu oti q _o-
q,qoq cxivu c ,cutq iuiq.
(|) Yvoio,iotc tu lim
x6
l(l), lim
x6
+
l(l). Ti vuutqcitc; Hc to cq-
vctctc;
Atoq
(u) y (vooooto iuiq)
l (pc) O
5
1OO
6 12 18 24
y l(l)
122 Kcuiuio 3
Livui uvco vc uvo to 1OO tot vcic_ocvot q cxoq 0uvci
oto 95, otq iuiq cvci vcivot 5 xui totc uiiuotc iuiq.
Atto ot|uivci xutu tov ioio tovo xu0c 6 cc.
(|) Avo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq xutuiu|uivotc oti lim
x6
l(l) = 5, cvc
lim
x6
+
l(l) = 1OO. Huutqotc oti ocv tvu_ci to lim
x6
l(l), ovc cvi-
oq ocv tvu_otv tu oiu oti _ovixc oti,c l = 12, 18, 24
x.iv. Atto cqvctctui uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq, io,c uiiu-
,q iuiq.
Eopuoyq 4
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu, uv |c|uiu uttu tvu_otv:
(u) lim
x2

x
2
4
x
2
5x + 6
(|) lim
x2

x
2
x 6
x
3
3x + 2
(,) lim
x3

x + 1 2
x
2
9
(o) lim
x1

1
3
x
x 1
Atoq
(u) lim
x2
(x
2
4) = 4 4 = O
lim
x2
(x
2
5x + 6) = 4 1O + 6 = O
'Au c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x
2
4
x
2
5x + 6
=
(x 2)(x + 2)
(x 2)(x 3)
=
x + 2
x 3
.
Totc lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2

x + 2
x 3
=
4
1
= 4.
(|) 'Ooiu c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x
2
x 6
x
3
3x + 2
=
(x + 2)(x 3)
(x + 2)(x 1)
2
=
x 3
(x 1)
2
.
Totc lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2

x 3
(x 1)
2
=
1
1
= 1.
(,) 'Ooiu c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x + 1 2
x
2
9
=
( x + 1 2)( x + 1 + 2)
(x
2
9)( x + 1 + 2)
=
x 3
(x 3)(x + 3)( x + 1 + 2)
=
1
(x + 3)( x + 1 + 2)
.
Totc lim
x3
l(x) = lim
x3

1
(x + 3)( x + 1 + 2)
=
1
64
=
1
24
.
(o) lim
x1
(1
3
x) = 1
3
1 = O
lim
x1
( x 1) = 1 1 = O
'Au c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
1
3
x
x 1
=
(1
3
x)[1 +
3
x + (
3
x)
2
]( x + 1)
( x 1)( x + 1)[1 +
3
x + (
3
x)
2
]
=
(1 x)( x + 1)
(x 1)(1 +
3
x +
3
x
2
)
=
x + 1
1 +
3
x +
3
x
2
.
Totc lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1

_

x + 1
1 +
3
x +
3
x
2
=
2
3
.
Eopuoyq 5
Occotc ti otvutqoci l(x) =
1
x
2
xui g(x) =
i
x
2
, i e (O, +), x = O.
(u) u |citc to lim
xO
l(x) xui to lim
xO
g(x), uv tvu_otv.
(|) Hoiu oq uvoooioiotiu |ioxotc otuv uvuqtotc to
lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)];
(,) Iiu ti oiuoc tic tot i e (O, +) vu tvoio,ioctc to
lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)].
Atoq
(u) lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO

1
x
2
= + xui lim
xO
g(x) = lim
xO

i
x
2
= +, uot i > O.
(|) lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)] = lim
xO
l(x) lim
xO
g(x) = (+) (+) uvoooioiotiu.
124 Kcuiuio 3
(,) l(x) g(x) =
1
x
2

i
x
2
=
1 i
x
2
Totc lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)] = lim
xO

1 i
x
2
= (1 i) lim
xO

1
x
2
= (1 i)(+).
(i) Av 1 i > O O 1 totc lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)] = .
(iii) Av 1 i = O i = 1 totc l(x) g(x) =
1 1
x
2
= O ,iu xu0c x = O.
Ovotc lim
xO
[l(x) g(x)] = O.
Eopuoyq 6
Bcitc ti xutuxotc uotvtctc tcv otvutqoccv, uv |c|uiu t-
vu_otv. l' uttc vot tvu_otv vu ,ivci vo_ciq ,uixq vuu-
otuoq.
(u) l(x) =
x
x
3
2x
2
+ x
(|) l(x) =
'
lnx , x > O
x
2
, x < O
Atoq
Ivciotc oti ,iu vu c_otc xutuxotq uotvtctq otq ,uixq
vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq vcvci xuvoio uvo tu lim
xx
O
+
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x)
vu civui (+) q (). H uvuqtqoq tcv uotvtctcv ,ivctui otu oq-
ciu vot ocv uvqxotv oto vcoio oioot tot, uiiu tvu_ci vcio_q
tot cou o' utto.
(u) H otvutqoq l ,uctui:
l(x) =
x
x(x
2
2x + 1)
=
1
(x 1)
2
c x e (, O) . (O, 1) . (1, +).
Avuqtotc xutuxotq uotvtctq
otu oqciu x
O
= O xui x
1
= 1.
y
y l(x)
O
1
1
x
- Lvcioq lim
xO
l(x) = 1 ocv vuotoiuci xutuxotq uotvtctq oto
x
O
= O.
- Lvcioq lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1

1
(x 1)
2
= + q ct0ciu x = 1 civui xutuxot-
q uotvtctq otq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l.
(|) Avuqtotc xutuxotq uot-
vtctq oto oqcio x
O
= O.
Lvcioq lim
xO
+
l(x) = lim
xO
+
(lnx) = ,
cvc lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
x
2
= O, c_otc
xutuxotq uotvtctq tqv ct-
0ciu x = O.
y
x
O 1
y l(x)
Eopuoyq 7
lc iu voiq o xcvtixo u,c,o vcot |c0qxc vooutu oitoc-
vo c ti_icoui0ticvq, cvu cvixivotvo _qixo vuu,c,o, c uvo-
tcicou cvo c,xutuicicicvot _qixot c,ootuoiot tot ovoiot tu
uvo|iqtu cvctuv voit xovtu otov u,c,o vcot tq voiq. 'Lvu
votvoio,ioo vot c,ivc uvo iu ctuiciu ,iu vu xu0uioci tov xc-
vtixo u,c,o vcot cocic oti, ,iu tq otiio,q x (toi cxuto) tq
toixq uttq otoiu, to xooto oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq
K(x) =
O,5x
1OO x
oc cxutovtuoc cxutotiu ou_c.
(u) Bcitc to xooto ,iu tq otiio,q 5O, 8O, 9O, 99 tq toi-
xq uttq otoiu.
(|) Yvoio,iotc to lim
x1OO
K(x).
(,) Lqvctotc tu uvotcicoutu.
Atoq
(u) O cvocvo vivuxu u oci_vci to xooto oc cxutovtuoc cxu-
totiu:
x 5O 8O 9O 99
K(x) O,5 2 4,5 49,5
126 Kcuiuio 3
(|) lim
x1OO
K(x) = lim
x1OO

O,5x
1OO x
= lim
x1OO
O,5x lim
x1OO

1
1OO x
= 5O(+) = +
(,) Livui uvco oti ,iu tq otiio,q tot c,uittcot cot uttq
tq toixq otoiu cc xui 9O to xooto utuvci uiiu oc io,i-
xu viuioiu (uvo 5O cxutotiu cc 45O cxutotiu). Kutoviv
tvu_ci uvotoq utqoq xui ,iu to 99 uvuitotvtui vcivot 5
oi (uxi|c 495O cxutotiu). ltq otvc_ciu to xooto vuivci
uvotoc oiuotuoci.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
Avo tq ,uixq vu-
uotuoq tq otv-
utqoq l, vot ui-
vctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu vu cxtiqoc-
tc to lim
xx
O
l(x), uv
toixu tvu_ci, ,iu
x
O
= 2,O,1,2,3,4,5.
y
x O 1
1
y l(x)
2
2
2 3 4 5
2
'Aouqoq 2
Xqoiovoiqotc tq oiviuvq ,ui-
xq vuuotuoq ,iu vu cxtiqoctc
(tvoio,ioctc) tu lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
+
l(x),
lim
xx
O
l(x) otu ooocvu oqciu.
y
x
O
1
1
y l(x)
x O
x 1
x 2
O
O
O
2
2
'Aouqoq 3
Av q otvutqoq l c_ci vcoio o-
ioot [4, 4] xui ,uixq vuu-
otuoq vot uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu, vu cctuoctc voioi uvo
tot cvocvot io_tioot ci-
vui ocotoi (l) xui voioi iu0o
(A). u uitioio,qoctc ti uvu-
vtqoci ou.
(u) lim
x4
+
l(x) = 1
(|) lim
x2
l(x) = 3
(,) lim
xO
l(x) = l(O)
y
x O
1
y l(x)
2 4
4
2
3
4
2
(o) lim
xO
+
l(x) = O
(c) lim
x2
l(x) = l(2)
(ot) lim
x4
l(x) = 4
() lim
x4
l(x) = O
'Aouqoq 4
Aot _uuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l c ttvo:
l(x) =
'
x
2
1 , x O
x 1 , O < x < 1
2 x , 1 x
vu cxtiqoctc tu lim
xO
l(x), lim
xO
+
l(x), lim
x1
l(x), lim
x1
+
l(x), uv uttu tvu-
_otv. Lvioq, vu tvoio,ioctc ti ui0qtixc tic l(O), l(1).
'Aouqoq 5
c tq ooocvq otvutqoq l. Xqoiovoiqotc tu uvotcic-
outu uttu ,iu vu cxtiqoctc vooc,,iotixu to oio tq ot-
vutqoq l, uv utto tvu_ci.
(u) l(x) = x
2
1, lim
x2
l(x)
128 Kcuiuio 3
x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x)
(|) l(x) =
,x,
x
+ 1, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) 2 O
(,) l(x) =
x + 1 1
x
, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) O,5O12 O,488O
(o) l(x) =
'
1
x + 1
, x > 1
x
2
+ 1 , x 1
, lim
x1
l(x)
x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x)
'Aouqoq 6
Av ,vcictc oti lim
xx
O
l(x) = 5 xui lim
xx
O
g(x) = 4 tvoio,iotc tu vuu-
xutc:
(u) lim
xx
O
[l(x)g(x)] (|) lim
xx
O

1Og(x)
l(x)
(,) lim
xx
O

2l(x) + 5g(x)
l(x)g(x)
(o) lim
xx
O
l(x) + 5g(x)
(c) lim
xx
O

3
1
2g(x)
(ot) lim
xx
O

l(x) g(x)
l(x) + g(x)
'Aouqoq 7
u tvoio,ioctc, uv tvu_otv, xu0cvu uvo tu vuuxutc oiu, cu-
oovtu oc xu0c vcivtcoq ti xutuiiqic ioiotqtc tcv oicv:
(u) lim
x2
(x
3
3x
2
+ 5x
3
) (|) lim
x2
[(1 x)(3 + x)]
(,) lim
x1

2x + 4
x
2
3x + 4
(o) lim
xO

x + 2 2
x + 1
'Aouqoq 8
lto oiviuvo o_qu oivctui q ,uixq
vuuotuoq otvutqoq l. u cxtiqoc-
tc (uvtcctc) tu:
lim
xx
O
+
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x).
y
x
O
y l(x)
x 2
x 2
O
O

2 2
'Aouqoq 9
lc voic uvo ti voq,otcvc vcivtcoci tq uoxqoq 8 vuotoi-
uctui xutuxotq uotvtctq otq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvu-
tqoq l; Hoiu civui q ciocoq tq uotvtctq, ovot tvu_ci uttq;
'Aouqoq 10
u otviqcoctc tq ,uixq
vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l
oto oiviuvo o_qu, cotc vu
io_tci:
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = +
(|) lim
x1
l(x) =
(,) lim
x1
+
l(x) = xui lim
x1
= +
y
x O
y l(x)
1
'Aouqoq 11
13O Kcuiuio 3
(u) l(x) =
1O
,x,
, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) 1OO 1OOOO 1OOO
(|) l(x) =
x + 1O
x 2
, lim
x2
l(x)
x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x) 119 12OO1
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
(u) lim
x2

x
3
8
x 2
(|) lim
x1

x 1
x
3
+ x
2
2x
'Aouqoq 2
(u) lim
x4

x 4
2 x
(|) lim
xO

x + 2 2
x
(,) lim
x2

x + 2 2
x
2
+ 5 3
(o) lim
x0

3
x + 1 1
x
'Aouqoq 3
(u) lim
x1

,2x + 1, 3
x 3
(|) lim
x0

2x
2
+ ,x,
(x + 1),x,
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc tq otvutqoq l c ttvo:
l(x) =
'
2,x, + 2 , x u
x
2
1 , x > u
u |citc to u e R, uv ,vcictc oti tvu_ci to lim
xu
l(x).
'Aouqoq 5
l(x) =
'
3x u , x O
x
2
+ u + 2 , x > O
xO
l(x). Kutoviv vu
_uuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l.
'Aouqoq 6
(u) lim
x4
+

3
x 4
(|) lim
x1

1
(x + 1)
3
(,) lim
x1

2x 1
x
2
2x + 1
(o) lim
xO

2x + 1
x
3
+ 2x
(c) lim
x1

x
2
+ 1
,1 x,
(ot) lim
x1

x + 4
x
3
3x 2
'Aouqoq 7
Bcitc ti vcivtcoci ovot tvu_ci xutuxotq uotvtctq xui
,utc tqv ciocoq tq oti otvutqoci tq uoxqoq 6.
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
Tu tciq uvootoiq covccvcv ocutcv otuv voxcitui ,iu ocu-
tu coctcixot vot uvootciiovtui uvo tu Liiqvixu Tu_toociu oi-
vovtui uvo to ,uqu tq "tu_tooixq otvutqoq":
l(x) =
'
45O O < x 1
55O 1 < x 3
7OO 3 < x 5
85O 5 < x 7
1O5O 7 < x 9
ovot x civui to |uo cvo vuxctot oc Kgi (xiiu) xui l(x) q uiu oc
ou_c.
132 Kcuiuio 3
(u) u tiuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l oc ototq-
u uovcv xOy ovot otov uovu Ox q xiiuxu civui 1 cm ,iu xu-
0c xiio xui oto Oy q xiiuxu civui 1 cm ,iu xu0c cxutovtuou
o_.
(|) u |citc ti tic l(1), l(3), l(5) xui vu ti ot,xivctc c tu
lim
x1
l(x), lim
x3
l(x), lim
x5
l(x).
(,) Yvu_otv tu lim
x1
l(x), lim
x3
l(x), lim
x5
l(x);
'Aouqoq 2
O viq0too cvo ot,xcxicvot cioot tcxtixcv vot uvuvuu,o-
vtui o' cvu uvoovccvo vqoi oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq P(l) =
72O
9 l
,
O l < 9 ovot o _ovo l ctictui oc qvc.
(u) Bcitc tov ui0o tcv tcxtixcv oto vqoi oc _ovo l = O, oqiu-
oq uvo totc vot u_iotc vu vuutqotc tqv uvuvuu,c,q
tot. Ti cxuci utto o ui0o;
(|) Bcitc tov ui0o tcv tcxtixcv ctu 1, 3, 5, 8 qvc.
(,) Acitc oti o viq0too tcv tcxtixcv utuvctui uvcioiotu
xu0c o _ovo viqoiuci otot 9 qvc.
'Aouqoq 3
ltqv vci|uiiovtixq cviotqq ot_vu cictuc tq oiuovou oiuo-
cv tvcv oc oixoototqutu. Axctu uv' uttu tu ovtciu civui o-
vtciu "uvciq uuicoq" ovc v._. i_vq SO
2
otqv utoouiu. Iiu
vu cictqootc tq oiuovou uttq _qoiovoiotc tqv uxoiot0q
otvutqoq (otvtcicotq cvc,otqtu u) tq ot,xcvtcoq x
1
, x
2
tcv ototutixcv tvot utoouiu uvtiotoi_u:
lnu = ln
1
x
1
+ 1
1
x
1
ovot
1
=
x
1
V
1
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
xui V
1
, V
2
oi o,xoi tcv oto ototutixcv, oqiuoq
tot tvot xui tq utoouiu uvtiotoi_u. u tvoio,ioctc tqv tiq
tot otvtcicotq u oc uvciq uuicoq, oqiuoq to lim
x
1
O
(lnu), uv ,vci-
ctc oti x
1
+ x
2
= 1.
3.6. H vvoto tq Luvco Luvptqoq
H cvvoiu tq otvc_ot otvutqoq ocv civui tooo oixciu, ooo q cv-
voiu iu otvc_ot ,uq q xuvtiq. Livui io,ixo vu otvocoot-
c ti oto uttc cvvoic otvc_ciu, uot oi vcioootcc ,uixc
vuuotuoci otvutqoq uvotciotvtui uvo ct0cic xui xuvtic.
Qotooo, q cvvoiu tq otvc_ot otvutqoq civui vio voitvioxq u-
vo uttq iu otvc_ot ,uq.
Av, xu0c _uuoootc iu ,uq, oqxcootc to oit|i u xui
otvc_iootc uvo xuvoio uiio oqcio, totc uttoutu c_otc iu u-
otvc_q ,uq.
y
x
O
To uv civui uotvc_q iu uvtiotoi_q otvutqoq cututui xui uvo
tqv voocxtixq cictq tot vcoiot oioot tq. 'Ovc xutuiu|ui-
votc q otvc_ciu civui tovixq ioiotqtu, oqiuoq cictutui ,tc uvo
xu0c oqcio tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq, cvocvc
0u vcvci to oqcio utto vu uvqxci oto vcoio oioot tq l.
Lvivicov, q otvc_ciu tq l oc cvu oqcio cxuci oti q "otvci-
ou" tcv ,citovixcv oqcicv civui q "uvucvocvq", oqiuoq ocv
tvu_otv xcvu q oiuxovc otq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l.
H otvc_ciu tq l oc cvu oqcio x
O
cuouiictui c tci vot-
vo0coci:
(i) To x
O
uvqxci oto vcoio oioot tq l, oqiuoq tvu_ci oto R to
l(x
O
).
(ii) Yvu_ci oto R to lim
xx
O
l(x), oqiuoq tu oto victixu oiu tq l, o-
tuv xx
O
tvu_otv oto R xui civui iou.
(iii) !o_tci oti lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
)
134 Kcuiuio 3
Opiou )2ovcio oovprqoq oc oqucio):
'Lotc A _ R, xui x
O
e A. Ou icc oti q otvutqoq
l: AR civui otvc_q oto x
O
, uv xui ovo uv io_tci oti:
lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
)
Hopoocyoto
ltu uxoiot0u vuuoci,utu 0u cictqootc oic ti oc uotvc-
_ciu vot voci vu vuotoiuoci iu otvutqoq.
Hopciyuo 1
A cictqootc tq otvc_ciu tq otvutq-
oq l: RR, c
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x < 1
x
2
, x , 1
oto oqcio x
O
= 1.
A_ixu vuutqotc oti to x
O
= 1 uvqxci oto
vcoio oioot tq l xui oti l(1) = 1
2
= 1.
Lctuotc uv tvu_ci oto R to lim
x1
l(x),
|ioxovtu tu victixu oiu:
y
x
1
O
1
lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
x
3
= 1
lim
x1
+
l(x) = lim
x1
+
x
2
= 1
'Au tvu_ci oto R to lim
x1
l(x) xui uiiotu lim
x1
l(x) = 1 = l(1).
Lvocvc, q l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
Hopciyuo 2
A cictqootc tq otvc_ciu tq otvutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x < 1
x
2
+ 1 , x , 1
oto oqcio x
O
= 1. Huutqotc oti:
l(1) = 1
2
+ 1 = 2
lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
x
3
= 1
lim
x1
+
l(x) = lim
x1
+
(x
2
+ 1) = 2
'L_otc ioivov oti ocv tvu_ci oto R, to
lim
x1
l(x). Lvocvc q l civui uotvc_q oto
x
O
= 1.
Huutqotc, cotooo, oti, lim
x1
+
l(x) = 2 = l(1),
oqiuoq oti o ocio xiuoo tq C
l
civui
"otvc_q". Ou icc totc oti q l civui uotvc-
_q oto x
O
= 1, otvc_q uvo ociu.
y
x
1
O
1
2
Hopciyuo 3
oq l: RR, c
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x 1
x
2
+ 1 , x > 1
oto oqcio x
O
= 1. 'L_otc oti:
lim
x1
l(x) = 1 = l(1)
lim
x1
+
l(x) = 2
ovotc q l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= 1, xui u-
vtiotoi_u c to voq,otcvo vuuoci,u
otvc_q uvo uiotcu.
y
x
1
1
2
O
Hopciyuo 4
A cictqootc tq otvc_ciu tq otvutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x < 1
1 , x = 1
x
2
+ 1 , x > 1
oto oqcio x
O
= 1. Huutqotc oti:
136 Kcuiuio 3
l(1) = 1
lim
x1
l(x) = 1
lim
x1
+
l(x) = 2
Lvocvc q l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
y
x 1
1
1
2
O
Hopciyuo 5
oq l: RR, c
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x < 1
1 , x = 1
x
2
, x > 1
oto oqcio x
O
= 1. 'L_otc oti l(1) = 1 xui
lim
x1
l(x) = 1, cotooo q l civui uotvc_q oto
x
O
= 1 uot lim
x1
l(x) = l(1).
y
x
1
1
1
O
Hopciyuo 6
H otvutqoq:
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x < 1
x
2
+ 1 , x > 1
oc voci vu cictq0ci c vo tq otvc_ciu
oto oqcio x
O
= 1, xu0c utto ocv uvqxci oto
vcoio oioot tq.
y
x
1
1
2
O
- Lqco oouvcto
ltvoiovtu tu cvovtixu uvotcicoutu tcv voq,otcvcv vuu-
oci,utcv vootc vu ootc oiu tu cioq tcv oqcicv uotvc_ciu
iu otvutqoq. Octotc l
+
= lim
xx
0
+
l(x) xui l
= lim
xx
O
l(x).
Ipotkq Hopoto-
oq tq f
Mctq Luvcto Xopoktqptoo
l(x )
# #

- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Yvu_ci oto R to
lim
xx
O
l(x)
- lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
(Huuoci,u 5)
l(x )
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Acv tvu_ci oto R to
lim
xx
O
l(x), uot l
+
= l
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
(Huuoci,u 4)
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
lim
xx
O
l(x), uot l
+
= l
- !o_tci oti l
= f(x
0
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
,
otvc_q uvo uiotc-
u (Huuoci,u 3)
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
lim
xx
O
l(x), uot l
+
= l
- !o_tci oti l
+
= f(x
0
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
,
otvc_q uvo ociu
(Huuoci,u 2)
138 Kcuiuio 3
3.7. Luvcto Luvptqoq oc Atotqo
Ou otcotc tcu tq cictq u uot toviouc tqv tovixq toq
tq otvc_ciu oc otvutqoci oi ovoic civui otvc_ci oc oiuotq-
utu. O oioo tq otvc_ciu oc uvoi_to oiuotqu q oc cvcoq u-
voi_tcv oiuotqutcv civui uvio:
Opiou 1: Miu otvutqoq l: (u, |) R ic,ctui otvc_q oto oiu-
otqu (u, |) uv civui otvc_q oc xu0c x
O
e (u, |).
H cvvoiu tq otvc_ciu oc xicioto oiuotqu civui vcioootco vo-
itvioxq xu0c vcvci vu cxu0uiootc ti ot|uivci otu uxu tot:
Opiou 2: Miu otvutqoq l: [u, |] R ic,ctui otvc_q oto oiu-
otqu [u, |], uv civui otvc_q oc xu0c x
O
e (u, |) xui c-
vivicov c_otc oti:
lim
xu
+
l(x) = l(u), lim
x|
l(x) = l(|)
3.8. Luvcto Bootkev Luvoptqocev
Oi |uoixc otvutqoci civui otvc_ci, oqiuoq:
1. H otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = c.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = c = l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto R.
2. H otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = x.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = x
O
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto R.
3. H otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = x
v
, v e N.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = x
O
v
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto R.
4. H otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) =
1
x
v
, v e N.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) =
1
x
O
v
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto R.
5. H voitcvtixq otvutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) = u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
c u
i
e R, O i v.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci
lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = u
v
x
O
v
+ u
v1
x
O
v1
+ + u
1
x
O
+ u
O
= l(x
O
),
oqiuoq q l civui otvc_q oto R.
6. H qtq otvutqoq l: R'R, c l(x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
, R' = x e R, Q(x) = O;.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R' io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) =
P(x
O
)
Q(x
O
)
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq
q l civui otvc_q oto R'.
7. H otvutqoq l: [O, +)R, c l(x) = x
u
, u > O.
Iiu xu0c x
O
, O io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = x
O
u
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto [O, +).
8. H otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c l(x) =
1
x
u
, u > O.
Iiu xu0c x
O
> O io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) =
1
x
O
u
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q l
civui otvc_q oto (O, +).
9. H cx0ctixq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = u
x
, O O io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = log
u
x
O
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q
l civui otvc_q oto (O, +).
14O Kcuiuio 3
11. H otvutqoq l: R[1, 1], c l(x) = qx.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = qx
O
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q
l civui otvc_q oto R.
12. H otvutqoq l: R[1, 1], c l(x) = otvx.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = otvx
O
= l(x
O
), oqiuoq q
l civui otvc_q oto R.
13. H otvutqoq l: R xv +
v
2
, x e Z ; R, c l(x) = cx.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R xv +
v
2
, x e Z ; io_tci
lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = cx
O
= l(x
O
),
oqiuoq q l civui otvc_q oto vcoio oioot tq.
14. H otvutqoq l: R xv, x e Z ; R, c l(x) = ox.
Iiu xu0c x
O
e R xv, x e Z ; io_tci
lim
xx
O
l(x) = lim
xx
O
+
l(x) = ox
O
= l(x
O
),
oqiuoq q l civui otvc_q oto vcoio oioot tq.
3.9. Iototqtc Luvcev Luvoptqocev
Av oi otvutqoci l, g: AR civui otvc_ci oto oqcio x
O
e A, totc
(i) H otvutqoq l(x) = l(x) g(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(ii) H otvutqoq l(x) = xl(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
, ,iu xu0c x e R.
(iii) H otvutqoq l(x) = l(x)g(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(iv) Av g(x
O
) = O, q otvutqoq l(x) =
l(x)
g(x)
civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(v) H otvutqoq l(x) = ,l(x), civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(vi) H otvutqoq l(x) =
x
l(x) c l(x) , O civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
Lvioq, c_otc oti xui q otv0coq otvc_cv otvutqoccv civui ot-
vc_q otvutqoq:
Ocopquo
'Lotc otvutqoci l: AR xui g: BR c l(A) _ B. Av q l civui ot-
vc_q oto x
O
e A xui q g oto l(x
O
) e B, totc xui q otv0coq tot
gl: AR civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
Huuxutc oivovtui oi ,uixc vuuotuoci xui oi ttvoi cixcv
otvutqoccv, uvo ti ovoic xuvoic civui otvc_ci xui xuvoic u-
otvc_ci. Bcitc ti tic tot x vot vuotoiuctui uotvc_ciu tq
otvutqoq. lc xu0c vcivtcoq oixuioio,qotc ,iuti tvu_ci uotvc-
_ciu.
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
, x O
x , x > O
y
y l(x)
x
O
(|) l(x) =
'
x + 1 , x O
x
2
+ 2 , x > O
y
y l(x)
x
1
2
O
(,) l(x) =
'
x,x, , x = O
1 , x = O
1
y
y l(x)
x
O
(o) l(x) =
'
1
x
2
, x = O
1 , x = O
1
y
y l(x)
x O
142 Kcuiuio 3
(c) l(x) =
'
x 1 , x < O
O , x = O
2 , x > O
1
2
y
y l(x)
x
O
(ot)l(x) =
'
1 , x < O
x
2
+ 1 , x , 0
1
1
y
y l(x)
x
O
Atoq
(u) H l civui otvc_q.
(|) H l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= O ,iuti lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
+
l(x). Loc uot
lim
xO
l(x) = l(O) = 1 icc oti civui otvc_q ovo uvo uiotcu tot
O.
(,) H l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= O ,iuti vuoio vot tvu_ci to
lim
xO
l(x) = O oc otvivtci c tqv ui0qtixq tiq tq otvutqoq
l(O) = 1.
(o) H l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= O ,iuti to lim
xO
l(x) = + xui ,vciot-
c oti ,iu vu civui otvc_q vcvci uvuuitqtu to oio vu civui
vu,utixo ui0o.
(c) H l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= O ,iuti lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
+
l(x). Lvivicov
lim
xO
l(x) = l(O) = lim

xO
+
l(x). Lvocvc ottc ociu, ottc uiotcu tot
O civui otvc_q.
(ot)H l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= O ,iuti lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
+
l(x). Loc uot
lim
xO
+
l(x) = l(O) = 1 icc oti civui otvc_q ovo uvo ociu tot O.
Eopuoyq 2
Bcitc tov vivuxu ticv xui cxtiqotc uv oi vuuxutc otvu-
tqoci civui otvc_ci oto ooocvo oqcio:
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
, x , O
x
2
, x < O
oto x
O
= O
(|) l(x) =
'
1
x
2
, x < 0
x
2
, x , 0
oto x
O
= O
(,) l(x) =
'
x + 1 , x > 1
1 , x = 1
x 1 , x < 1
oto x
O
= 1
Atoq
(u) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) O,O1 O,OOO1 O,OOOOO1 O O,OOOOO1 O,OOO1 O,O1
Livui uvco oti oi tic ociu xui uiotcu tot x
O
= O vooc,-
,iotv tqv ui0qtixq tiq tq l ,iu x = O, oqiuoq l(O) = O. 'Au
io_tci lim
xO
l(x) = l(O), cvocvc otvc_q q l oto O.
(|) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) 1O 1OOO 1OOOOO O O,OOOOO1 O,OOO1 O,O1
Livui uvco oti oi tic tq otvutqoq uiotcu tot x
O
= O
c,uicvotv uvcioiotu cvc ociu tot x
O
= O viqoiuotv vo
to O. Aqiuoq c_otc lim
xO
l(x) = +, lim
xO
+
l(x) = O xui l(O) = O. Lvo-
cvc q l civui uotvc_q oto O. Acc oti civui otvc_q oto O o-
vo uvo ociu.
(,) x O,9 O,99 O,999 1 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x) O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 1 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
Ku0c to x viqoiuci to 1 uvo uiotcu oi tic tq otvutqoq
civui uvqtixc uiiu otvc_c c,uicvotv xui viqoiuotv to O.
'Otuv oc to x viqoiuci to 1 uvo ociu oi tic tq otvutq-
oq vooc,,iotv tov ui0o 2. 'Au lim
x1
l(x) = O xui lim

x1
+
l(x) = 2.
Lvocvc q l ocv civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1 uot
lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
+
l(x). Lvivicov l(1) = 1, uu q l ocv civui otvc_q
ottc ociu ottc uiotcu tot x
O
= 1.
144 Kcuiuio 3
Eopuoyq 3
l(x) =
'
lnx , O < x < 1

x 1 , 1 x 5
(u) Yvu_otv tu oiu tq l otu oqciu c tctqcvq x
O
= 1, x
1
= 2,
x
2
= 5;
(|) lc voiu uvo tu voq,otcvu oqciu civui otvc_q q l;
Atoq
(u) (1) lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
(lnx) = O
lim
x1
+
l(x) = lim
x1
+
x 1 = O
'Au lim
x1
l(x) = O.
(2) lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2
x 1 = 1
(3) lim
x5
l(x) = lim
x5
x 1 = 2
(|) (1) Aot l(1) = O xui lim
x1
l(x) = O, q l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(2) Aot l(2) = 1 xui lim
x2
l(x) = 1, q l civui otvc_q oto x
1
= 2.
(3) Aot l(5) = 2 xui lim
x5
l(x) = 2, q l civui otvc_q oto uxo tot

oiuotquto (O, 5], oqiuoq oto x
2
= 5.
Eopuoyq 4
Bcitc ti tic tot u ,iu ti ovoic q otvutqoq l civui otvc_q oto
x
O
= 1.
l(x) =
'
4x + u , x < 1
u
2
x
2
2x , x , 1
Atoq
Hcvci lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
+
l(x) = l(1) ovot:
lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
(4x + u) = 4 + u xui lim

x1
+
l(x) = lim
x1
+
(u
2
x
2
2x) = u
2
2.
Lvioq l(1) = u
2
2.
'Au u
2
2 = 4 + u u
2
u 6 = O u = 2 q u = 3.
Eopuoyq 5 ,Mo0poiote Koue)
H oiviuvq ,uixq vuuotu-
oq vci,uci tqv voooo vot
cxuvc xuvoio u0qtq ,iu vu
itoci ocotu cvu Mu0qutixo
vo|iqu. Loc to y u oci-
_vci to vooooto () tq oio-
xiqccvq c,uoiu tot u-
0qtq xui to l u oci_vci to
_ovo oc icvtu (min).
y ()
l (min)
l
O
6O
1OO
l
(u) Acotc iu cqvciu otq ,uixq vuuotuoq.

(|) Aixuioio,qotc ,iuti q otvutqoq civui uotvc_q otq 0coq l
2
.
(,) Ti ot|uivci otq 0coq l
3
;
Atoq
(u) ltq ,uixq vuuotuoq uivctui, oti o u0qtq, oto 1/3 vcivot
tot otvoiixot _ovot vot uiccoc ,iu vu oioxiqcoci tqv c-
viitoq tot vo|iquto, c_ci uvtictcvioci ocotu to 5O tot
vo|iquto. Lvocvc, q voooo civui oquvtixq. lto cvoc-
vo 1/3 tot otvoiixot _ovot q voooo cicvctui uio0qtu, ioc
,iuti xotuotqxc vvctutixu o u0qtq, ioc ,iuti q otoxoiiu
tot vo|iquto utuvctui xui o'utto to _ovo uvtictcvici to
1O tot vo|iquto. lto tcicttuio 1/3 tot otvoiixot _ovot q
voooo civui vuii oquvtixq c_i tqv oioxiqcoq tq cviit-
oq tot vo|iquto.
(|) ltq _ovixq oti,q l
2
q voooo tot u0qtq oiuxovtctui xui ut-
uvctui uvotou ,iuti o'cxcivo to ot,xcxicvo icvto o u-
0qtq cvcvu tq otoxoiiu tot vo|iquto (itvci otoiuotixu
to vo|iqu) xui otq otvc_ciu to oioxiqcvci.
(,) ltq 0coq l
3
c_ci oioxiqcoci vicov tqv c,uoiu tot (1OO tot
vo|iquto).
Eopuoyq 6
u cic,ctc uv civui otvc_ci oto vcoio oioot tot oi cvocvc
otvutqoci. Ii' uttc vot ocv civui vu |citc tu oqciu uotvc_ciu.
146 Kcuiuio 3
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
+ x
x + 1
, x = 1
1 , x = 1
(|) l(x) =
'
otvx , O x <
v
4
qx ,
v
4
x
v
2
(,) l(x) = ln,x,
(o) l(x) =
1
x
2
Atoq
(u) 'Otuv x = 1 q l(x) =
x
2
+ x
x + 1
civui otvc_q c vqiixo otvc_cv ot-
vutqoccv (voitcvtixcv).
lto x
0
1, lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1

x(x + 1)
x + 1
= lim
x1
x = 1.
Lvioq l(1) = 1, uu q l uotvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(|) 'Otuv x e [O,
v
4
) q l(x) = otvx civui otvc_q.
'Otuv x e (
v
4
,
v
2
] q l(x) = qx civui otvc_q.
lto x
0

4
, lim
x
v
4

l(x) = lim
x
v
4

(otvx) =
2
2
xui
lim
x
v
4

+
l(x) = lim
x
v
4

+
(qx) =
2
2
= l
_
v
4
.
'Au otvc_q oc oio to [O,
v
2
].
(,) H l civui otv0coq otvc_cv otvutq-
occv, tq g(x) = lnx xui tq (x) = ,x,.
Lvocvc civui otvc_q oc oio to
vcoio oioot tq, oqiuoq ,iu xu0c
x e (, O) . (O, +).
y
x
O
y l(x)
1 1
(o) 'Ooiu q l civui otvc_q ,iu xu0c
x e (, O) . (O, +).
y
O
x
y l(x)
2quciooq: Ao oove,ei pouue toi oo oove,ei oovoptpoei. Hpoooq!! Hoo e-
optovtoi oo to eio opiouo tp oovoptpop.
Eopuoyq 7
(u) Yvo0cotc oti q otvutqoq l civui otvc_q oto oqcio x
O
xui q g
civui uotvc_q oto x
O
.
(i) Livui to u0oiou l + g uotvc_q oto x
O
; Aixuioio,qotc.
(ii) Livui to ,ivocvo lg uotvc_q oto x
O
; Aixuioio,qotc.
(|) Yvo0cotc tcu oti xui oi oto otvutqoci civui uotvc_ci oto
oqcio x
O
.
(i) Livui to u0oiou l + g uotvc_q oto x
O
;
(ii) Livui to ,ivocvo lg uotvc_q oto x
O
;
Aixuioio,qotc ti uvuvtqoci ou c tq |oq0ciu vuuoci,u-
tcv.
Atoq
(u) (i) Occotc tq otvutqoq o(x) = l(x) + g(x). Av tvo0cootc o-
ti civui otvc_q oto x
O
totc q g(x) = o(x) l(x) civui otvc_q
oto x
O
c oiuou otvc_cv, utovo.
'Au o(x) = l(x) + g(x) uotvc_q oto x
O
.
(ii) Occotc tq otvutqoq (x) = l(x)g(x). Yvo0ctotc oti ci-
vui otvc_q oto x
O
, totc q g(x) =
(x)
l(x)
0u civui otvc_q oto
x
O
, uv l(x
O
) = O, c vqiixo otvc_cv vu,u utovo.
'Au (x) = l(x)g(x) uotvc_q oto x
O
.
!! Tt yvctot oe ov f(x
0
) 0; Aivotc tiu vuuoci,utu c
tiu oiuoctixu uvotcicoutu:
148 Kcuiuio 3
- l(x) = x
2
, g(x) =
'
1
x
, x = O
O , x = O
Totc (x) = l(x)g(x) =
'
x , x = O
O , x = O
c lim
xO
(x) = O xui (O) = O, uu otvc_q oto x
O
= O.
- l(x) = x, g(x) =
'
1
x
, x = O
O , x = O
'
1 , x = O
O , x = O
c lim
xO
(x) = 1 xui (O) = O, uu uotvc_q oto x
O
= O.
- l(x) = ,x,, g(x) =
'
1
x
, x = O
O , x = O
'
,x,
x
, x = O
O , x = O
q ovoiu ocv c_ci oio otuv xO, cvocvc vuii uotvc_q
oto x
O
= O.
!! Evot ovcpo ott oc opoc vo oovtqoouc c otyoupt
oto cpetqo (ii) otov f(x
0
) 0.
(|) Ac ,vciotc uv oi otvutqoci l + g xui lg civui uotvc_ci
oto x
O
, uot ,iu vuuoci,u oi otvutqoci:
l(x) =
'
1 , x O
O , x > O
xui g(x) =
'
O , x O
1 , x > O
civui uotvc_ci oto x
O
= O, oc oi (l + g)(x) = 1 xui (lg)(x) = O ci-
vui otvc_ci oto O (xui o_i ovo o' utto to oqcio) c otu0cc
otvutqoci.
2quciooq: Kotooteooote ito oo opoeiuoto ooove,ov oovoptpoeov f toi g oto x
0
ue ooove,e o0poiouo f g toi ivouevo fg.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
u |citc tu oqciu uotvc-
_ciu tq otvutqoq l, tq
ovoiu q ,uixq vuuotu-
oq uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu.
y
x
O 1
1
3
y l(x)
2
2
2 3 4
'Aouqoq 2
lti cvocvc otvutqoci vu cic,ctc tq otvc_ciu otqv tiq tot x
vot uiiuci ttvo q otvutqoq. lc xu0c oqcio uotvc_ciu vu oq-
cicoctc ot poo0oct tot oioot otvc_ciu vuu|iuovtui.
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
+ 1 , x 1
O , x > 1
(|) l(x) =
'
x + 3 , x , 1
2 + x , O x < 1
(,) l(x) =
'
x
2
1
x + 1
, x = 1
1 , x = 1
(o) l(x) =
'
O , x = 2
1
,x 2,
, x = 2
'Aouqoq 3
l(x) =
'
x
2
+ 1 , O < x < 2
x
3
3 , 2 x 5
O
= 1, x
1
= 2
xui x
2
= 5;
'Aouqoq 4
otvutqoci. Iiu uttc vot ocv civui vu |citc tu oqciu uotvc-
_ciu.
15O Kcuiuio 3
(u) l(x) = 5x
2
x + 4 (|) l(x) =
2
x
2
+ 1
(,) l(x) =
x
x
2
(o) l(x) =
'
x + 1 , x < 0
e
x
, x , 0
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc ti tic tot u vot xuvotv tqv l otvc_q oto oqcio vot uiiu-
ci o ttvo tq.
(u) l(x) =
'
x 3 , x 1
ux
2
u
2
, x > 1
(|) l(x) =
'
x
2
4
x + 2
, x = 2
u , x = 2
'Aouqoq 2
u oixuioio,qoctc ,iuti oi cvocvc otvutqoci civui otvc_ci
oto vcoio oioot tot.
(u) l(x) = q
1
x
2
(|) l(x) = e
x
2
1
'Aouqoq 3
H otvutqoq l c ttvo l(x) =
(1 + x)
2
1
x
civui oiocvq ,iu xu0c
x e (, O) . (O, +) xui o' utto to otvoio civui otvc_q. Mvocitc
vu tqv oioctc xutuiiqiu oto oqcio x
O
= O cotc vu civui otvc_q
oc oio to R;
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc oto R tq otvutqoq l(x) = 2x
2
5x 3.
(u) Yvoio,iotc tqv tiq l(1) xui ctu vuu,ovtovoiqotc tq oiuou
l(x) l(1).
x1

l(x) l(1)
x 1
, uv |c|uiu utto tvu_ci.
(,) Av vuotc tic tot x voit xovtu oto 1, ovc:
x e (1
1
1O
, 1) . (1, 1 +
1
1O
) q uiiic
9
1O
< x <
11
1O
, x = 1
totc vu uvoocictc oti ,l(x) l(1), <
12
100
.
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1 ,Hpopuo Kotovooop)
H oiviuvq ,uixq vu-
uotuoq oci_vci tqv
voootqtu vctciuiot
0cuvoq oc iu ocu-
cvq 2OO iitcv (l) vot
tvu_ci oc iu voitxu-
toixiu ,iu iu vciooo
15O qccv. Av 0ccq-
ootc oti l = O uvti-
otoi_ci otqv u_q o-
c|iot.
y ( ) #
l (qcpc)
O

2OO

(|) Lq,ciotc ,iuti q otvutqoq civui uotvc_q oti 0coci l = 4O,
l = 7O, l = 95, l = 11O, l = 125.
(,) Hoio qvu voictc oti qtuv vcioootco xto;
'Aouqoq 2 ,Hpopuo Tiuov Euopeuoto)
H otvutqoq vot oivci to xooto cvo ot,xcxicvot cvoctuto
oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq K c ttvo:
K(x) =
'
5x , O < x < 1O
4x , 1O x < 3O
3x + 3O , 3O x < 6O
3,2x , 6O x 9O
ovot x civui o ui0o tcv ,uuicv tot vuu,ocvot cvoct-
uto xui K(x) to xooto oc _iiiuoc ou_c.
(u) l_coiuotc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq K(x) xui
|citc ti tic tot x vot civui uttq uotvc_q.
(|) Acotc iu cqvciu otq ,uixq vuuotuoq.
152 Kcuiuio 3
3.10. 'Opto Luvptqoq oto 'Actpo
Mc_i tcu, cictqouc to oio iu otvutqoq xu0c to x viq-
oiuci cvuv vu,utixo ui0o x
O
. lt_vu, ciuotc uvu,xuocvoi vu
cictqootc to oio iu otvutqoq, xu0c to x utuvci uvcioi-
otu, oqiuoq otuv to x tcivci oto uvcio.
Hopciyuo
A 0ccqootc cvu xicioto oixoototqu, oqiuoq iu ocucvq c-
,uotqiot, otqv ovoiu cvitcvotc vu tvu_otv ovo _toouu.
Toooototc tq ocucvq ctoi cotc vu tvu_ci vuvtu otu0cq
voootqtu toq ,iu tu _toouu: c = 2O lgi. 'Lotc l q otvutqoq
tot viq0toot tcv _tooucv, c ctu|iqtq to _ovo l. 'Lotc
l(O) = 1OO civui o u_ixo viq0too tcv _tooucv (,iu l = O), xui
o ttvo tq l civui:
l(l) = l(O) +
cl
2
1 + l
2
, l > O q l(l) = 1OO +
2Ol
2
1 + l
2
Ociotc vu cictqootc tqv cciiq tot viq0toot tcv _too-
ucv cou otq ocucvq ,iu ooooqvotc c,uiot _ovot. 'L_ot-
c tov uxoiot0o vivuxu ticv:
t 1 2 5 1O 1OO 1OOO
f(t) 11O 116 119,2 119,8 119,998 119,99998
Huutqotc ioivov oti vuoio vot
o _ovo l utuvctui uvoooioiotu,
oi tic tq l ocv uxoiot0otv tqv ioiu
utqoq, uiiu tcivotv otqv tiq 12O,
xuti vot civui uvucvocvo, xui uvo
tq oq tot toixot vo|iquto.
Lvocvc, c_otc oti:
lim
l+
l(l) = 12O
y 12O
1OO
l
l O
ovc uivctui xui uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l.
Opiou: (u) Ou icc oti iu otvutqoq l: (u, +) R, c_ci oio
tov vu,utixo ui0o l otuv to x tcivci oto + uv
oi tic tq l(x) |ioxovtui ooooqvotc xovtu oto l,
xu0c to x vuivci vuu voit c,uic 0ctixc tic
xui ot|oiiotc lim
x+
l(x) = l.
'Ooiu oictui xui to lim
x
l(x) = l.
(|) Ou icc oti iu otvutqoq l: (u, +) R, c_ci oio
to + otuv to x tcivci oto + uv oi tic tq l(x) ut-
uvotv uvcioiotu xu0c to x viqoiuci to +.
lt|oiiotc: lim
x+
l(x) = +.
Avuio,u oiovtui xui tu oiu:
lim
x
l(x) = +, lim
x+
l(x) = xui lim
x
l(x) =
#
x
y
O
#
x
y
O
lim
x+
f(x) = l lim
x
f(x) = l
x
y
O x
y
O
lim
x+
f(x) = + lim
x
f(x) = +
154 Kcuiuio 3
x
y
O
x
y
O
lim
x+
f(x) = lim
x
f(x) =
- 'Opto ouevutkq ouvptqoq oto ctpo
Iiu vu tvoio,iootc to oio iu voitcvtixq otvutqoq, otuv
to x tcivci oto uvcio, uxci vu otvcioqtovoiqootc oti uxoiot0ci
tq otvciou tot c,ioto|u0iot oot tq.
Hopciyuo
A tvoio,iootc to oio tq voitcvtixq otvutqoq:
P(x) = 2x
3
+ 5x
2
4
otuv to x tcivci oto . Axci vu ,uotc tqv P c cq:
P(x) = x
3

_
2 +
5
x

4
x
3
Totc vuutqotc oti:
lim
x
x
3
= xui lim
x

_
2 +
5
x

4
x
3
= 2 + O + O = 2
Lvocvc c_otc oti:
lim
x
P(x) = ()(2) = +
Icvixotcu, io_tci oti:
Av P(x) = u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
, u
v
= O, totc:
lim
x+
P(x) = lim
x+
(u
v
x
v
) xui lim
x
P(x) = lim
x
(u
v
x
v
)
- 'Opto pqtq ouvptqoq oto ctpo
To voq,otcvo uvotcicou ,iu ti voitcvtixc cuoctui xui
oti qtc otvutqoci, oi ovoic civui vqiixo voitcvtixcv.
Hopciyuo
A tvoio,iootc to oio tq otvutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) =
3x
2
+ 5x + 2
x
2
x + 1
otuv to x tcivci oto +. H l ,uctui c cq:
l(x) =
x
2

_
3 +
5
x
+
2
x
2
x
2

_
1
1
x
+
1
x
2
=
3 +
5
x
+
2
x
2
1
1
x
+
1
x
2
'Oc c_otc oti:
lim
x+

_
3 +
5
x
+
2
x
2
= 3 xui lim
x+

_
1
1
x
+
1
x
2
= 1
'Au lim
x+
f(x) =
3
1
= 3.
Av l(x) =
(x)
q(x)
=
u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
|
+ |
1
x
1
+ + |
1
x + |
O
, u
v
= O, |
= O, totc:
lim
x+
l(x) = lim
x+

u
v
x
v
|
xui lim
x
l(x) = lim
x

u
v
x
v
|
- 'Opto ck0cttkq ouvptqoq oto ctpo

Avo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq cx0ctixq otvutqoq l(x) = u
x
, c
O 1, totc c_otc oti:
lim
x+
u
x
= + xui lim
x
u
x
= O.
y
x
O
(ii) Av O < u < 1, totc c_otc oti:
lim
x+
u
x
= O xui lim
x
u
x
= +.
y
x
O
156 Kcuiuio 3
- 'Opto oyopt0tkq ouvptqoq oto ctpo
Avo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq io,ui0ixq otvutqoq
g: (O, +) R, c g(x) = log
u
x, O 1, totc c_otc oti lim
x+
log
u
x = +.
x O
y
(ii) Av O < u < 1, totc c_otc oti:
lim
x+
log
u
x = .
x O
y
3.11. Optovtto Aotetq
Liouc oti q otvciou iu otvutqoq voooioictui ucou
otu oqciu tot vcoiot oioot tq xu0c xui oc ot,xcxicvu oq-
ciu cxto tot vcoiot oioot tq, otu ovoiu cictuc uv q C
l
c_ci
xutuxotc uotvtctc. 'Lvu octtco oqcio cictq tq otvc-
iou tq ,uixq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq voxtvtci, co-
oov tvu_ci vcio_q tot uvciot (+ q ) oto vcoio oioot tq l.
Hopoocyoto
Hopciyuo 1
A cictqootc tq otvciou tq otvutqoq l: (O, +) R, c
l(x) =
1
x
A 0ccqootc cvuv vivuxu ticv tq l:
x 1O 1O
5
1O
1O
1O
1OO
f(x) O,1 O,OOOO1 1O

1O
1O
1OO

Huutqotc oti ooo c,uicvotv oi tic tq u-
vcutqtq ctu|iqtq x, tooo ixuivotv uttc
tq otvutqoq l(x). Ou c_otc totc oti otuv to x
tcivci oto +, q l(x) tcivci oto O, oqiuoq:
lim
x+
l(x) = O
Avo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l vuutqotc oti
q C
l
otqv vcio_q tot + otvcicctui ovc q
y
O x
y
1
x
y = O, tqv ovoiu ovouotc optovtto ootetq tq C
l
,iu x+.
Hopciyuo 2
A cictqootc tq otvciou tq ot-
vutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) =
_
x + 1
x
3
oto uvcio. 'L_otc oti lim
x+
l(x) = 1, o-
votc q ct0ciu y = 1 civui oiovtiu u-
otvtctq tq C
l
,iu x+. 'Ooiu
lim
x
l(x) = 1, ovotc q y = 1 civui oio-
vtiu uotvtctq tq C
l
xui otuv x.
x
y
O
1
Opiou: 'Lotc otvutqoq l: AR, ovot to vcoio oioot tq A
vcic_ci vcio_c tot (+) xui tot (). H ct0ciu y = c
ic,ctui oiovtiu uotvtctq tq C
l
, otuv x+, uv xui
ovo uv:
lim
x+
l(x) = c
'Ooiu, uv lim
x
l(x) = x, q ct0ciu y = x xuicitui oiovtiu
uotvtctq tq C
l
otuv x.
Livui uvco oti uv to lim
x+
l(x) ocv tvu_ci q oivci uvotcicou ,
totc q C
l
ocv c_ci oiovtiu uotvtctq. Lvioq, ocv civui uvuui-
tqto iu otvutqoq vu c_ci tqv ioiu oiovtiu uotvtctq otuv
x+ xui x.
158 Kcuiuio 3
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
u cxtiqoctc (uvtcctc) to lim
x+
l(x) xui to lim
x
l(x), ovot uttu o-
iovtui, oti ,uixc vuuotuoci tcv otvutqoccv vot uxoiot-
0otv.
y
x
O
y l(x)
(u)

y
x
O
(|)
y l(x)

y
x O
y l(x)
(,)
Atoq
(u) - lim
x+
l(x) = O xu0c otuv to x uvciictui 0ctixu oi tic tq l
viqoiuotv to O.
- lim
x
l(x) = + xu0c otuv to x uvciictui uvqtixu oi tic
tq l c,uicvotv uvcioiotu.
(|) - lim
x+
l(x) = xu0c otuv to x uvciictui 0ctixu oi tic tq
l ixuivotv uvcioiotu.
- lim
x
l(x) = xu0c otuv to x uvciictui uvqtixu oi tic
tq l ixuivotv uvcioiotu.
(,) - lim
x+
l(x) = + xu0c otuv to x uvciictui 0ctixu oi tic tq
l c,uicvotv uvcioiotu.
- Acv oictui to lim
x
l(x) ,iuti to vcoio oioot tq l ocv vc-
ic_ci vcio_q tot ().
Eopuoyq 2
(u) l(x) =
O,5x
x + 1OO
, lim
x+
l(x)
x 1O 1OO 1OOO 1OOOO 1OOOOOO
l(x)
(|) l(x) = 1OOOx + x
2
, lim
x+
l(x)
x 1O 1OO 1OOO 1OOOOO
l(x)
(,) l(x) = 1O
_
1
2
x
, lim
x
l(x)
x 5 8 1O 15
l(x)
Atoq
(u) x 1O 1OO 1OOO 1OOOO 1OOOOOO
l(x) O,O
45 O,25 O,
45 O,495 O,4999
Loc oi tic tq l vooc,,iotv tov ui0o O,5 xu0c to x vui-
vci voit c,uic tic. 'Au lim
x+
l(x) = O,5.
(|) x 1O 1OO 1OOO 1OOOOO
l(x) 2OO 1O316,23 1OO1OOO 1OOOOO1OOOO
Loc oi tic tq l c,uicvotv uvcioiotu xu0c to x vuivci
voit c,uic tic. 'Au lim
x+
l(x) = +.
(,) x 5 8 1O 15
l(x) 32O 256O 1O24O 32768O
16O Kcuiuio 3
Loc oi tic tq l c,uicvotv uvcioiotu xu0c to x u_ici vu
cicvctui. Oi ctu|oic uttc civui voit c,uic xui ovouo-
vtui cx0ctixc ctu|oic. 'Au lim
x
l(x) = +.
Eopuoyq 3
Xqoiovoiqotc ti ioiotqtc tcv oicv oto uvcio ,iu vu tvoio,i-
octc tu cvocvu oiu, uv tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
(5x
3
+ x 1) (|) lim
x

2x + 1
x
2
1
(,) lim
x
( 2x
2
+ 1 + x) (o) lim
x+

1OOx 1Ox,x 1,
x
2
1
Atoq
(u) lim
x+
(5x
3
+ x 1) = lim
x+
(5x
3
) = 5(+) =
(|) lim
x

2x + 1
x
2
1
= lim
x

2x
x
2
= 2 lim
x

1
x
= 2O = O
(,) 'L_ci cvvoiu q uvuqtqoq tot oiot uot 2x
2
+ 1 > O ,iu xu0c
x e R. Totc:
lim
x
( 2x
2
+ 1 + x) = lim
x
( 2x
2
+ x) = lim
x
( 2 ,x, + x) =
(
*
)
lim
x
[x(1 2] = ()(1 2) = + xu0oti 1 2 < O.
(*) Aot x oquivci oti x e (, O) uu ,x, = x.
(o) Aot x+ vootc vu cviicotc iu xutuiiqiq vcio_q
tot + vot vu u uvuiiuoci uvo to uvoitto, cotc x e (1, +),
ovotc l(x) =
1OOx 1Ox(x 1)
x
2
1
=
1Ox
2
+ 11Ox
x
2
1
.
Totc lim
x+
l(x) = lim
x+

1Ox
2
x
2
= 1O.
Eopuoyq 4
Bcitc ti oiovtic uotvtctc, otuv tvu_otv, oti uvtiotoi_c
vcivtcoci tq cuo,q 3.
Atoq
Oiovtic uotvtctc tvu_otv otuv lim
x+
l(x) q lim
x
l(x) civui vu,-
utixo ui0o. Lvocvc:
- ltq (|) c_otc tqv y = O otuv x.
- ltq (o) c_otc tqv y = 1O otuv x+.
Eopuoyq 5
'Otuv o,uvixu uvo|iqtu vctiotvtui oc iu iivq, q ocioctixq oiu-
oixuoiu vot oqiot,citui, cicvci to vcic_ocvo tq iivq oc o-
t,ovo. Hu' oiu uttu, c to _ovo q toq cvuvucci to vcic_o-
cvo ot,ovo oto toioio,ixo tot cvivcoo. Yvo0cotc oti to vcic-
_ocvo ot,ovo, oc vooooto cvi toi tot toioio,ixot cvivcoot,
l qcc ctu tq tq tcv uvo|iqtcv otq iivq oivctui uvo tq ot-
vutqoq:
l(l) = 1OO
l
2
+ 1Ol + 1OO
l
2
+ 2Ol + 1OO
(u) Yvoio,iotc to vooooto tot ot,ovot vot 0u vcic_ctui otq ii-
vq ,iu l = O, 1, 2, 5, O, 15, 2O qcc.
(|) Avo tot voq,otcvot tvoio,ioot uvtiiq0citc oti totcu
uvo xuvoio _ovixo oiuotqu q vcicxtixotqtu tq iivq oc o-
t,ovo utuvctui qcu c tqv qcu.
(,) Yvoio,iotc to lim
x+
l(x) xui cq,ciotc to uvotcicou.
Atoq
(u) l O 1 2 5 1O 15 2O
l(l) 1OO 91,7 86,1 77,8 75 76 77,7
(|) Livui uvco oti totcu uvo 1O q-
cc cicoq tot ot,ovot, q vc-
icxtixotqtu tot otq iivq u_ici
vu utuvctui.
(,) lim
x+
l(l) = lim
x+

_
1OO
l
2
+ 1Ol + 1OO
l
2
+ 2Ol + 1OO
=
1OO lim
x+

l
2
l
2
= 1OO1 = 1OO
l O 1O
1OO
75
l(l)
vot oquivci oti totcu uvo voiic qcc q vcicxtixotqtu
tot vcot oc ot,ovo 0u viqoiuci vuii to 1OO tot toioio,i-
xot cvivcoot.
162 Kcuiuio 3
Eopuoyq 6 ,Kooto Oppop)
Miu cictq ,iu tu coou ooq,qoq tctuxtiivocv uttoxivqtcv o-
vtcicv tot 1995, |qxc oti to coo xooto tcv coocv (uouicic,
otvtqqoq, xutuvuicoq, |cvivq x.iv) ctotcvu oc ou_c uvu
_iiiocto oivovtui uvo tq otvutqoq:
K(x) =
2O1O
x
3
+ 17,8O
ovot x civui o ui0o tcv _iiioctcv (oc _iiiuoc) vot oiuvtci to
uui to _ovo.
(u) Hoio civui to coo xooto ooq,qoq cvo tctoiot tctuxtiiv-
oot uuiot vot oiuvtci 5OOO, 1OOOO, 15OOO xui 2OOOO _iiioc-
tu to _ovo;
(|) Xqoiovoiqotc to (u) cctqu ,iu vu o_coiuoctc otottk tq
,uixq vuuotuoq tq
K(x).
(,) Ti ot|uivci c to coo xooto ooq,qoq otuv o ui0o tcv _i-
iioctcv vot oiuvtci to uui to _ovo utuvci _ci oio;
Atoq
(u) O vivuxu ticv vot uxoiot0ci u oci_vci to coo xooto ooq-
,qoq:
x 5 1O 15 2O
K(x) 33,88 19,81 18,4O 18,O5

(|)
x (_ii. Lm)
O 1O 5
17,8
15 2O
y (op_ / Lm)
(,) 'L_otc lim
x+

K(x) = lim
x+

_
2O1O
x
3
+ 17,8O = 17,8O.
'Au otuv o ui0o tcv _iiioctcv vot oiuvtci to uuci to
_ovo utuvci uxctu totc to coo xooto ooq,qoq ixuivci
xui tuvci oiuxu ti 17,8O ou_c/lm.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
x+
l(x) oti vcivtcoci (u), (|) xui
to lim
x
l(x) oti vcivtcoci (,), (o), uv tvu_ci:
y
x O
(u)
y l(x)
y
x
O
(|)
y l(x)
y
x O
1
(,)
y l(x)
y
x
O
1
(o)
y l(x)
'Aouqoq 2
(u) l(x) =
x
2
+ 1
x
2
, lim
x+
l(x)
x 1O 5O 1OO 1OOO 15OO
l(x) 1,O1 1,OOOOO1
164 Kcuiuio 3
(|) l(x) = x
2
+ 1 + x, lim
x
l(x)
l(x) O,O498 O,OOO4
'Aouqoq 3
(u) lim
x
(3x
3
+ x
2
x + 1) (|) lim
x+

x
2
4x + 3
2x
3
+ 1
(,) lim
x+

4x
2
+ x + 1
2x 1
'Aouqoq 4
(u) lim
x+

]
1
1
1O1
_
1 +
1
x
+
1
x
2
(|) lim
x

_ x
2
2 x
+
2x
2
2x + 10
(,) lim
x+

x
2
+ 1 + x
2x + 1
'Aouqoq 5
lti uoxqoci 3 xui 4 vu |citc ti ciococi tcv oiovticv uot-
vtctcv tcv otvutqoccv, ovot uttc tvu_otv.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Iiu ti cvocvc otvutqoci tvoio,iotc to lim
x+

l(x)
x
.
Av lim
x+

l(x)
x
= i e R vu |citc cvioq to lim
x+
(l(x) ix).
(u) l(x) =
x
2
2x + 5
x
(|) l(x) = 2x
2
x + 3
(,) l(x) =
2x 1
x + 1
(o) l(x) = x
2
+ x + 2
'Aouqoq 2
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu cx0ctixcv ocv, uv tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
(e
4x
+ 1) (|) lim
x+

e
x
+ 1
2e
x
(,) lim
x

e
x
+ 1
2e
x
'Aouqoq 3
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu, uv tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
(2
x
lnx) (|) lim
xO
+
(2
1
x
lnx)
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
To xooto xutuoxctq cvo V oioxot cututui uvo to viq0o x
tcv xutuoxctuocvcv V uvo iu ctuiciu, c |uoq tq otvu-
tqoq xootot K(x) = O,5 +
25OO
x
oc _iiiuoc o_.
(u) Yvoio,iotc to xooto cvo V oioxot uv q ctuiciu xutu-
oxctuci 1OOO, 15OO, 25OO, 5OOO, 5OOOO oioxot.
x+
K(x) xui cq,qotc to uvotcicou.
'Aouqoq 2
H ot,xcvtcoq cvo ot,xcxicvot uuxot otqv xtxiooiu tot
uiuto cvo uo0cvq, l cc ctu tqv cvcoq, oivctui uvo tq otvu-
tqoq l(l) =
O,2l
l
2
+ 1
ovot oi tic tq otvutqoq tvoio,iovtui oc
mg/cm
3
.
(u) Yvoio,iotc tq ot,xcvtcoq ,iu l = 1, 2, 4, 5, 1O cc.
x+
l(l) xui cq,qotc to uvotcicou.
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc voioi uvo tot cvocvot io_tioot civui ocotoi (l) xui
voioi iu0o (A) xui uitioio,qotc tqv uvoq ou.
1. Iiu xu0c otvutqoq l vot oictui oc otvoio oq (u, |) c
x
O
e (u, |) io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
).
2. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = l xui lim
xx
O
[l(x) + g(x)] = I totc lim
xx
O
g(x) = I l.
166 Kcuiuio 3
3. Av ,iu xu0c x e (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) io_tci l(x) = g(x) xui lim
xx
O
l(x) = l
totc lim
xx
O
g(x) = l.
4. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = l xui lim
xx
O
g(x) = l totc ,iu xu0c x e (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) i-
o_tci l(x) = g(x).
5. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = + q totc lim
xx
O

1
l(x)
= O.
6. Av lim
xx
O

1
l(x)
= O totc lim
xx
O
l(x) = + q .
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc ti otvutqoci l xui g c ttvot:
l(x) = x 1, x , O xui g(x) =
i
(x 1)
2
, i = O, O x = 1
(u) u |citc tu lim
x1
l(x) xui lim
x1
g(x), uv tvu_otv.
lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)];
(,) Iiu ti oiuoc tic tot i e (, O) . (O, +) vu tvoio,ioctc to
lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)].
'Aouqoq 3
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu, uv |c|uiu uttu tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
[2lnx ln(x
2
+ 1)] (|) lim
x+
ln( x
2
+ 1 x)
'Aouqoq 4
'Lvu ui xoitvu iu uvootuoq l ctcv c tu_ttqtu t m/sec uvti-
0ctu vo to ctu cvo votuot, tot ovoiot q tu_ttqtu tot vcot
civui u m/sec (u < t). H cvc,ciu vot ooctci to ui oivctui uvo tq
otvutqoq:
L(t) =
u l t
3
t u
ovot u > O civui iu otu0cu xui q cvc,ciu L ctictui oc 1oule.
(u) Yvoio,iotc to lim
tu
+
L(t) xui cq,qotc to uvotcicou.
t+
'Aouqoq 5
Av ,iu ti otvutqoci l xui g vot oiovtui oc cvu oiuotqu oq
(u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) io_tci lim
xx
O

l(x)
g(x)
= 1 totc ,iu tic tot x voit xovtu oto
x
O
vootc vu io_tiototc oti l(x) = g(x).
Hopoeiuo. Occotc ti otvutqoci l(x) = 1 + x 1 xui g(x) =
x
2
.
(u) Acitc oti lim
xO

l(x)
g(x)
= 1.
(|) Yvoio,iotc vooc,,iotixu tq 1O, 1O5, O,3, O,OO2.
'Aouqoq 6 ,Hpopuo Euoo)
Tiu o0o,cviu vu-
uiiqio,uu c-
_otv ioiu |uoq 1 m,
tq 3 m, 2 m, 1 m u-
vtiotoi_u, xui uvc-
_otv ctut tot xu-
tu 1 m, ovc uivc-
tui xui oto oiviuvo
o_qu.
3
2
1
x
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m
(u) u cxuoctc c otvutqoq tot x to c|uoo tot o_quto.
(|) Av L(x) q otvutqoq tot c|uoot, vu cic,ctc uv civui otvc_q
xui vu xuvctc tq ,uixq tq vuuotuoq.
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc cvuv xtxiixo tocu AOB uxtivu R c cvixcvtq ,cviu x
ovc uivctui oto vuxutc o_qu.
(u) u tvoio,ioctc to qxo tq _ooq AB xui to qxo tot
"|ciot" AI c otvutqoq tq ,cviu x, ovot I civui to coo
tot toot
AB.
168 Kcuiuio 3
(|) u tvoio,ioctc to qxo
tq _ooq BI xui to qxo
tot "|ciot" ZL c otvu-
tqoq tq ,cviu x, ovot L
civui to coo tot toot
BI.
(,) u |citc tu oiu tq _o-
oq AB xui tot "|ciot" AI
otuv xO.
(o) u uvoocictc oti:
lim
xO

AI
ZL
= 4.
O
R
R
A
A
I
L
Z B
x
2
x
2
Avoucozoiooq
- !oiotqtc Oicv:
Av tvu_otv tu lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
g(x) xui civui l
1
, l
2
e R uvtiotoi_u,
totc:
(i) lim
xx
O
[l(x) g(x)] = l
1
l
2
(ii) lim
xx
O
[l(x)g(x)] = l
1
l
2
(iii) lim
xx
O

l(x)
g(x)
=
l
1
l
2
, cooov l
2
= O
(iv) lim
xx
O
,l(x), = ,l
1
,
(v) lim
xx
O
[l(x)]
v
= l
1
v
, v e N
(vi) lim
xx
O

x
l(x) =
x
l
1
, ,iu xu0c x e N, x , 2,
ovot q l civui 0ctixq oc iu vcio_q tot x
O
.
- Lvitcvtc vuci c to uvcio:
(i) x + = +, x =
(ii) Av x > O, totc x(+) = +, x() =
(iii) Av x < O, totc x(+) = , x() = +
(iv)
x
+
=
x
= O
Lvivicov tcv vuuvuvc vuccv c_otc xui ti vuci ctu-
t tot (+) xui tot () c cq:
(i) (+) + (+) = +, () + () =
(ii) (+)(+) = +, ()() = +, (+)() =
- Avoooioiotc oc
_
O
O
,
, O(), (+) + () :
O
O
oc Pqtc: Huu,ovtovoiqoci
O
O
oc Piixu: ltt,q Huuotuoq
17O Kcuiuio 3
oc Pqtc: Hqiixo Mc,ioto|u0icv ocv

- Kutuxotq uotvtctq ,uixq vuuotuoq:
lim
xu
+
l(x) = + q q lim
xu
l(x) = + q
- ltvc_ciu otvutqoq: lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
)
- lqciu uotvc_ciu:
Ipo. Hopotooq
tq f
Mctq Luvcto Xopoktqptoo
l(x )
# #

- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Yvu_ci oto R to
lim
xx
O
l(x)
- lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
(Huuoci,u 5)
l(x )
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Acv tvu_ci oto R
to lim
xx
O
l(x), uot
l
+
= l
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
(Huuoci,u 4)
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Acv tvu_ci oto R
to lim
xx
O
l(x), uot
l
+
= l
- !o_tci oti l
= f(x
0
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
,
otvc_q uvo uiotc-
u (Huuoci,u 3)
- Oictui to l(x
O
)
- Acv tvu_ci oto R
to lim
xx
O
l(x), uot
l
+
= l
- !o_tci oti l
+
= f(x
0
)
H l uotvc_q oto x
O
,
otvc_q uvo ociu
(Huuoci,u 2)
- ltvc_ciu |uoixcv otvutqoccv:
Hoitcvtixc
Pqtc
Piixu
Lx0ctixc
Ao,ui0ixc
- !oiotqtc otvc_cv otvutqoccv:
Av oi otvutqoci l, g: AR civui otvc_ci oto oqcio x
O
e A,
totc:
(i) H otvutqoq l(x) = l(x) g(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(ii) H otvutqoq l(x) = xl(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
, ,iu xu0c
x e R.
(iii) H otvutqoq l(x) = l(x)g(x) civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(iv) Av g(x
O
) = O, q otvutqoq l(x) =
l(x)
g(x)
civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(v) H otvutqoq l(x) = ,l(x), civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
(vi) H otvutqoq l(x) =
x
l(x) c l(x) , O civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
Lvioq, c_otc oti xui q otv0coq otvc_cv otvutqoccv civui
otvc_q otvutqoq:
Ocopquo
'Lotc otvutqoci l: AR xui g: BR c l(A) _ B. Av q l civui
otvc_q oto x
O
e A xui q g oto l(x
O
) e B, totc xui q otv0coq
tot gl: AR civui otvc_q oto x
O
.
- Oiovtiu uotvtctq ,uixq vuuotuoq:
lim
x+
l(x) = c q lim
x
l(x) = c
172 Kcuiuio 3
Eporqoci Korovqoq
1. Hoiu q cvvoiu tot oiot; Acotc cvu vuuoci,u uvo tqv xu-
0qcivotqtu. Ti vcvci vu io_tci ,iu vu oictui cvu oio;
2. Ti icc q vcvcuocvo oio otvutqoq;
3. Hoic oi cvitcvtc xui voic oi q cvitcvtc vuci c to
uvcio;
4. lc voiu oqciu u_votc ,iu xutuxotc uotvtctc tq
,uixq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq;
5. Hoiu q cvvoiu iu otvc_ot ,uq xui iu otvc_ot ot-
vutqoq;
6. Lxuotc cvovtixu tu otvutu oqciu uotvc_ciu iu otvu-
tqoq.
7. Iutc tot oioot tcv oicv:
(i) lim
x
l(x) = l, l e R
(ii) lim
x
l(x) = +
(iii) lim
x+
l(x) =
(iv) lim
x
l(x) =
8. Hoiu tu oiu tq cx0ctixq xui tq io,ui0ixq otvutqoq
otu uxu tot vcoiot oioot tot;
9. Miu otvutqoq vot oictui oc oio to R c_ci xutuxotc u-
otvtctc;
1O. Miu otvutqoq oiocvq oc xicioto oiuotqu c_ci oio-
vtic uotvtctc;
11. Acotc cvu vuuoci,u otvutqoq oiocvq oto R _ci o-
iovtic uotvtctc.
12. Acotc cvu vuuoci,u otvutqoq oiocvq oto (O, +) _c-
i oiovtiu xui xutuxotq uotvtctq.
2roicio Aioopiuoo Aoyiouoo
Etooyeyq
lto xcuiuio utto 0u cictqootc tqv cvvoiu tq vuu,c,ot,
tqv ovoiu 0u ciou,otc tuttiovtu tqv c to t0o ctu|oiq cvo
c,c0ot, oivovtu voiic _qoic vuxtixc cuo,c.
Huotoiuctui o io,ioo c vuu,c,ot, xu0c xui oi vuu,c-
,oi uvctcq tuq.
Liou,ctui, xutoviv, q uvtiotoq oiuoixuoiu tq vuu,c,ioq
c tqv vuu,otou otvutqoq xui tqv vuotoiuoq oiuoixcv ci-
ococcv xui vo|iqutcv u_ixcv ticv.
Tcio, to vooqo tcv vuu,c,cv u ooq,ci otqv ctxoiq c-
ictq tq ovotoviu xui tcv uxotutcv iu otvutqoq.
4.1. H vvoto tq Hopoyeyou e Pu0o Mctooq
lto xcuiuio 3 cxuouc u0qutixu cvu ,vcoto uvotcicou tq
toixq, oti to oio tq coq tu_ttqtu cvo xivqtot civui q oti,-
iuiu tu_ttqtu. A uvuitootc ,cvixotcu to vuuoci,u utto:
'Lotc oti to c,c0o S uvotcici tq otvutqoq 0coq cvo xivqtot
c vo to _ovo l. Miu ot,xcxicvq _ovixq oti,q l
O
, to xivqto
0u c_ci oiuvtoci uvootuoq S(t
0
). Mctu uvo _ovo l, oqiuoq tq _o-
vixq oti,q t
0
+ h, q uvootuoq vot 0u c_ci oiuvtoci 0u civui S(t
0
+ h).
Q coq tu_ttqtu, oictui to vqiixo:
S(t
0
+ h) S(t
0
)
h
H oti,iuiu q oiuxq tu_ttqtu tot xivqtot tq _ovixq oti,q l
O
, oi-
vctui uvo to oio:
t(l
O
) = lim
lO

S(t
0
+ h) S(t
0
)
l
174 Kcuiuio 4
Livui uvco oti to oio utto, cooov tvu_ci xui civui vu,u-
tixo ui0o, cxuci to t0o ctu|oiq tq 0coq cvo xivqtot,
tq _ovixq oti,q l
O
xui ioottui c tqv oiuxq tot tu_ttqtu, tqv i-
oiu _ovixq oti,q.
Ou icc totc oti tvu_ci q vuu,c,o tq S oto l
O
xui 0u tq ot-
|oiiotc c S'(t
0
), oqiuoq:
t(l
O
) = lim
lO

S(t
0
+ h) S(t
0
)
l
= S'(t
0
)
A cictqootc xutoviv tqv cvvoiu tq vuu,c,ot otq ,cvixq tq
oq. 'Lotc oti q otvutqoq l cxuci tq o_coq ctut oto c-
,c0cv x xui y c cq:
y = l(x)
A 0ccqootc cvu oqcio A(x
O
, l(x
O
)) tq C
l
xui u ctuxivq0otc
oc cvu uiio oqcio B(x
O
+ l, l(x
O
+ l)) tq C
l
, ovc uivctui oto
o_qu:
l
x
O
x
y
O
l(x l) l( )
O
x
O
A(x , l(x ))
O O
l(x )
O
y l(x)
x l
O

l(x l)
O

B(x l, l( ))
O
x l
O

H oiuou l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
) cxuci tq ctu|oiq tot c,c0ot y, vot
uvtiotoi_ci otq ctu|oiq l tot c,c0ot x. O io,o:
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
cxuci tq coq tiq tq ctu|oiq tot c,c0ot y. Av 0ccq-
ootc oti q ctu|oiq l tq voootqtu x, ,ivctui ooooqvotc ixq
(lO), totc voxtvtci to oio:
lim
lO

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
ltoi_ciu Aiuoixot Ao,ioot 175
to ovoio cxuci to t0o ctu|oiq tq l oto x
O
xui ovouctui
vuu,c,o tq l oto x
O
. lt|oiiotc c l'(x
O
).
- Hopyeyo ouvptqoq oc oqco
Opiou: Miu otvutqoq l ic,ctui vuu,c,ioiq oc cvu oqcio
x
O
tot vcoiot oioot tq, uv tvu_ci to oio:
lim
lO

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
xui civui vu,utixo ui0o. Totc ot|oiiotc to o-
io utto l'(x
O
) xui to ovouotc vuu,c,o tq l oto x
O
.
Hopoctyo
A 0ccqootc oti to uxoiot0o o_qu vci,uci iu oiuooq tqv
ovoiu uxoiot0ci cvu oocu.
Bciticvovtu oiuxc tqv tc_vixq tot, o oocu uxoiot0ci _ci

ioiuitcq voovu0ciu ti otoc tq oiuooq. Tq ovq otoxoiiu
tq otvuvtu oto oqcio A, ovot _ciuctui oiuoctixq uvtictc-
vioq. Iiu vu cictqootc u0qutixu tqv iocu uttq, u 0ccqootc
oti q oiuooq tot oocu oto o_qu oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x 1
2 x
2
, x > 1
xui oti 0ciotc vu cictqootc uv q l civui vuu,c,ioiq otu oq-
ciu c tctqcvc x
O
= 1, 1, 2.
(u) 'Otuv x
O
= 1 c_otc oti:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
(1 + l)
3
(1)
3
l
=
l [(1 + l)
2
+ (1 + l) (1) + (1)
2
]
l
= (l 1)
2
(l 1) + 1
176 Kcuiuio 4
Lvocvc tvu_ci to oio:
lim
lO

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= lim
lO
[(l 1)
2
(l 1) + 1] = 3
xui uu l'(1) = 3.
(|) 'Otuv x
O
= 2 c_otc oti:
l(2 + l) l(2)
l
=
2 (2 + l)
2
+ 2
l
=
4 (2 + l)
2
l
= l 4
Lvocvc l'(2) = 4.
(,) 'Otuv x
O
= 1 0u vcvci vu c,uo0otc ovc xui otq otvc_ciu c
victixu oiu, uot q l uiiuci xiuoo. Iiu x < 1 q l < O c_otc
oti:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
(1 + l)
3
1
l
= (1 + l)
2
+ (1 + l) + 1
ovotc:
lim
lO

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= 3
Iiu x > 1 q l > O c_otc oti:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
2 (1 + l)
2
1
l
=
1 (1 + l)
2
l
= (l + 2)
ovotc:
lim
lO
+

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= 2
Aot tu oto victixu oiu civui oiuoctixu 0u c_otc oti ocv
tvu_ci q vuu,c,o tq l oto x
O
= 1.
Miu otvutqoq l civui vuu,c,ioiq oc cvu oqcio x
O
tot vcoiot
oioot tq, uv xui ovo uv tvu_otv tu oto victixu oiu:
lim
lO

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
, lim
lO
+

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
xui civui o ioio vu,utixo ui0o.
- Luvcto kot Hopoyeytototqto
Av cictqootc tqv voq,otcvq otvutqoq tq oiuooq:
l(x) =
'
x
3
, x 1
2 x
2
, x > 1
c vo tq otvc_ciu oto x
O
= 1, 0u ootc oti civui otvc_q. Qotooo,
voq,otcvc uvoociuc oti ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq. H vuutq-
qoq uttq u ooq,ci oto otvcuou oti iu otvc_q otvutqoq,
ocv civui uvuuitqtu vuu,c,ioiq. 'Oc, to uvtiotoo io_tci
vuvtu, oqiuoq iu vuu,c,ioiq otvutqoq civui uvuuitqtu xui
otvc_q, ovc uivctui oto uxoiot0o 0ccqu:
Ocopquo
Av iu otvutqoq l civui vuu,c,ioiq oc cvu oqcio x
O
tot vcoiot
oioot tq, totc 0u civui xui otvc_q oto oqcio utto.
Hoptoo
Av iu otvutqoq l ocv civui otvc_q oc cvu oqcio x
O
tot vcoiot
oioot tq, totc ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
.
Hopotqpqoq
ltu oqciu tq ,uixq vuuotuoq iu otvutqoq l, otu ovoiu
q l civui otvc_q uiiu ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq, o_qutictui ,cviu
(|icvc o_qu vuuoci,uto) xui ,iu to io,o utto ovouovtui ,c-
viuxu oqciu.
- Pu0o ctooq cy0ou oc ouykckptvq ttq
Opiou: Av oto c,c0q x, y otvocovtui c tq otvutqoq l, ctoi
cotc y = l(x) xui q l civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
, totc q
vuu,c,o l'(x
O
) cxuci to t0o ctu|oiq tot c,c-
0ot y c vo x, ,iu tq ot,xcxicvq tiq x = x
O
.
Hopoocyoto pu0o ctooq
Enirovoq
Av 0ccqootc to t0o ctu|oiq tq tu_ttqtu t c vo to _o-
vo l, tq _ovixq oti,q l
O
, totc cxuci tqv cvitu_tvoq tot xivqtot
178 Kcuiuio 4
tq ocoocvq _ovixq oti,q. Aqiuoq:
,(l
O
) = lim
lO

t(l
O
+ l) t(l
O
)
l
= t'(l
O
)
Opiou uoro Opiou upo
ltqv oixovoiu, 0ccotc ti otvutqoci tot xootot vuu,c,q
K xui tot xcoot P, c vo ctu|iqtq x tqv voootqtu tot vuu-
,ocvot voIovto. Livui ,vcoto oti tu vqiixu:
K(x
O
+ l) K(x
O
)
l
,
P(x
O
+ l) P(x
O
)
l
cxuotv to coo xooto xui to coo xcoo, uvtiotoi_u.
Tu oiu tcv vqiixcv uttcv otuv q ctu|oiq tq vuu,ocvq vooo-
tqtu x tcivci oto qocv (oqiuoq otuv lO) cxuci to oiuxo xo-
oto xui to oiuxo xcoo, uvtiotoi_u, ,iu vuu,ocvq voootqtu
voIovto x
O
:
K'(x
O
) = lim
lO

K(x
O
+ l) K(x
O
)
l
P'(x
O
) = lim
lO

P(x
O
+ l) P(x
O
)
l
Avuio,u oiovtui oi t0oi ctu|oiq ovoicvoqvotc uiicv c,c-
0cv cictuc.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
'Lvu ouiixo vuiovi ,cictui c ucu c t0o vot cxuctui
oc cm
3
/min. Hoio civui o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot tot vuio-
viot, otuv q uxtivu tot ,ivci ioq c 3 cm;
Atoq
Av V civui o o,xo tot vuioviot xui i q uxtivu
tot totc civui V(i) =
4
3
vi
3
. Ovotc ,iu i
O
= 3 c_otc
oti:
V(3 + l) V(3)
l
=
4v
3l
[(3 + l)
3
3
3
] =
V
i
=
4v
3
[(3 + l)
2
+ 3(3 + l) + 3
2
]
Livui:
lim
lO

4v
3
[(3 + l)
2
+ 3(3 + l) + 3
2
] =
4v
3
(3
2
+ 33 + 3
2
) = 36v cm
3
/min.
Eopuoyq 2
'Lvu xt|o c,uicvci c vo tqv uxq tot. u
|c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot tot xt|ot c
otvutqoq tq uxq tot.
u
Atoq
Av u civui q uxq tot xt|ot, totc o o,xo tot civui V(u) = u
3
. O t0-
o ctu|oiq tot o,xot tot xt|ot civui to oio ,iu lO tot vqii-
xot:
V(u + l) V(u)
l
=
(u + l)
3
u
3
l
= (u + l)
2
+ u(u + l) + u
2
.
Lvocvc, V'(u) = 3u
2
.
Eopuoyq 3
Miu ocucvq vcot c o_qu o0ot xtiivoot
oiuctot 4O cm u_ici vu uociuci ctoi cotc q
otu0q tot vcot vu xutc|uivci c otu0co t0o
3
2
cm/min. Hooo ,q,ou 0ivci o o,xo tot vcot;
t
Atoq
'L_otc oti q uxtivu tq |uoq tot xtiivoot civui 2O cm xui t to t-
o tot. Aot q otu0q tot vcot 0ivci c otu0co t0o 0u c_ot-
c oti:
lim
lO

t(l
O
+ l) t(l
O
)
l
=
3
2
oc xu0c _ovixq oti,q l
O
.
18O Kcuiuio 4
O o,xo tot xtiivoot oivctui uvo tov ttvo V = vR
2
t, c coo t0o
ctu|oiq:
V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
vR
2
t(l
O
+ l) vR
2
t(l
O
)
l
= vR
2

t(l
O
+ l) t(l
O
)
l
Ovotc o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot oc xu0c _ovixq oti,q l ci-
vui:
V'(l
O
) = vR
2
lim
lO

t(l
O
+ l) t(l
O
)
l
=
3
2
v4OO = 6OOv cm
3
/min.
Eopuoyq 4
'Lvu xcvixo oo_cio vcot (o0o xcvo) u_ici vu
otuci c otu0co t0o, cotc o o,xo tot vu
cicvctui c t0o 1 cm
3
/min xui to to tq cvi-
uvciu tot vcot civui tiviuoio tq uxtivu tq
oc xu0c _ovixq oti,q. Av to oo_cio qtuv ,cuto
,iu l = O, vu |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tq uxtivu
tq cviuvciu tot vcot tq _ovixq oti,q ovot q
uxtivu uttq civui ioq c 2 cm.
Atoq
O o,xo tot xcvixot oo_ciot oivctui uvo tov ttvo V =
1
3
vR
2
t, ovot
R q uxtivu xui t to to tot xui uot t = 3R, totc V = vR
3
, cvoc-
vc:
V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
= v
R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
[R
2
(l
O
+ l) + R(l
O
)R(l
O
+ l) + R
2
(l
O
)]
Ovotc:
lim
lO

R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
=
1
3vR
2
(l
O
)
lim
lO

V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
1
12v
cm/min
Eopuoyq 5
H uvootuoq vot oiuvtci cvu vtutio (oc m) oc iu ct0t,uq
xivqoq l octtcoicvtu ctu tqv cxxivqoq tot oivctui uvo tq otvu-
tqoq:
l(l) = l
4
, O l 3O
(u) u tvoio,ioctc tq coq tu_ttqtu tot vtutiot otu _ovixu
oiuotqutu [1O, 11], [1O, 1O,1] xui [1O, 1O,O1].
(|) u tvoio,ioctc tq oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tot vtutiot otuv
l = 1O sec.
(,) u ot,xivctc tu uvotcicoutu tcv (u) xui (|).
Atoq
(u) Yvoio,iotc u_ixu tq coq tu_ttqtu oto oiuotqu [l
O
, l
O
+ l].
Bioxotc oti:
l(l
O
+ l) l(l
O
)
l
=
(l
O
+ l)
4
l
O
4
l
=
l(2l
O
+ l)[(l
O
+ l)
2
+ l
O
2
]
l
=
(2l
O
+ l)[(l
O
+ l)
2
+ l
O
2
]
Lvocvc, ,iu l
O
= 1O xui l = 1 |ioxotc oti q coq tu_ttqtu
tot vtutiot oto _ovixo oiuotqu [1O, 11] civui ioq c 21221 =
4641 m/sec. Iiu l
O
= 1O xui l = O,1 q coq tu_ttqtu oto _ovixo
oiuotqu [1O, 1O,1] civui ioq c 2O,12O2,O1 = 4O6O,4O1 m/sec, cvc
,iu l
O
= 1O xui l = O,O1 q coq tu_ttqtu oto _ovixo oiuotqu
[1O, 1O,O1] civui ioq c 4OO6,OO4 m/sec.
(|) H oiuxq q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tot vtutiot civui to oio ,iu
lO tq coq tu_ttqtu, oqiuoq:
t(l
O
) = lim
lO

l(l
O
+ l) l(l
O
)
l
= lim
lO
(2l
O
+ l)[(l
O
+ l)
2
+ l
O
2
] = 2l
O
2l
O
2
= 4l
O
3
.
Iiu l
O
= 1O sec c_otc oti t(1O) = 4OOO m/sec.
(,) lt,xivovtu tu uvotcicoutu tcv (u) xui (|) voxtvtci oti ooo
ixuivci to _ovixo oiuotqu oto ovoio oictui q coq tu_t-
tqtu, tooo uttq viqoiuci otqv tiq tq oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu.
Eopuoyq 6
To otvoiixo xooto K(x) (oc _iiiuoc ou_c) vuu,c,q x iotio-
vioIxcv vuvicv tqv qcu uvo iu ctuiciu oivctui uvo tq otvu-
tqoq:
K(x) = x
2
+ 3Ox + 15, O x 15
Hoio o t0o ctu|oiq tot otvoiixot xootot, uv q ctuiciu vu-
u,ci ocxu vuviu tqv qcu;
182 Kcuiuio 4
Atoq
Ociotc vu |otc to t0o ctu|oiq tq otvutqoq xootot
oto oqcio x
O
= 1O, ovotc:
K(1O + l) K(1O)
l
=
(1O + l)
2
+ 3O(1O + l) + 15 215
l
=
l
2
+ 1Ol
l
= l + 1O
Ovotc:
K'(1O) = lim
lO

K(1O + l) K(1O)
l
= lim
lO
(l + 1O) =
1O _iiiuoc o_. uvu qcu.
Eopuoyq 7
Miu ctuiciu vuu,ci qicxtovixu cutqutu c_ovtu vu,io ctq-
oio xooto 4,5 cxutotiu ou_c xui xooto uvu cutqu 1OOO
ou_c. H tiq vciqoq xu0c cutquto civui 18OO ou_c.
(u) Hoiu civui q otvutqoq xootot;
(|) Hoiu q otvutqoq tcv cooocv;
(,) Hoiu q otvutqoq xcoot;
(o) Hoio o t0o ctu|oiq tcv vuuvuvc otvutqoccv otuv q
ctuiciu vuu,ci cvuv ui0o cutqutcv x
O
;
Atoq
(u) Av q ctuiciu vuu,ci x cutqutu, totc q otvutqoq xootot
civui:
K(x) = 45OO + x _iiiuoc ou_c, ,iu x > O
(|) H otvutqoq cooocv civui:
L(x) = 1,8x _iiiuoc ou_c, ,iu x > O
(,) H otvutqoq xcoot civui:
P(x) = L(x) K(x) = O,8x 45OO _iiiuoc ou_c, ,iu x > O
(o) Livui:
lim
lO

K(x
O
+ l) K(x
O
)
l
= 1
lim
lO

L(x
O
+ l) L(x
O
)
l
= 1,8
lim
lO

P(x
O
+ l) P(x
O
)
l
= O,8
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
lti uxoiot0c ,uixc vuuotuoci vu cctuoctc:
(u) Av q l c_ci oio oto x = x
O
.
(|) Av q l civui otvc_q oto x = x
O
.
(,) Av q l civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x = x
O
.
(i)
x
O
(ii)
x
O
(iii)
x
O
(iv)
x
O
'Aouqoq 2
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) =
3
x
2
civui vuu,c,ioiq oto
x
O
= O.
'Aouqoq 3
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = ,x x
O
, civui otvc_q xui vuu-
,c,ioiq oto x = x
O
.
184 Kcuiuio 4
'Aouqoq 4
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = x x
O
x = x
O
.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui q otvutqoq l: RR c
l(x) =
'
,x
2
+ ox , uv x 1
ux
2
+ |x , uv x > 1
u cctuoctc ,iu voic tic tcv u, |, ,, o:
(u) H l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(|) H l civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
= 1.
'Aouqoq 2
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = ,x 1,
3
x
O
= 1.
'Aouqoq 3
2,x 2,
x
2
2x + 4
civui vuu,c,ioiq
oto x
O
= 2.
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu ucootuto u_ici vu uvc|uivci xutuxotu c u_ixq tu_ttq-
tu 1,28 m/sec. Ao,c |iu|q otqv toooooiu u_ici vu _uvci ucu,
ctoi cotc to to tot ctu uvo l sec vu oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq
g(l) = 1,28l O,16l
2
m.
(u) Hoiu civui q coq tu_ttqtu tot ucootutot otu _ovixu oiuotq-
utu [3, 4], [3, 3,5] xui [3, 3,1];
(|) Hoiu q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tot ucootutot tq _ovixq oti,q
l = 3 sec;
(,) Hoiu q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tq _ovixq oti,q l = 5 sec; Lxcivq
tq oti,q to ucootuto uvc|uivci q vctci;
(o) Hotc to ucootuto 0u vcoci oto couo;
'Aouqoq 2
lc 0coxuoiu 2O C, o o,xo V (oc ll) 1,33 gi O
2
o_ctictui c tqv
vicoq tot P (oc alm) c tov ttvo V =
1
P
.
(u) Hoio civui o coo t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V c otvu-
tqoq tq vicoq P, otuv q vicoq P utuvctui uvo 2 alm oc 3 alm;
(|) Hoio civui o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V otuv q vicoq P ,i-
vci 2 alm;
'Aouqoq 3
lc iu xictou q uo u_ici vu vctci uvo to
vuvc co tq oto xutc c otu0co t0o
4 cm
3
/sec. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot t-
ot t tq uot vot uctctui oto xutc co
tq xictou, uv to to cxuctui c otvu-
tqoq tq uxtivu uvo tov ttvo t =
R
v
.
t
'Aouqoq 4
u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tq oiu,cviot cvo xt|ot c otvu-
tqoq tq uxq tot.
'Aouqoq 5
Av o o,xo iu ouiu ctu|uiictui c otu0co t0o, vu uvooci-
ctc oti o t0o ctu|oiq tot c|uoot tq cviuvciu tq civui u-
vtiotoc uvuio,o tq uxtivu tq.
'Aouqoq 6
'Lvu ucoviuvo vctuci vuuiiqiu vo to couo c otu0cq tu_t-
tqtu 6OO iiiu/l xui viqoiuci cvu otu0o Radai.
186 Kcuiuio 4
Av to to oto ovoio vctuci
to ucoviuvo civui 2 iiiu,
vooo ,q,ou cicvctui q u-
vootuoq uvucou oto uco-
viuvo xui oto otu0o, tq _o-
vixq oti,q vot q oiovtiu
uvootuoq tot civui 1,5 iiiu;
'Louo ltu0o Radai
4.2. Hopyeyo Luvptqoq
H vuu,c,ioiotqtu, ovc q otvc_ciu, civui iu ioiotqtu tqv ovoiu
voci vu c_ci iu otvutqoq oc oiocvu oqciu tot vcoiot oi-
oot tq. A cictqootc ti ,ivctui, otuv q vuu,c,o oictui oc
xu0c oqcio tot vcoiot oioot iu otvutqoq.
Hopciyuo
u cictq0ci uv q otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = 2x
2
3x civui vuu-
,c,ioiq oc xu0c x
O
e R.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
=
2(x
O
+ l)
2
3(x
O
+ l) 2x
O
2
+ 3x
O
l
=
2[(x
O
+ l)
2
x
O
2
] 3l
l
=
2l(2x
O
+ l) 3l
l
= 4x
O
+ 2l 3
Lvocvc, voxtvtci oti:
l'(x
O
) = 4x
O
3, ,iu xu0c x
O
e R.
'Ltoi oictui iu vcu otvutqoq, q l'(x) = 4x 3, ,iu xu0c x e R, q
ovoiu ovouctui vuu,c,o tq l.
O oioo tq vuu,c,ot otvutqoq l' civui uvio otuv to vcoio
oioot tq l civui uvoi_to oiuotqu q cvcoq uvoi_tcv oiuotq-
utcv, cvc ,ivctui vio voitvioxo, otuv q l oictui oc xicioto
oiuotqu q cvcoq xiciotcv oiuotqutcv:
Opiou 1: Iiu iu otvutqoq l: (u, |) R oictui q vuu,c,o
otvutqoq l': (u, |) R, uv xui ovo uv q l civui vu-
u,c,ioiq oc xu0c oqcio x
O
tot vcoiot oioot tq
(u, |).
Opiou 2: Iiu iu otvutqoq l: [u, |] R oictui q vuu,c,o
otvutqoq l': [u, |] R, uv xui ovo uv:
(i) H l civui vuu,c,ioiq ,iu xu0c x
O
e (u, |)
(ii) Yvu_otv tu victixu oiu:
lim
lO
+

l(u + l) l(u)
l
, lim
lO

l(| + l) l(|)
l
xui civui vu,utixoi ui0oi.
Hopotqpqoq
H vuu,c,o otvutqoq voci vu 0ccq0ci c o t0o ctu|oiq
cvo c,c0ot oc ovoiuoqvotc tiq tq ctu|iqtq tot.
4.3. Hopyeyot Bootkev Luvoptqocev
Avoocixvtctui ctxoiu, c tov oioo tq vuu,c,ot, oti oi |uoixc
otvutqoci civui vuu,c,ioic oto vcoio oioot tot xui q vu-
u,c,o otvutqoq tot oivctui uvo tov uxoiot0o vivuxu:
Luvptqoq f Hopyeyo f
c (otu0cu) O
x 1
x
u
, u e R, x > 0 ux
u1
qx otvx
otvx qx
e
x
e
x
lnx, x > O
1
x
188 Kcuiuio 4
Hopotqpqoq
O ttvo vuu,c,ioq tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
u
, x > O xui u e R, xu-
itvtci otoiuotixu tqv vuu,c,ioq ticv ciocv otvutqoccv:
(i) Atvuci tot x, v._. x
7
, x
4
x.iv.
(ii) Kiuoutu otvuccv tot x, v._.
1
x
2
,
1
x
7
x.iv.
(iii) Pic tot x, v._.
3
x,
1
4
x
,
5
x
2
x.iv.
Hopoocyoto
Hopciyuo )i)
u tvoio,io0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = x
5
.
Atoq
Livui l': RR, c l'(x) = (x
5
)' = 5x
4
.
Hopciyuo )ii)
u tvoio,io0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) =
1
x
6
.
Atoq
Livui l': RR, c l'(x) =
_
1
x
6
'
= (x
6
)' = 6x
61
= 6x
7
=
6
x
7
.
Hopciyuo )iii)
u tvoio,io0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l: (O, +) R, c
l(x) =
4
x.
Atoq
Livui l': (O, +) R, c
l'(x) = ( )
4
x
'
=
( )
x
1
4
'
=
1
4
x
1
4
1
=
1
4
x

3
4
=
1
4 x
3
4
=
1
4
4
x
3
=
4
x
4x
4.4. Kovovc Hopoyeytoq
Av oi otvutqoci l, g: AR civui vuu,c,ioic oto vcoio oioot
tot A, totc xui oi otvutqoci l g, cl c c otu0cu, lg,
l
g
(g = O) ci-
vui vuu,c,ioic oto A xui io_totv oi uxoiot0oi xuvovc vuu-
,c,ioq:
(l g)' (x) = l'(x) g'(x)
(cl)' (x) = cl'(x)
(lg)' (x) = l'(x) g(x) + l(x) g'(x)
_
l
g
'
(x) =
l'(x) g(x) l(x) g'(x)
[g(x)]
2
Lvivicov, uv oictui q otv0coq oto vuu,c,ioicv otvutqoccv,
totc civui xui uttq vuu,c,ioiq otvutqoq, otcvu c tov uxo-
iot0o xuvovu, vot ovouctui xuvovu tq uitoiou:
Ocopquo ,Kovovo tp oooio)
'Lotc otvutqoci l: AR xui g: BR c l(A) _ B. Av q l civui vu-
u,c,ioiq oc xu0c x e A xui q g vuu,c,ioiq oc xu0c l(x) e B, to-
tc q otv0coq tot gl: AR civui vuu,c,ioiq oto A xui io_tci o-
ti (gl)' (x) = g'(l(x)) l'(x).
4.5. Hopyeyot Avetcpq Tq
'Ovc ciouc otqv 4.1 q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu t cvo xivqtot uvo-
tciotoc to t0o ctu|oiq tq otvutqoq 0coq S tot xivqtot,
cvc q cvitu_tvoq ,, c tq ociu tq uvotciotoc to t0o ctu|oiq
tq tu_ttqtu tot xivqtot. Lvocvc, io_tci oti:
S'(l) = t(l) xui t'(l) = ,(l)
To cctqu vot ti0ctui civui to uxoiot0o:
Mvootc vu cxuootc tq otvutqoq ,(l) c vo tq
otvutqoq 0coq S(l), vuuxuvtovtu tqv tu_ttqtu t(l);
Axci vu vuutqqootc oti q cvitu_tvoq civui q vuu,c,o tq
vuu,c,ot tq otvutqoq 0coq, oqiuoq:
,(l) = (S'(l))'
19O Kcuiuio 4
tqv ovoiu ovouotc octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq S xui tq
ot|oiiotc c S"(l).
Icvixotcu, c_otc oti:
Av iu otvutqoq l: AR civui vuu,c,ioiq oto A xui q vuu-
,c,o otvutqoq l': AR civui xui uttq vuu,c,ioiq oto A,
totc oictui q octtcq vuu,c,o l": AR tq otvutqoq l, c-
otc l"(x) = (l'(x))'.
Avuio,u, oiovtui xui c,uittcq tuq vuu,c,oi iu otvu-
tqoq l ti ovoic ot|oiiotc c: l
(3)
(x), l
(4)
(x), .
Eopoy
Otkovotk Mo0qottk
Tu oixovoixu u0qutixu uo_oiotvtui xtic c to t0o c-
tu|oiq oixovoixcv voootqtcv. 'Lvu oixovooio,o ocv uo_oici-
tui c tqv tiq tot Axu0uiotot L0vixot HoIovto (ALH) iu _c-
u, oc iu ot,xcxicvq _ovixq oti,q, uiiu c tq cictq tot
t0ot ctu|oiq tot xui cioixotcu c to uv utuvci q 0ivci.
Avuio,u, cvu cvi_ciqutiu cvoiucctui ,iu to otvoiixo xo-
oto K(x) iu ocoocvq vuu,c,q x voIovtcv, xu0c xui ,iu to
t0o ctu|oiq K'(x) tot otvoiixot xootot c otvutqoq tq
vuu,c,q x voIovtcv.
Lvioq, cvoiucctui ,iu to coo xooto K
(x) vuu,c,q x o-
vuocv voIovto to ovoio ioottui c to io,o
K(x)
x
, tot otvoiixot
xootot K(x) c ti x ovuoc voIovto vot vuu,ovtui.
Eopuoyq 1
Miu |ioq_uviu t,cicv tvoio,ioc oti to otvoiixo xooto vuu,c-
,q x t,cicv tqv c|oouou oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
K(x) = 2OOO + 5Ox
x
2
5O
_iiiuoc ou_c ,iu O x 4OO
(u) Hooo xootici q vuu,c,q tot 151
ot
t,ciot;
(|) Hoio civui o t0o ctu|oiq tq otvutqoq xootot, otuv
q |ioq_uviu vuu,ci 15O t,ciu tqv c|oouou;
(,) u ot,xi0otv tu uvotcicoutu tcv (u) xui (|).
Atoq
(u) To xooto tot 151
ot
t,ciot oivctui uvo tq oiuou:
K(151) K(15O) = 9O93,98 9O5O = 43,98 = 4398O ou_c
(|) Iiu to t0o ctu|oiq c_otc K'(x) =
x
25
+ 5O, ovotc:
K'(15O) = 44 = 44OOO o_./c|oouou
(,) Huutqotc oti o t0o ctu|oiq tot xootot vuu,c,q
15O t,cicv |ioxctui voit xovtu otqv tiq tot xootot vu-
u,c,q tot 151
ot
t,ciot. Atto io_tci uv ootc tq oiuou
K(151) K(15O) c t0o ctu|oiq:
K(151) K(15O) =
K(151) K(15O)
151 15O
=
K(15O + l) K(15O)
l
ovot l = 1. Aqiuoq, q oiuou K(151) K(15O) civui uxi|c o
coo t0o ctu|oiq oto oiuotqu [15O, 151].
'Ltoi, otuv oi tic tot l civui uxctu ixc, vootc vu c-
_otc tqv cq vooc,,ioq:
K(151) K(15O) =
K(151) K(15O)
1
=
K(15O + l) K(15O)
l
~
lim
lO

K(15O + l) K(15O)
l
= K'(15O)
Eopuoyq 2
To otvoiixo xooto vuu,c,q x ovuocv voIovto oivctui uvo tq
otvutqoq:
K(x) = 2O +
4OO
x
_iiiuoc ou_c
(u) u |c0ci q otvutqoq coot xootot.
(|) u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot coot xootot.
(,) u ot,xivctc tot t0ot ctu|oiq tot otvoiixot xui tot
coot xootot otuv x = 1O.
Atoq
(u) To coo xooto oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
K
(x) =
K(x)
x
=
2O
x
+
4OO
x
2
192 Kcuiuio 4
(|) Livui K'
(x) =
2O
x
2

8OO
x
3
.
(,) Livui K'(x) =
4OO
x
2
. Lvocvc, K'(1O) = 4, cvc K'
(1O) = 1.
Eopuoyq 3 ,2ovoptpop Eooov)
Miu uttoxivqto|ioq_uviu tvoio,ioc oti q o_coq ctut tq tiq
T cvo vcot ovtciot uttoxivqtot xui tq qtotcvq voootqtu x
uttoxivqtcv tot ovtciot uttot oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
T(x) = O,2x + 4OOO _iiiuoc ou_c ,iu O x 1OOOO
(u) u |c0ci q otvutqoq L(x) tcv cooocv tq uttoxivqto|ioq-
_uviu.
(|) u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tq otvutqoq cooocv.
(,) u tvoio,io0ci to L'(1OOO).
Atoq
(u) H otvutqoq cooocv oivctui uvo tov ttvo:
L(x) = xT(x) = O,2x
2
+ 4OOOx _iiiuoc o_.
(|) O t0o ctu|oiq tq L(x) civui:
L'(x) = O,4x + 4OOO
(,) 'L_otc oti: L'(1OOO) = 4OO + 4OOO = 36OO.
Eopuoyq 4 ,2ovoptpop Kepoo)
A 0ccqootc otqv voq,otcvq cuo,q oti to xooto xu0c ut-
toxivqtot, c otvutqoq tcv x ovuocv uttoxivqtot vot vuu,o-
vtui, oivctui uvo tq o_coq:
K(x) = 95Ox + 25OOOO _iiiuoc ou_c ,iu O x 1OOOO
(u) u voooioioctc tq otvutqoq xcoot P.
(|) u |citc to t0o ctu|oiq tq otvutqoq xcoot.
(,) u tvoio,ioctc to P'(4OOO).
Atoq
(u) Livui:
P(x) = L(x) K(x) = O,2x
2
+ 4OOOx 95Ox 25OOOO =
O,2x
2
+ 3O5Ox 25OOOO _iiiuoc ou_c
(|) Livui P'(x) = O,4x + 3O5O.
(,) 'L_otc oti P'(4OOO) = 16OO + 3O5O = 145O.
Eopuoyq 5
u tvoio,io0otv oi vuu,c,oi tcv uxoiot0cv otvutqoccv:
(i) l
1
(x) = log
u
x, ,iu x > O xui O < u = 1
(ii) l
2
(x) = u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
, c u
v
= O
(iii) l
3
(x) = cx, ,iu x e R xv +
v
2
, x e Z;
(iv) l
4
(x) = u
x
, c O O.
(ii) l
2
'(x) = vu
v
x
v1
+ (v 1)u
v1
x
v2
+ + 2u
2
x + u
1
.
(iii) l
3
'(x) =
_
qx
otvx
'
=
(qx)'otvx qx(otvx)'
otv
2
x
=
otv
2
x + q
2
x
otv
2
x
=
1
otv
2
x
.
(iv) l
4
'(x) = (e
xlnu
)' = e
xlnu
(xlnu)' = u
x
lnu.
Eopuoyq 6
(i) l
1
(x) =
1
g(x)
, c g(x) = O
(ii) l
2
(x) = 2 g(x), c g(x) > O
(iii) l
3
(x) = ln(g(x)), c g(x) > O
(iv) l
4
(x) =
(g(x))
u+1
u + 1
, c g(x) > O xui u = 1
(v) l
5
(x) = e
g(x)
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) l
1
'(x) =
_

1
g
2
(x)
g'(x) =
g'(x)
g
2
(x)
194 Kcuiuio 4
(ii) l
2
'(x) = 2
1
2 g(x)
g'(x) =
g'(x)
g(x)
(iii) l
3
'(x) =
1
g(x)
g'(x) =
g'(x)
g(x)
(iv) l
4
'(x) =
(u + 1) g
u
(x)
u + 1
g'(x) = g
u
(x) g'(x)
(v) l
5
'(x) = e
g(x)
g'(x)
Eopuoyq 7
(u) u |c0ci q octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l: RR c
l(x) =
x
x
2
+ u
2
, u e R.
(|) u |c0ci q titq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l: RR c
l(x) = e
x
qx.
Atoq
(u) Livui l'(x) =
u
2
x
2
(x
2
+ u
2
)
2
xui l"(x) =
2x(x
2
3u
2
)
(x
2
+ u
2
)
3
.
(|) Livui l'(x) = e
x
(otvx qx), l"(x) = 2e
x
otvx xui
l
(3)
(x) = 2e
x
(otvx + qx).
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
(i) l
1
(x) = x
2
lnx, ,iu x > O
(ii) l
2
(x) = x qx lnx, ,iu x > O
(iii) l
3
(x) = x
2
cx, ,iu x e R xv +
v
2
, x e Z;
(iv) l
4
(x) = 2
x
log
2
x, ,iu x > O
'Aouqoq 2
(i) l
1
(x) =
x
2
+ 3
x 3
, ,iu x e R 3;
(ii) l
2
(x) = ox, ,iu x e R xv, x e Z;
'Aouqoq 3
(i) l
1
(x) = q(2x + 5)
(ii) l
2
(x) = ln(qx), ,iu qx > O
(iii) l
3
(x) = (2x 3x
2
)
3
'Aouqoq 4
(u) u tvoio,io0ci q octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
1
(x) = xe
x
.
(|) u tvoio,io0ci q titq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
2
(x) = ln
_
x + 2
x 2
, ,iu x > 2.
(,) u tvoio,io0ci q tctutq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
3
(x) =
x + 3
x 3
, ,iu x = 3.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,io0ci q octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = e
ux
x
v
,
v e N.
'Aouqoq 2
u tvoio,io0ci q 1OOO-ootq vuu,c,o tcv otvutqoccv l
1
(x) = e
x
xui l
2
(x) = u
x
, c O < u = 1.
'Aouqoq 3
(u) u vuu,c,ioctc tq ,vcotq tuttotqtu:
1 + x + x
2
+ + x
v
=
x
v+1
1
x 1
(|) u tvoio,ioctc to u0oiou:
1 + 23 + 33
2
+ + v3
v1
196 Kcuiuio 4
'Aouqoq 4
'Lotc P vu,utixo voitcvto ,iu to ovoio io_tci q o_coq:
(P'(x))
2
= P(x), ,iu xu0c x e R
u |c0ci o ttvo tot voitcvtot P.
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu uttoxivqto oiuvtci uvootuoq S otu l vctu octtcoicvtu tq
cxxivqoq tot ioq c:
S(l) = l
3
+ ul
2
+ |l m, O l 1O
(u) u |citc tqv cvitu_tvoq tot uttoxivqtot ovoiuoqvotc _o-
vixq oti,q l, c O l 1O.
(|) u |citc ,iu voic tic tot u to uttoxivqto cvi|uotvci ctu
uvo tu 6 vctu sec tq xivqoq tot.
'Aouqoq 2
'Lotc to ,vcoto uvo tov qicxtioo otvuixo (V):
V =
q
i
(q = otio, i = uvootuoq)
u uvoocictc oti ,iu to otvuixo utto io_tci:
V"(i) +
2
i
V'(i) = O
'Aouqoq 3
Miu ouou |ioio,cv oc cvu cxcuvo,uixo ivotitotto votcivci vu
iq0otv iu ociu uvo voiqvtixu ctu ,iu tq oiuocoq cvo ot,-
xcxicvot cioot uiuivu uvo tqv cuuvioq. Mctu tqv cuo,q
tcv ctcv uttcv o ui0o () tcv uiuivcv cxtiutui oti 0u ctu-
|uiictui c tov _ovo (l) otcvu c tq otvutqoq:
(l) = 3l
3
+ 2l
2
1Ol + 6OO, O l 1O
u |c0ci o t0o utqoq tot viq0toot tov 2
o
xui 6
o
_ovo, xu-
0c xui vooc uiuivc 0u tvu_otv tov 8
o
_ovo.
'Aouqoq 4
Tu o,uvixu uvo|iqtu vot i_vovtui oc cvuv toutivo uvoocxtq, v._.
oc iu iivq, ciuttcvotv xut' u_qv to ot,ovo tq iivq cc otot
q toq ouoci ctoi cotc vu tvuci vuii ioooviu oto oixoototq-
u. Iiu cvu tctoio oixoototqu to ot,ovo ctu|uiictui c vo to
_ovo l c cq:
l(l) = 1OO
_ l
2
4l + 4
l
2
+ 4
, O l < 8
Hc uiiuci to ot,ovo 1, 2 xui 3 qcc ctu tq iq cvo otiot
o,uvixcv uvo|iqtcv;
'Aouqoq 5
O ui0o tcv cicv cvo ,tvuotqiot vot uvoic viv uvo cixu
_oviu oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
(l) = 1OO(64 + 4l)
2
3
, O l 52
ovot civui o ui0o tcv cicv otqv u_q iu c|oouou l. Hc
utuvotuv o ui0o vccv cicv u_ixu (l = O), xui vc otqv u_q
tq 4O
q
c|oouou; Hoio o ui0o tcv cicv ti oto uttc _ovi-
xc oti,c;
'Aouqoq 6
H coq ot,xcvtcoq tot CO (ovocioiot tot uv0uxu) otqv
utoouiu oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(l) = O,881443l
4
1,45533l
3
+ O,695876l
2
+ 2,878O1l + 293, l , O
ovot l civui q ovuou ctqoq tot _ovot xui vuivci tic l = O, 1,
2, . xui xu0c ovuou _ovot uvtiotoi_ci oc vciooo 4O ctcv (l = O
to 186O) xui q l ctictui oc cq oto cxutotio uvu xt|ixo cxu-
tooto (m/cm
3
). Hoio o t0o ctu|oiq tq ot,xcvtcoq otqv
u_q tot uicvu (l = 1) xui otqv u_q tot 199O (l = 3,5);
4.6. Hopyouoo Luvptqoq
A 0tq0otc uvu to vuuoci,u tot qicxtou,vqtixot tcvot,
ovot cictqouc to cq vo|iqu:
Av ,vciotc tq 0coq tot tcvot oc xu0c _ovixq oti,q
l, vootc vu tvoio,iootc tqv tu_ttqtu tot tqv ioiu _o-
vixq oti,q;
'Ovc ciouc otqv 4.1, uv ot|oiiootc c l tq otvutqoq 0coq
tot tcvot, totc q tu_ttqtu tot oc xu0c _ovixq oti,q l, 0u civui q
198 Kcuiuio 4
l'(l), oqiuoq q vuu,c,o otvutqoq tq l. To cctqu vot ti0ctui
civui uv vootc vu itootc to uvtiotoo vo|iqu, oqiuoq:
Av ,vciotc tqv tu_ttqtu cvo tcvot oc xu0c _ovixq
oti,q l, vootc vu tvoio,iootc tq otvutqoq 0coq
tot tqv ioiu _ovixq oti,q;
'Lotc oti q otvutqoq tq tu_ttqtu c vo to _ovo civui q
t(l) = 8l, ,iu xu0c l > O. Aot t(l) = S'(l) 0u vcvci vu xuvotc uxi-
|c tqv uvtiotoq oiuoixuoiu tq vuu,c,ioq, oqiuoq vu tvoio-
,iootc iu otvutqoq S, q ovoiu otuv vuu,c,io0ci vu u ococi
tq otvutqoq tq tu_ttqtu t(l) = 8l. Miu tctoiu otvutqoq S civui q:
S(l) = 4l
2
, ,iu l > O, uot S'(l) = 8l = t(l),
q ovoiu ovouctui vuu,otou otvutqoq tq t.
Opiou: 'Lotc otvutqoq l: AR, ovot A oiuotqu tot R. Av t-
vu_ci vuu,c,ioiq otvutqoq !: AR, tctoiu cotc:
!'(x) = l(x), ,iu xu0c x e A
totc q ! ic,ctui vuu,otou otvutqoq tq l oto oiu-
otqu A.
Hopotqpqoq
lto voq,otcvo vuuoci,u ciouc oti iu vuu,otou tq t(l) = 8l
qtuv q S(l) = 4l
2
. Ou vootoc oc vu qtuv xui q S(l) = 4l
2
+ 5 q
S(l) = 4l
2
32, uot vuii:
(4l
2
+ 5)' = (4l
2
32)' = 8l.
Icvixotcu, vuutqotc oti q otvutqoq S(l) = 4l
2
+ c civui vuu-
,otou tq t(l) ,iu oic ti tic tq otu0cu c.
To cctqu vot ti0ctui civui uv tvu_otv xui uiic u_ixc tq t.
H uvuvtqoq civui uvqtixq ovc cxuci to uxoiot0o 0ccqu.
Ocopquo
Aivctui q otvutqoq l: AR, c A oiuotqu tot R xui ! iu vuu-
,otou tq l. Totc ovoiuoqvotc uiiq vuu,otou tq l civui tq o-
q ! + c, ovot c otu0cu.
Hvoko Hopoyouoev Bootkev Luvoptqocev
Luvptqoq f Hopyouoo F
O c
1 x + c
x
u
, u = 1, x > 0
x
u+1
u + 1
+ c
1
x
, x > O lnx + c
e
x
e
x
+ c
otvx qx + c
qx otvx + c
1
otv
2
x
, x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z cx + c
1
q
2
x
, x = xv, x e Z ox + c
Hopotqpqoq
H u_ixq tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
u
, c u = 1 xui x > O, xuitvtci
tci xutq,oic otvutqoccv:
(i) Atvuci tot x, v._. q vuu,otou tq l(x) = x
3
, x e R, civui
!(x) =
x
4
4
+ c, x e R.
(ii) Kiuoutu otvuccv tot x, v._. q vuu,otou tq l(x) =
1
x
2
= x
2
,
x e R, civui q !(x) =
x
2+1
2 + 1
+ c =
1
x
+ c, x e R.
(iii) Pic tot x, v._. q vuu,otou tq l(x) =
6
x = x
1
6
, x > O civui q
!(x) =
x
1
6
+ 1
1
6
+ 1
+ c =
6
7
x
6
x + c, x > O.
2OO Kcuiuio 4
Hvoko Hopoyouoev Lv0ctev Luvoptqocev
g'(x)
g
2
(x)
, g(x) = O
1
g(x)
+ c
g'(x)
g(x)
, g(x) > O 2 g(x) + c
g'(x)
g(x)
, g(x) > O ln(g(x)) + c
g
u
(x) g'(x), u e R, u = 1, g(x) > O
(g(x))
u+1
u + 1
+ c
e
g(x)
g'(x) e
g(x)
+ c
4.7. Atooptk Etoeoct
H vuu,c,o iu otvutqoq, ovc ciouc, cxuci to t0o
ctu|oiq cvo c,c0ot. Oi vcioootcoi toixoi vooi vuotoi-
uotv o_coci ctut tcv t0cv ctu|oiq oiuocv c,c0cv.
ltqv vu,utixotqtu tu vcioootcu toixu ovtciu cxuovtui
c ciococi, vot vcic_otv ti vuu,c,ot cvo c,c0ot. Oi ci-
ococi uttc ovouovtui oiuoixc ciococi. H cictq tcv Aiu-
oixcv Liococcv uvotcici cvu c,uio xcuiuio otqv !otoiu
tcv Lviotqcv, cvc uvotciotv tov xiuoo tcv Mu0qutixcv c ti
vcioootcc xui ioc oquvtixotcc cuo,c otov vu,utixo
xooo.
Opiou 1: Aiuoixq ciocoq ic,ctui iu ciocoq vot vcic_ci
vuu,c,ot iu u,vcotq otvutqoq y = l(x).
Aqiuoq, iu oiuoixq ciocoq voci vu vcic_ci xuvoic uvo ti
vuu,c,ot tq otvutqoq: y', y", ., voci vu vcic_ci tqv ioiu
tq otvutqoq y, xu0c xui tqv uvcutqtq ctu|iqtq x, ovc ui-
vctui otu uxoiot0u vuuoci,utu:
ltoi_ciu Aiuoixot Ao,ioot 2O1
x
2
y" + 2xy' + y = x
2
+ 2 (1)
[l
(3)
(x)]
2
+ 2 l"(x) l'(x) + x
2
[l'(x)]
3
= O (2)
[1 + (y')
2
]
3
2
= xy (3)
Opiou 2: Q tuq iu oiuoixq ciocoq oiotc tqv tuq
tq c,uittcq vuu,c,ot vot cuvictui oc uttq.
Iiu vuuoci,u, c_otc oti vuuvuvc oiuoixc ciococi oti q
oiuoixq ciocoq (1) civui octtcq tuq, q (2) civui titq tuq,
cvc q (3) civui vctq tuq.
Opiou 3: Q itoq iu oiuoixq ciocoq v-ootq tuq, 0c-
cotc xu0c otvutqoq vot civui v-oc vuu,c,i-
oiq xui tqv ixuvovoici.
Iiu vuuoci,u, q otvutqoq y = cx
2
civui itoq tq oiuoixq ci-
ocoq xy' = 2y.
- Hpoqoto Aptkev Ttev
To |uoixo vo|iqu otqv cviitoq iu oiuoixq ciocoq civui
oti uxoiot0cvtu tqv uvtiotoq oiuoixuoiu tq vuu,c,ioq
_qoiovoicvtu oqiuoq tqv vuu,otou otvutqoq xutuiq,otc
o_i oc iu, uiiu oc uvcic itoci vot cutcvtui uvo tqv tiq iu
otu0cu.
Hopciyuo
u it0ci q oiuoixq ciocoq l'(x) = 2x 3.
Atoq
H vuu,otou tq l' civui q l(x) = x
2
3x + c xui civui itoq tq oo-
ocvq oiuoixq ciocoq ,iu oic ti tic tq otu0cu c. Ku-
tuiquc ioivov oc uvcic itoci tq oq:
2O2 Kcuiuio 4
c 1
c O
c 1
c 2
3
2
13
4
9
4
1
4
5
4
x
Iiu vu xutuiqotc oc ovuoixq itoq tot vo|iquto, oqiuoq oc
ovuoixq tiq tq otu0cu c, _ciuouotc ,iu to ot,xcxicvo
vuuoci,u, iu cvivicov tiq ,iu tq otvutqoq y = l(x), v._.
l(1) = O. Totc 0u c_otc oti c = 2 xui q ovuoixq itoq tq ooocvq
oiuoixq ciocoq civui q:
l(x) = x
2
3x + 2
H tiq uttq tq l xuicitui u_ixq tiq xui to vo|iqu vot vci-
c_ci iu oiuoixq ciocoq xui xuvoic u_ixc tic xuicitui vo-
|iqu u_ixcv ticv.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
'Lotc !(x) iu vuu,otou tq l(x).
(u) u uvoocictc oti q vuu,otou tq l(ux + |) civui q
1
u
!(ux + |) + c.
(|) u |citc ti vuu,otoc tcv otvutqoccv l(x) = e
ux+|
xui
g(x) = (ux + |)
v
, ovot v e N.
Atoq
(u) 'L_otc oti:
_
!(ux + |)
u
+ c
'
=
!'(ux + |)
u
(ux + |)' =
u!'(ux + |)
u
= l(ux + |)
(|) H vuu,otou tq l(x) = e
ux+|
civui q !(x) =
e
ux+|
u
+ c, cvc tq
g(x) = (ux + |)
v
civui q G(x) =
(ux + |)
v+1
(v + 1)u
+ c.
Eopuoyq 2 ,Movteo Aepiopiotp Avotop)
Livui ioiuitcu cvoiucov oti q oq ot,xcxicvcv oiuoixcv
ciococcv _uuxtqiotv voiic cuo,c tot uvo tqv vu,uti-
xotqtu. A 0ccqootc oto c,c0q x, y vot otvocovtui uvo tq 0cti-
xq otvutqoq l cotc y = l(x). Totc q oiuoixq ciocoq:
y' = Ky
vci,uci u0qutixu ovtciu uvcioiotq uvuvttq. H 0ctixq
otu0cu K ovouctui otu0cu uvuio,iu.
A cviitootc tq oiuoixq uttq ciocoq. 'L_otc oti:
y'
y
=
l'(x)
l(x)
= K q (ln l(x))' = (Kx)'
Lvocvc:
ln(l(x)) = Kx + c q l(x) = e
Kx+c
= e
c
e
Kx
H voootqtu e
c
vuucvci 0ctixq otu0cu xui tq ot|oiiotc c c
1
.
Lvocvc, q itoq tq ooocvq oiuoixq ciocoq civui q:
y = l(x) = c
1
e
Kx
xui utuvctui uvcioiotu.
y c e
1
Kx
(O, c )
1
y
O
x
Iiu vu voooioiootc tq otu0cu c
1
, _ciuctui xui iu u_ixq
otv0qxq.
2O4 Kcuiuio 4
Eopuoyq 3 ,Movteo Hepiopiouevp Avotop)
A 0ccqootc xutoviv iu oiuoixq ciocoq tq oq:
y' = K(c y)
ovot K, c 0ctixc otu0cc xui y = l(x) < c. Iiu vu cviitootc tq
oiuoixq uttq ciocoq, uxci vu 0ccqootc tq otvutqoq:
g(x) = c l(x) q l(x) = c g(x).
Totc, uvtixu0iotcvtu otq ooocvq oiuoixq ciocoq 0u c_otc
oti:
(c g(x))' = K(c c + g(x)) q g'(x) = Kg(x).
Atvovtu ovc oto voq,otcvo ovtcio c_otc oti:
g(x) = c
1
e
Kx
q c l(x) = c
1
e
Kx
q l(x) = c c
1
e
Kx
q ovoiu c_ci oiovtiu uotvtctq tqv y = c, otuv x+ (|i. l_qu).
y c c e
1
Kx
y c
(O, c c )
1
y
x
Eopuoyq 4
O t0o ctu|oiq tot viq0toot P c vo to _ovo c_ci vci-
,uci oc voiiu oiuoctixu ovtciu otq |i|iio,uiu, v._. q xiu-
oixq ciocoq tot Malllus:
P' = KP (M)
q q io,iotixq xuvtiq vcioiocvq uvuvttq:
P' = i(M P)P (i = otu0cu, M = c,ioto viq0too) (A)
Lvioq oivctui oti ,iu l = l
O
io_tci oti P = P
O
. u cxuoctc tov
viq0too P c otvutqoq tot _ovot ,iu tu oto ovtciu.
Atoq
Movto tou Malthus
Livui (|i. Luo,q 2): lnP = Kl + c.
Iiu l = l
O
, c_otc oti lnP
O
= Kl
O
+ c q c = lnP
O
Kl
O
. Lvocvc:
lnP = Kl + lnP
O
Kl
O
q ln
P
P
O
= K(l l
O
) q P = P
O
e
K(ll
O
)
.
Aoytottko Movto
'L_otc oti (|i. Luo,q 3):
ln
P
M P
= iMl + c
Iiu l = l
O
io_tci P = P
O
xui c = ln
P
O
M P
O
iMl
O
, ovotc tciixu c_otc
(,iu P < M) oti:
ln
P
M P
ln
P
O
M P
O
= iM(l l
O
) q ln
P(M P
O
)
P
O
(M P)
= iM(l l
O
) q
P(l) =
P
O
Me
iM(l l
O
)
M P
O
+ P
O
e
iM(l l
O
)
To io,iotixo ovtcio cxuci xuittcu tqv vu,utixotqtu, ovc
voxtvtci uvo ot,xioq c cxtcvq vciuutixu ocoocvu.
Eopuoyq 5
u uvooci_0ci o ,vcoto uvo tq utoixq ttvo vot otvocci tqv uvo-
otuoq S c tqv cvitu_tvoq , xui to _ovo l:
S =
1
2
,l
2
+ t
O
l + S
O
ovot t
O
civui q u_ixq tu_ttqtu (,iu l = O) xui S
O
q u_ixq 0coq tot
xivqtot.
Atoq
H cvitu_tvoq oivctui uvo tq octtcq vuu,c,o tq uvootuoq c
vo to _ovo:
, = S"(l) (1)
cvc q tu_ttqtu t civui o t0o ctu|oiq tq uvootuoq c vo
to _ovo: t(l) = S'(l). 'Au, uvo tqv (1) c_otc oti:
S'(l) = ,l + c (2)
H otu0cu c voci vu tvoio,io0ci uvo tqv u_ixq otv0qxq ,iu
l = O, ovot:
t(O) = t
O
= c = u_ixq tu_ttqtu.
2O6 Kcuiuio 4
Lvocvc S'(l) = ,l + t
O
xui c_otc oti: S(l) = ,
l
2
2
+ t
O
l + c
1
.
Iiu l = O |ioxotc oti: c
1
= S(O) = S
O
= u_ixq 0coq, ovotc xutu-
iq,otc oti:
S(l) =
,l
2
2
+ t
O
l + S
O
Hopotqpqoq
Av S
O
= t
O
= O to S oivctui uvo tqv uviq o_coq: S =
1
2
,l
2
.
Eopuoyq 6
O 2O
o
uicvu voci vu 0ccq0ci cvuvuotutixo, uvucou otu uiiu,
xui uvo tqv ovtixq ,cviu tot viq0ot vccv _qixcv voIovtcv vot
vuuoxctuo0qxuv. Kicioi ,iu tqv vuuoxctq tot q "_qixq uvti-
ouoq" v._.
nA voIovtu (n = tuq uvtiouoq) (1)
H ctu|oiq tq ototuoq x tot ototutixot A (q tcv ototutixcv uv
civui vcioootcu uvo cvu) c to _ovo l vuiotutui uvo iu oiuo-
ixq ciocoq, v._. ,iu tqv (1):
x' = K(u x)
n
ovot K q otu0cu tu_ttqtu, u q u_ixq ot,xcvtcoq xui n q tuq
tq uvtiouoq. u tvoio,ioctc tq ctu|oiq tot x c vo l ,iu ti
cq vcivtcoci:
(u) qocvixq tuq uvtiouoq (n = O)
(|) 1
q
tuq uvtiouoq (n = 1)
Atoq
(u) 'L_otc oti x' = K q x = Kt + c.
Iiu l = O civui vouvc oti x = O (ocv c_ci uvtiouoci xu0oiot
to ototutixo A) uu c = O xui x(l) = Kl .
(|) 'L_otc oti:
x' = K(u x) q
(u x)'
u x
= K q ln(u x) = Kl + c.
Iiu l = O c_otc x = O, ovotc c = lnu. 'Au:
ln(u x) = Kl + lnu q ln
u
u x
= Kl q
u
u x
= e
Kl
q
x(l) = u(1 e
Kl
) .
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,ioctc tqv vuu,otou tcv uxoiot0cv otvutqoccv:
(i) l
1
(x) =
1
x + 2
, ,iu x > 2
(ii) l
2
(x) =
1
3
x
2
, ,iu x = O
(iii) l
3
(x) =
_
x +
1
x
2
, ,iu x = O
(iv) l
4
(x) = c
2
x, ,iu x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z
'Aouqoq 2
u uvoocictc oti oi otvutqoci tq octtcq otqiq civui oi vu-
u,otoc tcv otvutqoccv tq vctq:
ox, ,iu qx > O ln(qx), ,iu qx > O
lnx, ,iu x > O x(lnx 1), ,iu x > O
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci q vuu,otou tcv uxoiot0cv otvutqoccv:
(i) l
1
(x) = u
x
, c O O xui O < u = 1
(iii) l
3
(x) = 1 + c
2
x, ,iu x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z
'Aouqoq 4
u tvoio,ioctc tqv vuu,otou otvutqoq tq l(x) =
1
1 + qx
,
x = 2xv
v
2
, x e Z.
2O8 Kcuiuio 4
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x) c l: RR
+
. u it0ci to vo|iqu u-
_ixcv ticv:
'
y' = y
y(O) = y
O
'Aouqoq 2
'Lotc otvutqoq y = l(x) c l: RR xui l(O) = ln2. u it0ci to vo-
|iqu u_ixcv ticv:
e
x
(y' y) =
e
x
e
x
+ 1
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci o ttvo tq otvutqoq y = l(x) ,iu tqv ovoiu ,vciotc
oti y' = 2x
3
3 xui oti q C
l
oic_ctui uvo to oqcio A(O, 2).
'Aouqoq 4
Aivctui otvutqoq y = l(x), c l: RR. u it0ci to vo|iqu u-
_ixcv ticv:
'
l"(x) = 2x + 5
l'(1) = 2
l(1) =
5
6
'Aouqoq 5
u |c0ci iu oiuoixq ciocoq 1
q
tuq xui iu 2
q
, ti ovoic i-
xuvovoici q otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c:
l(x) = ln(x + x
2
+ 1)
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu xuvctuvio iotiovioIxot _qoiovoicvtu ti ctqoci tot
oooctot (o,uvo vot ctuci tqv tu_ttqtu tot oxuot) xutu-
iq,ci oti q tu_ttqtu tot oxuot tot oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
t(l) =
e
l
1O
1OO
vuttixu iiiu/min, ,iu O l 3O
u |c0ci q otvutqoq 0coq tot iotiovioIxot xui vu |c0ci voou
iiiu oiqvtoc xutu to _ovixo oiuotqu uvo l = 1O min cc
l = 2O min.
'Aouqoq 2
H tcivq xtxiooiu tot vciooixot LYKAL!AHl B' tq Liiqvi-
xq Mu0qutixq Ltuiciu civui 3OO uvti,uu tqv c|oouou. H
LML tvoio,ici oti to vciooixo 0u utqoci tqv xtxiooiu tot c
t0o
1
5

5
l
4
+
2
9
tct_q uvu c|oouou (0cccvtu vuvtu tov xovtivo-
tco uxcuio ui0o tct_cv), tu cvocvu tiu _oviu. Hoiu 0u civui
q xtxiooiu tot vciooixot ctu uvo 32 c|oouoc;
'Aouqoq 3
ltqv A0qvu iu xuioxuiivq qcu, to ovocioio tot uv0uxu ci-
vui 2 cq oto cxutotio (m). To Yvot,cio Hci|uiiovto
vo|icvci oti uv ocv vu0otv utotqu ctu xutu tot vcot, q ot-
,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot tot uv0uxu otqv utoouiu 0u utu-
vctui c t0o:
1
1OOO
(l
2
+ 2Ol + 1OO) cq uvu cxutotio (m)
oc l _oviu uvo tcu. Hoiu 0u civui q ot,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot
tot uv0uxu oc 3 _oviu uvo oqcu;
'Aouqoq 4
To ,vcoto ototqu "cxxcc uu" vci,uctui uvo tq oiuoi-
xq ciocoq:
mx" = lx
ovot x q uvootuoq c otvutqoq tot _ovot l xui l otu0cu.
u uvoocictc oti iu itoq vot ixuvovoici uttq tq oiuoixq civui
tq oq:
x = c
1
otv(cl) + c
2
q(cl)
c c
2
=
l
m
xui c
1
, c
2
otu0cc.
21O Kcuiuio 4
4.8. Movotovo Luvptqoq
Miu uvo ti oquvtixotcc cuo,c tq vuu,c,ot civui o
voooioioo tq ovotoviu iu otvutqoq.
Ivciotc oti iu otvutqoq ic,ctui ,vqoic utotou oc cvu oiu-
otqu (u, |), uv ,iu ovoiotooqvotc oto ui0ot x
1
xui x
2
oto (u, |)
io_tci oti l(x
1
) < l(x
2
), cooov x
1
< x
2
, cvc ic,ctui ,vqoic 0ivotou
uv l(x
1
) > l(x
2
), cooov x
1
< x
2
. 'L_otc ioivov oti q ovotoviu iu
otvutqoq cxuci utqoq q cicoq oti tic tq, xu0c utu-
vci q uvcutqtq ctu|iqtq x.
A 0ccqootc iu otvutqoq l c utotqu 0ctixo t0o ctu|o-
iq, xu0c utuvotv oi tic tq ctu|iqtq x. Livui totc uvco o-
ti uvtiotoi_u utuvotv xui oi tic tq l, oqiuoq q l civui ,vqoic
utotou uv q vuu,c,o tq civui utotqu 0ctixq, oqiuoq otuv
l'(x) > O.
Avtiotoi_u 0u c_otc oti q l civui ,vqoic 0ivotou, uv q vuu,c-
,o tq civui utotqu uvqtixq, oqiuoq otuv l'(x) < O.
Tcio, civui uvco oti uv l'(x) = O totc q l civui otu0cu.
Ocopquo
'Lotc vuu,c,ioiq otvutqoq l: (u, |) R.
(i) Av l'(x) > O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |), totc q l civui ,vqoic utotou
oto (u, |).
(ii) Av l'(x) < O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |), totc q l civui ,vqoic 0ivotou
oto (u, |).
Hopotqpqoq
Avuitcitui ioiuitcq vooo_q oto oti
ocv io_tci to uvtiotoo tot voq,ot-
cvot 0ccquto. Q uvtivuuoci,u
c_otc tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
3
. H l civui
,vqoic utotou uot ,iu xu0c
x
1
, x
2
e R io_tci oti uv x
1
< x
2
totc xui
x
1
3
< x
2
3
, oqiuoq l(x
1
) < l(x
2
). 'Oc q vu-
u,c,o l'(x) = 3x
2
ocv civui utotqu
0ctixq, uot qocvictui ,iu x = O.
y x

4.9. Akpototo Luvptqoq
Miu octtcq voit oquvtixq cuo,q tq vuu,c,ot, civui o
voooioioo tcv tovixcv uxotutcv iu otvutqoq, oqiuoq
tcv tovixcv c,iotcv xui ciu_iotcv tq otvutqoq.
Hopoctyo
A 0ccqootc tq otvutqoq tu_ttqtu l cvo u0iqtq vot tc_ci
otov uu0cvio otov ovoio xuitvtci otvoiixu 4O lm.
5 O 1O 2O 28 3O 35 4O
l(x)
Lm
l
x Lm
%
%
%
%
%
% %
%
Huutqotc oti q l civui ,vqoic utotou oto oiuotqu (O, 5), oq-
iuoq o u0iqtq utuvci oiuxc tqv tu_ttqtu tot xutu tu 5 vctu
lm, xutoviv q l civui otu0cq oto oiuotqu (5, 1O), oqiuoq o u0iq-
tq xuvci otvtqqoq otvuccv oiutqcvtu otu0cq tqv tu_ttqtu
tot oto oiuotqu utto. Avuio,u, utuvci oiuxc tqv tu_ttqtu tot
oto oiuotqu (1O, 2O) xui tq oiutqci otu0cq oto oiuotqu (2O, 28).
Ao,c xovcoq, q uvooooq tot vctci xui q tu_ttqtu tot cicvctui
oto oiuotqu (28, 3O), xutoviv oc uvuvoovu0ci utuvovtu tqv
tu_ttqtu tot oto oiuotqu (3O, 35). Tcio, q tu_ttqtu tot civui
,vqoic 0ivotou cc otot tcutioci.
H voq,otcvq vci,uq tq ovotoviu tq otvutqoq l ocv vc-
ixicici tu oqciu x
O
= O, 5, 1O, 2O, 28, 3O, 35, 4O. ltu oqciu uttu c-
_otc vi0uvc 0coci uxotutcv xu0c citc ocv oictui q vu-
u,c,o, citc otuv oictui civui ioq c qocv, uot uiiuci q o-
votoviu.
212 Kcuiuio 4
Mc uviq io,ixq vootc vu vuutqqootc oti q l vuotoiuci
tovixu ciu_iotu otu oqciu x
O
= O, 1O, 3O, 4O xui tovixu c,iotu otu
oqciu x
O
= 5, 2O, 28, 35.
Opiou: (u) Miu otvutqoq l c_ci tovixo c,ioto oto oqcio
x = x
O
, uv tvu_ci uvoi_to oiuotqu (u, |) vot vcic-
_ci to x
O
, tctoio cotc l(x) l(x
O
), ,iu xu0c x e (u, |).
(|) Miu otvutqoq l c_ci tovixo ciu_ioto oto oqcio
x = x
O
, uv tvu_ci uvoi_to oiuotqu (u, |) vot vcic-
_ci to x
O
, tctoio cotc l(x) , l(x
O
), ,iu xu0c x e (u, |).
Lvioq, ovc ciouc xui oto vuuoci,u, io_tci to cq ,cvixo ot-
vcuou ,iu iu vuu,c,ioiq otvutqoq:
Ocopquo ,Fernai)
Av q l vuotoiuci tovixo uxotuto oc cvu coctcixo oqcio x
O
tot
vcoiot oioot tq xui civui vuu,c,ioiq oto oqcio utto, totc
l'(x
O
) = O.
- Ht0ov Ooct Totkev Akpottev Luvptqoq
ltcvu c to voq,otcvo vuuoci,u xui to 0ccqu !eimal, xu-
tuiq,otc oti tvu_otv tci xutq,oic oqcicv ,iu iu otvc_q
otvutqoq l, vot voci vu 0ccq0otv c vi0uvc 0coci tovixcv u-
xotutcv:
(i) Tu uxu oiuotqutcv vot uvotciotv to vcoio oioot tq l.
(ii) Tu coctcixu oqciu tot vcoiot oioot tq l otu ovoiu ocv t-
vu_ci q vuu,c,o tq l. Tu oqciu uttu xuiotvtui ,cviuxu
oqciu tq l.
(iii) Tu coctcixu oqciu tot vcoiot oioot tq l otu ovoiu tvu-
_ci q vuu,c,o tq l xui civui ioq c qocv. Tu oqciu uttu
xuiotvtui otuoiu oqciu tq l.
Tu ,cviuxu xui otuoiu oqciu ic,ovtui xioiu oqciu tq l.
- Mctq Totkev Akpottev Luvptqoq
Iiu vu xutuiqotc oti cvu vi0uvo uxotuto civui tciixu uxotuto
xui ,iu vu voooioiootc to cioo tot (tovixo c,ioto q ciu_ioto)
_qoiovoiotc tu uxoiot0u oto xitqiu:
Kpirqpio 1
q
Hopoyoyoo
'Lotc otvc_q otvutqoq l: (u, |)R xui x
O
cvu xioio oqcio tq.
(i) Av l'(x) > O oto (u, x
O
) xui l'(x) < O oto (x
O
, |), totc to l(x
O
) civui
tovixo c,ioto tq l.
(ii) Av l'(x) < O oto (u, x
O
) xui l'(x) > O oto (x
O
, |), totc to l(x
O
) civui
tovixo ciu_ioto tq l.
(iii) Av q l'(x) oiutqci otu0co vooqo otu oiuotqutu (u, x
O
) xui
(x
O
, |), totc to l(x
O
) ocv civui tovixo uxotuto xui q l civui ,vq-
oic ovotovq oto (u, |).
Hopotqpqoq
To xitqio tq 1
q
Huu,c,ot u xuitvtci ,iu tq cictq uxotu-
tcv otu uxu cvo oiuotquto.
lto vuuoci,u c to oocu ciouc oti oto x
O
= O c_otc 0coq to-
vixot ciu_iotot uot oto oiuotqu (O, 5) q l civui ,vqoic utotou
(l' > O) xui oto x
O
= 4O c_otc vuii 0coq tovixot ciu_iotot uot oto
oiuotqu (35, 4O) q l civui ,vqoic 0ivotou (l' < O).
Avtiotoi_u, uv q l cxivu uvo uiotco uxo oiuotquto tot vcoiot
oioot tq xui civui ,vqoic 0ivotou, totc oto uxo utto vuot-
oiuci tovixo c,ioto. Av q l xutuiq,ci oc ocio uxo oiuotquto
tot vcoiot oioot tq xui civui ,vqoic utotou, totc vuii vuot-
oiuci tovixo c,ioto (|i. l_qu).
%
%
u |
To octtco xitqio cictq tovixcv uxotutcv civui vcioootco
ct_qoto xui _qoiovoicitui ,iu otvutqoci vot civui totiu_i-
otov oto oc vuu,c,ioic. ltvcvc, c to xitqio utto vo-
otc vu cictqootc ovo uv tu otuoiu oqciu iu otvutqoq
civui 0coci tovixcv uxotutcv.
214 Kcuiuio 4
Kpirqpio 2
q
Hopoyoyoo
'Lotc otvc_q otvutqoq l: A R xui x
O
cvu otuoio oqcio tq l.
Av q l civui oto oc vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
, totc vuotoiuci tovi-
xo c,ioto oto x
O
uv l"(x
O
) < O, cvc vuotoiuci tovixo ciu_ioto oto
x
O
uv l"(x
O
) > O.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
A 0ccqootc tq otvutqoq xcoot P, q ovoiu, ovc ciouc, oi-
vctui c q oiuou tq otvutqoq cooocv L xui tq otvutqoq
xootot K, oqiuoq:
P(x) = L(x) K(x), x , O
ovot x civui q voootqtu voIovto vot vuu,ctui xui vcicitui.
(u) Hoiu 0u civui q ovotoviu tq otvutqoq xcoot otuv:
(i) H L civui ,vqoic 0ivotou xui q K ,vqoic utotou.
(ii) H L civui ,vqoic utotou xui q K ,vqoic 0ivotou.
(|) Lu,ovtui otvcuoutu ,iu tq ovotoviu tq otvutqoq xc-
oot, uv oi otvutqoci L xui K c_otv to ioio cioo ovotoviu;
(,) Lq,qotc c oixovoixot oot tu (u) xui (|).
Atoq
(u) Livui P'(x) = L'(x) K'(x). Lvocvc:
Av L'(x) < O xui K'(x) > O 0u c_otc oti P'(x) < O, oqiuoq q ot-
vutqoq xcoot 0u civui ,vqoic 0ivotou.
Av civui L'(x) > O xui K'(x) < O, totc 0u c_otc oti P'(x) > O, oq-
iuoq q P 0u civui ,vqoic utotou.
(|) Acv cu,ovtui otvcuoutu.
(,) To (u) u cxuci oto uviu vu,utu:
(i) Av tu cooou 0ivotv xui to xooto utuvci totc oi,otu to
xcoo ixuivci.
(ii) Av tu cooou utuvotv xui to xooto ixuivci totc oi,otu
to xcoo utuvci.
Eopuoyq 2
'Lotc q otvutqoq xootot K(x), xutuoxctq x ovuocv voIovto
xui q otvutqoq coot xootot:
K
(x) =
K(x)
x
, x > O
(u) u uvoocictc oti:
K
'(x) =
K'(x) K
(x)
x
, x > O
(|) u uvoocictc oti q K
civui ,vqoic 0ivotou ,iu oic ti ti-

c tot x ,iu ti ovoic io_tci oti K'(x) < K
(x).
(,) Lq,qotc to uvotcicou tot (|) c oixovoixot oot.
Atoq
(u) 'L_otc oti:
K
'(x) =
x K'(x) K(x)
x
2
=
K'(x)
K(x)
x
x
=
K'(x) K
(x)
x
(|) Av K'(x) < K
(x) totc xui K
'(x) < O, ovotc q K
civui ,vqoic
0ivotou.
(,) To uvotcicou tot (|) cxuci oti to coo xooto 0ivci, uv
xutucotc to oiuxo xooto vu oiutqci tic ixotcc tot
coot xootot.
Eopuoyq 3
u cctuo0otv c vo tq ovotoviu oi otvutqoci:
(u) l
1
(x) = e
x
(|) l
2
(x) = u
x
, O O
(o) l
4
(x) = log
u
x, x > O xui O O, ,iu xu0c x e R, ovotc q l
1
civui ,vqoic ut-
otou oc oio to R.
(|) Livui l
2
'(x) = u
x
lnu, ovotc uv u > 1 q l
2
civui ,vqoic utotou oc o-
io to R, cvc uv O O, ,iu xu0c x > O, ovotc q l
3
civui ,vqoic utot-
ou ,iu xu0c x e (O, +).
(o) Livui l
4
'(x) =
1
x lnu
, ,iu x > O, ovotc q l
4
civui ,vqoic utotou
oto (O, +) uv u > 1, cvc uv O < u < 1 q l
4
civui ,vqoic 0ivotou
oto (O, +).
Eopuoyq 4
u cctuoctc c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu to ticvto:
l(x) = ux
2
+ |x + ,, c u = O
Atoq
Livui l'(x) = 2ux + | = 2u
_
x +
|
2u
. Movuoixq 0coq vi0uvot uxotutot
vuotoiuci oto otuoio oqcio x
O
=
|
2u
.
Av u < O c_otc tov vivuxu ticv:
l
l
O
x :
|
2u
ovotc q l vuotoiuci tovixo c,ioto oto x
O
=
|
2u
.
Av u > O totc o vivuxu ticv ,ivctui:
l
l
O
x :
|
2u
xui q l vuotoiuci oto x
O
=
|
2u
0coq tovixot ciu_iotot.
2quciooq: Av p eopuop ptooe uovo tp ueetp tov otpototov tp f, tote 0o ,ppoi-
uooioooue oootepo to tpitppio tp 2
p
opoooo. f,x) = 2o, oote
f
,
_
2o
> 0 ov o > 0 toi oto x
0
=
2o
e,ooue toito eo,ioto, evo f
,
_
2o
< 0 ov
o < 0, oote oto x
0
=
2o
e,ooue toito ueioto.
Eopuoyq 5
'Lotc oti iu ctu|iqtq cvo viq0toot x vuivci ti tic x
1
, x
2
,
., x
v
. u uvoocictc oti to u0oiou tcv tctu,cvcv tcv ouiu-
tcv tq ctqoq:
(x x
1
)
2
+ (x x
2
)
2
+ + (x x
v
)
2
,ivctui ciu_ioto otq coq tiq, oqiuoq otuv x =
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
v
v
.
Atoq
Occotc tq otvutqoq:
l(x) = (x x
1
)
2
+ (x x
2
)
2
+ + (x x
v
)
2
Totc c_otc oti:
l'(x) = 2[(x x
1
) + (x x
2
) + + (x x
v
)] = 2v
_
x
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
v
v
Avo tov vivuxu ctu|oicv |ioxotc oti q l vuotoiuci ciu_ioto
,iu x =
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
v
v
.
l
l
O
x
:
x x x

F
v
Eopuoyq 6
u |c0ci q c,uittcq tiq tq vuuctot x e R ,iu tqv ovoiu i-
o_tci oti:
e
x
, xx
2
, ,iu xu0c x > O
218 Kcuiuio 4
Atoq
H ooocvq uviootqtu ,uctui ioootvuu c cq:
e
x
x
2
, x, ,iu xu0c x > O.
Occotc tq otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c l(x) =
e
x
x
2
, q ovoiu c_ci vu-
u,c,o:
l'(x) =
e
x
x
3
(x 2)
H l c_ci ciu_ioto oto x
O
= 2, ovotc io_tci oti:
l(x) , l(2), ,iu xu0c x > O.
Lvocvc x = l(2) =
e
2
4
.
Eopuoyq 7
u |citc oiu tu ct,q tcv ui0cv, vot c_otv otu0co u0oiou c
xui oivotv c,ioto ,ivocvo.
Atoq
'Lotc x, z oto ui0oi c otu0co u0oiou c, oqiuoq:
x + z = c q z = c x.
To ,ivocvo tot civui:
xz = x(c x) = x
2
+ cx.
Axci, ioivov, vu |otc to c,ioto tq otvutqoq l: RR, c
l(x) = x
2
+ cx. 'L_otc oti:
l'(x) = 2x + c
ovotc q l c_ci otuoio oqcio oto x
O
=
c
2
. Aot l"
_
c
2
= 2 < O, q l vu-
otoiuci c,ioto oto x
O
=
c
2
. Aqiuoq, tu ct,q iocv ui0cv vuot-
oiuotv c,ioto ,ivocvo.
Eopuoyq 8
A 0ccqootc tq ,vcotq cxuoq tq xutuvoq Maxwell
Bollzmann ,iu tqv tu_ttqtu C:
y = 4v
_
m
2vKT
3
2
C
2
e

mC
2
2KT
vot voci vu uviovoiq0ci c cq:
y = l(C) = K
1
C
2
e
K
2
C
2
H ciocoq uttq uvuvuiotu tqv xutuvoq tq tu_ttqtu tcv oi-
cv cvo uciot oc cvuv xicioto _co. u uvoocictc oti vuotoiu-
ci c,ioto. To c,ioto utto uvtiotoi_ci otqv vio vi0uvq tu_ttqtu
tcv oicv.
Atoq
Yvoio,iotc tqv vctq vuu,c,o:
y' = l'(C) = 2K
1
Ce
K
2
C
2
+ K
1
C
2
e
K
2
C
2
(2K
2
C) q
l'(C) = 2K
1
Ce
K
2
C
2
(1 K
2
C
2
)
Hi0uvo uxotuto vuotoiuci oto otuoio oqcio C =
1
K
2
.
A tvoio,iootc xutoviv tq octtcq vuu,c,o tq l:
l"(C) = 2K
1
e
K
2
C
2
(2K
2
2
C
4
5K
2
C
2
+ 1)
lto otuoio oqcio C =
1
K
2
q C
2
K
2
= 1 c_otc oti:
l"
_
1
K
2
=
4K
1
e
< O
ovotc q l vuotoiuci c,ioto.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
u uvoocictc oti q ,uixq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = ux + |
civui:
(u) Ivqoic utotou uv u > O.
(|) Ivqoic 0ivotou uv u < O.
(,) ltu0cq uv u = O.
'Aouqoq 2
u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu q otvutqoq l(x) = e
ux
, ,iu ti
oiuoc tic tq vuuctot u e R.
22O Kcuiuio 4
'Aouqoq 3
Aivctui iu otvutqoq l: (u, |) R c ti cq ioiotqtc:
(i) l"(x) > O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |).
(ii) Yvu_ci , e (u, |), tctoio cotc l'(,) = O.
Ti io_tci ,iu to oqcio (,, l(,)); Ti 0u io_tci uv uvti tq (i) ci_uc o-
ti l"(x) < O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |);
'Aouqoq 4
u uvoocictc oti q xt|ixq otvutqoq
l(x) = ux
3
+ |x
2
+ ,x + o, u = O
ocv c_ci tovixu uxotutu uv |
2
3u, O.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
u uvoocictc oti q otvutqoq l: R
o
,
;, c
l(x) =
ux + |
,x + o
, ovot u, , = O
ocv c_ci tovixu uxotutu uv uo |, = O.
Ti ot|uivci otuv uo |, = O;
'Aouqoq 2
u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu q otvutqoq
l: [O, 5] R, c:
l'(x) = (x 1)
3
(x 2)
2
(x 3)
'Aouqoq 3
Aivctui q otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c l(x) =
lnx
x
.
(u) u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu.
(|) u ot,xi0otv oi tic l(v) xui l(e).
(,) u ot,xi0otv oi ui0oi e
v
xui v
e
.
'Aouqoq 4
Aivovtui oi otvutqoci l, g: (O, +)R, c:
l(x) =
x e
x
x + e
x
xui g(x) = x xlnx
(i) u uvoocictc oti vuotoiuotv c,ioto oc oqcio c xoivq tc-
tqcvq.
(ii) u cctuoctc c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu tq otvu-
tqoq l(x) = l(x) + g(x).
Hpokttk Eopoy
'Aouqoq 1
To to cvo vtutiot (oc m) ctu uvo l sec vtqoq, oivctui uvo tq
otvutqoq:
l(l) =
1
6
l
3
+ 8l
2
+
33
2
l + 5, l , O
u cctuoctc votc o vtutio utto uvc|uivci xui votc xutc|uivci.
'Aouqoq 2
To viq0o tcv c,xiqutcv tu tcicttuiu 1O _oviu oc iu vo-
iq (1989 1999) oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(l) = O,O3l
3
+
368,64
l
ocxuoc c,xiqutu, O < l 1O
u cctuoctc voiu _oviu ci_uc tqv ciu_iotq c,xiqutixotqtu.
'Aouqoq 3
H vi0uvotqtu P vu |c0ci cvu qicxtovio oc uvootuoq i uvo tov
vtqvu cvo utoot too,ovot oivctui uvo tqv ciocoq:
P =
4i
2
u
O
3
e

2i
u
O
, ovot u
O
otu0cu.
Aot |citc tqv vuu,c,o tot P c vo i, tvoio,iotc tqv tiq tot
i otuv q vi0uvotqtu civui c,iotq, oqiuoq tqv vio vi0uvq tiq tot i.
222 Kcuiuio 4
'Aouqoq 4
Avo cvu xouti _utovi o0o,cviot
o_quto, c victc 6 cm xui 8 cm, vu
xutuoxctuo0ci cvu xotti o_quto o-
0o,cviot vuuiiqicvivcoot, uvoi_to
oto vuvc co, ctoi cotc vu c_ci to
c,ioto otvuto o,xo.
x
8
6
'Aouqoq 5
Miu totiotixq cvi_ciqoq o,uvcvci cxooc c iccociu. Ku-
0c totiotixo iccocio c_ci 5O 0coci. 'Otuv oi cvi|utc tot icc-
ociot civui uxi|c 3O, totc q ctuiciu qtu 5OOO o_. xutu utoo.
Iiu vu utqoci tot cvi|utc, q ctuiciu xuvci tqv cq vooou:
Ko0e eieov eiotp 0o ueiovei toto 100 p,. tp ,peoop to0e ooo
eiotp
u |c0ci to viq0o tcv cvivicov cvi|utcv vot vcvci vu c_ci xu0c
iccocio, cotc q cvi_ciqoq vu c_ci c,iotovoiqoci tu cooou tq.
'Aouqoq 6
u voooioio0otv oi oiuotuoci o0o,cviot
c,iotot c|uoot, to ovoio civui c,,c,uc-
vo oc ioovicto ti,cvo victu 1 cm, uv q
iu victu tot o0o,cviot vcic_ctui oc iu
victu tot ti,cvot (|i. l_qu).
A
B I
L
K A
M A
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui otvutqoq l: RR vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
. u uvoocictc oti:
(i) lim
lO

l
2
(x
O
+ l) l
2
(x
O
)
l
= 2l(x
O
)l'(x
O
)
(ii) lim
lO

(x
O
+ l)l(x
O
) x
O
l(x
O
+ l)
l
= l(x
O
) x
O
l'(x
O
)
'Aouqoq 2
O o,xo V tot _ciot ctut oto ooxcvtcv ouicv c,uicvci
c vo to _ovo. H uxtivu tq cctcixq ouiu utuvci c otu-
0co t0o 2 m/l, cvc q uxtivu tq coctcixq ouiu utuvci c
otu0co t0o
1
2
m/l. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V, o-
tuv q cctcixq uxtivu ,ivci ioq c 3 m xui q coctcixq c 1 m.
'Aouqoq 3
O ui0o |uxtqicv (l) oc iu ot,xcxicvq xuiiic,ciu ctu-
|uiictui ctu tq _qoq cvo |uxtqioxtovot c cq:
(l) =
1OOOO
1 + l
2
+ 2OOO
ovot o _ovo l cxuctui oc min. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq
xui to viq0o tcv |uxtqicv 1 xui 2 min ctu tq _qoq tot |u-
xtqioxtovot.
'Aouqoq 4
ltq toixq _qoiovoicitui ctcc q cvvoiu tq cioixq 0cotq-
tu tvo otu0cq vicoq C
P
, q ovoiu oictui c o t0o ctu|oiq
tq 0cotqtu q c vo tq 0coxuoiu T, oqiuoq:
C
P
= q'(T)
Av uvo vciuutixu ocoocvu civui ,vcoto oti C
P
= A + BT, ovot A,
B otu0cc, vu tvoio,ioctc tq otvutqoq q c vo T. Hc uvio-
voicitui q otvutqoq uttq uv q C
P
civui otu0cu, oqiuoq uvcu-
tqtq tq 0coxuoiu;
'Aouqoq 5
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x), c l: RR. u it0otv oi oiuoixc c-
iococi:
(i) y' + y = x, ovot x otu0cu, voiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
xui tu oto
ciq tq ciocoq.
(ii) y' y = x, ovot x otu0cu, voiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
xui tu oto
ciq tq ciocoq.
224 Kcuiuio 4
(iii) y" = y, voo0ctovtu tqv y' otu oto ciq tq ciocoq.
'Aouqoq 6
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x), c tqv l vuu,c,ioiq oto (O, +). u
it0ci to vo|iqu u_ixcv ticv xy' = (x + 1)y, ,iu x > O xui l(1) = e.
'Aouqoq 7
u cictq0ci q xt|ixq otvutqoq:
l(x) = ux
3
+ |x
2
+ ,x + o, c u > O
c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu, otuv |
2
3u, > O.
'Aouqoq 8
u |citc tu ct,q tcv 0ctixcv ui0cv vot c_otv otu0co u0oi-
ou c xui c,ioto ,ivocvo tq titq otvuq tot cvo xui tq oct-
tcq tot uiiot.
'Aouqoq 9
lc ooocvq ouiu:
(u) u c,,uci xtiivoo c c,ioto o,xo.
(|) u c,,uci o0o xcvo c c,ioto o,xo.
'Aouqoq 10
Aivctui cvu xtxiixo _utivo oioxo xui 0ciotc vu xutuoxctu-
ootc cvu iito xuc oc o_qu xcvot, ctoi cotc vu c_ci c,ioto
o,xo.
i
2x
O
O
O
H
l
i
p
B
B
A
A
'Aouqoq 11
Oi vo,ic civui i,utu cvo voitcot (ovc tu viuotixu), cvo
oiuittq (ovc vco q uixooiq) xui iu _cotixq otoiu. Avuui-
tqtq votvo0coq civui to voitcc vu uvuci,vtctui viqc c to
oiuittq. Ocootvuixu, to vo|iqu utto cictutui c otvutq-
oci tot ic,ocvot otvtcicotq cvc,otqtu u c vo tq ot,xc-
vtcoq x. 'Lvu tctoio ,vcoto xui oqcu xiuoixo ovtcio votu-
0qxc to 194O uvo tot !loiy xui Huggins:
lnu
1
= ln(1
2
) +
_
1
1
V

2
+ i
2
2
ovot o ocixtq 1 uvtiotoi_ci otov oiuittq xui o ocixtq 2 oto voit-
cc, cvc:
2
=
x
2
V
2
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
, V
1
, V
2
o,xoi xui V =
V
2
V
1
xui i q vuucto tot ovtciot vot tvoio,ictui uvo vciuutixu
ocoocvu. H 0cootvuixq oici oti iu t,q uoq tvu_ci otuv
i > V
1
) voitc-
q;
226 Kcuiuio 4
Avoucozoiooq
- Huu,c,o c Pt0o Mctu|oiq:
l'(x
O
) = lim
lO

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
- Huu,c,oi Buoixcv ltvutqoccv:
Luvptqoq f Hopyeyo f
c (otu0cu) O
x 1
x
u
, u e R, x > 0 ux
u1
qx otvx
otvx qx
e
x
e
x
lnx, x > O
1
x
- Kuvovc Huu,c,ioq:
(l g)'(x) = l'(x) g'(x)
(cl)'(x) = cl'(x)
(lg)'(x) = l'(x) g(x) + l(x) g'(x)
_
l
g
'
(x) =
l'(x) g(x) l(x) g'(x)
[g(x)]
2
(gl)'(x) = g'(l(x))l'(x)
- Huu,c,oi Avctcq Tuq:
l"(x) = (l'(x))', l
(3)
(x) = (l"(x))', ., x.o.x.
- Huu,otou ltvutqoq Avtiotoq oiuoixuoiu Huu,c,ioq:
!'(x) = l(x)
Hvoko Hopoyouoev Bootkev Luvoptqocev
O c
1 x + c
x
u
, u = 1, x > 0
x
u+1
u + 1
+ c
1
x
, x > O lnx + c
e
x
e
x
+ c
otvx qx + c
qx otvx + c
1
otv
2
x
, x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z cx + c
1
q
2
x
, x = xv, x e Z ox + c
Hvoko Hopoyouoev Lv0ctev Luvoptqocev
g'(x)
g
2
(x)
, g(x) = O
1
g(x)
+ c
g'(x)
g(x)
, g(x) > O 2 g(x) + c
g'(x)
g(x)
, g(x) > O ln(g(x)) + c
g
u
(x) g'(x), u e R, u = 1, g(x) > O
(g(x))
u+1
u + 1
+ c
e
g(x)
g'(x) e
g(x)
+ c
228 Kcuiuio 4
- Aiuoixc Liococi:
Hcic_otv ti vuu,c,ot iu u,vcotq otvutqoq y = l(x).
Tq:
H tuq tq c,uittcq vuu,c,ot otq oiuoixq cioc-
oq.
Hpoqo Aptkev Ttev:
H oiuoixq ciocoq xui iu q vcioootcc u_ixc tic
,iu tq otvutqoq.
- Movotoviu ltvutqoq:
Av l' > O totc l ,vqoic utotou.
Av l' < O totc l ,vqoic 0ivotou.
- Hi0uvc 0coci Axotutcv:
'Axu Aiuotquto.
Icviuxu oqciu
ltuoiu oqciu
Kioiu oqciu.
- Mcictq Axotutcv:
Kpttqpto 1
q
Hopoyeyou:
Mctu|oiq vooqot l' uiotcu xui ociu tot uxotutot.
Kpttqpto 2
q
Hopoyeyou (Movo ,iu otuo. oqcio l'(x
O
) = O):
+ Av l"(x
O
) < O Tovixo Mc,ioto
+ Av l"(x
O
) > O Tovixo Liu_ioto
Eporqoci Korovqoq
1. Ti oquivci t0o ctu|oiq c,c0ot xui vc otvocctui c
tqv cvvoiu tq vuu,c,ot;
2. ltviqcotc uv oi uxoiot0oi io_tiooi civui ocotoi (l) q
iuv0uocvoi (A) xui uitioio,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou:
Av l otvc_q oto x
O
totc tvu_ci to l'(x
O
). l A
Av l vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
totc civui xui otvc_q oto x
O
. l A
Av q l ocv civui otvc_q oto x
O
totc ocv tvu_ci to
l'(x
O
).
l A
Av q l ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
totc ocv civui ot-
vc_q oto x
O
.
l A
3. Hotc iu otvutqoq c_ci vuu,c,o oc uvoi_to xui votc oc
xicioto oiuotqu;
4. Hoiot ttvot otvutqoccv xuitvtci q vuu,c,o tq ot-
vutqoq l(x) = x
u
, c u e R xui x > O;
5. Hoio civui o xuvovu tq uitoiou;
6. Ti uvuitcitui ,iu vu oictui q tctutq vuu,c,o iu ot-
vutqoq;
7. Hc oictui to coo xooto cvo voIovto xui voiu q o_c-
oq tot c to oiuxo xooto;
8. Hoiu civui q vuu,otou otvutqoq xui voiu oiuoixuoiu cx-
uci;
9. Hot otvuvtuc oiuoixc ciococi;
1O. Ti ovouctui vo|iqu u_ixcv ticv;
11. Av iu otvutqoq civui ,vqoic 0ivotou c_ci vuvtu utotq-
u uvqtixq vuu,c,o;
12. O oioo tq ovotoviu iu otvutqoq io_tci ,iu otvu-
tqoci oi ovoic uvuitotc vu civui:
(u) ltvc_ci (|) Huu,c,ioic
(,) Ato oc Huu,c,ioic (o) Tivotc uvo tu vuuvuvc
Ktxicotc xui uitioio,qotc tq ocotq uvuvtqoq.
13. Av q vuu,c,o iu otvutqoq qocvictui oc cixu oq-
ciu, totc q otvutqoq civui otu0cq;
23O Kcuiuio 4
14. Ti uvuitqoci c_ci ,iu iu otvutqoq o oioo tcv tovixcv
uxotutcv tq;
15. Aiuttvcotc to 0ccqu tot !eimal. Hc voxtvtotv c |uoq
to 0ccqu utto, oi vi0uvc 0coci tovixcv uxotutcv iu
otvutqoq;
16. Hoiu oqciu ic,ovtui ,cviuxu;
17. Hoiu oqciu ic,ovtui otuoiu;
18. Hoiu oqciu ic,ovtui xioiu;
19. u oiuttvcoctc to xitqio q tu xitqiu c tu ovoiu cu-
ouiiotc oti civui uxotutu:
(u) tu uxu oiuotquto.
(|) tu ,cviuxu oqciu.
(,) tu otuoiu oqciu.
2roicio Ozouzqporiuoo
Aoyiouoo
Etooyeyq
lto xcuiuio utto 0u cictqootc to oiocvo oioxiqcu, c
cvvoiu ucou otvococcvq c vuxtixu vo|iqutu - ovc o tvoio-
,ioo c|uocv cvivcocv _cicv - uiiu xui tq u0qutixq tot o_c-
oq c tqv vuu,otou, oqiuoq tqv uvtiotoq oiuoixuoiu tq vuu-
,c,ioq.
Mcictotvtui oi ioiotqtc tot oiocvot oioxiqcuto xui oi
oto tovoi tvoio,ioot tot: c tqv uvuxuitq tq vuu,otou xui
c tqv vuu,ovtixq oioxiqcoq.
Tcio, vuotoiuctui uvuittixu o tovo tvoio,ioot tot c-
|uoot cvivcocv _cicv.
5.1. H vvoto tou Optovou Ookqpeoto
H cvvoiu tot oiocvot oioxiqcuto civui otcvu otvococcvq i-
otoixu xui u0qutixu c to vo|iqu tot tvoio,ioot c|uocv
cvivcocv _cicv. To ,cvixotco vo|iqu vot tc0qxc qtuv o tvo-
io,ioo tot c|uoot cvo _ciot vot vcixicictui uvo tq ,uixq
vuuotuoq C
l
iu otvutqoq l, tot uovu x'x xui ti ct0cic x = u
xui x = |.
x x
y
y
u
| O
C
1
x |
x u
232 Kcuiuio 5
Kutu tq otvocoq tcv oto uttcv cvvoicv vuotoiuotqxuv uxctu
vo|iqutu xui oto xtic cviio,c:
- H vctq cviio,q qtuv vu cvuvuvoooioiootc tqv cvvoiu tot
c|uoot, c uxi|cotco tovo, _qoiovoicvtu tqv cvvoiu
tot oioxiqcuto.
- H octtcq cviio,q qtuv vu ocootc cvuv uxi|q oioo ,iu to
oioxiqcu, cxctuiictocvoi tqv cvovtixq cqvciu tot, c
tqv voovtixq vu xutuiqotc tciixu oc iu cvvoiu vot xutu
vciotuoq 0u cqvctctui c c|uoov.
Axoiot0qouc tq octtcq cviio,q, ,iu oto io,ot. H cvvoiu tot o-
ioxiqcuto civui xuiu oiocvq, uxou xui oc vcivtcoci vot
to c|uoov oc 0u oquivci tivotu. Lvioq, ovc 0u ootc, q cvvoiu
tot oioxiqcuto tciixu civui uviototcq uvo uttq tot c|uoot.
Iiu vu cuxi|cootc ti ot|uivci, u cctuootc tu uxoiot0u vo-
|iqutu:
Hpzquo 1
Aivctui q otvutqoq l(x) = x tq ovoiu q
,uixq vuuotuoq uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu. u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov tot
ti,cvot OAB.
y x
y
x
B
A
1O O
Atoq
'L_otc oti (AB) = l(1O) = 1O, ovotc L =
(OA)(AB)
2
=
1O1O
2
= 5O t..
Hopotqpqoq: Miu vuu,otou tq otvutqoq l(x) = x civui q
!(x) =
x
2
2
. Av 0ccqootc tq oiuou tcv ui0qtixcv ticv tq !
otu oqciu x = 1O xui x = O c_otc oti: !(1O) !(O) =
1O
2
2

O
2
2
= 5O t..
ltoi_ciu Oioxiqctixot Ao,ioot 233
Hpzquo 2
lto oiviuvo o_qu uivctui q ,uixq
vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l(x) = x + 2.
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov tot tuvciot
(OABI).
y x + 2
y
x
B
I
A
1O
2
O
Atoq
'L_otc oti (OI) = 2, (AB) = l(1O) = 1O + 2 = 12, (OA) = 1O, ovotc:
L =
(OI) + (AB)
2
(OA) =
(2 + 12)1O
2
= 7O t..
Hopotqpqoq: Miu vuu,otou tq otvutqoq l(x) = x + 2 civui q
!(x) =
x
2
2
+ 2x. Av 0ccqootc tq oiuou tcv ui0qtixcv ticv tq
! otu oqciu x = 1O xui x = O c_otc oti:
!(1O) !(O) =
1O
2
2
+ 2,1O
_ O
2
2
+ 2O = 5O + 2O = 7O t..
Hpzquo 3
lto oiviuvo o_qu uivctui vuii q
,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq
l(x) = x + 2. u tvoio,io0ci to c|u-
oov tot tuvciot (ABIA).
y x + 2
y
x
B
I
A
A
2O 8
O
234 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
'L_otc oti (AA) = l(8) = 8 + 2 = 1O, (BI) = l(2O) = 2O + 2 = 22,
(AB) = 2O 8 = 12. Lvocvc:
L =
(AA) + (BI)
2
(AB) =
(1O + 22)12
2
= 192 t..
Hopotqpqoq: Occcvtu uvu tq oiuou tcv ui0qtixcv ticv
tq vuu,otou !(x) =
x
2
2
+ 2x tq l(x) = x + 2 otu oqciu x = 2O xui
x = 8, |ioxotc: !(2O) !(8) =
2O
2
2
+ 22O
_ 8
2
2
+ 28 = 24O 48 =
192 t..
ltu voq,otcvu vo|iqutu ci_uc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq C
l
iu
otvutqoq l xui 0ciuc vu tvoio,iootc to c|uoov tot _ciot
vot vcixicictui uvo tq C
l
, tov uovu x'x xui ti ct0cic x = u xui
x = |, otuv l(x) , O ,iu xu0c x e [u, |]. Huutqqouc oti uv q ! civui
q vuu,otou tq l, totc to qtotcvo c|uoov qtuv: L = !(|) !(u).
Icvixotcu, uv c_otc iu otvc_q xui 0ctixq otvutqoq
l: [u, |] R c vuu,otou !, io_tci oti q oiuou !(|) !(u) vuu-
cvci otu0cq xui cxuci to c|uoov vot vcixicictui uvo tq
,uixq vuuotuoq C
l
, tov uovu x'x xui ti ct0cic x = u xui x = |.
Av ,cvixctootc tqv voq,otcvq vuutqqoq ,iu otvc_q otvu-
tqoq l: [u, |] R, o_i uvuuitqtu 0ctixq totc voxtvtci to oi-
ocvo oioxiqcu:
Opiou: 'Lotc otvc_q otvutqoq l: [u, |] R c vuu,otou
otvutqoq !. Tq otu0cq oiuou !(|) !(u) ovou-
otc oiocvo oioxiqcu tq otvutqoq l uvo to u
cc to | xui to ot|oiiotc c:
'u
|
l(x) dx
Lvocvc, io_tci oti:
'u
|
l(x) dx = [!(x)]
u
|
= !(|) !(u).
Lvioq, io_tci oti iu otvutqoq civui oioxiqcoiq oto [u, |] uv
civui otvc_q oto [u, |].
Hopotqpqoq: Mc |uoq tov voq,otcvo oioo, vuutqotc oti q
cvvoiu tot oioxiqcuto civui ,cvixotcq uvo uttq tot c|uoot.
To oioxiqcu iu otvutqoq voci vu civui uvqtixo, v._.
'1
3
(x
3
) dx =
]
1
1

x
4
4
1
3
=
81
4
+
1
4
= 2O
uxou xui ioo c to qocv, v._.
'O
2v
qx dx = [otvx]
O
2v
= otv2v + otvO = 1 + 1 = O
2v
O O x x
y y
1
l(x) x

l(x) qx
3
cvc to c|uoov otqv vctq vcivtcoq civui ioo c 2O xui otq oct-
tcq c 4, ovc 0u ootc vuuxutc.
5.2. Iototqtc tou Optovou Ookqpeoto
'Lotc otvutqoq l otvc_q oto [u, |]. !o_totv oi uxoiot0c ioiotq-
tc ,iu to oiocvo oioxiqcu:
(i)
'u
|
c dx = c(| u), ovot c otu0cu
(ii)
'u
|
l(x) dx =
'u
,
l(x) dx +
',
|
l(x) dx, ovot u < , < |
(iii)
'u
u
l(x) dx = O
236 Kcuiuio 5
(iv)
'u
|
l(x) dx =
'|
u
l(x) dx
(v)
'u
|
[il(x) + g(x)] dx = i
'u
|
l(x) dx +
'u
|
g(x) dx, i, e R
'Acou voioutu tq (v) civui oti:
'u
|
il(x) dx = i
'u
|
l(x) dx xui
'u
|
[l(x) + g(x)] dx =
'u
|
l(x) dx +
'u
|
g(x) dx
(vi) Av l(x) , O, ,iu xu0c x e [u, |], totc
'u
|
l(x) dx , O
(vii)Av l(x) , g(x), ,iu xu0c x e [u, |], totc
'u
|
l(x) dx ,
'u
|
g(x) dx
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
u tvoio,io0otv tu oioxiqcutu:
(u)
'O
4
2x dx (|)
'O
1
3x
2
dx (,)
'1
4
1
2 l
dl
Atoq
(u) Ivciotc oti (x
2
)' = 2x uu
'O
4
2x dx = [x
2
]
O
4
= 16 0 = 16.
(|) Ivciotc oti (x
3
)' = 3x
2
uu
'O
1
3x
2
dx = [x
3
]
O
2
= 8 O = 8.
(,) Ivciotc oti ( l)' =
1
2 l
uu
'1
4
1
2 l
dl = [ l]
1
4
= 4 1 = 1.
Eopuoyq 2
u tvoio,io0ci to oioxiqcu
'O
v
qu du.
Atoq
Ivciotc oti (otvu)' = qu, uu (otvu)' = qu, ovotc:
'O
v
qu du = [otvu]
O
v
= otvv + otvO = 2
Eopuoyq 3
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = (x 1)e
x

xui xutoviv
vu tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
xe
x
dx.
Atoq
Livui: l'(x) = (x 1)'e
x
+ (x 1)(e
x
)' = e
x
+ (x 1)e
x
= xe
x
.
'Au q vuu,otou tq xe
x
civui q l(x), cvocvc:
'O
1
xe
x
dx = [(x 1)e
x
]
O
1
= (1 1)e
1
(O 1)e
O
= 1
Eopuoyq 4
'O
1
(2x + e
x
) dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
1
(2x + e
x
) dx =
'O
1
2x dx +
'O
1
e
x
dx = [x
2
]
O
1
+ [e
x
]
O
1
= (1 O) + (e 1) = e
Eopuoyq 5
u uvoocictc oti
'1
2
(x 2) dx O.
238 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
Av to x uvqxci oto [1, 2], totc 1 x 2, uu x 2 O, ovotc:
'1
2
(x 2) dx O
Eopuoyq 6
u tvoio,io0ci to
'1
1
,x, dx.
Atoq
Ivciotc oti:
,x, =
'
x uv x , O
x uv x < O
Aot lim
xO
+
,x, = lim
xO
+
x = O xui lim
xO
,x, = lim
xO
(x) = O, q otvutqoq
l(x) = ,x, civui otvc_q oto O xu0c xui otu oiuotqutu [1, O), (O, 1]
c voitcvtixq. Lvocvc q l civui otvc_q oto [1, 1], ovotc civui
oioxiqcoiq oto oiuotqu utto. Totc io_tci:
'1
1
,x, dx =
'1
O
x dx +
'O
1
x dx =
]
1
1 x
2
2

O
1
+
]
1
1 x
2
2

1
O
=
1
2
+
1
2
= 1
Eopuoyq 7
O ui0o tcv cvtocv (ouxo) iu ciuiovuu,c,ixq vcio_q c-
tu|uiictui ctu tq iq cvtooxtovot c t0o i'(l) = e
l
_iiiuoc
cvtou uvu qcu. Av o u_ixo ui0o tcv cvtocv civui
1.OOO.OOO, oc ti vooooto () 0u c_ci cic0ci oc 5 qcc;
Atoq
'L_otc oti: i(x) i(O) =
'O
x
e
l
dl
Aiiu (e
l
)' = e
l
ovotc vuu,otou tq e
l
civui q e
l
.

'Au:
i(x) i(O) =
'O
x
e
l
dl = [e
l
]
O
x
= e
x
+ e
O
= 1 e
x
xui cooov i(O) = 1OOO 0u c_otc i(x) = 1OO1 e
x
, uu tu cvtou vot
tvu_otv tqv 5
q
cu civui i(5) = 1OOO e
5
= 1OO1 148 = 853 _iiiu-
oc cvtou. To vooooto cicoq 0u civui 148 cvi ti _iiioi q 14,8.
Eopuoyq 8
H vuu,c,q tot c,ootuoiot tu "Quiu vcu" ctu|uiictui c t0-
o g'(l) =
1
l
2
cxutovtuoc iuic uvu qcu xui q vuu,c,q tq vc-
tq cu civui 2OOO iuic. Hooc iuic 0u c_ci vuu,ci to c,o-
otuoio oto tcio tq 5
q
qcu;
Atoq
'L_otc oti: g(x) g(1) =
'1
x
1
l
2
dl
Aiiu
_
1
l
'
=
1
l
2
ovotc vuu,otou tq
1
l
2
civui q
1
l
. Au:
g(x) g(1) =
'1
x
1
l
2
dl =
]
1
1
1
l

1
x
=
1
x

1
1
=
1
x
1
Ovotc g(x) 2O =
1
x
1 q g(x) = 19 +
1
x
cxutovtuoc iuic tqv qcu.
To otvoio tq vuu,c,q tq uvo tqv 1
q
c tqv 5
q
qcu oivctui u-
vo to oioxiqcu:
'1
5
_
19 +
1
x
dx = [19x + lnx]
1
5
= 195 + ln5 19 ln1 = 76 + 1,61 cx. iuic
q 76OO + 161 = 7761 iuic.
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
'O
1
4x
3
dx.
'Aouqoq 2
'1
2
(2x + 1) dx.
24O Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 3
'1
1
e
2x
dx.
'Aouqoq 4
'O
2v
otv3x dx.
'Aouqoq 5
u uvooci_0ci oti
'O
1
(x 1) dx O.
'Aouqoq 6
u uvooci_0ci oti
'O
1
x
2
dx ,
'O
1
x
3
dx.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) =
x + 1
e
x
xui xutoviv vu
tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
x
e
x
dx.
'Aouqoq 2
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = ln( x
2
+ 1 + x) xui xu-
toviv vu tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
1
x
2
+ 1
dx.
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = x + xlnx, x > O xui xu-
'1
e
lnx dx.
'Aouqoq 4
Av l(x) = xe
x
xui g(x) = (ux + |)e
x
, vu |c0otv tu u, |, ctoi cotc q g
vu civui vuu,otou tq l xui xutoviv vu tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
xe
x
dx.
'Aouqoq 5
Av l'(x) = 2x xui l(1) = O, vu tvoio,io0ci to l(O).
'Aouqoq 6
Av q otvutqoq l civui otvc_q xui vuu,c,ioiq oto oiuotqu
[u, |] c l(u) = l(|), vu uvoocictc oti
'u
|
l'(x) dx = O.
5.3. Yooytoo Optovou Ookqpeoto
- Avokuq tq Hopyouoo
Avo tqv 5.1 c,ivc uvco oti ,iu vu tvoio,iootc cvu oiocvo o-
ioxiqcu uxci vu tvoio,iootc tqv vuu,otou tq oioxiqc-
oiq otvutqoq. 'Acou, uvo tqv 4.6, _qoiovoicvtu tov vi-
vuxu vuu,otocv |uoixcv otvutqoccv, voxtvtci oti:
-
'u
|
1 dx = [x]
u
|
= | u
-
'u
|
x
x
dx =
]
1
1 x
x+1
x + 1

u
|
=
|
x+1
u
x+1
x + 1
, c x e R 1;, | > u > O
-
'u
|
1
x
dx = [lnx]
u
|
= ln| lnu, | > u > O
-
'u
|
e
x
dx = [e
x
]
u
|
= e
|
e
u
-
'u
|
otvx dx = [qx]
u
|
= q| qu
-
'u
|
qx dx = [otvx]
u
|
= otv| + otvu
242 Kcuiuio 5
Lvioq, _qoiovoicvtu tov vivuxu vuu,otocv otv0ctcv otvu-
tqoccv, c_otc oti:
-
'u
|

g'(x)
g
2
(x)
dx =
]
1
1

1
g(x)

u
|
=
1
g(|)
+
1
g(u)
,
ovot g(x) = O ,iu xu0c x e [u, |]
-
'u
|

g'(x)
g(x)
dx = [2 g(x)]
u
|
= 2 ( g(|) g(u)),
ovot g(x) > O ,iu xu0c x e [u, |]
-
'u
|

g'(x)
g(x)
dx = [ln(g(x))]
u
|
= ln(g(|)) ln(g(u)),
ovot g(x) > O ,iu xu0c x e [u, |]
-
'u
|
g
x
(x)g'(x) dx =
]
1
1 (g(x))
x+1
x + 1

u
|
=
(g(|))
x+1
(g(u))
x+1
x + 1
,
ovot x e R 1; xui g(x) > O ,iu xu0c x e [u, |]
-
'u
|
e
g(x)
g'(x) dx = [e
g(x)
]
u
|
= e
g(|)
e
g(u)
- Hopoyovttkq Ookqpeoq
'Lvu ioiuitcu _qoio xuvovu oioxiqcoq civui q vuu,ovti-
xq oioxiqcoq q oioxiqcoq xutu vuu,ovtc. H vuu,ovtixq o-
ioxiqcoq voxtvtci ctxoiu uv oioxiqcootc tov ttvo tq vu-
u,c,ot tot ,ivocvot oto otvutqoccv.
'Lotc oto otvc_ci otvutqoci l, g: [u, |] R c otvc_ci vuu,c-
,ot l', g'. Totc io_tci oti:
[l(x)g(x)]' = l'(x)g(x) + l(x)g'(x)
xui oioxiqcvovtu xutu ciq:
'u
|
(l(x)g(x))' dx =
'u
|
l'(x)g(x) dx +
'u
|
l(x)g'(x) dx q
[l(x)g(x)]
u
|
=
'u
|
l'(x)g(x) dx +
'u
|
l(x)g'(x) dx q

'u
|
l'(x)g(x) dx = [l(x)g(x)]
u
|

'u
|
l(x)g'(x) dx
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
(u)
'1
2
x
5
dx (|)
'1
8
4x
1
3
dx (,)
'1
27
2x

1
3
dx (o)
'O
8

3
x dx
Atoq
(u) 'L_otc oti:
'1
2
x
5
dx =
]
1
1 x
5+1
5 + 1

1
2
=
]
1
1 x
6
6

1
2
=
64
6

1
6
=
21
2
(|) 'L_otc oti:
'1
8
4x
1
3
dx =
]
1
1
4
x
1
3
+ 1
1
3
+ 1

1
8
=
]
1
3x
4
3

1
8
= [3(
3
x)
4
]
1
8
= 45
(,) 'L_otc oti:
'1
27
2x

1
3
dx =
]
1
1
2
x

1
3
+ 1

1
3
+ 1

1
27
=
]
1
3x
2
3

1
27
= [3(
3
x)
2
]
1
27
= 24
(o) 'L_otc oti:
'O
8

3
x dx =
'
O
8
x
1
3
dx =
]
1
1
x
1
3
+ 1
1
3
+ 1

O
8
=
]
1
1
3
4
x
4
3

O
8
=
]
1
1 3
4
(
3
x)
4

O
8
= 12
Eopuoyq 2
'1
8
(x + x
1
3
) dx.
244 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'1
8
(x + x
1
3
) dx =
]
1
1
x
2
2
+
x
1
3
+ 1
1
3
+ 1

1
8
=
]
1
1 x
2
2
+
3
4
(
3
x)
4

1
8
=
64
2
+
3
4
(
3
8)
4

_ 1
2
+
3
4
(
3
1)
4
=
171
4
Eopuoyq 3
'O
1
x
2
x
3
+ 1
dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
1
x
2
x
3
+ 1
dx =
1
3

'O
1
3x
2
x
3
+ 1
dx =
1
3

'O
1
(x
3
+ 1)'
x
3
+ 1
dx =
1
3
[ln(x
3
+ 1)]
O
1
=
ln2
3
Eopuoyq 4
'O
v
2
otvx e
qx
dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
v
2
otvx e
qx
dx =
'O
v
2
(qx)' e
qx
dx = [e
qx
]
O
v
2
= e 1
Eopuoyq 5
'O
v
4
cx dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
v
4
cx dx =
'O
v
4

qx
otvx
dx =
'O
v
4
qx
1
otvx
dx =
'O
v
4
(qx)
1
otvx
dx =
'O
v
4
(otvx)'
1
otvx
dx = [ln(otvx)]
O
v
4
= ln(otv
v
4
) + ln(otvO) =
ln
2
2
+ ln1 = ln 2

1
2
=
ln2
2
Eopuoyq 6
'O
v
2
xqx dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
v
2
xqx dx =
'O
v
2
x(otvx)' dx = [xotvx]
O
v
2

'O
v
2
(x)'(otvx) dx =

v
2
otv
v
2
+ OotvO +
'O
v
2
otvx dx = [qx]
O
v
2
= 1
Eopuoyq 7
'1
e
x
3
lnx dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'1
e
x
3
lnx dx =
'1
e
_ x
4
4
'
lnx dx =
]
1
1 x
4
4
lnx
1
e

'1
e
x
4
4
(lnx)' dx =
e
4
4
lne
1
4
ln1
'1
e
x
4
4
1
x
dx =
e
4
4

1
4

'1
e
x
3
dx =
e
4
4

1
4

]
1
1 x
4
4

1
e
=
e
4
4

e
4
16
+
1
16
=
4e
4
e
4
+ 1
16
=
3e
4
+ 1
16
246 Kcuiuio 5
Eopuoyq 8
'1
e
lnx dx.
Atoq
!o_tci oti:
'1
e
lnx dx =
'1
e
(x)' lnx dx = [xlnx]
1
e

'1
e
x(lnx)' dx =
elne 1ln1
'1
e
x
1
x
dx = e
'1
e
1 dx = e [x]
1
e
= e (e 1) = 1
Eopuoyq 9
ltqv vcio_q tu "Iuiuiu vcu" c_ci uvixu oiuoq vctciuiot c-
vu ocucvovioio xui o_qutici vctciuioxqiiou vot c_ci xtxiixo
o_qu. Av q uxtivu i tq xqiiou utuvci c t0o i'(l) =
3O
2l + 4
c-
tu uvu l icvtu uvo tq oti,q vot otvc|q to utt_qu, vu |c0ci iu
otvutqoq ,iu tqv uxtivu tq vctciuioxqiiou ,iu xu0c _ovixq
oti,q l. Hooo c,uiq civui q xqiiou ctu uvo 16 icvtu;
(Yvoti0ctui oti ocv tvu_ci tvuvoq viv tqv oiuoq).
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
i(x) i(O) =
'O
x
3O(2l + 4)

1
2
dl = 15
'O
x
(2l + 4)'(2l + 4)

1
2
dl =
15
]
1
1
(2l + 4)

1
2
+ 1

1
2
+ 1

O
x
= 15
]
1
1
(2l + 4)
1
2
1
2

O
x
= 3O[ 2l + 4]
O
x
= 3O 2x + 4 6O
Aot i(O) = O, voxtvtci oti:
i(x) = 3O 2x + 4 6O q i(l) = 3O 2l + 4 6O
lc 16 icvtu q uvootuoq 0u civui:
s = i(16) = 3O 216 + 4 6O = 3O6 6O = 12O ctu
Eopuoyq 10
Kutu tov vcto _ovo cuvioq otqv u,ou tq otoixq otiio-
,q "A0uvutu Tu,otoiu" votiq0qxuv 2OOO C. 'Lxtotc, oi vciq-
oci ctu|uiiovtui c t0o l'(l) = 2OOO(3 2e
l
) C to _ovo. u
voooioioctc tov ui0o tcv C uttq tq otoixq otiio,q vot
vciq0qxuv tu 5 vctu _oviu.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
l(x) l(O) =
'O
x
2OOO(3 2e
l
) dl = 2OOO
'O
x
(3 2e
l
) dl =
2OOO [3l + 2e
l
]
O
x
= 2OOO(3x + 2e
x
) 2OOO(O + 21) =
6OOOx + 4OOOe
x
4OOO
'Oc l(O) = 2OOO, ovotc:
l(x) 2OOO = 6OOOx + 4OOOe
x
4OOO q
l(x) = 6OOOx + 4OOOe
x
2OOO q l(x) = 6OOOx + 4OOOe
x
2OOO
Tu vcvtc vctu _oviu oi vciqoci oivovtui uvo to oioxiqcu:
'O
5
(6OOOl + 4OOOe
l
2OOO) dl = [3OOOl
2
4OOOe
l
2OOOl]
O
5
=
3OOO25 4OOOe
5
1OOOO + 4OOO = 69OOO 4OOOe
5
= 68973 C
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
(u)
'O
1
(u + 1) du (|)
'1
1
(l
2
1) dl
'Aouqoq 2
(u)
'1
2
_
l +
1
l
+
1
l
2
dl (|)
'1
9
x + 1
x
dx
248 Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 3
(u)
'1
2

x
2
+ 1
x
dx (|)
'1
2

2u
2
+ u + 1
u
du
'Aouqoq 4
'1
4
1 + l
l
dl.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx.
'Aouqoq 2
'O
1
x(x
2
+ 1)
1999
dx.
'Aouqoq 3
'O
1
x
x
2
+1
dx.
'Aouqoq 4
'
v
6
v
3

qx
otv
2
x
dx.
'Aouqoq 5
'e
e
4
1
xlnx
dx.
'Aouqoq 6
'e
e
2

ln
3
x
x
dx.
'Aouqoq 7
'O
v
xotvx dx.
'Aouqoq 8
'O
v
e
x
qx dx.
Hpokttk copoy
'Aouqoq 1
H ,uutciu ovotouotcv tot Buixuvixot Huvcviotqiot tvoio,i-
ci oti o ui0o tcv c,,ucv tcv ovotouotcv oti ctuvtt_iuxc
ovotoc utuvctui c t0o '(l) = 2OOO(1 + O,2l)

3
2
oc l _oviu uvo
oqcu. Av o ui0o tcv c,,c,ucvcv oitqtcv civui 1OOO, |ci-
tc cvu ttvo vot voooioici tov ui0o tcv c,,ucv oc l _oviu
uvo oqcu. Hoio 0u civui o otvoiixo ui0o tcv oitqtcv vot
0u c,,uotv otq o_oiq oc 5 _oviu;
'Aouqoq 2
lc iu _cu, o uvucvocvo coo oo cq tcv ,tvuixcv, xutu tq
,cvvqoq tot, uiiuci c t0o g'(l) =
5,45218
(1 + 1,O9l)
O,9
_oviu uvu cto,
ovot l civui tu ctq xui to l = O uvtiotoi_ci oto cto 19OO. Bcitc tq
otvutqoq vot cxuci tov uvucvocvo coo oo cq tcv ,tvui-
xcv oc _oviu xutu tq ,cvvqoq tot, uv o uvucvocvo coo oo
cq xutu to cto 19OO qtuv 5O,O2 _oviu. Hoio 0u civui o uvucvo-
cvo coo oo cq iu ,tvuixu vot 0u ,cvvq0ci to 2OOO;
25O Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 3
O coo ovotouotq vot civui c,,c,ucvo oc ocivuio otcvo-
,uiu oiuxciu 2O c|oouocv, u0uivci c t0o '(l) = 6e
O,O5l
(O l 2O), ovot '(l) o t0o ctu|oiq tot ui0ot tcv icccv
vot ,uci uvu icvto o ovotouotq ctu uvo l c|oouoc oto oci-
vuio. Av tvo0cootc oti o coo ovotouotq cxivuci to ocivuio
c 6O icci to icvto, |citc tq otvutqoq (l) vot cxuci tqv
tu_ttqtu tcv ovotouotcv ctu uvo l c|oouoc.
'Aouqoq 4
Xqoiovoicvtu otoi_ciu uvo iu xtqviutixq xiivixq, oi xtqviu-
toi tvoio,iotv oti to coo to iu utou oxtiicv ctu|uiic-
tui c t0o l'(l) =
52,87O6e
O,32277l
(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
2
cxutootu to qvu, ovot to t-
o tot oxtiiot ctictui oc cxutootu xui q qiixiu l oc qvc uvo
tq ,cvvqoq tot. Bcitc otvutqoq l(l) vot cxuci to coo oo t-
ot cvo oxtiot l qvcv, uv to coo to tq utou uttq xutu
tq ,cvvqoq civui 19,4 cxutootu. Hooo civui to coo to cvo oxt-
iot 8 qvcv;
5.4. Yooytoo Eooo Etoev Xepev
- Yooytoo tou cooo epou ou cptkcctot oo tq ypot-
kq opotooq to ouvptqoq kot tov ovo xx
(A) 'Lotc iu oioxiqcoiq 0ctixq
otvutqoq l. To c|uoov tot
_ciot vot vcixicictui uvo tq
,uixq tq vuuotuoq C
l
, tov
uovu x'x xui ti ct0cic x = u
xui x = |, c u < |, tuttictui o-
vc ciouc c to oiocvo oio-
xiqcu tq otvutqoq l, oq-
iuoq:
O
u
|
x
y
C
1
L =
'u
|
l(x) dx
ltqv vcivtcoq vot oc oivovtui oi ct0cic x = u xui x = |, 0u cv-
vocitui oti q C
l
tcvci tov x'x oc oiuou oqciu uvucou otu
ovoiu vcixicictui to ocoocvo _cio (|i. l_qu).
(B) Av q oioxiqcoiq otvutqoq l civui uvqtixq, totc 0ccotc
tq otctixq tq otvutqoq c vo tov uovu x'x: (l) q o-
voiu civui 0ctixq. To qtotcvo c|uoov tot _ciot vuucvci
uctu|iqto c vo ti otctic, ovotc:
L =
'u
|
[l(x)] dx =
'u
|
l(x) dx
O
u
|
x
y
C
1
C
1
(I) Av tcio q oioxiqcoiq otvutqoq l uiiuci vooqo, totc
otu tvooiuotqutu tot [u, |] vot civui 0ctixq vuucvci c c_ci,
cvc otu tvooiuotqutu vot civui uvqtixq 0ccotc tqv (l). L-
vocvc, to c|uoov ioottui c to oioxiqcu tq otvutqoq:
g =
'
;
l uv l , O
l uv l < O
= ,l ,.
Aqiuoq, o ,cvixo ttvo ctcoq tot c|uoot tot _ciot vot
vcixicictui uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq iu tt_uiu oioxiq-
coiq otvutqoq, tov uovu x'x xui ti ct0cic x = u xui x = |
civui o uxoiot0o:
L =
'u
|
,l(x), dx
H._. to c|uoov ,iu tq otvutqoq l c ,uixq vuuotuoq vot
uivctui oto vuuxutc o_qu oivctui uvo tov ttvo:
L =
'u
,
[l(x)] dx +
',
o
l(x) dx +
'o
c
[l(x)] dx +
'c
|
l(x) dx
252 Kcuiuio 5
O u |
x
y
l
l
l
l
l
l
, o c
- Yooytoo tou cooo epou ou cptkcctot oo oo ypot-
k opootoct ouvoptqocev
H vcivtcoq uttq civui q ,cvixq vcivtcoq o_qutioot cvo cvi-
vcoot _ciot. Atto vot u cvoiucci ocv civui to vooqo tq
xu0ciu otvutqoq, uiiu q o_ctixq tot oiutuq, oqiuoq to vo-
oqo tq oiuou tot. Av oivovtui ioivov oto oioxiqcoic ot-
vutqoci l, g: [u, |] R xui 0ciotc vu |otc to c|uoov tot _c-
iot vot vcixicictui uvo ti C
l
, C
g
xui ti ct0cic x = u xui x = |
xutuiq,otc ooiu c tqv voq,otcvq vuu,uo otov ttvo:
L =
'u
|
,l(x) g(x), dx
Hio uvuittixu, c_otc oti otu oiuotqutu vot q l civui c,uittcq
uvo tq g 0ccotc to oioxiqcu tq l g, cvc otu oiuotqutu o-
vot q g civui c,uittcq tq l 0ccotc to oioxiqcu tq g l.
Iiu vuuoci,u, oto vuuxutc l_qu c_otc oti:
O
u
|
x
y
l
l
l
g
g
g
,
o
L =
'u
|
,l(x) g(x), dx =
=
'u
,
[l(x) g(x)] dx +
',
o
[g(x) l(x)] dx +
'o
|
[l(x) g(x)] dx
ltqv vcivtcoq vot oc oivovtui tu uxu oioxiqcoq, oqiuoq oi
ct0cic x = u xui x = |, 0u cvvocitui oti oi C
l
xui C
g
c_otv xoivu oq-
ciu, tu ovoiu 0u uvotciotv tu uxu oioxiqcoq.
Eopoy
Eopuoyq 1
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vcixicictui uvo tq ,uixq vuu-
otuoq tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
3
, ti ct0cic x = O, x = 1 xui tov uovu
x'x.
Atoq
Aot civui x
3
, O ,iu xu0c x oto oiuotq-
u [O, 1], totc:
L =
'O
1
x
3
dx =
]
1
1 x
4
4

O
1
=
1
4

O
4
=
1
4
x
y
O 1
l(x) x

Eopuoyq 2
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov tot _ciot vot vcixicictui uvo tq ,u-
ixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l(x) = otvx, ti ct0cic x =
v
2
,
x =
v
2
xui tov uovu x'x.
254 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
Looov otvx O ,iu xu0c x oto
oiuotqu [
v
2
,
v
2
], 0u c_otc oti:
L =
'
v
2
v
2
otvx dx =
'
v
2
v
2
otvx dx =
]
1
1
qx

v
2
v
2
= q
v
2
q(
v
2
) =
1 (1) = 2
x
y
O
v
2
v
2
l(x) otvx
Eopuoyq 3
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vcixicictui uvo tq ,uixq vuu-
otuoq tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
2
x, ti ct0cic x = O, x = 2 xui tov u-
ovu x'x.
Atoq
Livui l(x) = x
2
x = x(x 1) xui:
- Av O x 1 totc l(x) O.
- Av 1 x 2 totc l(x) , O.
Ovotc:
L =
'O
1
l(x) dx +
'1
2
l(x) dx =
'O
1
(x
2
x) dx +
'1
2
(x
2
x) dx =
x
y
O 2 1
l(x) x x
]
1
1 x
3
3

x
2
2

O
1
+
]
1
1 x
3
3

x
2
2

1
2
=
1
3
+
1
2
+
8
3

4
2

1
3
+
1
2
= 1
Eopuoyq 4
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov tot _ciot vot vcixicictui uvo ti
,uixc vuuotuoci tcv otvutqoccv l(x) = x
2
xui g(x) = 2x
2
1.
Atoq
Occotc tq oiuou tcv oto otvutq-
occv:
l(x) = g(x) l(x) = 2x
2
1 x
2
=
x
2
1 = (x 1)(x + 1)
!o_tci oti l(x) O ,iu xu0c x oto oiuotq-
u [1, 1], ovotc to c|uoov tvoio,ic-
tui c cq:
L =
'1
1
(x
2
1) dx =
]
1
1 x
3
3
x
1
1
=

1
3
+ 1
1
3
+ 1 =
4
3
x
y
O
l(x) x

g(x) 2x 1
1 1
Eopuoyq 5
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vcixicictui uvo ti ,uixc vuu-
otuoci tcv otvutqoccv l(x) = e
x
, g(x) = e
x
xui tqv ct0ciu c cioc-
oq x = 1.
Atoq
Occotc tqv l(x) = l(x) g(x) = e
x
e
x
xui voxtvtci oti l(x) > O uv xui ovo
uv e
x
e
x
> O x > O. 'Ooiu, l(x) < O
uv xui ovo uv x < O, cvc l(x) = O uv xui
ovo uv x = O.
Oi ,uixc vuuotuoci tcv otvutq-
occv tcvovtui oto oqcio c tctq-
cvq x = O xui to c|uoov vcioictui
xui uvo tqv ct0ciu x = 1, ovotc c_otc
oti:
x
y
O 1
g(x) e

l(x) e

L =
'O
1
,l(x) g(x), dx =
'O
1
,e
x
e
x
, dx
xui cooov e
x
e
x
, O ,iu x e [O, 1] c_otc oti:
L =
'O
1
(e
x
e
x
) dx = [e
x
+ e
x
]
O
1
= e +
1
e
2
256 Kcuiuio 5
Aokqoct Eoeoq
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vci-
xicictui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) =
1
x
,
ti ct0cic x = 1, x = 2 xui tov uovu
x'x.
x
1 2
y
O
l(x)
1
x
'Aouqoq 2
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vcixici-
ctui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
2
x xui tov
uovu x'x .
x
y
O 1
l(x) x x
'Aouqoq 3
xicictui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
3
xui
tqv ct0ciu c ciocoq y = x.
x
y
O 1
1
l(x) x

y x
'Aouqoq 4
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot
vcixicictui uvo ti otvutqoci
l(x) = x
2
3 xui g(x) = x
2
1.
x
y
O
l(x) x

3
g(x) x

1
1 1
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
'Aouqoq 1
vcixicictui uvo tq otvutqoq
l(x) = xe
x
xui ti ct0cic c cioc-
oci x = 1, x = 1.
x
y
O 1
1
l(x) xe

'Aouqoq 2
l(x) =
x
x
2
+ 1
xui ti ct0cic c ci-
ococi x = O, x = 1.
x
y
O 1
l(x)
x
x 1
258 Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 3
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vc-
ixicictui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) =
5
x
xui tqv ct0ciu c ciocoq y = 6 x.
x
1 5
y
O
l(x)
5
x
y 6 x
'Aouqoq 4
ixicictui uvo ti otvutqoci
l(x) = x
3
, g(x) = x
2
x + 1 xui ti ct-
0cic x = O, x = 2.
x
y
O 2
l(x) x

g(x) x

x 1
'Aouqoq 1
2
1 + x), x > 1
xui xutoviv vu tvoio,io0ci to oioxiqcu
'2
3
1
x
2
1
dx.
'Aouqoq 2
(u)
'O
1
(x 1)
24
dx (|)
'O
1
1
(3x 4)
3
dx
'Aouqoq 3
(u)
'O
1
x
x + 1
dx (|)
'O
1
x
2x + 1
dx
'Aouqoq 4
(u)
'1
2
(2x 1)
11
dx (|)
'O
1
e
3x+2
dx
'Aouqoq 5
'O
1
x
2
+ 1
x
3
+ 3x + 1
dx.
'Aouqoq 6
'
v
4
v
2

otvx
1 + qx
dx.
'Aouqoq 7
'O
v
4

e
1+cx
otv
2
x
dx.
'Aouqoq 8
(u)
'1
e
x
2
ln(5x) dx (|)
'O
v
x q(2x) dx
'Aouqoq 9
(u)
'O
2
,1 e
x
, dx (|)
'O
2v
,otvx, dx
26O Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 10
u tvoio,ioctc to oioxiqcu
'O
v
otv
3
x dx _qoiovoicvtu tq |u-
oixq ti,cvoctixq tuttotqtu q
2
x + otv
2
x = 1 q uiio tovo.
'Aouqoq 11
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot oi-
ctui uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq
otvutqoq l(x) = (x
2
+ 2x)e
x
xui tov
uovu x'x.
x
y
O 2
l(x) (x 2x)e

'Aouqoq 12
otuoci tcv otvutqoccv l xui g:
(u) l(x) = x
2
, g(x) =
x
3
3
(|) l(x) = lnx, g(x) = (lnx)
2
x
y
O 3
l(x) x

g(x)
x
3
x
y
O 1
e
l(x) lnx
g(x) (lnx)

'Aouqoq 13
Iiu cvu oo_cio c vco tot l = 3m vot uociuci coc cvo uvoi,-
uto otov vt0cvu, ,vciotc oti io_tci q uxoiot0q ciocoq ,iu
tq ctu|oiq tot tot l oc o_coq c to _ovo l:
l'(l) =
l(l)
727
lc vooo _ovo to to tot vcot 0u tuoci to 1 m;
'Aouqoq 14
To c|oouoiuio xooto vuu,c,q qicxtixcv iuvtqcv _uqiq
xutuvuicoq oc cvu c,ootuoio oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq K(x) xui
o t0o ctu|oiq tot xootot civui K'(x) = O,OOOOO6x
2
O,OOO6x + 2
oc _iiiuoc ou_c ovot x civui o ui0o tcv iuvtqcv vot vu-
u,ovtui. Av to otu0co c|oouoiuio xooto civui 1OOOOO ou_c,
vu tvoio,io0ci to otvoiixo xooto ,iu tq vuu,c,q 5OO iuvtqcv.
'Aouqoq 15
O t0o ctu|oiq tq tiq tq ovuou ot,xcxicvot cioot ,t-
vuixciot xuiitvtixot oivctui uvo tq o_coq P'(x) =
25Ox
(16 + x
2
)
3
2
ovot x
civui q voootqtu tq qcqoiu qtqoq tot voIovto oc cxuto-
vtuoc. u |c0ci q otvutqoq tq qtqoq, uv q q tiq xu0c ovu-
oo civui 5O o_. otuv q qtqoq civui 3OO ovuoc voIovto.
262 Kcuiuio 5
Avoucozoiooq
- Oiocvo Oioxiqcu xui Huu,otou:
'u
|
l(x) dx = [!(x)]
u
|
= !(|) !(u)
- !oiotqtc Oiocvot Oioxiqcuto:
(i)
'u
|
c dx = c(| u), ovot c otu0cu
(ii)
'u
|
l(x) dx =
'u
,
l(x) dx +
',
|
l(x) dx, ovot u < , < |
(iii)
'u
u
l(x) dx = O
(iv)
'u
|
l(x) dx =
'|
u
l(x) dx
(v)
'u
|
[il(x) + g(x)] dx = i
'u
|
l(x) dx +
'u
|
g(x) dx, i, e R
(vi) Av l(x) , O, ,iu xu0c x e [u, |], totc
'u
|
l(x) dx , O.
(vii)Av l(x) , g(x), ,iu xu0c x e [u, |], totc
'u
|
l(x) dx ,
'u
|
g(x) dx.
- Yvoio,ioo Oiocvot Oioxiqcuto:
Avokuq tq Hopyouoo:
+ Hivuxu vuu,otocv |uoixcv otvutqoccv
+ Hivuxu vuu,otocv otv0ctcv otvutqoccv
Hopoyovttkq Ookqpeoq:
'u
|
l'(x)g(x) dx = [l(x)g(x)]
u
|

'u
|
l(x)g'(x) dx
- Yvoio,ioo c|uoot cvivcocv _cicv:
C
l
, x'x, x = u, x = |: L =
'u
|
,l(x), dx
C
l
, C
g
, x = u, x = |: L =
'u
|
,l(x) g(x), dx
Eporqoci Korovqoq
1. Hc otvocctui q cvvoiu tot oiocvot oioxiqcuto c tov
tvoio,ioo c|uoot xui vc c tqv vuu,otou;
2. To oiocvo oioxiqcu civui cvcxtuoq tot c|uoot q to
c|uoov cvcxtuoq tot oioxiqcuto;
3. Miu otvc_q otvutqoq civui oioxiqcoiq;
4. Hoic oi ioiotqtc tot oiocvot oioxiqcuto;
5. lc voic vcivtcoci _qoiovoicitui q vuu,ovtixq oio-
xiqcoq xui oc voic q uvuxuitq tq vuu,otou;
6. Iiuti cvu _cio vot vcixicictui uvo oto ,uixc vuuotu-
oci uvotcici tq ,cvixq vcivtcoq o_qutioot cvo cvivc-
oot _ciot;
7. Av oc oivovtui tu uxu oioxiqcoq ,iu tov tvoio,ioo tot
c|uoot cvo cvivcoot _ciot, vc civui otvutov vu tu voo-
oioiootc;
8. Acotc vuuoci,u otvutqoq vot c_ci oiocvo oioxiqc-
u ioo c qocv xui ocv civui tuttotixu ioq c to qocv.
9. Ti otvcuivctc ,iu iu otvutqoq q ovoiu c_ci oiocvo o-
ioxiqcu ioo c to qocv xui civui 0ctixq;
1O. Hc uvoocixvtctui q vuu,ovtixq oioxiqcoq;
Ynocici yio rq zooq
rov Aouqocov
9 1.1 1.3
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. v._. |
23
=
1
2
(u
23
+ u
32
).
2. 'Oiu tu otoi_ciu vuvc uv' tqv xtiu oiu,cvio civui O.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. v._. u
23
= min 2, 3; = 2.
Otiotc oti to u0oiou tcv v-vctcv ocv Ai0qtixq
voooot civui S
v
=
(u
1
+ u
v
)v
2
.
2. (u) Avio.
(|) Av cuicootc tu otoi_ciu tq xtiu oiu,cviot totc civui
tu iou.
(,) 'O_i (,iuti;)
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. H otviqcoq vu ,ivci c _qoq tvoio,iotq. Huutqotc oti
to vco |uci oc ixotcc tcv 1OOC 0coxuoic oc c,u-
iu toctu (_uqiotcq utoouiixq vicoq).
2. (u), (|) H otviqcoq vu ,ivci c _qoq tvoio,iotq. Huutq-
qotc oti oi oiuoc uvucou otu ovtciu ctqoq A
xui B ocv civui c,uic uv xui to A civui uxi|cotco.
To I ovtcio ooq,ci oc uvcvuxot uxi|ciu uvotcic-
outu xui civui to _ciotco.
3. (u) v._. otqv titq ,uq tot vivuxu 0u uvcixovictui o ooo
, vot cxivuci uvo to A xui 0uvci oto A:
266
A B I A
, 1 O O 1
(|), (,) Oi oiuvtoutixc o_coci vot io_totv oto o_qu civui
xui oi o_coci vot io_totv ctut tcv ,ucv tot vi-
vuxu.
4. (u) utiutc cvu vivuxu ovot oi ,uc vu uvtiotoi_otv oc ,t-
vuixc xui oi otqic oc uvoc.
(|) Yvu_otv oto vcivtcoci.
(,) Bcitc cxcivu tu ct,uiu ovot oc 0u tvu_otv oto ioic ,t-
vuixc q uvoc oc oto oiuoctixot ,uot.
9 1.4 1.5
Aokqoct Eoeoq
3. x = 2, y = 1.
4. Lviitoq ciocoq xui vuci vivuxcv.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. (u) (l) voo0cotc oto oiu,cviot vivuxc.
(|) (l) ooiu.
(,) (l) ocv uvuicitui o oioo cvcioq civui O oiu tu otoi_ciu
tq xtiu oiu,cviot.
3. Atotc to ototqu c X, + u,vcotot vivuxc (v._. c uvtixutu-
otuoq).
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. Livui oi vciqoci xui tcv oto qccv.
2. Av A, B, I oi vivuxc tcv tivovtcv, oivovtcv xui cict0ccv
|oicv totc X = 3A + 2B + I.
3. (u) Occqotc A tov vivuxu xutuvuicoq oc xiio|utcc x.iv.
(|) H cicoq 1O 0u ,ivci ovo otov vivuxu ticv xutuvuicoq
ctuto. 'O_i oto vu,io.
9 1.6
Aokqoct Eoeoq
2. Av A, B tctu,cvixoi vivuxc vv xui io_tci AB = ! totc 0u i-
o_tci BA = !.
Yvoocici ,iu tq itoq tcv Aoxqoccv 267
3. Kutuiq,otc otqv Ht0u,ociu o_coq.
4. (u) Huci. Loc io_tci vuvtu AB = BA.
(|) (i) ui (ii) 'O_i
6. (u) Huci.
(|) Houvc o_i. Acv io_tci vuvtotc q ioiotqtu oiu,uq
otov voiiuviuoiuoo vivuxcv.
7. (u) l (|) A (,) l
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Otq0citc ti vcvci vu io_tci ,iu vu vootv vu voiiuviuoiuo-
0otv oto vivuxc. Lvioq ti oquivci iootqtu vivuxcv.
2. (u) v._. A =
]
1
1
O 1
1 O
.
3. (u) Huci vivuxcv.
(|) Hoiiuviuoiuotc tqv (u) o_coq ociu xui uiotcu c B.
4. (u) Mctu uvo vuci xutuiq,otc oc ototqu uv' ovot
'
x = 5
y = 7
.
(|) A
3
= A
2
A x.iv.
5. (u) Avo tqv iootqtu tcv vivuxcv xutuiq,otc otqv ciocoq
i
2
+ 7i + 6 = O uv' ovot i = 1 q i = 6.
6. (u) A
2
= !, A
3
= A
2
A, A
4
= A
3
A x.iv.
(|) Xqoiovoiotc tqv tuttotqtu tq oiuicoq ,iu vu uvu-
itootc c,uiot cx0ctc c oiuictq 4, v._. 99 = 424 + 3
x.iv.
9 1.7
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Hcvci x = 2, y = 2 vu cvuiq0ctotv to ototqu.
2. Mc0ooo Gauss oiuoo_ixcv uvuioicv.
(u) Movuoixq itoq.
(|) 'Avcic itoci.
(,) Aotvuto ototqu.
3. (u) AB = 0.
268
(|) Lxto tq itoq B = 0 to oo,cvc ototqu c_ci uvcic
itoci oq (x, y, z) = (2l, l, l), l e R.
4. Otq0citc vc oictui to u0oiou A + B xui to ,ivocvo AB.
Kutuiq,ctc oc ototqu uv' ovot voooioictc tu x, i.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. (u) Mc0ooo Gauss.
(|) Mc0ooo Gauss c ixq oicctvoqoq ,iu ti tic i e R.
Av i = 1 tvu_otv uvcic itoci (x, y) = (l, 1 l), l e R.
Av i = 1 to ototqu civui uotvuto.
2. Avo tqv iootqtu tcv vivuxcv xutuiq,otc oc oo,cvc ototq-
u c uvcic itoci. Iiu vu civui ot|i|uoto to ototqu vc-
vci vu cvuiq0ctctui xui q ciocoq.
3. Kutuiq,otc oc ioootvuo ototqu, to ovoio cviitotc c tq
c0ooo Gauss. Mu cvoiucotv oi tic tot i e R ,iu ti ovoic
to ototqu civui ot|i|uoto.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. Av x, y, c tu ctu tcv ,cvicv tot ti,cvot (oc oic) totc
'
x + y + c = 18O
x = y + 1O
y = 2c
x.iv.
2. Av x, y, z q cvi toi xutu |uo ototuoq tot _uit|u oc !e, C,
i totc
x
1OO
+
y
1OO
+
z
1OO
+
5
1OO
= 1 x.iv.
3.
'
x + y + c = 18
x + 2y + 3c = 33
y = x + c
x.iv.
4. Av x, y q cvi toi xutu |uo ototuoq tot vottot oc Cu
xui Sn totc
x
1OO
+
y
1OO
= 1. Lvioq V
vottot
= V
_uixot
+ V
xuooitcot
x.iv. u ,ivci uvtixutuotuoq o,xcv c tq |oq0ciu vtxvotqtcv.
Icvtk Aokqoct
1. Mctu tqv ciocoq tcv u0oioutcv tcv otoi_cicv tq i ,u-
q xui i otqiq vu vuutqqoctc oti c_otc u0oioutu ui0-
qtixq voooot (S
v
=
(u
1
+ u
2
)v
2
).
2. To u0oiou tcv ci otoi_cicv xu0c ,uq xui xu0c otqiq
civui vcitto ui0o, otuv to viq0o tcv vcittcv voo0ctccv
civui vcitto.
3. Tu otoi_ciu vuvc uvo tqv xtiu oiu,cvio civui O. Hoo0ctotc
xutu ciq ti o_coci uttc xui xutuiq,otc:
1
2
[(u |)
2
+ (| ,)
2
+ (, u)
2
] = O .
4. Iiu vu |otc to vcto otoi_cio tot ,ivocvot AB xuvotc 3
voiiuviuoiuoot. u ,cvixctoctc to otiio,ioo utto. Lvioq
,iu vu |otc to vcto otoi_cio tot AB xuvotc 2 voo0coci.
Icvixctotc.
5. (u) Ti vcvci vu io_tci ,iu vu voiiuviuoiuootc vivuxc; Loc
o X civui 22.
(|) Avo tqv ciocoq vivuxcv uv 0cootc X =
]
1
1
x y
z c
xutuiq-
,otc oc uotvuto ototqu.
6. To ,ivocvo (AB)X cxuci tu otoi_ciu tq vctq otqiq tot
AB (,iuti;)
7. (u) 'L_otc A = B + 2! xui voiiuviuoiuotc ociu xui uiotc-
u c tov vivuxu B, uu AB = BA. Lvioq, uv tcootc oto
tctu,cvo tq o_coq A B = 2! xutuiq,otc otqv iootqtu
AB = !.
(|) Aot AB = BA io_tci q ,vcotq tuttotqtu "oiuou xt|cv"
x.iv.
8. To vcto ototqu c_ci ovuoixq itoq (x, y) = (
4i
2
i
2
+ 4
,
8
i
2
+ 4
)
xui uot tu oto ototqutu civui ioootvuu, ociici xui to oct-
tco vu c_ci ovuoixq itoq.
9. 'Ooiu c tqv cuo,q otqv ciou,c,q tq 1.7 tcv ,uixcv
ototqutcv.
27O
9 2.1 2.6
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Hoxtvtci ctxoiu uvo tov oioo tq o_ctixq ot_votqtu.
2. Hoxtvtci ucoc uvo tov oioo tq coq tiq.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 3.
4. Hoxtvtci ctxoiu uvo tov oioo tq oiucoot.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Hoxtvtci uvo tov oioo tq ttvixq uvoxiioq.
2. Hoxtvtci uvo tov oioo tq coq tiq xui tq ttvixq uvo-
xiioq.
3. Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv xui uvo tov
vivuxu utto, uvuvtqotc otu cctqutu.
4. l_qutiotc tot uvtiotoi_ot vivuxc.
5. Hoxtvtci uvo tov oioo tq coq tiq.
6. 'Ooiu c tqv 5.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. l_qutiotc tot uvtiotoi_ot vivuxc.
2. Aviq.
3. (u), (|) Aviq.
(,), (o) Xqoiovoiqotc tq o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu.
4. Aviq.
Icvtk Aokqoct
1. Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv xui uvo tov
vivuxu utto, uvuvtqotc otu cctqutu.
xiioq.
xiioq.
9 3.1 3.5
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. 2, 2, O, ocv tvu_ci, 1, 1, 2.
2. (u) 2, 1, ocv tvu_ci.
(|) 1, 1, 1.
(,) 1, 1, 1.
3. l, l, l, A, l, l, A.
4. 1, 1, O, 1, ocv tvu_ci, l(O) = 1, l(1) = 1.
5. lim
x2
l(x) = 3, ocv tvu_ci, lim
xO
l(x) =
1
2
, ocv tvu_ci.
6. 2O, 8,
3
2
, 5,
1
2
,
1
7
.
7.
315
8
, 1 2 2, 3, O.
8. (u) +, , ocv tvu_ci.
(|) , , .
9. (u) x = 2.
(|) x = 2.
11. , ocv tvu_ci.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. (u) 12 (|)
1
3
.
2. (u) 4 (|)
1
2 2
(,)
3
8
(o)
1
3
.
3. u uvuiiu,citc uvo tu uvoittu oiuic,ovtu xutuiiqic vcio-
_c tot x xui oti oto vcivtcoci.
4. u = 3 q u = 3, vcvci tu victixu oiu vu civui iou.
5. u = 1, ooiu vcvci tu victixu oiu vu civui iou.
6. +, , +, ocv tvu_ci, +, .
7. (u) x = 4 (|) x = 1 (,) x = 1 (o) x = O (c) x = 1 (ot) x = 1.
272
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. (|) l(1) = 45O, l(3) = 55O, l(5) = 7OO, civui uvtiotoi_u ioiu.
(,) Acv tvu_otv.
2. (u) P(O) = 8O.
(,) lim
x9
P(l) = +.
3. x
1
+ x
2
= 1.
9 3.6 3.9
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. O, 3.
2. (u) ltvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(|) Aotvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(,) Aotvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(o) Aotvc_q oto x
O
= 2.
3. ltu oqciu 1, 2, 5 q l civui otvc_q. lto O ocv oictui q l cvo-
cvc ocv c_ci cvvoiu vu qtuc otvc_ciu.
4. 'Oic oi otvutqoci civui otvc_ci oto vcoio oioot tot.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. (u) u = 1 q u = 2 (|) u = 4.
2. u cxuoctc tqv l c otv0coq otvc_cv otvutqoccv.
3. Hcvci lim
xO
l(x) = l(O). Av' uttq tq o_coq xu0oiotc tqv tiq l(O).
4. (u) l(x) l(1) = (x 1)(2x 3).
(|) 1.
(,) Avuitoq tot ,ivocvot ,l(x) l(1), = ,x 1,,2x 3, <
1
1O
12
1O
.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. (|) To vctciuio cicvctui xui o oiu_ciiotq ,cici tq ocu-
cvq.
(,) Avo 3 cc 18 uc|otuiot.
2. (u) x
O
= 1O xui x
O
= 6O.
(|) Yvu_ci uiiu,q xootot vot cututui uvo tqv voootqtu
tot vuu,ocvot voIovto.
9 3.10 3.11
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. (i) O, + (ii) 1, .
2. (u) 1 (|) O.
3. (u) + (|) O (,) 1.
4. (u) 1O1 (|) 7 (,) 1.
5. v._. otqv 'Aoxqoq 3: (|) y = O (,) y = 1.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. (u) i = 1, lim
x+
(l(x) ix) = 2.
(|) Acv civui vu,utixo ui0o.
(,) i = O, lim
x+
(l(x) ix) = 2.
(o) i = 1, lim
x+
(l(x) ix) =
1
2
.
2. (u) 1 (|)
1
2
(,) +.
3. (u) + (|) .
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. (|) lim
x+
K(x) = O,5 vot oquivci oti to xooto ,iu cvuv oioxo
cicvctui oti 5OO o_. otuv q vuu,c,q civui voit c,uiq.
2. (|) lim
x+
l(l) = O vot oquivci oti q ot,xcvtcoq tot uuxot
oto uiu civui qocvixq totcu uvo c,uio _ovixo oiuotq-
u.
Icvtk Aokqoct
1. (1) A (2) l (3) l (4) A (5) l (6) A.
2. 'L_otc oq O() uvoooioiotiu xui oicctvotc to
lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)] ,iu ti oiuoc vu,utixc tic tot
i e (, O) . (0, +).
274
3. (u) !oiotqtc io,ui0cv xui xutoviv tvoio,ioo tot oiot.
(|) Yvoio,ioo tot lim
x+
( x
2
+ 1 x) xui xutoviv tot qtotc-
vot oiot.
4. (u) lim
tu
+
L(t) = + uu xutuvuicvci tcuotiu cvc,ciu (vuxtixu
xoitvu c tqv ioiu tu_ttqtu xovtu oto t0o tot votuot
uu vuucvci oto ioio oqcio).
(|) lim
tu
+
L(t) = + uu voit c,uiq tu_ttqtu oquivci tcuotiu
xutuvuicoq cvc,ciu.
5. (u) Yvoio,ioo oiot c ott,q vuuotuoq.
(|) Aot lim
xO

l(x)
g(x)
= 1 totc 1 + x 1 =
x
2
1 + x = 1 +
x
2
.
'Au 1O = 1 + 9 = 9
_
1 +
1
9
= 3 1 +
1
9
= 3
_
1 +
1
18
= 3,167.
'Ooiu tu tvoioivu.
6. (u) L(x) =
'
3x , O x 1
3 , 1 < x < 2
2x 1 , 2 x 3
5 , 3 < x < 4
x + 1 , 4 x 5
7. (u), (|) lc o0o,cvio ti,cvo ABI (A = 9O) ,vciotc oti
qB =
AI
AB
xui otvB =
AB
AI
.
(,) lim
xO
AB = lim
xO
2R q
x
2
= O xui lim
xO
AI = lim
xO
R
_
1 otv
x
2
= O.
(o) Xqoiovoiqotc tqv tuttotqtu q2u = 2quotvu uot
voiiuviuoiuoctc ui0qtq xui vuovouotq c ti ott,ci
tot vuuotuoci.
9 4.1
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Aviq.
2. L,uo0citc ovc oti Luo,c.
3. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
4. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. L,uo0citc c victixu oiu.
2. L,uo0citc c tov oioo tq vuu,c,ot.
3. L,uo0citc c victixu oiu.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. L,uo0citc c to coo t0o ctu|oiq xui to oio tot.
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. Lxuotc to t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot c vo to t0o ctu-
|oiq tq uxtivu.
4. Lxuotc tq oiu,cvio c otvutqoq tq uxq.
5. Xqoiovoiqotc to otu0co t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot, ,iu vu
cxuoctc to t0o ctu|oiq tq cviuvciu c vo to t0o
ctu|oiq tq uxtivu.
6. Xqoiovoiqotc to Ht0u,ocio Occqu.
9 4.2 4.5
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Xqoiovoiqotc tot xuvovc vuu,c,ioq.
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
4. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Xqoiovoiqotc tot xuvovc vuu,c,ioq.
276
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
4. lt,xivctc ti tuci tcv voitcvtcv (P'(x))
2
xui P(x).
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. (u) Xqoiovoiqotc tov ttvo ,(l) = S"(l).
(|) Lctuotc votc ,(l) O.
2. Yvoio,iotc tu V'(i) xui V"(i) xui uvtixutuotqotc otqv ciocoq.
3. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,c,o ,iu l = 2, 6.
4. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,c,o ,iu l = 1, 2, 3.
5. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,c,o ,iu l = O.
6. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,c,o ,iu l = 1 xui l = 3, 5.
9 4.6 4.7
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Xqoiovoiqotc tov vivuxu vuu,otocv |uoixcv otvutqoccv.
2. Huu,c,iotc ti otvutqoci tq octtcq otqiq.
3. Xqoiovoiqotc tov vivuxu vuu,otocv |uoixcv otvutqoccv.
4. Hoiiuviuoiuotc ui0qtq xui vuovouotq c (1 qx).
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Xqoiovoiqotc tqv Luo,q 2.
2. Huutqqotc oti e
x
(l'(x) l(x)) = (e
x
l(x))'.
3. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou xui _qoiovoiqotc ti u_ixc ti-
c.
4. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou xui _qoiovoiqotc ti u_ixc ti-
c.
5. Huu,c,iotc iu xui oto oc uvtiotoi_u tq otvutqoq.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou tq t.
2. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 3.
4. Bcitc tq octtcq vuu,c,o tq x xui uvtixutuotqotc otqv ci-
ocoq.
9 4.8 4.9
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Mcictqotc to vooqo tq l'.
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. Xqoiovoiqotc to xitqio tq 2
q
vuu,c,ot.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. (u) Mcictqotc to vooqo tq l'.
(|) Xqoiovoiqotc tu uvotcicoutu tot (u).
(,) Tovovoiqotc tu l(v) xui l(e).
4. Mcictqotc to vooqo tcv l', g' xui (l + g)'.
Hpokttk Eopoy
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
4. Iiu vu o_qutio0ci to xotti, xo|otc tcoocu tctu,cvu xo-
utiu uvo ti ,cvic tot _utoviot victu x.
5. Huutqqotc oti q otvutqoq cooocv oivctui uvo tov ttvo:
L(x) = (3O + x)(5OOO 1OOx)
ovot x oi cvivicov cvi|utc ctu tot 3O.
6. Xqoiovoiqotc tqv ooiotqtu tcv ti,cvcv ALA xui AAI.
Icvtk Aokqoct
1. Mctu uvo xutuiiqic ui,c|ixc vuci _qoiovoiqotc tov
oioo tq vuu,c,ot.
2. Lxuotc to t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot tot _ciot c otvu-
tqoq tot t0ot ctu|oiq tq cctcixq xui coctcixq
uxtivu.
3. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,c,o.
4. Yvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou.
278
5. Axoiot0qotc ti tvoocici xui tvoio,iotc tqv vuu,otou.
6. Kutuoxctuotc tqv vuu,c,o vqiixot
_
l(x)
x
'
.
7. Mcictqotc to vooqo tq l' xui tu otuoiu oqciu.
8. Yvoio,iotc to c,ioto tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
3
(c x)
2
.
9. (u) Xqoiovoiqotc to Ht0u,ocio Occqu.
(|) Xqoiovoiqotc tqv ooiotqtu tcv ti,cvcv AKI xui AIA
xui to Ht0u,ocio Occqu oto AKI.
1O. Avtixutuotqotc to to otov o,xo c otvutqoq tot toot AB.
11. Lxctuiict0citc tq o_coq (ln[u
1
(
2
)])' = (ln[u
1
(
2
)])" = O.
9 5.1 5.2
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Aviq cuo,q.
2. Aviq cuo,q.
3. Bcitc tqv vuu,c,o tq l(x) = e
2x
.
4. Bcitc tqv vuu,c,o tq l(x) = otv3x.
5. Xqoiovoiqotc tqv ioiotqtu (vi) tq 5.2.
6. Bcitc tqv ioiotqtu (vii) tq 5.2.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Avio tvoio,ioo vuu,c,ot.
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
4. Bcitc tqv vuu,c,o tq g xui ciocotc tqv c tqv l.
5. Aviq cuo,q.
6. Aviq cuo,q.
9 5.3
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Aviq cuo,q.
2. Aviq cuo,q.
3. Avuitotc to xiuou oc u0oiou uvicv xiuoutcv.
4. 'Ooiu c tqv 3.
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Xqoiovoiqotc tov vivuxu vuu,otocv otv0ctcv otvutqoc-
cv.
2. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
3. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
4. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
5. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
28O
6. 'Ooiu c tqv 1.
7. Aviq vuu,ovtixq oioxiqcoq.
8. Huu,ovtixq oioxiqcoq ovot cvuvcuvictui to qtotcvo
oioxiqcu.
Hpokttk Eopoy
1. Aviq cuo,q.
2. Aviq cuo,q.
3. Aviq cuo,q.
4. Aviq cuo,q.
9 5.4
Aokqoct Eoeoq
1. Huutqqotc oti q otvutqoq civui 0ctixq oto [1, 2].
2. Bcitc to vooqo tq otvutqoq.
3. Bcitc to vooqo tq oiuou tcv otvutqoccv.
4. 'Ooiu c tqv 3.
5. Bcitc to vooqo tq oiuou tcv otvutqoccv oto [1, 1].
Lv0ctc Aokqoct
1. Bcitc to vooqo tq otvutqoq oto [1, 1].
2. Huutqqotc oti q l civui q uvqtixq oto [O, 1].
4. Bcitc to vooqo tq oiuou tcv otvutqoccv oto [O, 2].
Icvtk Aokqoct
1. Aviq cuo,q.
2. Xqoiovoiqotc tov vivuxu vuu,otocv otv0ctcv otvutqoc-
cv.
3. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
4. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
5. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
6. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
7. 'Ooiu c tq 2.
8. Avic vuu,ovtixc oioxiqcoci.
9. Bcitc to vooqo tcv otvutqoccv oto uvtiotoi_o oiuotqu
xui _qoiovoiqotc tqv ioiotqtu (v) tq 5.2.
1O. Iutc to otv
3
x = otv
2
x (otvx) = otv
2
x (qx)' = (1 q
2
x) (qx)'.
11. Bcitc to vooqo tq otvutqoq xui _qoiovoiqotc vuu-
,ovtixq oioxiqcoq.
13. Xqoiovoiqotc tov ttvo l(x) l(O) =
'O
x
l'(l) dl.
14. Xqoiovoiqotc tov ttvo K(l) K(O) =
'O
l
K'(x) dx.
15. Xqoiovoiqotc tov ttvo P(x) P(O) =
'O
x
P'(l) dl.
Bi|iio,uiu 283
Bizioypoio
1. Bancioll, G., and !lelclei, M., 1998. !miove youi malls!, Addi-
son-Wesley.
2. Benlley 1. and Tuinei, G.P.A., 1998, !nlioduclion lo Painl Clemis-
liy and iinciles ol ainl leclnology. 4ll Ld., Claman & Hall.
3. Lvans, C.W., 1997. Lngineeiing Mallemalics, A iogiammed a-
ioacl. 3
id
Ld., Claman & Hall.
4. HaLeiman, R., 1997. Mallemalical Models, Pienlice-Hall, !nc.
5. HimmelLlau, .M., 1986. Basic iinciles and calculalions in
clemical engineeiing, Pienlice-Hall !nleinalional.
6. Konlogeoigis, G.M., !iedenslund, Aa., and Tassios, .P., 1993.
Simle aclivily coellicienl model loi lle iediclion ol solvenl aclivi-
lies in olymei solulions, !ndusliial Lngineeiing Clemisliy Re-
seaicl, vol. 32: 362-373.
7. Piausnilz, 1.M., Iicllenllalei, R.., Gomes e Azevedo, L., 1986.
Moleculai Tleimodynamics ol !luid-Plase LquiliLiia, 2nd Ld.
Pienlice-Hall !nleinalional Seiies.
8. Sliang, GilLeil, 1994. Iineai AlgeLia And !ls Alicalions, Massa-
clusells !nslilule ol Teclnology.
9. Tassios, .P., 1993. Alied Clemical Lngineeiing Tleimody-
namics, Siingei-Veilag, Beilin.
1O. TeLLull, P., 1998. Basic Mallemalics loi Clemisls. 2nd Ld., 1oln
Wiley & Sons.
11. Valsaiaj, K.T., 1995. Llemenls ol Lnviionmenlal Lngineeiing, CRC
Piess, !nc.
12. Zai, 1eivold, H., 1996. Bioslalislical Analysis. 3id Ld., Pienlice-
Hall, !nc.
13. Biuo, H.M., 1997. 'Oio xui ltvc_ciu ltvutqoq, Lxoooci
V.
14. Biuo, H.M., 1998. Huu,c,o ltvutqoq, Lxoooci V.
15. Biuo, H.M., 1999. Oioxiqcu ltvutqoq, Lxoooci V.
16. Biuot, L.M., 1998. Hivuxc, Lxoooci V.
17. Lu_uxo O., 1994. Iuixq 'Ai,c|u.
18. HuvuIcuvvot, A., 1993. Mq_uvixq tcv Pctotcv.
19. Hciooixu Ltxicioq I', Liiqvixq Mu0qutixq Ltuiciu.
2O. uotvtu I., ltvutqoci, Lxootixq Ltuiciu Hiuioio.
Ltctqio 'Ocv 285
Eopcrqpio 'Opov
!eimal 212, 229
Gauss 38, 41, 45, 48, 49, 56, 58,
267, 268
Aotvuto ototqu 4O, 267
A0oiotixq ot_votqtu 65, 81,
91, 92, 1O3, 27O
Axotutu ltvutqoq 7, 211
Avti0cto vivuxu 15
Avtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu 14,
29, 32
Avo,uq 61
Avoittq uvoxiioq 83, 84, 85,
86
Avoooioiotc Moc 6,
112
A_ixc Tic 2O1
Auicoq vivuxcv 15
Iuixq ciocoq 39
Iuovuci 43, 56
Icviuxu oqciu 212, 229
Acttcq vuu,c,o 19O, 194,
195, 2O5, 219, 276
Aiu,cvio Hivuxu 4
Aiuxitc ctu|iqtc 6O
Aiuxtuvoq 86
Aiucoo 81, 1O4
Aiuou vivuxcv 15
Aiuoixc Liococi 7, 2OO,
228
Atvuq vivuxu 3O
Lixovo,uutu 71
L|uoov _ciot 25O, 252
Liocoq vivuxcv 4O
Lvutqcvo vivuxu 41,47,49
Lviciotixq ioiotqtu 29
Lvitcvtc vuci 171
Lto 84, 1O4
!oto,uu 73, 74, 76, 93, 94,
1O1
Kuvovc Huu,c,ioq 7, 189,
226
Kutuxotq Aotvtctq 6,
116
Kutuvoq 5, 63, 66, 79, 8O, 81,
82, 1O1, 1O5, 219
Kiuoq 77
Kioiu oqciu 212
Ktxiixo oiu,uu 67
Atoq ,uixot ototquto
39
Mctu|iqtq 59
Mqocvixo vivuxu 14
Movuoiuio vivuxu 3O
Oo,cvc ototqu 41, 49, 5O,
56, 58, 1O5, 268
Oiovtiu Aotvtctq 6, 156
Oiocvo Oioxiqcu 7, 231,
234, 235, 241, 25O, 261, 262,
263
Huu,ovtixq Oioxiqcoq
242, 262
Huu,c,ioq 188
Huu,c,ioiq 175, 176, 177,
183, 184, 187, 189, 19O, 198,
21O, 212, 214, 222, 224, 228,
241
Huu,c,oi Avctcq Tuq
7, 189, 226
Huu,c,o 174, 175, 176, 177,
186, 187, 188, 189, 19O, 194,
195, 198, 2OO, 212, 229, 237,
24O, 258
Huu,c,o otvutqoq 187,
19O, 198
286 Ltctqio 'Ocv
Huuctoi Aiuovou 5, 82
Huuctoi Ocoq 5, 76
Hivuxu 5, 55, 115, 199, 2OO,
227, 262
Hivuxu ,uq 5, 4O, 55, 56
Hictixu 'Oiu 6, 11O
Hiq0too 59, 6O, 89, 132, 152
Hoiotixu _uuxtqiotixu 6O
Hoiiuviuoiuoo ui0ot c
vivuxu 19
Hoiiuviuoiuoo vivuxcv 27
Hoitcvtixq otvutqoq 154
Hoootixu _uuxtqiotixu 6O
Hooctuiiotixq ioiotqtu 14,
29, 54
Pu|oo,uu 66, 67, 7O, 71,
96, 97
Pqtc otvutqoci 113
ltuoiu oqciu 212, 278
lt|i|uoto ototqu 39
ltvc_ciu otvutqoq 134, 169
ltvc_ci ctu|iqtc 6O
ltvc_q ltvutqoq 133
ltvtcicotq Mctu|iqtotqtu
6, 88
lt_votqtu Huutqqoccv 5,
62
l_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu
81, 27O
l_ctixq ot_votqtu 64, 9O, 93,
99, 1O5
Tctu,cvixo Hivuxu 4, 3O
Tovixo ciu_ioto 212, 213, 214
Tovixo c,ioto 212, 213, 214,
216, 217
Ti,cvixo uvc 4, 24
Ti,cvixo xutc 5, 9, 53
Ttvixq uvoxiioq 87, 88, 92,
93, 99, 1O1, 1O2, 1O4, 1O5
Hpzoyo
A,uvqtoi Mu0qtc,
to vuov c,_ciioio ocv uvotcici iu uviq vuu0coq tcv itoc-
cv tcv uoxqoccv tot o_oiixot ou |i|iiot. Mvoci vu uvotcicoci
otoiuotixo |oq0qu otqv voocvixq ou cictq, xitqio uttou-
ioio,qoq xui voittio |oq0o otqv voovu0ciu ou vu coixcic-
0citc c otoxoic u0qutixc cvvoic. Lvioq, c ocotq _qoq ci-
vui otvutov vu ou ooq,qoci oc oqiot,ixc c,uoic xui u0qu-
tixc uvuqtqoci.
H ocotq _qoq civui otvococcvq c tq ocotq voocvixq ou
cictq, vot vcvci vu c_ci c oto_o tqv uvooo tot cvivcoot ou otu
Mu0qutixu xui o_i tqv ctxuiiuxq itoq tcv uoxqoccv vot ou u-
vu0ctci o xu0q,qtq ou.
To vcto |uoixo otoi_cio civui vu qv uvutc_ctc otq itoq i-
u uoxqoq c tqv vctq otoxoiiu, uiiu vu voovu0citc vu voo-
oioioctc tqv uitiu vot ou otoxoictci otqv cviitoq tq (ciiciq
oiu|uouto otqv uvtiotoi_q 0cciu, iu0o voouvutoiioo otqv
cviitoq, xcvu uvo voq,otcvc ,vcoci, iu0q uvoociu, x.iv.)
xui vu voovu0qoctc vu tu oio0coctc.
'Otuv otoxoictcotc uxctu oc iu uoxqoq, ot|otict0citc u-
_ixu tqv tvoociq itoq vot tvu_ci oto o_oiixo |i|iio. Av vuii
c_ctc vo|iqu oiu|uotc tqv uvtiotoi_q 0cciu xui voovu0qotc
c oiuoctixot tovot tqv cviitoq tq uoxqoq. Aot cuvtiq-
octc oic ti iocc ou _ci uvotcicou, totc cictqotc tq itoq
vot votcivctui. Acv vcvci oc vu otu0citc oc iu uviq uvti,u-
q q uvu,vcoq tq itoq uttq. Hcvci vu oqcicoctc tu xtiu
|qutu tq itoq xui xutoviv vu voovu0qoctc vu uvuitoctc tqv
uoxqoq, o_i oc uvovqovctovtu tqv votcivocvq itoq.
Tcio, civui oquvtixo vu cu,ctc otvcuoutu o_ctixu c ti
voocvixc ou ciicici, vot ou cvooiouv vu itoctc tqv uoxq-
oq. Mq oiotuoctc vu ot|otict0citc tov xu0q,qtq ou, cotc vu
ou |oq0qoci vu xutuiu|ctc viqc tqv cviitoq tq uoxqoq xui
vu ou ococi ooq,ic ,iu tqv voocvixq ou cictq.
Oi itoci vot votcivovtui civui cvocixtixc xui oc xuiu vc-
ivtcoq oi ovuoixc. Livui c,uiq _uu ,iu xu0c ouoxuio (xui i-
oiuitcu u0qutixo) vu tot vuotoiuovtui voiic itoci uvo tot
u0qtc tot ,iu to ioio vo|iqu xui voiic oc xootcc uvo
ti votcivocvc. lto ioio utto vvctu xivcitui xui q ot,,uixq
ouou, q ovoiu c c,uiq _uu 0u oc_otuv vu tq otciictc ovoiuoq-
votc itoq 0cccitc oti civui vio ctiqvtq uvo uttc vot vcic_ovtui
oto c,_ciioio utto.
Mc cxtiqoq,
H ot,,uixq ouou.
Hivouo Hcpicouvov
9 1.1 1.3........................................................................................... 1
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................... 1
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ....................................................................... 2
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................... 4
9 1.4 1.5........................................................................................... 8
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................... 8
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 11
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 13
9 1.6.................................................................................................. 16
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 16
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 21
9 1.7.................................................................................................. 24
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 24
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 27
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 3O
Icvixc Aoxqoci Kcuiuiot........................................................ 33
9 2.1 2.6......................................................................................... 41
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 41
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 44
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 5O
9 3.1 3.5......................................................................................... 62
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 62
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 7O
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 75
9 3.6 3.9......................................................................................... 77
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 77
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 8O
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 82
9 3.1O 3.11 ..................................................................................... 84
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 84
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ..................................................................... 87
Huxtixc Luo,c................................................................. 9O
9 4.1.................................................................................................. 98
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ................................................................. 98
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 1OO
Huxtixc Luo,c............................................................... 1O2
9 4.2 4.5....................................................................................... 1O6
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 1O6
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 1O8
Huxtixc Luo,c............................................................... 1O9
9 4.6 4.7....................................................................................... 112
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 112
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 114
Huxtixc Luo,c............................................................... 117
9 4.8 4.9....................................................................................... 12O
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 12O
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 121
Huxtixc Luo,c............................................................... 123
Icvixc Aoxqoci Kcuiuiot...................................................... 128
9 5.1 5.2....................................................................................... 136
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 136
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 137
9 5.3................................................................................................ 14O
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 14O
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 141
Huxtixc Luo,c............................................................... 144
9 5.4................................................................................................ 147
Aoxqoci Lvcocoq ............................................................... 147
ltv0ctc Aoxqoci ................................................................... 149
Icvixc Aoxqoci Kcuiuiot...................................................... 152
Hivouc Ipouuiu 2oorquoro
9 1.1 1.3
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc tov 33 vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
1
1 3 1
1 5 4
3 2 O
u xutuoxctuoctc cvuv vivuxu B = [|
ij
] c |
ij
=
1
2
(u
ij
+ u
ji
), i = 1, 2, 3
xui j = 1, 2, 3. Ti vuutqcitc o_ctixu c tq oq tot vivuxu B;
Aoq
|
11
=
1
2
(u
11
+ u
11
) =
1
2
(1 + 1) = 1
|
12
=
1
2
(u
12
+ u
21
) =
1
2
(3 1) = 2
|
13
=
1
2
(u
13
+ u
31
) =
1
2
(1 + 3) = 2
|
21
=
1
2
(u
21
+ u
12
) =
1
2
(1 3) = 2
|
22
=
1
2
(u
22
+ u
22
) =
1
2
(5 + 5) = 5
xui xutu ooio tovo tvoio,iotc xui tu tvoioivu otoi_ciu tot B.
Atto o vivuxu civui:
B =
]
1
1
1
1 2 2
2 5 3
2 3 O
2 Kcuiuio 1
xui vuutqotc oti tu otoi_ciu tot vot |ioxovtui cxutcc0cv tq
oiu,cviot civui iou, oqiuoq |
ij
= |
ji
, otuv i = j.
O B ovouctui otctixo vivuxu.
'Aouqoq 2
Av o vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
x
2
x
2
y
2
(x + y)
2
(x + 4)
2
y
2
x + 2y 4
y
2
x
2
x + y (x y)
2
c x, y e R civui ti,cvixo xutc, vu ocictc oti civui xui oiu,cvio.
Aoq
Ti,cvixo xutc oquivci oti tu otoi_ciu vot |ioxovtui vuvc uvo
tqv xtiu oiu,cvio civui O, uu:
x
2
y
2
= O
(x + y)
2
= O
x + 2y 4 = O

x = y q x = y
x = y
x + 2y 4 = O

;
x = y
x + 2y 4 = O

x = 4
y = 4
Mc uttc ti tic tcv x, y o vivuxu A ,uctui:
A =
]
1
1
1
16 O O
O 16 O
O O 64
uu oiu,cvio.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc tov vivuxu A = [u
ij
] ttvot vv, ,iu tov ovoio ,vciotc oti
u
ij
= min i, j; ,iu xu0c i, j = 1, 2, ., v. Kutoviv, |citc to u0oiou
tcv otoi_cicv tq xtiu oiu,cviot.
Aoq
O vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
u
21
u
22
u
2v

u
v1
u
v2
u
vv
=
]
1
1
1 1 1
1 2 2

1 2 v
'Au to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq xtiu oiu,cviot civui:
1 + 2 + 3 + + v =
(1 + v)v
2
(Otiotc oti to u0oiou v-ocv ui0qtixq voooot oivctui uvo
tov ttvo S
v
=
(u
1
+ u
v
)v
2
).
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc cvu vv vivuxu A = [u
ij
].
(u) Hoou otoi_ciu c_ci otvoiixu o vivuxu A;
(|) Hoou otoi_ciu tvu_otv vuvc q xutc uvo tqv xtiu oiu,cvio;
(,) Mvootc vu xutuoxctuootc tctoiov vivuxu c vcioootcu
uvo v
2
v otoi_ciu iou c qocv, vot vu c_ci oic ti ,uc
(uvtiotoi_u otqic) oiuoc tq qocvixq;
Aoq
(u) O tctu,cvixo vivuxu ttvot vv vouvc c_ci v
2
otoi_ciu.
(|) H xtiu oiu,cvio u
11
, u
22
, ., u
vv
c_ci v otoi_ciu. 'Au tu tvo-
ioivu otoi_ciu tot vivuxu civui v
2
v. Aot civui tctu,cvixo,
tu iou civui vuvc uv' tq oiu,cvio, uu
v
2
v
2
otoi_ciu xui tu
uiiu iou civui xutc uv' tq oiu,cvio, cvioq
v
2
v
2
otoi_ciu.
(,) Av 0cootc v
2
v otoi_ciu tot vivuxu iou c qocv totc oiu tu
otoi_ciu cxto cxcivu tq oiu,cviot civui O. Mc vcioootcu u-
vo v
2
v otoi_ciu iou c qocv 0u c_otc cvivicov xuvoiu otoi-
_ciu tq oiu,cviot O, uu xuvoiu ,uq (q ,uc) q otqiq (q
otqic) 0u civui qocvixq, 0u c_ci oqiuoq oiu tu otoi_ciu tq
qocv.
4 Kcuiuio 1
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
Livui ,vcoto oti to vco |uci otot 1OO C. !o_tci oc vuvtotc
utto; H uvuvtqoq voci vu oo0ci c _qoq tq ciocoq Anloine
vot cxuci tqv tuoq utcv (oqiuoq tqv vicoq oto oqcio |u-
oot) c otvutqoq tq 0coxuoiu:
lnP
s
= 18,31O4
3826,36
T 45,47
= A
B
T + C
ovot A =18,31O4, B=3826,36, C=45,47, T=0coxuoiu oc Kelvin,
P
s
= tuoq utcv oc mm Hg.
Av civui ,vcoto oti oi |u0oi Kelvin voxtvtotv, uv otot |u0ot
Kcioiot voo0cootc 273,15, otviqcotc tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
O =
]
1
1
1
C K
B
C + T
A
B
C + T
P
s
(mm Hg) P
s
(alm)
1OO
9O
98
l_oiiuotc tu uvotcicoutu tot vivuxu.
Aoq
Mc _qoq tvoio,iotq o vivuxu otviqcvctui c cq:
O =
]
1
1
C K
B
C + T
A
B
C + T
P
s
(mm Hg) P
s
(alm)
1OO 373,15 11,67712 6,633 76O 1
9O 363,15 12,O4469 6,2657 526 O,69
98 371,15 11,74883 6,56156 7O7 O,93
Huutqotc oti o vuuvuvc tovo oicu,c,q tvoio,iocv coc
vivuxu civui ioiuitcu |oiixo. 'Ovc vcicvuc, to vco |uci oc
ixotcc tcv 1OOC 0coxuoic oc c,uiu toctu (_uqio-
tcq utoouiixq vicoq).
'Aouqoq 2
ltov vuuxutc vivuxu vuotoiuovtui oi vciuutixc xui tvoio,i-
ocvc, c 3 oiuoctixu ovtciu ctqoq, tic ,iu tov otvtcic-
otq cvc,otqtu iu ociu voitccv oiuitutcv. O otvtcicotq
cvc,otqtu civui iu voit oquvtixq ioiotqtu otqv cuoocvq
Ocootvuixq.
ltotqu Hciuutixq Movtcio
Tiq A B I
P!B/toiotoiio 5,3O 5,28 6,19 7,O1
P!B/tctu_icuv0uxu 2,53 2,74 2,93 2,1O
PVC/uxctovq 11,8O 9,98 1O,17 3,64
PVC/xtxiocuvio 16,1O 1O,96 8,96 5,36
BR/cuvio 6,36 5,79 4,97 9,89
BR/uxctovq 1O,4O 11,36 9,49 33,63
PS/|cvoiio 4,27 4,76 3,98 5,78
PS/ui0tio|cvoiio 4,96 4,63 4,23 7,O2
u o_qutioctc cvuv vivuxu ovot:
(u) ltqv vctq otqiq vu cuviovtui oi vciuutixc tic xui
(|) lti cvocvc otqic vu cuviovtui, uvti tcv tvoio,iocvcv
ticv, tu vooootiuiu ouiutu, xu0c xui to coo vooootiuio
ouiu tot xu0c ovtciot otqv tcicttuiu ,uq tot vivuxu.
2quciooq:
- To ooootioio oouo oooioetoi o ep.
H.2. =
,Heipouotitp tiup Yooiouevp tiup,
Heipouotitp tiup
100
- To ueoo ooootioio oouo oooietoi o ep.
M.H.2. =
A0poiouo ooootioiov oouotov to0e uovteoo
Hp0o uetppoeov
Aoq
ltotqu Hciuutixq Hoo. ouiutu ()
Tiq A B I
P!B/toiotoiio 5,3O O,4 16,8 32,3
P!B/tctu_icuv0uxu 2,53 8,3 15,8 17,0
PVC/uxctovq 11,8O 15,4 13,8 69,1
PVC/xtxiocuvio 16,1O 32,O 44,3 66,7
BR/cuvio 6,36 9,O 21,9 55,5
BR/uxctovq 1O,4O 9,2 8,7 223,4
PS/|cvoiio 4,27 11,5 6,8 35,4
PS/ui0tio|cvoiio 4,96 6,6 14,7 41,5
Moo oooottoo oo 11,55 17,85 67,61
6 Kcuiuio 1
Huutqqotc oti oi oiuoc uvucou otu ovtciu ctqoq A xui
B ocv civui c,uic uv xui to A civui uxi|cotco. To I ovtcio o-
oq,ci oc uvcvuxot uxi|ciu uvotcicoutu xui civui to _ciotco
uvo tu tiu.
'Aouqoq 3 ,Toooito p oovetito ivoto)
To oiviuvo o_qu u oci_vci iu xcv-
tixq A xui tci vciciuxc ,cito-
vic B, I, A vot otvocovtui c ooot
ovq xutct0tvoq. Ku0c cvu uv' ut-
tot tot ooot 0u ot|oiictui c
oto ui0ot: 1 uvo tq ,citoviu vot
cxivuci, 1 o' uttq vot xutuiq,ci xui O
o' uttq vot ocv vuci. (v._. o ooo AI,
1 otq ,citoviu A, 1 otq ,citoviu I xui
O oti tvoioivc ,citovic).
A I
B
A
c
u ,
|
o
(u) utiutc cvuv vivuxu vot vu uvccvci tov tovo vot otvocovtui
oi ,citovic c tot ovoooot, iu|uvovtu tvoq oti oi
,uc 0u vuiotuvotv tot ooot xui oi otqic ti ,cito-
vic.
(|) Ti vuutqcitc oti ,uc uttot tot vivuxu ,iu tu oixttu
(i) ,, o, c (iii) u, |, ,
(ii) u, , c (iv) |, o,
(,) Mvocitc vu ,cvixctoctc ,iu ovoiooqvotc uvo tu oixttu vot
otvocotv ti tcooci ,citovic;
Aoq
(u) Av M ot|oiiootc utto tov vivuxu totc:
M =
A B I A
]
1
1
1
1 O 1 O
O O 1 1
1 O O 1
O 1 O 1
1 1 O O
O 1 1 O

u
|
,
o
c
(|) (i) To ,, o, c c xicioto oixtto vot cxivu uvo to A xui xutuiq-

,ci oto A (oqi.
, +
o +
c =
O) c_ci c u0oiou otoi_cicv

tcv ,ucv tot, qov.
(ii) 'Ooiu.
(iii) To u, |, , civui cvu oixtto tctoio cotc voci xuvoio vu
vuci uvo to A oto A coc I, voci oc vu vuci uvct0ciu
uvo to A oto A. 'Au to u0oiou tcv ,ucv u xui | u
oivci tq ,uq ,.
(iv) 'Ooiu.
'Aouqoq 4 ,To popuo too ouoo)
Yvo0cotc oti c_otc 4 ,tvuixc u, |, ,, o xui 4 uvoc A, B, I, A.
Kuvoiu uv' uttu tu 16 ct,uiu otcvotv vu ooxiuootv uv vo-
otv vu vuvtcttotv xui xuvoiu oc otcvotv ,iu oiuoot io-
,ot. Av c u
ij
= O ot|oiiootc oti q i ,tvuixu oc otcvci c tov j
uvou xui u
ij
= 1 oti q i ,tvuixu otcvci c tov j uvou totc:
(u) Iutc cvuv vivuxu vot vu oci_vci oti:
H u ,tvuixu otcvci vc voci vu vuvtcttci c tov A q
tov A uvou.
H | ,tvuixu c tov B uvou.
H , ,tvuixu c tov A q tov I uvou
H o ,tvuixu c tov B q tov A q tov A uvou.
(|) Mc ocoocvo oti iu ,tvuixu voci vu vuvtcttci cvuv uvou
xui uvtiotou, voiu civui tu otvutu ct,uiu tot (u) cctqu-
to;
(,) Bcitc cvu c,ioto otvoio ,ucv vot vuiotuvotv oi cvocvoi
vivuxc:
M =
A B I A L
]
1
1
O O 1 O O
1 1 O 1 1
O 1 1 O 1
O O 1 1 O
O O O 1 O
u
|
,
o
c
, =
A B I A L
]
1
1
1 1 O O O
O 1 O 1 O
O O 1 O 1
1 1 1 O O
1 O O O O
u
|
,
o
c
Aoq
(u) Av ot|oiiootc c K to qtotcvo vivuxu totc c_otc oti
,uc tot ,tvuixc u, |, ,, o xui oti otqic tot uvoc A, B,
I, A:
8 Kcuiuio 1
K =
A B I A
]
1
1
1
1 O O 1
O 1 O O
1 O 1 O
1 1 O 1
u
|
,
o
(|) Tu otvutu ct,uiu tot (u) cctquto vot otcvotv vu vu-
vtcttotv civui:
(i) (u, A), (|, B), (,, I), (o, A) q
(ii) (u, A), (|, B), (,, I), (o, A)
(,) 'Lvu c,ioto otvoio ,ucv ,iu tov vivuxu M civui:
(u, I), (|, A), (,, B), (o, A)
xui ,iu tov vivuxu civui:
(u, B), (|, A), (,, L), (o, I), (c, A)
xui coc vuutqotc oti c_otc cvu xu0' oiu otviqccvo
otvoio ,ucv.
9 1.4 1.5
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
O vivuxu A =
]
1
1 x
2
6x + 9 O
O x
2
9
civui qocvixo otuv:
(u) x = 3 (|) x = 3 (,) x = 6
Ktxicotc tq ocotq uvuvtqoq xui uitioio,qotc.
Aoq
;
Hcvci x
2
6x + 9 = O
xui x
2
9 = O

(x 3)
2
= O
(x 3)(x + 3) = O
'Au ,iu x = 3 o A = 0.
'Aouqoq 2
lti cvocvc vcivtcoci vu tvoio,ioctc tot A + B xui A B, c-
ooov |c|uiu oiovtui:
(u) A =
]
1
1
1
1 2
2 3
3 4
, B =
]
1
1
1
1 1
2 2
3 3
(|) A = [ 2 1 O ], B = [ 2 1 O ]
(,) A =
]
1
1
1
2
4
2
, B =
]
1
1
1
O
4
O
(o) A =
]
1
1
2 3
1 1
, B =
]
1
1
1
3 1 3
O 2 O
1 O 1
Aoq
(u) A + B =
]
1
1
1
1 + 1 2 1
2 + 2 3 2
3 + 3 4 3
=
]
1
1
1
2 1
4 1
6 1
A B =
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 + 1
2 2 3 + 2
3 3 4 + 3
=
]
1
1
1
O 3
O 5
O 7
(|) A + B = [ 2 2 1 1 O + O ] = [ O O O ]
A B = [ 2 + 2 1 + 1 O O ] = [ 4 2 O ]
(,) A + B =
]
1
1
1
2 + 0
4 + 4
2 + 0
=
]
1
1
1
2
0
2
, A B =
]
1
1
1
2 0
4 4
2 0
=
]
1
1
1
2
8
2
(o) Acv oiovtui tu A + B xui A B ,iuti ocv civui tot ioiot ttvot
oi A, B.
'Aouqoq 3
u |citc ti tic tcv x, y e R ,iu ti ovoic io_tci:
]
1
1
x
2
x
y
2
4
x
2
+ 6 1

]
1
1
1
3 y
1 5y
5x 1
=
]
1
1
1
1 1
O y
2
O O
Aoq
]
1
1
x
2
x
y
2
4
x
2
+ 6 1

]
1
1
1
3 y
1 5y
5x 1
=
]
1
1
1
1 1
O y
2
O O

1O Kcuiuio 1

]
1
1
x
2
3 x y
y
2
1 4 5y
x
2
+ 6 5x O
=
]
1
1
1
1 1
O y
2
O O
xui uvo tqv iootqtu tcv vivuxcv vuivotc:
(i) x
2
= 4
(ii) x y = 1
(iii) y
2
= 1
(iv) y
2
5y + 4 = O
(v) x
2
5x + 6 = O
(u) Avo tqv vctq vuivotc x = 2 q x = 2 xui vuutqotc oti q
tcicttuiu uiq0ctci ovo ,iu x = 2, q ovoiu civui xui q qtotcvq
tiq ,iu to x.
(|) Avo tqv titq vuivotc y = 1 q y = 1 xui vuutqotc oti q
tctutq uiq0ctci ovo ,iu y = 1, q ovoiu civui xui q qtotcvq
tiq ,iu to y.
(,) Tcio, ,iu ti tic vot tvoio,iouc cvuiq0ctctui xui q octtc-
q.
'Aouqoq 4
u itoctc ti ciococi:
(u)
]
1
1
2 1
2 1
+ X =
]
1
1
2 1
2 1
(|) X +
]
1
1
1
1 3
2 2
4 1
=
]
1
1
1
O O
O O
O O
(,)
]
1
1
2 3 4
1 O 1
X =
]
1
1
2 O 1
1 O 2
(o) X +
]
1
1
1
1
2
4
=
]
1
1
1
2
3
4
Aoq
(u) X =
]
1
1
2 1
2 1

]
1
1
2 1
2 1
=
]
1
1
O O
O O
(|) X =
]
1
1
1
O O
O O
O O

]
1
1
1
1 3
2 2
4 1
=
]
1
1
1
1 3
2 2
4 1
(,) X =
]
1
1
2 3 4
1 O 1

]
1
1
2 O 1
1 O 2
=
]
1
1
O 3 3
O O 1
(o) X =
]
1
1
1
2
3
4

]
1
1
1
1
2
4
=
]
1
1
1
1
1
O
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
u oqcicoctc to ocoto (l) q iu0o (A) otot cvocvot io_ti-
oot xui vu oixuioio,qoctc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
(u) To u0oiou xui q oiuou oto oiu,cvicv vivuxcv ttvot vv ci-
vui oiu,cvio vivuxu vv.
(|) To u0oiou xui q oiuou oto ti,cvixcv uvc (q xutc) vivu-
xcv civui ti,cvixo uvc (q xutc) vivuxu.
(,) O qocvixo civui oiu,cvio vivuxu.
Aoq
(u) Leoto ,iuti uv:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
O O
O u
22
O

O O u
vv
xui B =
]
1
1
1
|
11
O O
O |
22
O

O O |
vv
totc uvcu:
A + B =
]
1
1
1
u
11
+ |
11
O O
O u
22
+ |
22
O

O O u
vv
+ |
vv
'Ooiu ,iu tq oiuou A B.
(|) Leoto ,iuti uv:
A =
]
1
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
1v
O u
22
u
2v

O O u
vv
xui B =
]
1
1
1
|
11
|
12
|
1v
O |
22
|
2v

O O |
vv
totc uvcu:
12 Kcuiuio 1
A + B =
]
1
1
1
u
11
+ |
11
u
12
+ |
12
u
1v
+ |
1v
O u
22
+ |
22
u
2v
+ |
2v

O O u
vv
+ |
vv
'Ooiu xui ,iu ti,cvixot xutc vivuxc.
(,) Leoto ,iuti o oiu,cvio vivuxu vcvci vu c_ci oiu tu otoi_ciu
tot, vot oc |ioxovtui otqv xtiu oiu,cvio, O. Atto ocv uvuici-
tui cvcioq c_ci O xui tu otoi_ciu tq xtiu oiu,cviot. Av v._.
uuiotouc oto ioot oiu,cviot vivuxc A xui B to uvotcic-
ou 0u qtuv o qocvixo vivuxu, xui ovc uvoociuc oto (u)
cctqu, 0u vuccvc oiu,cvio.
'Aouqoq 2
Aivovtui oi vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
2 O
1 1
2 4
xui B =
]
1
1
1
1 2
1 2
O 1
(u) u tvoio,ioctc tov vivuxu 3A 2B.
(|) u |citc vivuxu X tctoio cotc 3A 2X = 2B + 5X.
Aoq
(u) 3A 2B = 3
]
1
1
1
2 O
1 1
2 4
2
]
1
1
1
1 2
1 2
O 1
=
]
1
1
1
6 O
3 3
6 12

]
1
1
1
2 4
2 4
O 2
=
]
1
1
1
4 4
1 7
6 14
(|) Avo tqv ciocoq 3A 2X = 2B + 5X vuivotc:
7X = 3A 2B X =
1
7
(3A 2B)
X =
1
7

]
1
1
1
4 4
1 7
6 14
=
]
1
1
1
4
7
4
7
1
7
1
6
7
2
'Aouqoq 3
Av A =
]
1
1
3 6
12 9
xui B =
]
1
1
1 O
2 4
vu tvoio,ioctc vivuxc X xui
+ ,iu tot ovoiot io_totv:
;
2X A = + 2B
X 2B = A +
Aoq
;
2X A = + 2B
X 2B = A +

;
2X + = A 2B
X + + = A + 2B

;
3X = 2A
X + + = A + 2B

X =
2
3
A
+ = A + 2B
2
3
A

X =
2
3
A
+ =
1
3
A + 2B
'Au X =
2
3

]
1
1
3 6
12 9
=
]
1
1
2 4
8 6
xui
+ =
1
3

]
1
1
3 6
12 9
+ 2
]
1
1
1 O
2 4
=
]
1
1
1 2
4 3
+
]
1
1
2 O
4 8
=
]
1
1
1 2
8 11
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
Oi qcqoic vciqoci cqciocv uvo to vcivtco iu otvoixi-
u ui0otv oc tiiu ovc oci_votv oi cvocvoi vivuxc:
1
q
qcu 2
q
qcu
A0iqtixc Hoiitixc Oixovoixc A0iqtixc Hoiitixc Oixovoixc
Hci 25 2O 2O Hci 2O 22 25
Avo,ctu 5 6O 4 Avo,ctu 4 65 8
Av ovouootc M tov vivuxu vciqoccv tq 1
q
qcu xui tov
vivuxu vciqoccv tq 2
q
qcu, tvoio,iotc tov M + . Hoiu civui
q cqvciu vot oivctc ,iu tov vivuxu M + ;
14 Kcuiuio 1
Aoq
M =
]
1
1
25 2O 2O
5 6O 4
, =
]
1
1
2O 22 25
4 65 8
, M + =
]
1
1
45 42 45
9 125 12
O vivuxu M + cxuci ti vciqoci oc tiiu tot vcivtcot ti
oto qcc.
'Aouqoq 2
Tu tivovtu, oivovtu xui oi cict0cc |oic vot vctt_uv, cvto xui
cxto cou, oti tcoocci vctc u,cviotixc tot vctu0iquto
vuoxct tci ouoc oivovtui vuuxutc:
HOTO!
OMAALl Lvto Lxto Lvto Lxto Lvto Lxto
28 16 6O 48 4O 36
24 2O 68 56 52 44
32 12 84 76 44 68
2
q
Ouou
3
q
Ouou
TP!HOTA A!HOTA LA. BOALl
1
q
Ouou
(u) u ,uotv tu ocoocvu c oq ticv vivuxcv A, B, I vot vu
vcic_otv uvtiotoi_u tu tivovtu, oivovtu xui ti cict0cc |o-
ic tq xu0c ouou.
(|) u |c0ci cvu vivuxu o ovoio oivci tot otvoiixot vovtot
xu0c ouou, cvto xui cxto cou.
Aoq
(u) A 0ccqootc A, B, I tot vivuxc vot oivotv uvtiotoi_u tu
tivovtu, oivovtu xui ti cict0cc |oic. Totc:
A =
]
1
1
1
28 16
24 2O
32 12
, B =
]
1
1
1
6O 48
68 56
84 76
, I =
]
1
1
1
4O 36
52 44
44 68
(|) O vivuxu vot 0u oivci tot otvoiixot vovtot xu0c ouou ci-
vui:
X = 3A + 2B + I = 3
]
1
1
1
28 16
24 2O
32 12
+ 2
]
1
1
1
6O 48
68 56
84 76
+
]
1
1
1
4O 36
52 44
44 68
=
=
]
1
1
1
244 18O
26O 216
3O8 256
'Aouqoq 3
H xutuvuicoq ctuto oc xiio|utcc, oto oixo,cvcicv uvu tc-
tuqvo oivctui uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
A' TLTP. B' TLTP. I' TLTP.
1
q
Oixo,cvciu 1828 17OO 156O
2
q
Oixo,cvciu 223O 192O 187O
Av q xiio|utcu xootici 35 o_. xui to vu,io xu0c tctuqvot ci-
vui 445O o_:
(u) u vuuotqoctc ' cvuv vivuxu X tu voou vot 0u viqcvci xu0c
oixo,cvciu uvu tctuqvo.
(|) u |citc voou _qutu 0u viqcvuv oi ioic oixo,cvcic, uv
cicvuv tqv xutuvuicoq ctuto xutu 1O.
Aoq
(u) A 0ccqootc A tov vivuxu tq xutuvuicoq oc xiio|utcc
xu0c oixo,cvciu, uvu tctuqvo:
A =
]
1
1
1828 17OO 156O
223O 192O 187O
Tu voou vot 0u viqcvci xu0c oixo,cvciu uvu tctuqvo u
oivci o vivuxu:
X = 35A + 445O
]
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
]
1
1
6398O 595OO 546OO
78O5O 672OO 6545O
+
]
1
1
445O 445O 445O
445O 445O 445O
=
]
1
1
6843O 6395O 59O5O
825OO 7165O 699OO
(|) Tu _qutu vot 0u viqcvuv oi oixo,cvcic uvu tctuqvo uv
cicvuv xutu 1O tqv xutuvuicoq ctuto u oivci o vivu-
xu:
16 Kcuiuio 1
+ = 35(O,9OA) + 445O
]
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
35
]
1
1
1645,2 153O 14O4
2OO7 1728 1683
+
]
1
1
445O 445O 445O
445O 445O 445O
=
]
1
1
62O32 58OOO 5359O
74695 6493O 63355
9 1.6
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
Yvoio,iotc tu ,ivocvu vivuxcv, ovot uttu oiovtui:
(u)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
2 1

]
1
1
2
1
(|)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
O 2

]
1
1
1 1
O 2
(,)
]
1
1
2 4
1 2

]
1
1
2 4
1 2
(o) [ 3 1 2 ]
]
1
1
1
2 1
O 1
1 2
(c)
]
1
1
1
3 1
O 2
2 1

]
1
1
1 1 O
2 2 1

]
1
1
1
1
O
1
(ot)
]
1
1
2 1
3 1

]
1
1
1
1 2 3
O 1 O
3 2 1
Aoq
(u)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
2 1

]
1
1
2
1
=
]
1
1
1
7
2
5
(|)
]
1
1
1
2 3
1 O
O 2

]
1
1
1 1
O 2
=
]
1
1
1
2 8
1 1
O 4
(,)
]
1
1
2 4
1 2

]
1
1
2 4
1 2
=
]
1
1
O O
O O
(o) [ 3 1 2 ]
]
1
1
1
2 1
O 1
1 2
= [ 8 2 ]
(c)
]
1
1
1
3 1
O 2
2 1

]
1
1
1 1 O
2 2 1

]
1
1
1
1
O
1
=
]
1
1
1
5 1 1
4 4 2
O 4 1

]
1
1
1
1
O
1
=
]
1
1
1
4
2
1
(ot)Acv oictui ,iuti c_otc ,ivocvo vivuxcv 22 c 33.
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
2 O 1
5 1 O
O 1 3
xui B =
]
1
1
1
3 1 1
15 6 5
5 2 2
Yvoio,iotc tu ,ivocvu AB xui BA. Hoio ,cvixotco otvcuou
cu,ctui;
Aoq
- AB =
]
1
1
1
2 O 1
5 1 O
O 1 3

]
1
1
1
3 1 1
15 6 5
5 2 2
=
]
1
1
1
1 O O
O 1 O
O O 1
= !
- BA =
]
1
1
1
3 1 1
15 6 5
5 2 2

]
1
1
1
2 O 1
5 1 O
O 1 3
=
]
1
1
1
1 O O
O 1 O
O O 1
= !
'Otuv AB = ! totc io_tci xui BA = !. Aqiuoq AB = BA = !.
'Aouqoq 3
Av u, |, , civui qxq victcv ti,cvot ABI xui ,iu tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
u O
O u
xui M =
]
1
1
| ,
, |
io_tci A
2
= M
2
, vu ocictc oti to ti,cvo ABI civui o0o,cvio.
Aoq
A
2
= M
2

]
1
1 u
2
O
O u
2
=
]
1
1 |
2
+ ,
2
O
O |
2
+ ,
2
'Au u
2
= |
2
+ ,
2
xui uot io_tci to Ht0u,ocio Occqu, to ti,c-
vo ABI civui o0o,cvio.
18 Kcuiuio 1
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc tot 33 oiu,cviot vivuxc A xui B.
(u) Acitc oti:
(i) AB oiu,cvio (ii) AB = BA
(|) !o_totv tu ioiu uv oi vivuxc civui 33 ti,cvixoi uvc (q xutc);
Aoq
(u) 'Lotc A =
]
1
1
u
11
O O
O u
22
O
O O u
33
xui B =
]
1
1
|
11
O O
O |
22
O
O O |
33
. Totc:
AB =
]
1
1
u
11
|
11
O O
O u
22
|
22
O
O O u
33
|
33
xui BA =
]
1
1
|
11
u
11
O O
O |
22
u
22
O
O O |
33
u
33
'Au o AB civui oiu,cvio xui io_tci AB = BA.
(|) 'Lotc A =
]
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
13
O u
22
u
23
O O u
33
xui B =
]
1
1
|
11
|
12
|
13
O |
22
|
23
O O |
33
. Totc:
AB =
]
1
1
u
11
|
11
u
11
|
12
+ u
12
|
22
u
11
|
13
+ u
12
|
23
+ u
13
|
33
O u
22
|
22
u
22
|
23
+ u
23
|
33
O O u
33
|
33
'Au ti,cvixo uvc.
To otoi_cio 1
q
,uq xui 3
q
otqiq tot vivuxu BA civui to
|
11
u
13
+ |
12
u
23
+ |
13
u
33
xui civui oiuoo tot otoi_ciot 1
q
,u-
q xui 3
q
otqiq tot vivuxu AB. 'Au ocv toct AB = BA.
'Aouqoq 5
Hoioi uvo tot cvocvot vivuxc civui oi,otu iooi c tov vivuxu
(A + B)
2
;
(i) (B + A)
2
(iii) A(A + B) + B(A + B)
(ii) A
2
+ 2AB + B
2
(iv) A
2
+ AB + BA + B
2
Iiu xu0c cvuv vot voictc oti civui ioo c tov (A + B)
2
, oixuioio-
,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
Aoq
(u) (B + A)
2
= (A + B)
2
uot io_tci q uvtictu0ctixq ioiotqtu otqv
voo0coq.
(|) A
2
+ 2AB + B
2
= (A + B)
2
uot ocv io_tci vuvtu q uvtictu0ctixq
ioiotqtu otov voiiuviuoiuoo tcv vivuxcv.
(,) A(A + B) + B(A + B) = (A + B)(A + B) = (A + B)
2
uot io_tci q c-
viciotixq ioiotqtu tot voiiuviuoiuoot c vo tqv vo-
o0coq.
(o) (A + B)
2
= (A + B)(A + B) = A
2
+ AB + BA + B
2
uot io_tci q cvi-
ciotixq ioiotqtu tot voiiuviuoiuoot c vo tqv vo-
o0coq.
'Aouqoq 6
]
1
1
u O
| O
ovot u, | = O.
(u) Acitc oti A
2
= uA.
(|) Livui ocoto vu io_tiototc oti uvo tqv iootqtu A
2
= uA vo-
xtvtci q iootqtu A = u!; Aixuioio,qotc tqv uvuvtqoq ou.
Aoq
(u) A
2
=
]
1
1
u O
| O

]
1
1
u O
| O
=
]
1
1 u
2
O
u| O
uA = u
]
1
1
u O
| O
=
]
1
1 u
2
O
u| O
'Au A
2
= uA.
(|) Av tvo0cootc oti vootc vu cuoootc tqv ioiotqtu oiu-
,uq tot vivuxu A totc uvo tqv iootqtu A
2
= uA vuivotc:
A = u! =
]
1
1
u O
O u
vot civui uotvuto uot u xui | = O.
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc oto vivuxc 33 A xui B. lqcicotc voiot uvo tot cvo-
cvot io_tioot 0cccitc ocotot (l) q iu0o (A). Aixuioio,q-
otc tqv uvuvtqoq ou otot ocotot io_tioot xui ocotc cvu u-
i0qtixo uvtivuuoci,u otot iu0o io_tioot.
2O Kcuiuio 1
(u) Av q vctq xui q titq otqiq tot B civui ioic, totc xui q vctq
c tqv titq otqiq tot AB civui ioic.
(|) Av q vctq xui q titq ,uq tot B civui ioic, totc xui q vc-
(,) Av q vctq xui q titq ,uq tot A civui ioic, totc xui q vc-
Aoq
'Lotc oti A = [u
ij
] xui B = [|
ij
] c i = 1, 2, 3 xui j = 1, 2, 3.
(u) Leoto ,iuti uv:
A =
]
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
13
u
21
u
22
u
23
u
31
u
32
u
33
xui B =
]
1
1
x |
12
x
i |
22
i
|
32

totc q vctq otqiq tot AB voxtvtci uv voiiuviuoiuootc o-
ic ti ,uc tot A c tqv vctq otqiq tot B. Aqiuoq:
1
q
otqiq AB
u
11
x + u
12
i + u
13
u
21
x + u
22
i + u
23
u
31
x + u
32
i + u
33
'Ooiu, q titq otqiq tot AB voxtvtci uv voiiuviuoiuootc

oic ti ,uc tot A c tqv titq otqiq tot B. Aqiuoq:
3
q
otqiq AB
u
11
x + u
12
i + u
13
u
21
x + u
22
i + u
23
u
31
x + u
32
i + u
33
(|) A0o. H._. Av A =
]
1
1
1
1 2 3
1 O 1
3 O 1
, B =
]
1
1
1
2 1 1
3 O 2
2 1 1
totc q vctq
,uq tot AB uvotcicitui uvo tu otoi_ciu: 2 4 8 xui q titq
,uq tot AB uvo tu otoi_ciu: 8 4 4.
(,) Leoto. H oixuioio,iu civui ooiu c tot (u) cctquto.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Av o A civui vivuxu ttvot 1999, o B civui vivuxu ttvot xi xui
io_tci AB = BA, vu |citc tot x, i, .
Aoq
- Iiu vu oictui o vivuxu AB vcvci x = 1999. Totc o AB civui
ttvot i.
- 'Ooiu, ,iu vu oictui o vivuxu BA vcvci i = . Totc o BA ci-
vui ttvot x1999.
- Aot AB = BA vcvci oi ttvoi tot vu civui ioioi, uu i = 1999
xui = x, cvocvc x = i = = 1999.
'Aouqoq 2
Bcitc, c ooxic, vivuxc 22 tctoiot cotc:
(u) A
2
= !, c otoi_ciu tot A vu,utixot ui0ot.
(|) B
2
= 0, c xuvoiu otoi_ciu tot B oiuou tot qocvo.
(,) IA = AI, cxto tq vcivtcoq ovot IA = 0.
(o) LZ = 0, c oiu tu otoi_ciu tcv L xui Z q qocvixu.
Aoq
(u) A =
]
1
1
O 1
1 O
(|) B =
]
1
1
O 1
O O
(,) I =
]
1
1
O 1
1 O
xui A =
]
1
1
O 1
1 O
(o) L = Z =
]
1
1
1 1
1 1
'Aouqoq 3
]
1
1
1 |
, 2
.
(u) Acitc oti A
2
+ A (2 + |,)! = 0.
(|) !o_tci AB = BA totc xui ovo totc uv A
2
B = BA
2
.
22 Kcuiuio 1
Aoq
(u) A
2
+ A (2 + |,)! =
]
1
1
1 |
, 2

]
1
1
1 |
, 2
+
]
1
1
1 |
, 2
(2 + |,)
]
1
1
1 O
O 1
=
]
1
1
1 + |, |
, |, + 4
+
]
1
1
1 |
, 2

]
1
1
2 + |, O
O 2 + |,
=
]
1
1
O O
O O
(|) Hoiiuviuoiuotc tqv (u) ociu xui uiotcu c B, ovotc:
- A
2
B + AB (2 + |,)B = 0
- BA
2
+ BA (2 + |,)B = 0
'Au A
2
B + AB = BA
2
+ BA uv' ovot voxtvtci xui q ioootvuiu
tot cctquto (|).
'Aouqoq 4
Av A =
]
1
1
3 1
1 2
|citc vu,utixot ui0ot x, y cotc vu io_tci
A
2
= xA + y!. Kutoviv tvoio,iotc tov vivuxu A
3
c otvutqoq tcv
A xui !.
Aoq
- A
2
= xA + y!
]
1
1
3 1
1 2

]
1
1
3 1
1 2
= x
]
1
1
3 1
1 2
+ y
]
1
1
1 O
O 1

]
1
1
8 5
5 3
=
]
1
1
3x + y x
x 2x + y
Lvocvc:
3x + y = 8
x = 5
2x + y = 3

;
x = 5
y = 7
'Au A
2
= 5A 7!.
- A
3
= A
2
A = (5A 7!)A = 5A
2
7A = 5(5A 7!) 7A = 18A 35!
'Aouqoq 5
Av ,iu tot vivuxc A =
]
1
1
i i + 1
i
2
+ 3 i
xui B =
]
1
1
2 1
3 2
io_tci
(A + B)
2
= A
2
+ B
2
tvoio,iotc tov ui0o i. Iiu voic tic tot i i-
o_tci AB + BA = 0;
Aoq
- (A + B)
2
= A
2
+ B
2

]
1
1
i + 2 i + 2
i
2
+ 6 (i + 2)

2
=
]
1
1
i i + 1
i
2
+ 3 i

2
+
]
1
1
2 1
3 2

2

]
1
1 (i+2)
2
+ (i+2)(i
2
+6) O
O (i+2)(i
2
+6) + (i+2)
2
=
=
]
1
1 i
2
+ (i+1)(i
2
+3) O
O i
2
+ (i+1)(i
2
+3)
+
]
1
1
7 O
O 7
i
2
+ 7i + 6 = O
uv' ovot i = 1 q i = 6.
- Avo tq o_coq (A + B)
2
= A
2
+ B
2
vuivotc:
A
2
+ AB + BA + B
2
= A
2
+ B
2
AB + BA = 0
,Ooup0eite oti ev io,oov oi toototpte otoo ivote etto ov
AB BA)
'Au ,iu ti ioic tic tot i vot |qxuc vuuvuvc io_tci
AB + BA = 0.
'Aouqoq 6
]
1
1
1
1 i

2
i
1
, i = O. u uvoocictc oti:
(u) A
2
= !, A
3
= A, A
4
= !
(|) A
99
+ A
1OO
+ A
1O1
= !
Aoq
(u) A
2
=
]
1
1
1
1 i

2
i
1

]
1
1
1
1 i

2
i
1
=
]
1
1
1 O
O 1
= !
A
3
= A
2
A = (!)A = A
A
4
= A
2
A
2
= (!)(!) = !
2
= !
(|) Iiu tov tvoio,ioo tcv c,uicv otvuccv tot A oiuiotc tot
cx0ctc oiu 4 uot A
4
= !. 'Au:
A
99
+ A
1OO
+ A
1O1
= A
424+3
+ A
425
+ A
425+1
= A + ! + A = !
24 Kcuiuio 1
9 1.7
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc to ototqu:
;
(2i 1)x + y = 7
(i 2)x + ( 1)y = 2
Bcitc ti tic tcv i, e R cotc to ototqu vu c_ci itoq
(x, y) = (2, 2).
Aoq
Aot x = 2, y = 2 itoq tot ototquto totc c_otc:
;
2(2i 1) + 2 = 7
2(i 2) + 2( 1) = 2

;
4i + 2 = 9
2i + 2 = 8
uv' ovot ctxoiu |ioxotc i =
1
2
, =
7
2
.
'Aouqoq 2
(u)
y + c = 4
2x + 2y + 6c = 4
3x + 6y + 15c = 9
(|)
x + 4y 2c = 4
x 4y + 5c = 13
2x + 8y 2c = 2
(,)
2x + 2y 2c = 18
x y c = 1
2x 2y + 5c = 33
Aoq
(u) L =
]
1
1
1
O 1 1 j 4
2 2 6 j 4
3 6 15 j 9
~
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1
2 2 6 j 4
O 1 1 j 4
3 6 15 j 9
~
,
3

1
3
,
3
,
1

1
2
,
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j 2
O 1 1 j 4
1 2 5 j 3
~
,
3
,
3
+ (1),
1

]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j 2
O 1 1 j 4
O 1 2 j 1
~
,
3
,
3
+ ,
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j 2
O 1 1 j 4
O O 3 j 5
~
,
3

1
3
,
3
,
2
(1),
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 3 j 2
O 1 1 j 4
O O 1 ,
5
3
~
,
2
,
2
+ ,
3
,
1
,
1
+ (3),
3
]
1
1
1 1 O j 3
O 1 O ,
7
3
O O 1 j
5
3
~
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
2

]
1
1
1
1 O O j
2
3
O 1 O j
7
3
O O 1 j
5
3
'Au to ototqu c_ci ovuoixq itoq (x, y, c) = (
2
3
,
7
3
,
5
3
).
(|) Mc ooio tovo xutuiq,otc oc ioootvuo ototqu c cioc-
oci:
;
x + 4y = 2
c = 3
xui uv 0cootc y = l e R c_otc uvcic itoci:
(x, y, c) = (2 4l, l, 3) c l e R
(,) Mc ooio tovo xutuiq,otc oc uotvuto ototqu oq:
x y = O
c = O
O = 1
'Aouqoq 3
Occotc tot vivuxc:
A =
]
1
1
1
3 6 O
O 2 2
1 1 1
xui B =
]
1
1
1
2
1
1
(u) Yvoio,iotc to ,ivocvo AB.
(|) Av X =
]
1
1
1
x
y
z
,utc to ototqu vot cxuci q ciocoq vivu-
xcv AX = 0 xui oiuviotcotc oti o vivuxu B civui iu itoq ut-
tot tot ototquto. Mvocitc vu |citc xui uiic itoci uttot
tot ototquto;
Aoq
(u) AB =
]
1
1
1
3 6 O
O 2 2
1 1 1

]
1
1
1
2
1
1
=
]
1
1
1
O
O
O
26 Kcuiuio 1
(|) AX = 0
]
1
1
1
3 6 O
O 2 2
1 1 1

]
1
1
1
x
y
z
=
]
1
1
1
O
O
O

3x 6y = O
2y 2z = O
x y z = O
xui civui cvu oo,cvc ototqu.
O vivuxu B civui iu itoq tot ototquto, uot to cvuiq0ctci.
L =
]
1
1
1
3 6 O j O
O 2 2 j O
1 1 1 j O
~
,
1
+ ,
3

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j O
O 2 2 j O
3 6 O j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (3),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j O
O 2 2 j O
O 3 3 j O
~
,
2

1
2
,
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j O
O 1 1 j O
O 3 3 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ 3,
2
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j O
O 1 1 j O
O O O j O
~
,
1
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1 O 2 j O
O 1 1 j O
'Au to ototqu civui ioootvuo c to:
;
x 2z = O
y z = O
xui uv 0cootc z = l e R totc c_otc uvcic itoci:
(x, y, z) = (2l, l, l)
c l cict0co u,vcoto.
'Aouqoq 4
Aivctui o vivuxu A ttvot (x + i) (2x + i 1) xui o vivuxu B ttvot
(2i x) (3x i + 2). u |citc tot uxcuiot x, i cotc vu oic-
tui to u0oiou A + B xui to ,ivocvo AB.
Aoq
- Iiu vu oictui to u0oiou A + B vcvci oi vivuxc A, B vu ci-
vui tot ioiot ttvot, uu:
;
x + i = 2i x
2x + i 1 = 3x i + 2

2x i = O (1)
x + 2i = 3 (2)
- Iiu vu oictui to ,ivocvo AB vcvci:
2x + i 1 = 2i x 3x i = 1 (3)
Av cviitootc to ototqu tcv (1), (2) |ioxotc x = 1, i = 2 oi tic
tcv ovoicv cvuiq0ctotv xui tqv (3). Totc oi vivuxc A, B 0u civui
ttvot 33.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
(u)
3x + 2y = 1
2x + y = 1
5x + 4y = 5
(|)
ix + y = 1
x + y = 1
x + iy = 1
c i e R
Aoq
(u) O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1
3 2 j 1
2 1 j 1
5 4 j 5
~
,
1

1
3
,
1

]
1
1
1
1
2
3
j
1
3
2 1 j 1
5 4 j 5
~
,
3
,
3
+ (5),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1
1
2
3
j
1
3
O
1
3
j
5
3
O
2
3
j
1O
3
~
,
3
,
3
+ 2,
2

]
1
1
1
2
3
j
1
3
O
1
3
j
5
3
O O j O
~
,
2
(1),
2
]
1
1
1
2
3
j
1
3
O
1
3
j
5
3
~
,
1
,
1
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1
1 O j 3
O
1
3
j
5
3
~
,
2
3,
2
]
1
1
1 O j 3
O 1 j 5
'Au c_otc ovuoixq itoq (x, y) = (3, 5).
(|) O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1
i 1 j 1
1 1 j 1
1 i j 1
~
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 j 1
i 1 j 1
1 i j 1
~
,
3
,
3
+ (1),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (i),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 j 1
O 1 i j 1 i
O i 1 j O
28 Kcuiuio 1
- Av i 1 = O i = 1 totc to ototqu civui ioootvuo c tqv
ciocoq x + y = 1 xui c_ci uvcic itoci (x, y) = (l, 1 l) o-
vot x = l e R.
- Av i 1 = O i = 1 totc to ototqu civui ioootvuo c to:
x + y = 1
y = 1
y = O
vot civui uotvuto.
'Aouqoq 2
u |citc tqv tiq tot i e R ,iu tqv ovoiu to ototqu:
'
[ x y c ]
]
1
1
1
1 2 O
2 2 1
2 1 2
= [ y 2c x ]
x + y 3c = 2i
civui ot|i|uoto.
Aoq
Avo tqv vctq iootqtu vuivotc:
x + 2y 2c = y
2x + 2y c = 2c
y + 2c = x

x + y 2c = O
2x + 2y + c = O
x + y + 2c = O
vot civui oo,cvc ototqu. Iiu tqv cviitoq tot vuivotc tov c-
vutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto:
L =
]
1
1
1
1 1 2 j O
2 2 1 j O
1 1 2 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (1),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1

]
1
1
1
1 1 2 j O
O O 5 j O
O O 4 j O
uv' ovot ctxoiu xutuiu|uivotc oti:
;
x + y = O
c = O
Av 0cootc x = l totc c_otc uvcic itoci (x, y, c) = (l, l, O).
Iiu vu cvuiq0ctctui xui q ciocoq x + y 3c = 2i vcvci:
l l 3O = 2i, uu i = O.
2quciooq: Mopoue vo opooue toi ti teooepi eioooei too oootp-
uoto toi vo eopuooooue tp ue0oo ioo,itov ooeiov, oote otpv
teeotoio pouup 0o opoooiootei. 0 0 0 | 2. Apo io vo eivoi oou-
iooto to ootpuo, peei 0.
'Aouqoq 3
u |citc ti tic tot i e R ,iu ti ovoic q ciocoq:
]
1
1
1 i
i i

]
1
1
x
y
=
]
1
1
i + 1
i
2
+ 1
c_ci itoq. Ii' uttc ti tic tot i vu tvoio,ioctc tov vivuxu
X =
]
1
1
x
y
.
Aoq
H ciocoq xutuiq,ci oc ioootvuo ototqu ovc uivctui otu c-
vocvu:
]
1
1
1 i
i i

]
1
1
x
y
=
]
1
1
i + 1
i
2
+ 1

]
1
1
x iy
ix iy
=
]
1
1
i + 1
i
2
+ 1

x iy = i + 1
ix iy = i
2
+ 1
O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1 i j i + 1
i i j i
2
+ 1
~
,
2
,
2
+ (i),
1

]
1
1
1 i j i + 1
O i
2
i j 1 i
- Av i
2
i = O i(i 1) = O i = O q i = 1, totc c_otc:
(i) Iiu i = O, L =
]
1
1
1 O j 1
O O j 1
uotvuto ototqu
(ii) Iiu i = 1, L =
]
1
1
1 1 j 2
O O j O
uu to ototqu civui ioootvuo c tqv ciocoq x y = 2
vot c_ci uvcic itoci (x, y) = (l + 2, l) c y = l "cict0co u-
,vcoto" l e R. 'Au ,iu i = 1 o vivuxu civui
X =
]
1
1
l + 2
l
, l e R.
- Av i
2
i = O oqiuoq i = 1, i = O, totc c_otc:
L =
]
1
1
1 i j i + 1
O i
2
i j 1 i
~
,
3

1
i
2
i
,
3

]
1
1
1
1 i j i + 1
O 1 j
1
i
~
,
1
,
1
+ i,
2
]
1
1
1
1 O j i
O 1 j
1
i
3O Kcuiuio 1
'Au to ototqu c_ci ovuoixq itoq (x, y) = (i,
1
i
), i = 1, i = O
xui o vivuxu X =
]
1
1
1
i

1
i
c i = 1, i = O.
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
lc cvu ti,cvo ABI iu ,cviu tot civui 1O c,uittcq uvo tq oct-
tcq xui q octtcq oiviuoiu uvo tqv titq. Yvoio,iotc ti ,cvic
tot ti,cvot.
Aoq
Av 0ccqootc x, y, c tu ctu tcv ,cvicv tot ti,cvot (oc oic)
totc:
x + y + c = 18O
x = y + 1O
y = 2c

x y = 1O
x + y + c = 18O
y 2c = O
Av L civui o cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto totc:
L =
]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
1 1 1 j 18O
O 1 2 j O
~
,
2
,
2
+ (1),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
O 2 1 j 17O
O 1 2 j O
~
,
2
+ ,
3

]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
O 1 2 j O
O 2 1 j 17O
~
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
O 1 2 j O
O O 5 j 17O
~
,
3

1
5
,
3

]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
O 1 2 j O
O O 1 j 34
~
,
2
,
2
+ 2,
3
]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 1O
O 1 O j 68
O O 1 j 34
~
,
1
,
1
+ ,
2

]
1
1
1
1 O O j 78
O 1 O j 68
O O 1 j 34
'Au oi ,cvic civui x = 78, y = 68 xui c = 34.
'Aouqoq 2
O uvociocto _uit|u vcic_ci oioqo (!e), uv0uxu (C), vixciio
(i) xui _cio (Ci). H uvuitoq cocic oti to 8O tot _uit|u uvo-
tcicitui uvo oioqo xui vixciio, tvu_ci 5 _cio xui q voootqtu
tot !e civui tctuviuoiu tq voootqtu tot C. u |c0ci q xutu
|uo ototuoq tot _uit|u oc !e, C, i, Ci.
Aoq
'Lotc x, y, z q xutu |uo ototuoq tot _uit|u oc !e, C xui i
uvtiotoi_u. Axou ,vciotc oti 5 civui q ototuoq xutu |uo
tot Ci oto _uit|u. Totc:
x
1OO
+
y
1OO
+
z
1OO
+
5
1OO
= 1 q x + y + z + 5 = 1OO (1)
Lvioq:
x + z = 8O (2)
x = 4y (3)
To ototqu tcv (1), (2), (3) civui ,uixo xui q cviitoq tot u oi-
vci: x = 6O, y = 15, z = 2O.
'Aouqoq 3
'Lvu cvooo_cio c_ci x ovoxiivu, y oixiivu xui c tixiivu ocutiu.
(u) u cxuoctc to viq0o tcv ocuticv xui xiivcv c tq |oq0ciu
tcv x, y, c.
(|) Av to viq0o oicv tcv ocuticv civui 18, to viq0o tcv xiivcv
33 xui to viq0o tcv oixiivcv ocuticv ooo tcv ovoxiivcv xui
tixiivcv ui, vu |citc voou civui tu ovoxiivu, oixiivu xui
tixiivu ocutiu.
Aoq
(u) Hiq0o ocuticv tot cvooo_ciot: x + y + c
Hiq0o xiivcv tot cvooo_ciot: x + 2y + 3c
(|) 'L_otc to ototqu:
x + y + c = 18
x + 2y + 3c = 33
y = x + c

x + y + c = 18
x + 2y + 3c = 33
x + y c = O
L =
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 18
1 2 3 j 33
1 1 1 j O
~
,
3
,
3
+ ,
1
,
2
,
2
+ (1),
1
32 Kcuiuio 1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 18
O 1 2 j 15
O 2 O j 18
~
,
3
,
3
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 18
O 1 2 j 15
O O 4 j 12
~
,
3

1
4
,
3
]
1
1
1
1 1 1 j 18
O 1 2 j 15
O O 1 j 3
~
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
3
,
2
,
2
+ (1),
3

]
1
1
1
1 1 O j 15
O 1 O j 9
O O 1 j 3
~
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
2
]
1
1
1
1 O O j 6
O 1 O j 9
O O 1 j 3
'Au to cvooo_cio c_ci 6 ovoxiivu, 9 oixiivu xui 3 tixiivu
ocutiu.
'Aouqoq 4
O votto civui xuu _uixot (Cu) xui xuooitcot (Sn). 'Lvu xo-
uti vottot t,ici 81,877 gi xui c_ci o,xo 1O cm
3
. Av q vtxvotq-
tu tot Cu civui 8,92 gi/cm
3
xui tot Sn civui 7,29 gi/cm
3
, vu |c0ci q
xutu |uo ototuoq tot vottot oc _uixo xui xuooitco.
(Otiotc oti: vtxvotqtu =
uu
o,xo
, =
m
V
).
Aoq
- 'Lotc x oc Cu xui y Sn q xutu |uo ototuoq tot vottot.
Totc:
x
1OO
+
y
1OO
= 1 x y 100 (1)
H |uoixq o_coq tot vottot c tu ototutixu tot civui q ioo-
tqtu tcv o,xcv tot, oqi.
V
vottot
= V
_uixot
+ V
xuooit.

m
=
m
1
1
+
m
2
2
(2)
ovot m, m
1
, m
2
civui oi uc xui ,
1
,
2
civui uvtiotoi_u oi vt-
xvotqtc tot vottot, Cu xui Sn.
- 'Oc m
1
= xm xui m
2
= ym. 'Au q (2) ,uctui:
m
=
xm
1
+
ym
2

1
=
x
1
+
y
2

1O
81,877
=
x
892
+
y
729
uv' ovot c uvuioiq vuovouotcv vuivotc:
729x 892y 79420 vcivot (3)
To ototqu (1) xui (3):
'
;
x + y = 1OO
729x + 892y = 7942O
oivci y = 4O xui x = 6O.
Icvtk Aokqoct Kcooou
'Aouqoq 1
Occotc cvu v vivuxu A = [u
ij
] cotc ,iu to xu0c otoi_cio tot vi-
vuxu vu io_tci u
ij
= ij. Av to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i ,uq
civui ioo c to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i otqiq, ocitc oti o vi-
vuxu civui tctu,cvixo.
Aoq
To u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i ,uq civui: u
i1
+ u
i2
+ + u
i
.
To u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv tq i otqiq civui: u
1i
+ u
2i
+ + u
vi
.
'L_otc u
i1
+ u
i2
+ + u
i
= u
1i
+ u
2i
+ + u
vi
, ovotc uvo tov oioo
xu0c otoi_ciot tot vivuxu A q voq,otcvq iootqtu ,uctui:
i + 2i + + i = i + 2i + + vi
(1 + 2 + + )i = (1 + 2 + + v)i
(1 + )
2
=
(1 + v)v
2

2
v
2
+ v = O ( v)( + v + 1) = O
'Au = v uot + v + 1 = O oioti oi , v civui 0ctixoi uxcuioi.
'Aouqoq 2
l' cvuv vivuxu 66 tovo0ctotc tot ui0ot 1, 2, 3, ., 36 xutu
ociu, cxivcvtu uvo tqv vctq ,uq xui ,uovtu oiuoo_ixu
tot vuuvuvc ui0ot. Mvocitc vu tovo0ctqoctc tot ui0ot
uttot ctoi cotc to u0oiou tcv otoi_cicv xu0c ,uq xui xu0c
otqiq vu civui vcitto ui0o;
Aoq
O vivuxu civui:
34 Kcuiuio 1
A =
]
1
1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 1O 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 2O 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 3O
31 32 33 34 35 36
To u0oiou tcv ci otoi_cicv xu0c ,uq xui xu0c otqiq civui
vcitto ui0o otuv to viq0o tcv vcittcv voo0coccv civui vc-
itto. Lvocvc oc xu0c ,uq xui otqiq vootc vu c_otc
tci vcittot voo0ctcot uv ,iu ovoiooqvotc otoi_cio tot vivu-
xu 0cootc:
u
ij
=
'

vcitto otuv i + j = vcitto
utio otuv i + j = utio
'Lvu tctoio vuuoci,u civui o vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
1
2 1 4 3 6 5
7 8 9 1O 11 12
14 13 16 15 18 17
19 2O 21 22 23 24
26 25 28 27 3O 29
31 32 33 34 35 36
'Aouqoq 3
Av o vivuxu:
A =
]
1
1
u
3
u
2
|, |
2
u,
|
3
,
2
u u|, ,
2
u|
,
3
u
2
| u
3
|
2
, |,
2
c u, |, , e R civui ti,cvixo xutc, vu ocictc oti civui xui oiu,c-
vio.
Aoq
Ti,cvixo xutc oquivci oti tu otoi_ciu vuvc uvo tqv xtiu oiu-
,cvio civui O, uu u
2
|, = O, |
2
u, = O, ,
2
u| = O. Mc voo0coq
xutu ciq tcv o_coccv c_otc:
u
2
+ |
2
+ ,
2
|, u, u| = O
1
2
(2u
2
+ 2|
2
+ 2,
2
2|, 2u, 2u|) = O

1
2
[(u |)
2
+ (| ,)
2
+ (, u)
2
] = O
'Au:
u | = O
| , = O
, u = O
uv' ovot u = | = ,.
Totc ,iu tu otoi_ciu xutc uvo tqv xtiu oiu,cvio c_otc:
|
3
,
2
u = |
3
|
3
= O
,
3
u
2
| = ,
3
,
3
= O
u
3
|
2
, = u
3
u
3
= O
'Au o vivuxu A civui oiu,cvio.
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc cvuv vivuxu A ttvot 23 xui cvuv vivuxu B ttvot 34.
Hooot voiiuviuoiuoot xui vooc voo0coci vcvci vu xuvotc
,iu vu tvoio,iootc to ,ivocvo AB;
Aoq
'Lotc A =
]
1
1
u
11
u
12
u
13
u
21
u
22
u
23
xui B =
]
1
1
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
14
|
21
|
22
|
23
|
24
|
31
|
32
|
33
|
34
.
- Tu 3 otoi_ciu tq vctq ,uq tot A voiiuviuoiuovtui c
tu uvtiotoi_u 3 otoi_ciu tq vctq otqiq tot B cotc vu vu-
otc to otoi_cio tq vctq ,uq xui vctq otqiq tot
AB. 'Au c_otc 3 voiiuviuoiuoot.
Atto ,ivctui ,iu oiu tu otoi_ciu tot ,ivocvot AB, uu c_otc
34 voiiuviuoiuoot tq vctq ,uq tot A c oic ti
otqic tot B xui uvtiotoi_u uiiot 34 voiiuviuoiuoot tq
octtcq ,uq tot A c oic ti otqic tot B. ltvoiixu, c-
_otc 234 voiiuviuoiuoot.
- Iiu vu |otc to otoi_cio tq vctq ,uq xui vctq otq-
iq tot AB voo0ctotc ctut tot tu 3 ,ivocvu vot |qxuc
u_ixu. 'Au xuvotc 2 voo0coci.
Lvocvc, ,iu oiu tu otoi_ciu tq vctq ,uq tot AB c_ot-
c 24 voo0coci. 'Ooiu, ,iu tu otoi_ciu tq octtcq ,uq
tot AB c_otc 24 voo0coci. ltvoiixu 224 voo0coci.
Mvocitc vu ,cvixctoctc ,iu vivuxc A
v
xui B
vx
;
36 Kcuiuio 1
'Aouqoq 5
Occotc cvuv 22 vivuxu A =
]
1
1
u |
, o
, u, |, ,, o e R.
(u) Bcitc tov ttvo tot vivuxu X ,iu tov ovoio c_ci cvvoiu q cioc-
oq AX XA = ! (1).
(|) Acitc oti ocv tvu_ci vivuxu X ,iu tov ovoio uiq0ctci q (1).
Aoq
(u) Iiu vu oictui o vivuxu AX vcvci oi ,uc tot X vu civui 2
xui ,iu vu oictui o vivuxu XA vcvci oi otqic tot X vu civui
2. 'Au o X civui 22.
(|) 'Lotc oti tvu_ci tctoio vivuxu X =
]
1
1
x y
z c
,iu tov ovoio i-
o_tci: AX XA = !
]
1
1
u |
, o

]
1
1
x y
z c

]
1
1
x y
z c

]
1
1
u |
, o
=
]
1
1
1 O
O 1

]
1
1
ux + |z uy + |c
,x + oz ,y + oc

]
1
1
ux + ,y |x + oy
uz + ,c |z + oc
=
]
1
1
1 O
O 1

|z ,y = 1 (1)
uy + |c |x oy = O (2)
,x + oz uz ,c = O (3)
,y |z = 1 (4)
uv' ovot c voo0coq xutu ciq tcv (1), (4) vuivotc O = 2 uot-
vuto.
'Au ocv tvu_ci tctoio vivuxu X xui q ciocoq AX XA = !
civui uotvutq.
2quciooq: 1evito eivoi ovotp p eiooop AX XA I
v
io to0e
ivoto A too vbv.
'Aouqoq 6
Occotc oto vv vivuxc A, B xui tov ttvot v1 vivuxu otqiq:
X =
]
1
1
1
O
O
(u) Hoiu otoi_ciu tot ,ivocvot AB civui uvotcicou tq vuq
(AB)X;
(|) Ivciovtu oti io_tci q vooctuiiotixq ioiotqtu otov voiiu-
viuoiuoo vivuxcv, voiu otoi_ciu tot ,ivocvot AB cxuci
to ,ivocvo A(BX);
Aoq
(u) To ,ivocvo AB civui cvu vv vivuxu xui o X civui cvu v1
vivuxu c vcto otoi_cio 1 xui tu tvoioivu O. 'Au (AB)X civui
cvu v1 vivuxu xui cxuci tqv vctq otqiq tot AB, uot
ovo tu otoi_ciu tq vctq otqiq voiiuviuoiuovtui c to 1,
cvc tu tvoioivu qocviovtui.
(|) Aot A(BX) = (AB)X, vouvc vuii tu otoi_ciu tq vctq
otqiq tot AB cxuci to ,ivocvo A(BX).
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc tot vv vivuxc A, B ,iu tot ovoiot io_tci A B = 2!
xui A
2
+ B
2
= 6!.
(u) Acitc oti AB = BA = !.
(|) Yvoio,iotc tov vivuxu A
3
B
2
A
2
B
2
.
Aoq
(u) A B = 2! A = B + 2!. Totc:
;
AB = (B + 2!)B = B
2
+ 2B
BA = B(B + 2!) = B
2
+ 2B
'Au AB = BA. Lvioq, uot A B = 2!,totc:
(A B)
2
= (2!)
2
A
2
2AB + B
2
= 4! 6! 2AB = 4! AB = !
(|) A
3
B
3
= (A B)(A
2
+ AB + B
2
) = (2!)(6! + !) = (2!)(7!) = 14!
'Au A
3
B
3
(A
2
+ B
2
) = 14! 6! = 8!.
'Aouqoq 8
u |citc ti tic tcv i, e R cotc vu civui ioootvuu tu ototq-
utu:
(l
1
)
x + 2y = 4
2x + i
2
y = O
(l
2
)
x + 2y = O
x + y = i +
38 Kcuiuio 1
Aoq
- O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot vctot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1 2 j 4
2 i
2
j O
~
,
1
(1),
1

]
1
1
1 2 j 4
2 i
2
j O
~
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1 2 j 4
O i
2
+ 4 j 8
~
,
2

1
i
2
+ 4
,
2

]
1
1
1
1 2 j 4
O 1 j
8
i
2
+ 4
~
,
1
,
1
+ 2,
2
]
1
1
1 1 O j
4i
2
i
2
+ 4
O 1 j
8
i
2
+ 4
'Au to (l
1
) c_ci ovuoixq itoq (x, y) = (
4i
2
i
2
+ 4
,
8
i
2
+ 4
).
- O cvutqcvo vivuxu tot octtcot ototquto civui:
L =
]
1
1
1 2 j O
1 j i +
~
,
2
,
2
+ (1),
1

]
1
1
1 2 j O
O 2 j i +
~
,
2

1
2
,
2
(*)
]
1
1
1
1 2 j O
O 1 j
i +
2
~
,
1
,
1
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1 O j
2(i + )
2
O 1 j
i +
2
'Au to (l
2
) c_ci ovuoixq itoq: (x, y) = (
2(i + )
2
,
i +
2
).
Ou vcvci:
4i
2
i
2
+ 4
=
2(i + )
2
8
i
2
+ 4
=
i +
2

4i
2
i
2
+ 4
=
16
i
2
+ 4
8
i
2
+ 4
=
i +
2

i = 2 q i = 2
8
i
2
+ 4
=
i +
2
- Av i = 2 totc uvo tq octtcq ciocoq tot ototquto c_otc
1 =
2 +
2
2 = 2 uotvuto.

(*) Aot tu ototqutu (l
1
) xui (l
2
) civui ioootvuu totc xut' uvu,xq to (l
2
) c_ci
ovuoixq itoq ,i' utto = 2.
- Av i = 2 totc c_otc 1 =
2 +
2
2 = 2 vot uiq0ctci ,iu
ovoiuoqvotc tiq tot = 2.
'Au ,iu i = 2 xui e R 2; tu (l
1
), (l
2
) civui ioootvuu.
'Aouqoq 9
Miu |ioq_uviu, _qoiovoici tci q_uvc, c ti ovoic xutu-
oxctuci tcoocu |ioq_uvixu cioq. Ku0c q_uvq ootictci 8 cc
tqv qcu xui o ui0o tcv ccv vot _qoiovoicitui xu0c q_uvq
,iu tqv vuu,c,q iu ovuou uvo xu0c cioo oivctui uvo tov vivu-
xu:
Lioq
Mq_uvq
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
q
1 2 1 2
2
q
2 O 1 1
3
q
1 2 3 O
u |citc vooc ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo 0u xutuoxctuototv cou
oc iu qcu.
Aoq
'Lotc x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
o ui0o tcv ovuocv vot vuu,ovtui uvo xu0c
cioo oc iu cu. Totc c_otc to ototqu:
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
3
+ 2x
4
= 8
2x
1
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 8
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 8
L =
]
1
1
1
1 2 1 2 j 8
2 O 1 1 j 8
1 2 3 O j 8
~
,
3
,
3
+ (1),
1
,
2
,
2
+ (2),
1
]
1
1
1
1 2 1 2 j 8
O 4 1 3 j 8
O O 2 2 j O
~
,
3

1
2
,
3
,
2

1
4
,
2
4O Kcuiuio 1
]
1
1
1
1 2 1 2 j 8
O 1
1
4
3
4
j 2
O O 1 1 j O
~
,
2
,
2
+

1
4
,
3
,
1
,
1
+ (1),
3
]
1
1
1
1 2 O 3 j 8
O 1 O 1 j 2
O O 1 1 j O
~
,
1
,
1
+ (2),
2

]
1
1
1
1 O O 1 j 4
O 1 O 1 j 2
O O 1 1 j O
'Au to u_ixo ototqu civui ioootvuo c to:
x
1
+ x
4
= 4
x
2
+ x
4
= 2
x
3
x
4
= O
xui uv 0cootc x
4
= l totc c_otc uvcic itoci:
(x
1
, x
3
, x
3
, x
4
) = (4 l, 2 l, l, l)
c l cict0co u,vcoto.
Lvcioq x
1
, O, x
2
, O, x
3
, O, x
4
, O 0u civui:
4 l , O
2 l , O
l , O
uu O l 2.
Av oc_totc oti vuu,ovtui ovo uxcuic ovuoc uvo xu0c cioo,
totc 0u civui l = O q l = 1 q l = 2 xui oi itoci tot ototquto 0u ci-
vui:
1
q
itoq : (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (4, 2, O, O) ,iu l = O
2
q
itoq : (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (3, 1, 1, 1) ,iu l = 1
3
q
itoq : (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (2, O, 2, 2) ,iu l = 2
Hcpiypoiuq 2rorioriuq
9 2.1 2.6
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
Oi ciou,c,c cu,c,c tq _cu uvo to 1974 cc to 1993 oivovtui
uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
Etooyey kot Eoyey 1974 1993
'Eto Etooyey Eoyey 'Eto Etooyey Eoyey
1974 132181 6O98O 1984 1O8388O 542676
1975 172O41 74441 1985 1412797 629O85
1976 223159 93811 1986 1582298 789995
1977 25215O 1O133O 1987 1867354 955O7O
1978 287729 123727 1988 1756998 776434
1979 35682O 144238 1989 2625714 123O942
198O 452881 2211O8 199O 3137524 12675O7
1981 493764 237928 1991 3921522 1579967
1982 66592O 286281 1992 4484O59 188O763
1983 848295 392652 1993 5O5O531 1933422
u ,ivci q ,uixq vuuotuoq uttcv c voit,cvixc ,uc otqv
ioiu ,uixq vuuotuoq.
42 Kcuiuio 2
Atoq
O
1OOOOOO
2OOOOOO
3OOOOOO
4OOOOOO
5OOOOOO
6OOOOOO
1
9
7
4
1
9
7
6
1
9
7
8
1
9
8
O
1
9
8
2
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
8
1
9
9
O
1
9
9
2
Liou,c,c Lu,c,c
'Aouqoq 2
u uvoocictc oti q coq tiq civui to u0oiou tcv ,ivocvcv tcv
ticv tq ctu|iqtq cvi ti uvtiotoi_c o_ctixc ot_votqtc.
Atoq
x =
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
=
v
1
x
1
v
+
v
2
x
2
v
+ +
v
x
x
x
v
=

v
1
v
x
1
+
v
2
v
x
2
+ +
v
x
v
x
x
= l
1
x
1
+ l
2
x
2
+ l
x
x
x
'Aouqoq 3
To coo to tcv 8O xutoixcv cvo vqoiot civui 172 cm. lti xu-
ioxuiivc oiuxovc 0uvotv oto vqoi 6O totiotc c coo to
187 cm. Hoio civui to coo to tcv utocv vot |ioxovtui oto vq-
oi oti xuioxuiivc oiuxovc;
Atoq
Iiu tu tq l
1
, l
2
, ., l
8O
tcv 8O xutoixcv c_otc oti:
172 =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8O
8O
'Au l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8O
= 8O172.
Iiu tu tq i
1
, i
2
, ., i
6O
tcv 6O totiotcv c_otc oti:
187 =
i
1
+ i
2
+ + i
6O
6O
'Au i
1
+ i
2
+ + i
6O
= 6O187.
H vcu coq tiq civui:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8O
+ i
1
+ i
2
+ + i
6O
8O + 6O
=
8O172 + 6O187
14O
=
2498O
14O
= 178,42 cm
'Aouqoq 4
lc cvu c,ootuoio c 1OO c,uocvot q coq tiq tcv uoi|cv ci-
vui 185OOO. To 45 tcv c,uocvcv oto c,ootuoio viqcvovtui
c io0o ixotco tq coq tiq xui oi io0oi tot c_otv coq
tiq 165OOO. Av oi uvooo_c tcv c,uocvcv c io0o ixotco
tq coq tiq utq0otv otq coq tiq, voiu 0u civui q vcu coq
tiq;
Atoq
Hiv ,ivci q utqoq oi uvooo_c civui l
1
, l
2
, ., l
45
, l
46
, l
47
, ., l
1OO
xui
0u c_otc 185OOO =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
45
+ l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
1OO
. 'Au:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
45
+ l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
= 185OOO1OO q
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
45
+ l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
= 185OOOOO (1)
Lvivicov 165OOO =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
45
45
. 'Au:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
45
= 165OOO45 = 7425OOO
Avo tqv (1) c_otc 7425OOO + l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
= 185OOOOO, uu
l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
= 11O75OOO.
H vcu coq tiq 0u civui:
45 tic
185OOO + 185OOO + + 185OOO + l
46
+ l
47
+ + l
1OO
1OO
=
45185OOO + 11O75OO
1OO
=
194OOOOO
1OO
= 194OOO
44 Kcuiuio 2
'Aouqoq 5
O vuuxutc vivuxu u oivci tq o_ctixq ot_votqtu iu ctu|iq-
tq c coq tiq 2,1. u otviqc0ci o vivuxu xui vu |c0ci q
oiucoo.
X
i
1 2 3 4
f
i
% 26 23
Atoq
Av l
2
, l
4
oi oto u,vcotc o_ctixc ot_votqtc, 0u c_otc oti
26 + l
2
+ 23 + l
4
= 1OO. 'Au l
2
+ l
4
= 51 q l
2
+ l
4
= O,51.
Lvivicov, q coq tiq ioottui c:
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
+ v
4
x
4
v
=
v
1
v
x
1
+
v
2
v
x
2
+
v
3
v
x
3
+
v
4
v
x
4
=
l
1
x
1
+ l
2
x
2
+ l
3
x
3
+ l
4
x
4
= 2,1
'Au:
O,261 + 2l
2
+ O,233 + 4l
4
= 2,1 q 2l
2
+ 4l
4
= 1,6 q l
2
+ 2l
4
= O,8
xui l
2
+ l
4
= O,51. 'Au:
l
2
+ 2l
4
l
2
l
4
= O,8 O,51 q l
4
= O,29 xui l
2
= O,22
Lvocvc, o vivuxu tcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
x
i
f
i
f
i
%
Lcttkq
o0potottkq
1 O,26 26 26
2 O,22 22 48
3 O,23 23 71
4 O,29 29 1OO
A0oioutu 1 1OO
H oiucoo uvtiotoi_ci otqv tiq 5O vot uvqxci oto oiuotqu
(48,71], oqiuoq q oiucoo civui 3.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Miu ctu|iqtq vuivci ti tic x, x + 2c, x + 3c, x + 4c, x + 5c c
c > O. u |c0ci q ttvixq uvoxiioq.
Atoq
H coq tiq civui:
x =
x + (x + c) + (x + 2c) + (x + 3c) + (x + 4c)
5
=
5x + 1Oc
5
= x + 2c
ovotc q oiuxtuvoq civui:
s
2
=
(x x 2c)
2
+ (x x c)
2
+ (x x)
2
+ (x x + c)
2
+ (x x + 2c)
2
5
=
4c
2
+ c
2
+ c
2
+ 4c
2
5
=
6
5
c
2
'Au s = c
6
5
.
'Aouqoq 2
Mctuc to |uo tcv xutoixcv cvo _ciot xui c_otc coq tiq
72Kg xui ttvixq uvoxiioq 5Kg. H ctqoq tot |uot c,ivc c iu
t,uiu vot ovc uvooci_0qxc ctu ti ctqoci coci_vc 2Kg ii,o-
tco oc xu0c ctqoq. Hoiu civui q vu,utixq coq tiq xui voiu
q vu,utixq ttvixq uvoxiioq;
Atoq
Av oi tic tcv vuutqqoccv civui l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
xui c_otv coq tiq
72, totc c_otc 72 =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
v
v
xui q vcu coq tiq 0u civui:
x =
l
1
+ 2 + l
2
+ 2 + + l
v
+ 2
v
=
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
v
+ 2v
v
=
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
v
v
+ 2 = 72 + 2 = 74 Kg
H oiuxtuvoq ,iu ti tic l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
civui:
(l
1
72)
2
+ (l
2
72)
2
+ + (l
v
72)
2
v
= 4
xui q vcu oiuxtuvoq 0u civui:
(l
1
+ 2 74)
2
+ (l
2
+ 2 74)
2
+ + (l
v
+ 2 74)
2
v
=
(l
1
72)
2
+ (l
2
72)
2
+ + (l
v
72)
2
v
= 4
oqiuoq q oiuxtuvoq oc ctu|uiictui.
46 Kcuiuio 2
'Aouqoq 3
Oi uvotoic tcv u0qtcv iu tuq Atxciot xutu tov qvu lcvtc-
|io civui O, 1, 2, 2, O, 3, 2, 7, 2, 1, O, 5, 6, 7, 4, 5, 2, 1, O, 6, 7, 8, 9, O, O,
2, 1, 2, 1, O, 9. u |c0ci to vooooto tcv u0qtcv vot c_otv vcio-
ootcc uvo 6 uvotoic.
Atoq
Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu tcv o_ctixcv xui o_ctixcv u0oioti-
xcv ot_votqtcv:
x
i
v
i
A0potottkq f
i
Lcttkq
o0potottkq
Lcttkq
o0potottkq %
O 6 6 O,2OOO O,2OOO 2O,OOOO
1 5 11 O,1667 O,3667 36,6667
2 7 18 O,2333 O,6OOO 6O,OOOO
3 1 19 O,O333 O,6333 63,3333
4 1 2O O,O333 O,6667 66,6667
5 2 22 O,O667 O,7333 73,3333
6 2 24 O,O667 O,8OOO 8O,OOOO
7 3 27 O,1OOO O,9OOO 9O,OOOO
8 2 29 O,O667 O,9667 96,6667
9 1 3O O,O333 1,OOOO 1OO,OOOO
A0oioutu 3O
Avotoic ii,otcc q ioc tot 6 c_ci to 8O xui utto voxtvtci uvo
tqv o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu tot 6. Oi tvoioivoi, oqiuoq to
2O 0u c_otv vcioootcc uvotoic uvo 6.
'Aouqoq 4
Oi uvotoic oto Atxcicv A, B oivovtui uvo tov vuuxutc vivuxu:
Aouoc A Akcto B Akcto
[ O, 1O ) 2O 25
[ 1O, 2O ) 16 11
[ 2O, 3O ) 25 17
[ 3O, 4O ) 26 22
[ 4O, 5O ) 7 8
[ 5O, 6O ) 8 2O
[ 6O, 8O ) 9 13
[ 8O, 1OO) 12 4
[1OO, 125) 3 4
(u) u |c0ci q coq tiq xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq tcv oto xutuvo-
cv.
(|) u o_coiuotci to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv oc xoivo oiu,uu.
(,) Avo tu Atxciu A, B voio civui vio ooio,cvc c vo ti uvot-
oic;
Atoq
x v
i
K
i
(Kvtpo) v
i
K
i
v
i
(
!
x K
i
)
2
[ O, 1O ) 2O 5 1OO 2O637,76
[ 1O, 2O ) 16 15 24O 783O,845
[ 2O, 3O ) 25 25 625 3674,188
[ 3O, 4O ) 26 35 91O 117,1871
[ 4O, 5O ) 7 45 315 434,3282
[ 5O, 6O ) 8 55 44O 2556,692
[ 6O, 8O ) 9 7O 63O 9728,O65
[ 8O, 1OO) 12 9O 1O8O 33551,71
[1OO, 125) 3 112,5 337,5 17O45,O7
A0oioutu 126 4677,5 95575,84
Avo tov vuuvuvc vivuxu c_otc oti q coq tiq civui:
x =
4677,5
126
= 37,12
cvc q oiuxtuvoq civui:
s
2
=
95575,84
126
= 758,54
ovotc q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 758,54 = 27,54.
Kutuoxctuotc to ioto,uu c tq iotcv tu vqiixu tcv ot_vo-
tqtcv vo to viuto xu0c oiuotquto:
O
O,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
O 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O 6O 8O 1OO 125
48 Kcuiuio 2
Iiu to Atxcio B' c_otc:
X v
i
K
i
(Kvtpo) v
i
K
i
v
i
(
!
x K
i
)
2
[ O, 1O ) 25 5 125 25797,2
[ 1O, 2O ) 11 15 165 5383,7O6
[ 2O, 3O ) 17 25 425 2498,448
[ 3O, 4O ) 22 35 77O 99,15832
[ 4O, 5O ) 9 45 4O5 558,4219
[ 5O, 6O ) 2O 55 11OO 6391,731
[ 6O, 8O ) 13 7O 91O 14O51,65
[ 8O, 1OO) 4 9O 36O 11183,9
[1OO, 125) 5 112,5 562,5 284O8,45
A0oioutu 126 4822,5 94372,67
Avo tov vuuvuvc vivuxu c_otc oti q coq tiq civui:
x =
4822,5
126
= 38,27
cvc q oiuxtuvoq civui:
s
2
=
94372,67
126
= 748,99
ovotc q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 748,99 = 27,37.
O
O,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
O 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O 6O 8O 1OO 125
O otvtcicotq ctu|iqtotqtu ,iu ti uvotoic oto A' Atxcio ci-
vui:
CV =
27,54
37,12
1OO = 74,19
O otvtcicotq ctu|iqtotqtu ,iu ti uvotoic oto B' Atxcio ci-
vui:
CV =
27,37
38,27
1OO = 71,51
Aqiuoq xui tu oto Atxciu cuviotv c,uio |u0o uvooio,cvci-
u, uiiu vio ooio,cvc civui to B' Atxcio.
'Aouqoq 5
Oi 8 uvo tot 2O c,uocvot oc cvu c,ootuoio c_otv coo qvi-
uio io0o 175OOO xui oi tvoioivoi 215OOO. Hoio civui o coo qvi-
uio io0o oicv tcv c,uocvcv;
Atoq
Av l
1
, l
2
, ., l
8
, l
9
, l
1O
, ., l
2O

civui oi io0oi tcv 2O c,uocvcv uvo
tot ovoiot oi l
1
, l
2
, ., l
8

c_otv coq tiq 175OOO xui oi l
9
, l
1O
, ., l
2O
215OOO, totc:
175OOO =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
8
, uu l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
= 8175OOO = 14OOOOO
215OOO =
l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
2O
12
, uu l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
2O
= 12215OOO = 258OOOO
H coq tiq oicv tcv c,uocvcv civui:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
+ l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
2O
2O
=
14OOOOO + 258OOOO
2O
=
398OOOO
2O
= 199OOO
'Aouqoq 6
H ctoto_iu iu ouou Mvuoxct oti cict0cc |oic civui 7O.
Oi 5 |uoixoi vuixtc c_otv ctoto_iu 75 xui oi 3 cvi0ctixoi uvu-
viqcutixoi 6O. Hooq ctoto_iu c_otv oi 2 utvtixoi uvuviqc-
utixoi;
Atoq
Av l
1
, l
2
, l
3
, l
4
, l
5

civui q ctoto_iu tcv |uoixcv vuixtcv, l
6
, l
7
, l
8
tcv
cvi0ctixcv uvuviqcutixcv xui l
9
, l
1O
tcv utvtixcv uvuviqcu-
tixcv, totc:
7O =
l
1
+ l
2
+ l
3
+ l
4
+ l
5
+ l
6
+ l
7
+ l
8
+ l
9
+ l
1O
1O
(1)
75 =
l
1
+ l
2
+ l
3
+ l
4
+ l
5
5
, uu l
1
+ l
2
+ l
3
+ l
4
+ l
5
= 575 = 375 (2)
6O =
l
6
+ l
7
+ l
8
3
, uu l
6
+ l
7
+ l
8
= 36O = 18O (3)
5O Kcuiuio 2
H (1) uvo ti (2), (3) ,ivctui:
375 + 18O + l
9
+ l
1O
1O
= 7O q l
9
+ l
1O
= 7OO 375 18O q
l
9
+ l
1O
= 145 q
l
9
+ l
1O
2
= 72,5
'Au q coq tiq tq ctoto_iu tcv oto utvtixcv uvuviqcuti-
xcv civui 72,5.
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
u ,ivci o vivuxu ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv u0oioti-
xcv o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv tq vuuxutc xutuvoq:
HINAKAL HAIKIAL HAOONTHN (ooqyo cttc co)
kot to 1998 e 50 ctev
Htko 'Atoo
Mc_i 5 ctcv 354
6 - 12 ctcv 7O4
13 - 17 ctcv 2.124
18 - 2O ctcv 3.739
21 - 24 ctcv 5.O43
25 - 29 ctcv 4.783
3O - 34 ctcv 3.824
35 - 44 ctcv 4.654
45 - 5O ctcv 2.259
Hq,q: Yvot,cio Aqooiu Tuq
Kutoviv vu xutuoxctuotci to oiu,uu ot_votqtcv.
Atoq
O vivuxu tcv ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv u0oiotixcv
o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
Htko 'Atoo f
i
A0potottkq
ouvotqto
Lcttkq o-
0potottkq
[ O, 6 ) 354 O,O129 354 O,O129
[ 6, 13) 7O4 O,O256 1O58 O,O385
[13,18) 2124 O,O773 3182 O,1158
[18,21) 3739 O,136O 6921 O,2518
[21,25) 5O43 O,1835 11964 O,4353
[25,3O) 4783 O,174O 16747 O,6O93
[3O,35) 3824 O,1391 2O571 O,7485
[35,44) 4654 O,1693 25225 O,9178
[45,5O) 2259 O,O822 27484 1,OOOO
A0oioutu 27484 1,OOOO
Iiu tq xutuoxctq tot oiu,uuto ot_votqtcv xutuoxctuotc
iu otqiq c to viuto xu0c xiuoq xui iu uiiq c to vqiixo tq
ot_votqtu vo to viuto tq xiuoq:
Htko 'Atoo
Hto
koq
'Atoo
Hto
[ O, 6 ) 354 6 59
[ 6, 13) 7O4 7 1OO,5714
[13,18) 2124 5 424,8
[18,21) 3739 3 1246,333
[21,25) 5O43 4 126O,75
[25,3O) 4783 5 956,6
[3O,35) 3824 5 764,8
[35,45) 4654 9 517,1111
[45,5O) 2259 5 451,8
52 Kcuiuio 2
O
2OO
4OO
6OO
8OO
1OOO
12OO
14OO
O 6 13 18 21 25 3O 35 45 5O
'Aouqoq 2
O vuuxutc vivuxu u vuotoiuci tqv xutuvoq tcv q_uvoxi-
vqtcv uiicttixcv oxucv c vo tqv ivvootvuq tot:
Mqovokvqto otcuttk okq, kot ktkto
toouvce pt 200 HP kot to to 1991
Ktkto
toouvce
v
i
[ O, 1O ) 1O
[ 1O, 2O ) 52
[ 2O, 3O ) 1777
[ 3O, 4O ) 1317
[ 4O, 5O ) 856
[ 5O, 6O ) 863
[ 6O, 7O ) 434
[ 7O, 8O ) 517
[ 8O, 9O ) 486
[ 9O, 1OO) 452
[1OO, 15O) 1243
[15O, 2OO) 41O
(u) u ,ivci to ioto,uu ot_votqtcv.
(|) u |c0ci q coq tiq.
(,) u |c0ci q oiuxtuvoq xui ttvixq uvoxiioq.
Atoq
Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu:
Ktkto
toouvce
v
i
Hto koq c
i
v
i
c
i
[ O, 1O ) 1O 1O 1
[ 1O, 2O ) 52 1O 5,2
[ 2O, 3O ) 1777 1O 177,7
[ 3O, 4O ) 1317 1O 131,7
[ 4O, 5O ) 856 1O 85,6
[ 5O, 6O ) 863 1O 86,3
[ 6O, 7O ) 434 1O 43,4
[ 7O, 8O ) 517 1O 51,7
[ 8O, 9O ) 486 1O 48,6
[ 9O, 1OO) 452 1O 45,2
[1OO, 15O) 1243 5O 24,86
[15O, 2OO) 41O 5O 8,2
To ioto,uu ot_votqtcv civui to uxoiot0o:
O
5O
1OO
15O
2OO
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200
54 Kcuiuio 2
H coq tiq xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq tvoio,ictui uvo tov vuuxutc
vivuxu:
Ktkto
toouvce
v
i
Kvtpo
koq
v
i
x
i
v
i
(
!
x x
i
)
2
[ O, 1O ) 1O 5 5O 37235,O8
[ 1O, 2O ) 52 15 78O 135361
[ 2O, 3O ) 1777 25 44425 299O133
[ 3O, 4O ) 1317 35 46O95 1267316
[ 4O, 5O ) 856 45 3852O 378235,3
[ 5O, 6O ) 863 55 47465 1O4813,6
[ 6O, 7O ) 434 65 2821O 452,O239
[ 7O, 8O ) 517 75 38775 41685,95
[ 8O, 9O ) 486 85 4131O 175O66,6
[ 9O, 1OO) 452 95 4294O 379593,4
[1OO, 15O) 1243 125 155375 4323869
[15O, 2OO) 41O 175 7175O 4869373
A0oioutu 8417 555695 147O3133
H coq tiq ioottui c
555695
8417
= 66,02.
H oiuxtuvoq c
14703133
8417
= 1746,84.
H ttvixq uvoxiioq c 1746,84 = 41,8.
'Aouqoq 3
O vuuxutc vivuxu u oivci tqv xutuvoq tcv xutoixcv tq Liiu-
ou c vo tqv qiixiu xutu to cto 1992:
Kotovoq qtko kotokev Eoo kot to 1992
Htko 'Atoo Htko 'Atoo Htko 'Atoo
[ O, 5 ) 5295O1 [3O, 35) 73131O [6O, 65) 634154
[ 5, 1O) 62O54O [35, 4O) 698124 [65, 7O) 5112O6
[1O, 15) 74121O [4O, 45) 6665O3 [7O, 75) 35853O
[15, 2O) 768765 [45, 5O) 624437 [75, 8O) 285435
[2O, 25) 788764 [5O, 55) 6O9587 [8O, 85) 2O3942
[25, 3O) 7593O1 [55, 6O) 659O35 85 xui uvc 131539
(u) u ,ivci ,uixq vuuotuoq tcv ot_votqtcv.
(|) u ,ivci ,uixq vuuotuoq tcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv.
(,) u |c0ci ti vooooto tot viq0toot ci_c qiixiu ixotcq q i-
oq tcv 23 ctcv.
(o) u |c0ci ti vooooto tot viq0toot ci_c qiixiu c,uittcq q
ioq tcv 5O ctcv.
Atoq
Kutuoxctuotc tov vivuxu u0oiotixcv, o_ctixcv, o_ctixcv u-
0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv:
Htko Luvotqto v
i
Lcttkq
ouvotqto
A0potottkq
ouvotqto
Lcttkq
o0potottkq
[ O, 5 ) 5295O1 O,O513 5295O1 O,O513
[ 5, 1O) 62O54O O,O6O1 115OO41 O,1114
[1O, 15) 74121O O,O718 1891251 O,1832
[15, 2O) 768765 O,O745 266OO16 O,2577
[2O, 25) 788764 O,O764 344878O O,3341
[25, 3O) 7593O1 O,O736 42O8O81 O,4O77
[3O, 35) 73131O O,O7O9 4939391 O,4785
[35, 4O) 698124 O,O676 5637515 O,5462
[4O, 45) 6665O3 O,O646 63O4O18 O,61O7
[45, 5O) 624437 O,O6O5 6928455 O,6712
[5O, 55) 6O9587 O,O591 7538O42 O,73O3
[55, 6O) 659O35 O,O638 8197O77 O,7941
[6O, 65) 634154 O,O614 8831231 O,8556
[65, 7O) 5112O6 O,O495 9342437 O,9O51
[7O, 75) 35853O O,O347 97OO967 O,9398
[75, 8O) 285435 O,O277 99864O2 O,9675
[8O, 85) 2O3942 O,O198 1O19O344 O,9873
85 xui uvc 131539 O,O127 1O321883 1,OOOO
'A0oiou 1O321883
56 Kcuiuio 2
Ovotc tu oiu,uutu tcv ot_votqtcv o_ctixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
O
1OOOOO
2OOOOO
3OOOOO
4OOOOO
5OOOOO
6OOOOO
7OOOOO
8OOOOO
9OOOOO
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(%)
O 5 1O 15 2O 25 3O 35 4O 45 5O 55 6O 65 7O 75 8O 85
To oiu,uu tcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv civui:
O
2OOOOOO
4OOOOOO
6OOOOOO
8OOOOOO
1OOOOOOO
O
2O
4O
6O
8O
1OO
()
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
28,83
22
Iiu tov tvoio,ioo tot vooootot tcv utocv c qiixiu xutc tcv 22
ctcv uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tcv o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_vo-
tqtcv |uotc to 22 tiq otov x'x xui |ioxotc tqv uvtiotoi_q ti-
q tq tctu,cvq vot civui 28,83.
Avo tov vivuxu tcv o_ctixcv u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv c_otc oti q
o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot_votqtu tot oiuotquto [45, 5O) civui
67,12, oqiuoq to 67,12 c_ci qiixiu ixotcq tot 5O, cvocvc to
tvoioivo 1OO 67,12 = 32,88 c_ci qiixiu c,uittcq q ioq tot
5O.
'Aouqoq 1
lc o_oicio vu,utovoiq0qxc cctvu ,iu to to tcv u0qtcv. Ku-
toviv oc _u0qxuv tu otoi_ciu ctqoccv xui |c0qxc ovo to vo-
it,cvo u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv.
O
5
1O
15
2O
145 155 165 175 185 195 2O5 215
(u) u xutuoxctuoctc to voit,cvo ot_votqtcv.
(|) u |citc tq coq tiq.
(,) u |citc tq oiucoo.
(o) u |citc tq oiuxtuvoq xui tqv ttvixq uvoxiioq.
Atoq
Av uuicootc oto oiuoo_ixc tic u0oiotixcv ot_votqtcv |i-
oxotc tq ot_votqtu vot uvtiotoi_ci otq c,uittcq u0oiotixq
ot_votqtu. Aqiuoq l
7
l
6
= (v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
7
) (v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
6
) = v
7
,
uu v
7
= l
7
l
6
= 2O 19 = 1. Icvixotcu c_otc l
x+1
l
x
= v
x
.
x v
i
A0potottkq
ouvotqto
K
i
v
i
K
i
v
i
(
!
x K
i
)
2
[145,155) 2 2 15O 3OO 1568
[155,165) 2 4 16O 32O 648
[165,175) 4 8 17O 68O 256
[175,185) 6 14 18O 1O8O 24
[185,195) 3 17 19O 57O 432
[195,2O5) 2 19 2OO 4OO 968
[2O5,215) 1 2O 21O 21O 1O24
2O 356O 492O
58 Kcuiuio 2
(u) To c,c0o tot oci,uto civui v = 2O. Oi xotc tot voit,c-
vot civui tu cou tcv uvc |uoccv tcv o0o,cvicv vot oiovtui
uvo to ioto,uu ot_votqtcv. 'Au 0u c_otc to cq voit,c-
vo ot_votqtcv:
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
145 155 165 175 185 195 2O5 215
(|) H coq tiq
x ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-

i
K
i
xui vuuvouotq to
viq0o tcv otoi_cicv, uu
x =
356O
2O
= 178 cm.
(,) H oiucoo tvoio,ictui uvo to oiu,uu tq u0oiotixq ot-
_votqtu. Mc tiq otov y'y 1O |ioxotc tq tiq tot uovu tcv
x vot civui 179 cm.
(o) H oiuxtuvoq s
2
ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-
i
(
x K
i
)
2
xui vuuvouotq
to viq0o tcv otoi_cicv, uu s
2
=
492O
25
= 246, ovotc ttvixq uvo-
xiioq s = 246 = 15,68.
'Aouqoq 2
Av oi tic iu ctu|iqtq utq0otv xutu I vu oci_0ci oti q coq
tiq utuvctui xutu I cvc q ttvixq uvoxiioq vuucvci otu0cq.
Atoq
Av q ctu|iqtq vuotoiuci x
1
, x
2
, ., x
x
tic c uvtiotoi_c ot-
_votqtc v
1
, v
2
, ., v
x
ovot v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
x
= v, totc c_otc:
x =
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
x
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
y =
v
1
(x
1
+ I) + v
2
(x
2
+ I) + + v
x
(x
x
+ I)
v
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
+ v
1
I + v
2
I + + v
x
I
v
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
+ (v
1
+ v
2
+ + v
x
)I
v
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
+ vI
v
=
v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ + v
x
x
x
v
+
vI
v
=
x + I
'Au
y =
x + I. Iiu tq oiuxtuvoq c_otc:

s
2
=
v
1
(
x x
1
)
2
+ v
2
(
x x
2
)
2
+ + v
x
(
x x
x
)
2
v
Iiu tq vcu oiuxtuvoq c_otc:
o
2
=
v
1
(
y x
1
I)
2
+ v
2
(
y x
2
I)
2
+ + v
x
(
y x
x
I)
2
v
=
v
1
(
x + I x
1
I)
2
+ v
2
(
x + I x
2
I)
2
+ + v
x
(
x + I x
x
I)
2
v
=
v
1
(
x x
1
)
2
+ v
2
(
x x
2
)
2
+ + v
x
(
x x
x
)
2
v
= s
2
'Au o
2
= s
2
xui uot o, s q uvqtixoi c_otc o = s.
'Aouqoq 3
(u) Hoiu civui q coq tiq tcv ,cvicv cvo ti,cvot;
(|) Hoiu civui q coq tiq tcv ,cvicv cvo v-,cvot;
Atoq
(u) To u0oiou tcv ,cvicv cvo ti,cvot civui 18O, uu q coq
tiq 0u civui
18O
3
= 6O.
(|) To u0oiou tcv ,cvicv cvo v-,cvot civui (v 2)18O, uu q
coq tiq civui
(v 2)18O
v
.
Iiu to tctuvicto q coq tiq 0u civui
(4 2)18O
4
= 9O.
Iiu to vcvtuvicto q coq tiq 0u civui
(5 2)18O
5
= 1O8.
6O Kcuiuio 2
'Aouqoq 4
Av oi tic tcv vuutqqoccv ctu|iqtq x voiiuviuoiuo0otv c
cvuv ui0o u > O, vc ctu|uiictui q coq tiq xui q ttvixq uvo-
xiioq;
Atoq
Av oi tic tcv vuutqqoccv civui l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
totc c_otc:
x =
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
v
v
y =
ul
1
+ ul
2
+ + ul
v
v
= u
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
v
v
= u
x
oqiuoq xui q coq tiq voiiuviuoiuctui c u.
H oiuxtuvoq ,iu ti tic l
1
, l
2
, ., l
v
civui:
s
2
=
(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
xui q vcu oiuxtuvoq 0u civui:
o
2
=
(u
x ul
1
)
2
+ (u
x ul
2
)
2
+ + (u
x ul
v
)
2
v
=
u
2
(
x l
1
)
2
+ u
2
(
x l
2
)
2
+ + u
2
(
x l
v
)
2
v
=
u
2

(
x l
1
)
2
+ (
x l
2
)
2
+ + (
x l
v
)
2
v
= u
2
s
2
'Au o
2
= u
2
s
2
xui cvocvc o = us.
Aqiuoq xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq voiiuviuoiuctui c u.
'Aouqoq 5
Oi oxtc c,uocvoi iu cvi_ciqoq c_otv coo io0o 125OOO xui
o coo io0o tcv tvoioivcv civui 145OOO. Av o coo io0o oicv
tcv c,uocvcv otqv cvi_ciqoq civui 137OOO, vu |c0ci voooi c-
,uovtui otqv cvi_ciqoq.
Atoq
Av to viq0o tcv tvuiiqicv civui v xui l
1
, l
2
, ., l
8
, l
9
, l
1O
, ., l
v

civui
oi io0oi tot totc
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
+ l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
v
v
= 137OOO, uu:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
+ l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
v
= 137OOOv (1)
Oi oxtc tcv tvuiiqioi c io0ot l
1
, l
2
, ., l
8

c_otv coo io0o
125OOO, uu
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
8
= 125OOO, ovotc:
l
1
+ l
2
+ + l
8
= 1OOOOOO (2)
Oi tvoioivoi v 8 tvuiiqioi c_otv coo io0o 145OOO, uu
l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
v
v 8
= 145OOO, uu:
l
9
+ l
1O
+ + l
v
= (v 8)145OOO (3)
Avtixu0iototc ti (2), (3) otqv (1), ovotc:
1OOOOOO + (v 8)145OOO = 137OOOv q
1OOOOOO + 145OOOv 116OOOO = 137OOOv q
145OOOv 137OOOv = 16OOOO q 8OOOv = 16OOOO q v = 2O
'Opio 2ovcio 2ovprqoq
9 3.1 3.5
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
Avo tq ,uixq vu-
uotuoq tq otv-
utqoq l, vot ui-
vctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu vu cxtiqoc-
tc to lim
xx
O
l(x), uv
toixu tvu_ci, ,iu
x
O
= 2,O,1,2,3,4,5.
y
x O 1
1
y l(x)
2
2
2 3 4 5
2
Aoq
(u) lim
x2
l(x) = 2 (|) lim
xO
l(x) = 2
(,) lim
x1
l(x) = O (o) Acv tvu_ci to lim
x2
l(x)
(c) lim
x3
l(x) = 1 (ot)lim
x4
l(x) = 1
() lim
x5
l(x) = 2
'Aouqoq 2
Xqoiovoiqotc tqv vuuxutc ,uixq vuuotuoq ,iu vu cxtiq-
octc (tvoio,ioctc) tu lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
+
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x) otu ooocvu oqciu.
y
x
O
1
1
y l(x)
x O
x 1
x 2
2
2
Aoq
(u) lim
xO
+
l(x) = 1, lim
xO
l(x) = 2
Acv tvu_ci to lim
xO
l(x).
(|) lim
x1
+
l(x) = 1, lim
x1
l(x) = 1, lim
x1
l(x) = 1
Huutqotc oti l(1) = O.
(,) lim
x2
+
l(x) = 1, lim
x2
l(x) = 1, lim
x2
l(x) = 1
'Aouqoq 3
Av q otvutqoq l c_ci vcoio o-
ioot [4, 4] xui ,uixq vuu-
otuoq vot uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu, vu cctuoctc voioi uvo
tot cvocvot io_tioot ci-
vui ocotoi (l) xui voioi iu0o
(A). u uitioio,qoctc ti uvu-
vtqoci ou.
(u) lim
x4
+
l(x) = 1
(|) lim
x2
l(x) = 3
(,) lim
xO
l(x) = l(O)
y
x O
1
y l(x)
2 4
4
2
3
4
2
(o) lim
xO
+
l(x) = O (ot) lim
x4
l(x) = 4
(c) lim
x2
l(x) = l(2) () lim
x4
l(x) = O
64 Kcuiuio 3
Aoq
(u) lcoto (l) (|) lcoto (l)
(,) lcoto (l) (o) Au0o (A)
(c) lcoto (l) (ot)lcoto (l)
() Au0o (A)
'Aouqoq 4
Aot _uuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l c ttvo:
l(x) =
'
x
2
1 , x O
x 1 , O < x < 1
2 x , 1 x
vu cxtiqoctc tu lim
xO
l(x), lim
xO
+
l(x), lim
x1
l(x), lim
x1
+
l(x), uv uttu tvu-
_otv. Lvioq, vu tvoio,ioctc ti ui0qtixc tic l(O), l(1).
Aoq
(u) lim
xO
l(x) = 1
(|) lim
xO
+
l(x) = 1
(,) lim
x1
l(x) = O
(o) lim
x1
+
l(x) = 1
'Au ocv tvu_ci to lim
x1
l(x)
(c) l(O) = 1 xui l(1) = 1
y
x O 1
1
y l(x)
1 2
1
'Aouqoq 5
(u) l(x) = x
2
1, lim
x2
l(x)
x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x)
(|) l(x) =
,x,
x
+ 1, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) 2 O
(,) l(x) =
x + 1 1
x
, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) O,5O12 O,488O
(o) l(x) =
'
1
x + 1
, x > 1
x
2
+ 1 , x 1
, lim
x1
l(x)
x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x)
Aoq
(u) x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x) 2,61OO 2,96O1 2,996O 3,OO4O 3,O4O1 3,41OO
uuivctui uvo ti tic oti q l vooc,,ici tov ui0o 3 xu0c to
x vooc,,ici to 2. 'Au lim
x2
l(x) = 3.
(|) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) 2 2 2 O O O
Ku0c to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o O vuivovtu 0ctixc tic,
oi tic tq l civui otu0cc xui ioc c 2.
'Otuv to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o O vuivovtu uvqtixc tic,
oi tic tq l civui otu0cc xui ioc c O.
xO
l(x).
(,) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) O,5132 O,5O12 O,5OO1 O,4999 O,4988 O,488O
H l vooc,,ici tov ui0o
1
2
xu0c to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o
O. 'Au lim
xO
l(x) =
1
2
.
66 Kcuiuio 3
(o) x O,9 O,99 O,999 1,OO1 1,O1 1,1
l(x) O,19OO O,O199 O,OO2O O,4998 O,4975 O,4762
Ku0c to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o 1 uvo ixotcc tic q ot-
vutqoq l vooc,,ici tov ui0o O. 'Otuv oc to x vooc,,ici
tov ui0o 1 uvo c,uittcc tic oi tic tq otvutqoq
vooc,,iotv tov ui0o
1
2
. 'Au ocv tvu_ci to lim
x1
l(x).
'Aouqoq 6
Av ,vcictc oti lim
xx
O
l(x) = 5 xui lim
xx
O
g(x) = 4 tvoio,iotc tu vuu-
xutc:
(u) lim
xx
O
[l(x)g(x)] (|) lim
xx
O

1Og(x)
l(x)
(,) lim
xx
O

2l(x) + 5g(x)
l(x)g(x)
(o) lim
xx
O
l(x) + 5g(x)
(c) lim
xx
O

3
1
2g(x)
(ot) lim
xx
O

l(x) g(x)
l(x) + g(x)
Aoq
(u) lim
xx
O
[l(x)g(x)] = lim
xx
O
l(x) lim
xx
O
g(x) = 54 = 2O
(|) lim
xx
O

1Og(x)
l(x)
=
1O lim
xx
O
g(x)
lim
xx
O
l(x)
=
1O4
5
= 8
(,) lim
xx
O

2l(x) + 5g(x)
l(x)g(x)
=
lim
xx
O
[2l(x) + 5g(x)]
lim
xx
O
[l(x)g(x)]
=
2 lim
xx
O
l(x) + 5 lim
xx
O
g(x)
lim
xx
O
l(x) lim
xx
O
g(x)
=
3
2
(o) lim
xx
O
l(x) + 5g(x) = lim
xx
O
[l(x) + 5g(x)] = lim
xx
O
l(x) + 5 lim
xx
O
g(x) =
25 = 5
(c) lim
xx
O

3
1
2g(x)
=
3
lim
xx
O

1
2g(x)
=
3
1
2 lim
xx
O
g(x)
=
3
1
8
=
1
2
(ot) lim
xx
O

l(x) g(x)
l(x) + g(x)
=
lim
xx
O
l(x) lim
xx
O
g(x)
lim
xx
O
l(x) + lim
xx
O
g(x)
=
5 4
5 + 2
=
1
7
'Aouqoq 7
(u) lim
x2
(x
3
3x
2
+ 5x
3
) (|) lim
x2
[(1 x)(3 + x)]
(,) lim
x1

2x + 4
x
2
3x + 4
(o) lim
xO

x + 2 2
x + 1
Aoq
(u) lim
x2

_
1
x
3
3
1
x
2
+ 5x
3
= lim
x2

1
x
3
3 lim
x2

1
x
2
+ 5 lim
x2
x
3
=
1
8
3
1
4
+ 58 =
315
8
(|) Livui lim
x2
(1 x) = 1 2, lim
x2
(3 + x) = 3 + 2.
'Au tvu_ci to oio tot ,ivocvot:
lim
x2
[(1 x)(3 + x)] = (1 2)(3 + 2) = 1 2 2
(,) Livui lim
x1
(2x + 4) = 6, lim
x1
(x
2
3x + 4) = 2.
'Au tvu_ci to oio tot vqiixot:
lim
x1

2x + 4
x
2
3x + 4
=
6
2
= 3
(o) Livui lim
xO
( x + 2 2) = O, lim
xO
(x + 1) = 1.
'Au tvu_ci to oio tot vqiixot:
lim
xO

x + 2 2
x + 1
=
O
1
= O
'Aouqoq 8
lto oiviuvo o_qu oivctui q ,uixq vu-
uotuoq otvutqoq l. u cxtiqoctc
(uvtcctc) tu lim
xx
O
+
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x), lim
xx
O
l(x).
y
x
O
y l(x)
x 2
x 2
2 2
68 Kcuiuio 3
Aoq
(u) lim
x2
+
l(x) = +, lim
x2
l(x) = , ocv tvu_ci to lim

x2
l(x)
(|) lim
x2
+
l(x) = , lim
x2
l(x) = , lim
x2
l(x) =
'Aouqoq 9
lc voic uvo ti voq,otcvc vcivtcoci tq uoxqoq 8 vuotoi-
uctui xutuxotq uotvtctq otq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvu-
tqoq l; Hoiu civui q ciocoq tq uotvtctq, ovot tvu_ci uttq;
Aoq
Kui oti oto:
(u) x = 2
(|) x = 2
'Aouqoq 10
u otviqcoctc tq ,uixq
vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l
oto oiviuvo o_qu, cotc vu
io_tci:
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = +
(|) lim
x1
l(x) =
(,) lim
x1
+
l(x) = xui lim
x1
= +
y
x O
y l(x)
1
Aoq
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = +. 'Au iu cixovu tq l 0u vootoc vu qtuv:
y
x O
y l(x)
1
(|) lim
x1
l(x) = . 'Au iu cixovu tq l 0u vootoc vu qtuv:
y
x O
y l(x)
1
(,) lim
x1
+
l(x) = xui lim
x1
l(x) = +. 'Au iu cixovu tq l 0u vootoc

vu qtuv:
y
x O
y l(x)
1
'Aouqoq 11
(u) l(x) =
1O
,x,
, lim
xO
l(x)
l(x) 1OO 1OOOO 1OOO
(|) l(x) =
x + 1O
x 2
, lim
x2
l(x)
x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x) 119 12OO1
7O Kcuiuio 3
Aoq
(u) x O,1 O,O1 O,OO1 O,OO1 O,O1 O,1
l(x) 1OO 1OOO 1OOOO 1OOOO 1OOO 1OO
Ku0c to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o O oi tic tq otvutqoq
,ivovtui oio xui vcioootco ixotcc uu vooc,,iotv to
(lim
xO
l(x) = ).
(|) x 1,9 1,99 1,999 2,OO1 2,O1 2,1
l(x) 119 1199 11999 12OO1 12O1 121
Ku0c to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o 2 uvo ixotcc tic
(uiotcu tot 2) oi tic tq otvutqoq civui uvqtixc xui ,i-
vovtui oio xui vcioootco ixotcc, oqiuoq vooc,,iotv
to (lim
x2
l(x) = ).
'Otuv oc to x vooc,,ici tov ui0o 2 uvo c,uittcc tic
(ociu tot 2) oi tic tq otvutqoq civui 0ctixc xui ,ivovtui
oio xui vcioootco c,uittcc, oqiuoq vooc,,iotv to +
(lim
x2
+
l(x) = +).
x2
l(x).
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
(u) lim
x2

x
3
8
x 2
(|) lim
x1

x 1
x
3
+ x
2
2x
Aoq
(u) Livui lim
x2
(x
3
8) = O, lim
x2
(x 2) = O. 'Au c_otc uvoooioiotiu
oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x
3
8
x 2
=
(x 2)(x
2
+ 2x + 2
2
)
x 2
= x
2
+ 2x + 4.
Totc lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2
(x
2
+ 2x + 4) = 12.
(|) 'Ooiu, c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x 1
x
3
+ x
2
2x
=
x 1
x(x
2
+ x 2)
=
x 1
x(x 1)(x + 2)
=
1
x(x + 2)
.
Totc lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1

1
x(x + 2)
=
1
3
.
'Aouqoq 2
(u) lim
x4

x 4
2 x
(|) lim
xO

x + 2 2
x
(,) lim
x2

x + 2 2
x
2
+ 5 3
(o) lim
x0

3
x + 1 1
x
Aoq
(u) Livui lim
x4
(x 4) = O, lim
x4
(2 x) = O. 'Au c_otc uvoooioiotiu
oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x 4
2 x
=
(x 4)(2 + x)
(2 x)(2 + x)
=
(x 4)(2 + x)
4 x
= (2 + x).
Totc lim
x4
l(x) = lim
x4
(2 + x) = 4.
(|) 'Ooiu, c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x + 2 2
x
=
( x + 2 2)( x + 2 + 2)
x( x + 2 + 2)
=
(x + 2) 2
x( x + 2 + 2)
=
x
x( x + 2 + 2)
=
1
x + 2 + 2
.
Totc lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO

1
x + 2 + 2
=
1
2 2
.
(,) 'Ooiu, c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
x + 2 2
x
2
+ 5 3
=
( x + 2 2)( x + 2 + 2)( x
2
+ 5 + 3)
( x
2
+ 5 3)( x
2
+ 5 + 3)( x + 2 + 2)
=
72 Kcuiuio 3
=
(x 2)( x
2
+ 5 + 3)
(x 2)(x + 2)( x + 2 + 2)
=
x
2
+ 5 + 3
(x + 2)( x + 2 + 2)
.
Totc lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2

x
2
+ 5 + 3
(x + 2)( x + 2 + 2)
=
6
44
=
3
8
.
(o) 'Ooiu, c_otc uvoooioiotiu oq
O
O
.
'Lotc l(x) =
3
x + 1 1
x
=
(
3
x + 1 1)[(
3
x + 1)
2
+
3
x + 1 + 1
x[(
3
x + 1)
2
+
3
x + 1 + 1]
=
x
x[(
3
x + 1)
2
+
3
x + 1 + 1]
=
1
3
(x + 1)
2
+
3
x + 1 + 1
.
Totc lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO

1
3
(x + 1)
2
+
3
x + 1 + 1
=
1
3
.
'Aouqoq 3
(u) lim
x1

,2x + 1, 3
x 3
(|) lim
x0

2x
2
+ ,x,
(x + 1),x,
Aoq
(u) Aot x1 totc to x |ioxctui oc iu vcio_q tot 1,
x e (O, 1) . (1, 2). Totc ,2x + 1, = 2x + 1, uot 2x + 1 > O.
Av l(x) =
,2x + 1, 3
x 3
=
2x + 1 3
x 3
=
2x 2
x 3
totc lim
x1
l(x) = O.
(|) Aot xO totc to x |ioxctui oc iu vcio_q tot O,
x e (1, O) . (0, 1). Totc ,x, = x uv x e (O, 1) q ,x, = x uv x e (1, O).
Aiuxivotc ti vcivtcoci:
- Av x e (O, 1) cotc l(x) =
2x
2
+ ,x,
(x + 1),x,
=
2x
2
+ x
(x + 1)x
=
(2x + 1)x
(x + 1)x
=
2x + 1
x + 1
.
Totc lim
xO
+
l(x) = 1.
- Av x e (1, O) cotc l(x) =
2x
2
+ ,x,
(x + 1),x,
=
2x
2
x
(x + 1)(x)
=
(2x 1)x
(x + 1)x
=

2x 1
x + 1
. Totc lim
xO
l(x) = 1.
Lvocvc lim
xO
l(x) = 1.
'Aouqoq 4
l(x) =
'
2,x, + 2 , x u
x
2
1 , x > u
xu
l(x).
Aoq
Livui lim
xu
l(x) = 2,u, + 2, lim

xu
+
l(x) = u
2
1.
Aot tvu_ci to lim
xu
l(x), vcvci tu victixu oiu vu civui iou. 'Au:
2,u, + 2 = u
2
1 u
2
2,u, 3 = O
u
2
= ,u,
2
,u,
2
2,u, 3 = O uv' ovot
,u, = 3 o 3 q o 3.
'Aouqoq 5
l(x) =
'
3x u , x O
x
2
+ u + 2 , x > O
xO
l(x). Kutoviv vu
_uuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l.
Aoq
Livui lim
xO
l(x) = u, lim
xO
+
l(x) = u + 2.
Aot tvu_ci to lim
xO
l(x) vcvci tu victixu o-
iu vu civui iou. 'Au u = u + 2 o 1.
Totc l(x) =
'
3x + 1 , x O
x
2
+ 1 , x > O
c ,uixq vuu-
otuoq vot uivctui oto oiviuvo o_qu.
y
x
O
1
y l(x)
'Aouqoq 6
74 Kcuiuio 3
(u) lim
x4
+

3
x 4
(|) lim
x1

1
(x + 1)
3
(,) lim
x1

2x 1
x
2
2x + 1
(o) lim
xO

2x + 1
x
3
+ 2x
(c) lim
x1

x
2
+ 1
,1 x,
(ot) lim
x1

x + 4
x
3
3x 2
Aoq
(u) lim
x4
+

3
x 4
= +
(|) lim
x1

1
(x + 1)
3
=
(,) lim
x1

2x 1
x
2
2x + 1
= lim
x1

2x 1
(x 1)
2
= +
(o) lim
xO

2x + 1
x
3
+ 2x
= lim
xO

2x + 1
x(x
2
+ 2)
Iiu x > O, lim
xO
+

2x + 1
x(x
2
+ 1)
= + xui ,iu x < O, lim
xO

2x + 1
x(x
2
+ 1)
= .
'Au ocv tvu_ci oio otuv xO.
(c) lim
x1

x
2
+ 1
,1 x,
= +
(ot)Ac ,vciotc to vooqo tot vuovouotq o ovoio tcivci oto
O. 'L_otc x
3
3x 2 = (x + 1)
2
(x 2).
,H opoovtooipop uopei vo potei ue tp op0eio too o,puoto
Horner p toto ouoe. x
3
x 2x 2 = x,x
2
1) 2,x + 1) t..)
'Au lim
x1

x + 4
(x + 1)
2
(x 2)
= lim
x1

1
(x + 1)
2
lim
x1

x + 4
x 2
= (+)(1) = .
'Aouqoq 7
Bcitc ti vcivtcoci ovot tvu_ci xutuxotq uotvtctq xui
,utc tqv ciocoq tq oti otvutqoci tq uoxqoq 6.
Aoq
(u) x = 4 (|) x = 1 (,) x = 1
(o) x = O (c) x = 1 (ot)x = 1
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
Tu tciq uvootoiq covccvcv ocutcv otuv voxcitui ,iu ocu-
tu coctcixot vot uvootciiovtui uvo tu Liiqvixu Tu_toociu oi-
vovtui uvo to ,uqu tq "tu_tooixq otvutqoq":
l(x) =
'
45O O < x 1
55O 1 < x 3
7OO 3 < x 5
85O 5 < x 7
1O5O 7 < x 9
ovot x civui to |uo cvo vuxctot oc Kgi (xiiu) xui l(x) q uiu oc
ou_c.
(u) u tiuctc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq l oc ototq-
u uovcv xOy ovot otov uovu Ox q xiiuxu civui 1 cm ,iu xu-
0c xiio xui oto Oy q xiiuxu civui 1 cm ,iu xu0c cxutovtuou
o_.
(|) u |citc ti tic l(1), l(3), l(5) xui vu ti ot,xivctc c tu
lim
x1
l(x), lim
x3
l(x), lim
x5
l(x).
(,) Yvu_otv tu lim
x1
l(x), lim
x3
l(x), lim
x5
l(x);
Aoq
(u) H ,uixq vuuotuoq tq l ui-
vctui oto oiviuvo o_qu.
(|) l(1) = 45O lim
x1
l(x) = 45O
l(3) = 55O lim
x3
l(x) = 55O
l(5) = 7OO lim
x5
l(x) = 7OO
(,) Acv tvu_otv uot tu ociovict-
u oiu civui oiuoctixu uvo tu
uiotcovictu.
1 O
y l(x)
y
3 5 7 9 x
45O
55O
7OO
85O
1O5O
76 Kcuiuio 3
'Aouqoq 2
O viq0too cvo ot,xcxicvot cioot tcxtixcv vot uvuvuu,o-
vtui o' cvu uvoovccvo vqoi oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq P(l) =
72O
9 l
,
O l < 9 ovot o _ovo l ctictui oc qvc.
(u) Bcitc tov ui0o tcv tcxtixcv oto vqoi oc _ovo l = O, oqiu-
oq uvo totc vot u_iotc vu vuutqotc tqv uvuvuu,c,q
tot. Ti cxuci utto o ui0o;
(|) Bcitc tov ui0o tcv tcxtixcv ctu 1, 3, 5, 8 qvc.
(,) Acitc oti o viq0too tcv tcxtixcv utuvctui uvcioiotu
xu0c o _ovo viqoiuci otot 9 qvc.
Aoq
(u) Iiu l = O c_otc P(O) =
72O
9
= 8O vot oquivci oti otuv u_iotc
tqv vuutqqoq tq uvuvuu,c,q tu tcxtixu civui 8O.
(|) l 1 3 5 8
P(l) 9O 12O 18O 72O
(,) lim
l9
P(l) = lim
l9

72O
9 l
= 72O lim
l9

1
9 l
= 72O(+) = +
vot oquivci oti o ui0o tcv tcxtixcv utuvctui vuu voit.
'Aouqoq 3
ltqv vci|uiiovtixq cviotqq ot_vu cictuc tq oiuovou oiuo-
cv tvcv oc oixoototqutu. Axctu uv' uttu tu ovtciu civui o-
vtciu "uvciq uuicoq" ovc v._. i_vq SO
2
otqv utoouiu. Iiu
vu cictqootc tq oiuovou uttq _qoiovoiotc tqv uxoiot0q
otvutqoq (otvtcicotq cvc,otqtu u) tq ot,xcvtcoq x
1
, x
2
tcv ototutixcv tvot utoouiu uvtiotoi_u:
lnu = ln
1
x
1
+ 1
1
x
1
ovot
1
=
x
1
V
1
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
xui V
1
, V
2
o o,xo tcv oto ototutixcv, oqiuoq
tot tvot xui tq utoouiu uvtiotoi_u. u tvoio,ioctc tqv tiq
tot otvtcicotq u oc uvciq uuicoq, oqiuoq to lim
x
1
O
(lnu), uv ,vci-
ctc oti x
1
+ x
2
= 1.
Aoq
'L_otc x
1
+ x
2
= 1, uu otuv x
1
0 totc x
2
1. Ovotc:
lim
x
1
O
(lnu) = lim
x
1
O

_
ln
V
1
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
+ 1
V
1
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
= ln
V
1
V
2
+ 1
V
1
V
2
9 3.6 3.9
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
u |citc tu oqciu uotvc-
_ciu tq otvutqoq l, tq
ovoiu q ,uixq vuuotu-
oq uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu.
y
x
O 1
1
3
y l(x)
2
2
2 3 4
Aoq
Huutqqotc oti q l oictui oto oiuotqu [2, 2) . (2, 4].
(u) lto x
O
= 2, lim
x2
+
l(x) = 1 xui l(2) = 1, uu q l civui otvc_q oto
x
O
= 2.
(|) lto x
1
= O, lim
xO
l(x) = 3 xui l(O) = 2, uu q l ocv civui otvc_q oto
x
1
= O.
(,) lto x
2
= 1, lim
x1
x
2
= 1.
(o) lto x
3
= 2 ocv oictui q l, uu ocv c_ci cvvoiu vu uvucouotc
oc otvc_ciu.
(c) lto x
4
= 3, lim
x3
l(x) = 1, lim
x3
+
l(x) = 2 xui l(3) = 1, uu q l ocv civui
otvc_q oto x
4
= 3, civui uviu otvc_q uiotcu tot x
4
= 3.
78 Kcuiuio 3
(ot)lto x
5
= 4, lim
x4

x
5
= 4.
'Aouqoq 2
lti cvocvc otvutqoci vu cic,ctc tq otvc_ciu otqv tiq tot x
vot uiiuci ttvo q otvutqoq. lc xu0c oqcio uotvc_ciu vu oq-
cicoctc ot poo0oct tot oioot otvc_ciu vuu|iuovtui.
(u) l(x) =
'
x
2
+ 1 , x 1
O , x > 1
(|) l(x) =
'
x + 3 , x , 1
2 + x , O x < 1
(,) l(x) =
'
x
2
1
x + 1
, x = 1
1 , x = 1
(o) l(x) =
'
O , x = 2
1
,x 2,
, x = 2
Aoq
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = O, lim
x1
+
l(x) = O xui l(1) = O. 'Au q l civui otvc_q oto
x
O
= 1.
(|) lim
x1
l(x) = 3, lim
x1
+
l(x) = 2 xui l(1) = 2. 'Au q l civui uotvc_q oto
x
O
= 1 ,iuti tu victixu oiu ocv civui iou, uu ocv tvu_ci to
lim
x1
l(x).
(,) lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1

x
2
1
x + 1
= lim
x1
(x 1) = 2 xui l(1) = 1. 'Au q l civui
uotvc_q oto x
O
= 1 ,iuti vuoio vot tvu_ci to lim
x1
l(x) = 2
ocv ioottui c tqv ui0qtixq tiq l(1) = 1.
(o) lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2

1
,x 2,
= +. 'Au q l civui uotvc_q oto x
O
= 2 uot
ocv tvu_ci to lim
x2
l(x) e R.
'Aouqoq 3
l(x) =
'
x
2
+ 1 , O < x < 2
x
3
3 , 2 x 5
O
= 1, x
1
= 2
xui x
2
= 5;
Aoq
(u) - lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
(x
2
+ 1) = 2
-
lim
x2
l(x) = lim
x2
(x
2
+ 1) = 5
lim
x2
+
l(x) = lim
x2
+
(x
3
3) = 5
uu lim
x2
l(x) = 5
- lim
x5
l(x) = lim
x5
(x
3
3) = 122.
Loc q otvutqoq oictui ovo uiotcu tot 5 xui cvoc-
vc c_ci cvvoiu q uvuqtqoq tot oiot ovo otuv x < 5.
(|) - l(1) = 2 Lvocvc q l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
- l(2) = 5 Lvocvc q l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 2.
- l(5) = 122 Lvocvc q l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 5.
'Aouqoq 4
otvutqoci. Iiu uttc vot ocv civui vu |citc tu oqciu uotvc-
_ciu.
(u) l(x) = 5x
2
x + 4 (|) l(x) =
2
x
2
+ 1
(,) l(x) =
x
x
2
(o) l(x) =
'
x + 1 , x < 0
e
x
, x , 0
Aoq
(u) Livui otvc_q oc oio to R c voitcvtixq.
(|) Livui otvc_q oc oio to R c vqiixo otvc_cv.
8O Kcuiuio 3
(,) Livui otvc_q ,iu xu0c x e (,O) . (O,+)
c vqiixo otvc_cv.
2zio: Ao oove,ei pouue toi oo oove,ei oo-
voptpoei. Hpooo,p!! Hoo eoptovtoi oo to eio
opiouo tp oovoptpop.
y
x O
1
y l(x)
1
(o) Livui lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
(x + 1) = 1 xui lim
xO
+
l(x) = lim
xO
+
e
x
= e
O
= 1. 'Au
lim
xO
l(x) = 1 xui l(O) = 1, cvocvc q l civui otvc_q oto x
0
0.
- 'Otuv x < O q l(x) = x + 1 civui otvc_q c voitcvtixq.
- 'Otuv x > O q l(x) = e
x
civui otvc_q c cx0ctixq.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc ti tic tot u vot xuvotv tqv l otvc_q oto oqcio vot uiiu-
ci o ttvo tq.
(u) l(x) =
'
x 3 , x 1
ux
2
u
2
, x > 1
(|) l(x) =
'
x
2
4
x + 2
, x = 2
u , x = 2
Aoq
(u) Ociotc q l vu civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1. 'Au:
lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
+
l(x) = l(1) 2 = u u
2
u
2
u 2 = O.
'Au o 1 q o 2.
(|) 'Ooiu, vcvci q l vu civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 2. 'Au:
lim
x2
l(x) = l(2) lim
x2

x
2
4
x + 2
= u lim
x2
(x 2) = u. 'Au o 4.
'Aouqoq 2
u oixuioio,qoctc ,iuti oi cvocvc otvutqoci civui otvc_ci
oto vcoio oioot tot.
(u) l(x) = q
1
x
2
(|) l(x) = e
x
2
1
Aoq
(u) H l civui otvc_q oto R c otv0coq tcv otvc_cv otvutqoccv
y = qx xui y =
1
x
2
.
(|) H l civui otvc_q oto R c otv0coq tcv otvc_cv otvutqoccv
y = e
x
xui y = x
2
1.
'Aouqoq 3
H otvutqoq l c ttvo l(x) =
(1 + x)
2
1
x
civui oiocvq ,iu xu0c
x e (, O) . (O, +) xui o' utto to otvoio civui otvc_q. Mvocitc
vu tqv oioctc xutuiiqiu oto oqcio x
O
= O cotc vu civui otvc_q
oc oio to R;
Aoq
A tvo0cootc oti l(O) = u e R. Iiu vu civui otvc_q q l oc oio to R
0u vcvci vu civui otvc_q oto x
O
= O. 'Au:
lim
xO
l(x) = l(O) lim
xO

(1 + x)
2
1
x
= u lim
xO

2x + x
2
x
= u
lim
xO
(2 + x) = u 2 o
'Au q l ,uctui l(x) =
'
(1 + x)
2
1
x
, x = O
2 , x = O
'Aouqoq 4
Occotc oto R tq otvutqoq l(x) = 2x
2
5x 3.
(u) Yvoio,iotc tqv tiq l(1) xui ctu vuu,ovtovoiqotc tq oiuou
l(x) l(1).
x1

l(x) l(1)
x 1
, uv |c|uiu utto tvu_ci.
(,) Av vuotc tic tot x voit xovtu oto 1, ovc:
x e (1
1
1O
, 1) . (1, 1 +
1
1O
) q uiiic
9
1O
< x <
11
1O
, x = 1
totc vu uvoocictc oti ,l(x) l(1), <
12
100
.
82 Kcuiuio 3
Aoq
(u) l(1) = 2 5 3 = 6,
l(x) l(1) = 2x
2
5x 3 + 6 = 2x
2
5x + 3 = (x 1)(2x 3)
(|)
l(x) l(1)
x 1
=
(x 1)(2x 3)
x 1
= 2x 3, uu lim
x1

l(x) l(1)
x 1
= 1.
(,) Livui ,l(x) l(1), = ,(x 1)(2x 3), = ,x 1,,2x 3, (1)
'Oc
9
1O
< x <
11
1O

9
1O
1 < x 1 <
11
1O
1
1
1O
< x 1 <
1
1O

,x 1, <
1
1O
(2)
Lvioq
9
1O
< x <
11
1O

18
1O
< 2x <
22
1O

18
1O
3 < 2x 3 <
22
1O
3

12
1O
< 2x 3 <
8
1O
xui cvcioq civui uvqtixoi xui oi tci ooi
tq uviootqtu, uv uiiuotc vooqu (voiiuviuoiuootc cvi
1), uiiuci xui q ou tq uviootqtu. 'Au
12
1O
> ,2x 3, >
8
1O
, c-
vocvc ,2x 3, <
12
1O
(3)
Av _qoiovoiqootc ti uviootqtc (2) xui (3) otq o_coq (1)
vuivotc:
,l(x) l(1), = ,x 1,,2x 3, <
1
1O
12
1O
=
12
1OO
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1 ,Hpopuo Kotovooop)
H oiviuvq ,uixq vu-
uotuoq oci_vci tqv
voootqtu vctciuiot
0cuvoq oc iu ocu-
cvq 2OO iitcv (l) vot
tvu_ci oc iu voitxu-
toixiu ,iu iu vciooo
15O qccv. Av 0ccq-
ootc oti l = O uvti-
otoi_ci otqv u_q o-
c|iot.
y ( ) #
l (qcpc)
O

2OO

(|) Lq,ciotc ,iuti q otvutqoq civui uotvc_q oti 0coci l = 4O,
l = 7O, l = 95, l = 11O, l = 125.
(,) Hoio qvu voictc oti qtuv vcioootco xto;
Aoq
(u) H ,uixq vuuotuoq oivci viqooic ,iu tqv voootqtu vc-
tciuiot vot tvu_ci otq ocucvq tcv 2OO l ,iu 15O qcc. A-
ot tvo0couc oti o _ovo l = O uvtiotoi_ci otqv u_q oc-
|iot, totc q ,uixq vuuotuoq vuotoiuci tqv voootqtu tot
vctciuiot c_i tcio Mutiot vcivot.
(|) Aviu o' cxcivc ti _ovixc oti,c o oiu_ciiotq ,cici tq
ocucvq c vctciuio.
(,) Avo tqv 95
q
qcu c_i tqv 11O
q
, oqiuoq oc 15 qcc, _ci-
uo0qxc vu uvu,cioci q ocucvq c vctciuio, uu uvo 3 cc
18 uc|otuiot o xuio qtuv vcioootco xto. Avtiotoi_u
|icvotc to ioio uivocvo uvo tqv 11O
q
cc tqv 125
q
qcu,
oqiuoq uvo 18 uc|otuiot cc u_c Mutiot, ovo vot o' ut-
to to 15v0qco q voootqtu vctciuiot civui ii,o vcioootcq.
'Aouqoq 2 ,Hpopuo Tiuov Euopeuoto)
H otvutqoq vot oivci to xooto cvo ot,xcxicvot cvoctuto
oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq K c ttvo:
K(x) =
'
5x , O < x < 1O
4x , 1O x < 3O
3x + 3O , 3O x < 6O
3,2x , 6O x 9O
ovot x civui o ui0o tcv ,uuicv tot vuu,ocvot cvoct-
uto xui K(x) to xooto oc _iiiuoc ou_c.
(u) l_coiuotc tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq otvutqoq K(x) xui
|citc ti tic tot x vot civui uttq uotvc_q.
(|) Acotc iu cqvciu otq ,uixq vuuotuoq.
84 Kcuiuio 3
Aoq
(u) lti tic x = 1O xui x = 6O q otv-
utqoq K(x) civui uotvc_q, uot
lim
x1O
K(x) = 5O xui lim

x1O
+
K(x) = 4O. Li-
vui ociu otvc_q uot K(1O) = 4O.
'Ooiu otuv x = 6O.
1O 3O 6O 9O
1OO
2OO
3OO
O
x
K
(|) To xooto c_i tu vctu 1O gi civui ouykptttk c,uittco,
otu cvocvu 1O gi cc 3O gi cicvctui ii,o oiutqcvtu ti ut-
qtixc tot tuoci xui to ioio ot|uivci uvo 3O gi cc 6O gi ovot
cuvictui xui q xuittcq tiq xootot. Avo tu 6O gi cc 9O gi
vuii to xooto utuvctui ii,o ot,xitixu c to voq,otcvo
oiuotqu. Attu uivovtui xui uvo tot ouvtccot otc0uvoq
tcv ct0t,ucv tqutcv vot uvotciotv tq ,uixq vuu-
otuoq tot xootot.
9 3.10 3.11
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
x+
l(x) oti vcivtcoci (u), (|) xui
to lim
x
l(x) oti vcivtcoci (,), (o), uv tvu_ci:
y
x O
(u)
y l(x)
y
x
O
(|)
y l(x)
y
x O
1
(,)
y l(x)
y
x
O
1
(o)
y l(x)
Aoq
(u) lim
x+
l(x) = O (|) lim
x+
l(x) = +
(,) lim
x
l(x) = 1 (o) lim
x
l(x) =
'Aouqoq 2
(u) l(x) =
x
2
+ 1
x
2
, lim
x+
l(x)
l(x) 1,O1 1,OOOOO1
(|) l(x) = x
2
+ 1 + x, lim
x
l(x)
l(x) O,O498 O,OOO4
Aoq
(u) x 1O 5O 1OO 1OOO 15OO
l(x) 1,O1 1,OOO4 1,OOO1 1,OOOOO1 1,OOOOOO4
'Ooo utuvotv oi tic tot x oi tic tq otvutqoq viqoiu-
otv to 1. 'Au lim
x+
l(x) = 1.
86 Kcuiuio 3
(|) x 1O 5O 1OO 1OOO 15OO
l(x) O,O498 O,OO9999 O,OO49 O,OOO4 O,OOO33
'Ooo cicvovtui oi tic tot x oi tic tq otvutqoq viq-
oiuotv to O. 'Au lim
x
l(x) = O.
'Aouqoq 3
(u) lim
x
(3x
3
+ x
2
x + 1) (|) lim
x+

x
2
4x + 3
2x
3
+ 1
(,) lim
x+

4x
2
+ x + 1
2x 1
Aoq
(u) lim
x
(3x
3
+ x
2
x + 1) = lim
x
(3x
3
) = 3 lim
x
x
3
= (3)() = +
(|) lim
x+

x
2
4x + 3
2x
3
+ 1
= lim
x+

x
2
2x
3
=
1
2
lim
x+

1
x
=
1
2
O = O
(,) 'L_ci cvvoiu q uvuqtqoq tot oiot otuv x+ uot
x e (,
1
2
) . (
1
2
, +).
lim
x+

4x
2
+ x + 1
2x 1
= lim
x+

4x
2
2x
= lim
x+

2,x,
2x
= 1 uot x > O.
'Aouqoq 4
(u) lim
x+

]
1
1
1O1
_
1 +
1
x
+
1
x
2
(|) lim
x

_ x
2
2 x
+
2x
2
2x + 10
(,) lim
x+

x
2
+ 1 + x
2x + 1
Aoq
(u) lim
x+

]
1
1
1O1
_
1 +
1
x
+
1
x
2
= 1O11 = 1O1
(|) lim
x

_ x
2
2 x
+
2x
2
2x + 1O
= lim
x

x
2
2 x
+ lim
x

2x
2
2x + 1O
=
lim
x
(x) + lim
x
x = (+) + () vot civui uvoooioiotiu.
'Lotc l(x) =
x
2
2 x
+
2x
2
2x + 1O
=
2x
3
+ 1Ox
2
+ 4x
2
2x
3
2x
2
6x + 2O
=
14x
2
2x
2
6x + 2O
.
Totc lim
x
l(x) = lim
x

14x
2
2x
2
= 7.
(,) 'L_ci cvvoiu q uvuqtqoq tot oiot otuv x+, uot
x e (,
1
2
) . (
1
2
, +).
lim
x+

x
2
+ 1 + x
2x + 1
=
+
+
uvoooioiotiu.
'Lotc l(x) =
x
2
+ 1 + x
2x + 1
=
x
_
1 +
1
x
2
+ 1
x
_
2 +
1
x
=
1 +
1
x
2
+ 1
2 +
1
x
.
Totc lim
x+
l(x) =
1 + 1
2
= 1.
'Aouqoq 5
lti uoxqoci 3 xui 4 vu |citc ti ciococi tcv oiovticv uot-
vtctcv tcv otvutqoccv, ovot uttc tvu_otv.
Aoq
- ltqv uoxqoq 3 c_otc oiovtic uotvtctc oti vcivtcoci:
(|) Tqv ct0ciu y = O.
(,) Tqv ct0ciu y = 1.
- ltqv uoxqoq 4 c_otc oiovtic uotvtctc oti vcivtcoci:
(u) Tqv ct0ciu y = 1O1.
(|) Tqv ct0ciu y = 7.
(,) Tqv ct0ciu y = 1.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Iiu ti cvocvc otvutqoci tvoio,iotc to lim
x+

l(x)
x
.
Av lim
x+

l(x)
x
= i e R vu |citc cvioq to lim
x+
(l(x) ix).
88 Kcuiuio 3
(u) l(x) =
x
2
2x + 5
x
(|) l(x) = 2x
2
x + 3
(,) l(x) =
2x 1
x + 1
(o) l(x) = x
2
+ x + 2
Aoq
(u)
l(x)
x
=
x
2
2x + 5
x
2
, ovotc lim
x+

l(x)
x
= lim
x+

x
2
2x + 5
x
2
= lim
x+

x
2
x
2
= 1 = i
Totc l(x) ix = l(x) x =
x
2
2x + 5
x
x =
x
2
2x + 5 x
2
x
=
2x + 5
x
ovotc lim
x+
(l(x) x) = lim
x+

2x + 5
x
= lim
x+

2x
x
= 2.
(|)
l(x)
x
=
2x
2
x + 3
x
, ovotc lim
x+

l(x)
x
= lim
x+

2x
2
x + 3
x
= lim
x+

2x
2
x
= +.
(,)
l(x)
x
=

2x 1
x + 1

x
=
2x 1
x
2
+ x
, ovotc lim
x+

l(x)
x
= lim
x+

2x
x
2
= lim
x+

2
x
= O = i
Totc l(x) ix = l(x), ovotc:
lim
x+
(l(x) ix) = lim
x+

2x 1
x + 1
= lim
x+

2x
x
= 2.
(o)
l(x)
x
=
x
2
+ x + 2
x
. H uvuqtqoq tot oiot oto + c_ci cvvoiu u-
ot x e (, O) . (O, +). 'Au lim
x+

l(x)
x
= lim
x+

x
2
x
= 1 = i.
Totc l(x) ix = x
2
+ x + 2 x =
x
2
+ x + 2 x
2
x
2
+ x + 2 + x
=
x + 2
x
2
+ x + 2 + x
=
x
_
1 +
2
x
x
_
1 +
1
x
+
2
x
2
+ 1
=
1 +
2
x
1 +
1
x
+
2
x
2
+ 1
,
ovotc lim
x+
(l(x) ix) = lim
x+

1 +
2
x
1 +
1
x
+
2
x
2
+ 1
=
1
2
.
'Aouqoq 2
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu cx0ctixcv ocv, uv tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
(e
4x
+ 1) (|) lim
x+

e
x
+ 1
2e
x
(,) lim
x

e
x
+ 1
2e
x
Aoq
(u) lim
x+
(e
4x
+ 1) = e
+ 1 = O + 1 = 1
Aiiic lim
x+
(e
4x
+ 1) = lim
x+

_
1
e
4x
+ 1 =
1
+
+ 1 = O + 1 = 1
(|) lim
x+

e
x
+ 1
2e
x
=
+
+
uvoooioiotiu.
Occotc tqv l(x) =
e
x
+ 1
2e
x
=
e
x

_
1 +
1
e
x
2e
x
=
1 +
1
e
x
2
,
ovotc lim
x+
l(x) =
1 + O
2
=
1
2
.
(,) Ivciovtu oti lim
x
e
x
= e
= O xui oti e
x
> O ,iu xu0c x e R c-
_otc lim
x
(e
x
+ 1) lim
x

1
2e
x
= 1(+) = +.
'Aouqoq 3
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu, uv tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
(2
x
lnx) (|) lim
xO
+
(2
1
x
lnx)
Aoq
(u) Ivciotc oti lim
x+
2
x
= + xui lim
x+
lnx = +.
'Au lim
x+
(2
x
lnx) = (+)(+) = +.
(|) Lvioq lim
xO
+
2
1
x
= + xui lim
xO
+
lnx = .
'Au lim
xO
+
(2
1
x
lnx) = (+)() = .
9O Kcuiuio 3
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
To xooto xutuoxctq cvo V oioxot cututui uvo to viq0o x
tcv xutuoxctuocvcv V uvo iu ctuiciu, c |uoq tq otvu-
tqoq xootot K(x) = O,5 +
25OO
x
oc _iiiuoc o_.
(u) Yvoio,iotc to xooto cvo V oioxot uv q ctuiciu xutu-
oxctuci 1OOO, 15OO, 25OO, 5OOO, 5OOOO oioxot.
x+
K(x) xui cq,qotc to uvotcicou.
Aoq
(u) x 1OOO 15OO 25OO 5OOO 5OOOO
K(x) (_ii. o_.) 3 2,166 1,5 1 O,55
(|) lim
x+
K(x) = lim
x+

_
O,5 +
25OO
x
= O,5 + O = O,5
vot oquivci oti otuv q vuu,c,q V ,ivctui voit c,uiq, to
xooto ,iu xu0cvu oioxo cicvctui vcivot oti 5OO ou_c.
'Aouqoq 2
H ot,xcvtcoq cvo ot,xcxicvot uuxot otqv xtxiooiu tot
uiuto cvo uo0cvq, l cc ctu tqv cvcoq, oivctui uvo tq otvu-
tqoq l(l) =
O,2l
l
2
+ 1
ovot oi tic tq otvutqoq tvoio,iovtui oc
mg/cm
3
.
(u) Yvoio,iotc tq ot,xcvtcoq ,iu l = 1, 2, 4, 5, 1O cc.
l+
l(l) xui cq,qotc to uvotcicou.
Aoq
(u) l (cc) 1 2 4 5 1O
l(l) (mg/cm
3
) O,1 O,O8 O,O47 O,O38 O,O198
(|) lim
l+
l(l) = lim
l+

O,2l
l
2
+ 1
= lim
l+

O,2l
l
2
= lim
l+

O,2
l
= O
vot oquivci oti totcu uvo c,uio _ovixo oiuotqu q ot,xc-
vtcoq tot uuxot oto uiu civui qocvixq.
'Aouqoq 1
Bcitc voioi uvo tot cvocvot io_tioot civui ocotoi (l) xui
voioi iu0o (A) xui uitioio,qotc tqv uvoq ou.
1. Iiu xu0c otvutqoq l vot oictui oc otvoio oq (u, |) c
x
O
e (u, |) io_tci lim
xx
O
l(x) = l(x
O
).
2. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = l xui lim
xx
O
[l(x) + g(x)] = I totc lim
xx
O
g(x) = I l.
3. Av ,iu xu0c x e (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) io_tci l(x) = g(x) xui lim
xx
O
l(x) = l
totc lim
xx
O
g(x) = l.
4. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = l xui lim
xx
O
g(x) = l totc ,iu xu0c x e (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) i-
o_tci l(x) = g(x).
5. Av lim
xx
O
l(x) = + q totc lim
xx
O

1
l(x)
= O.
6. Av lim
xx
O

1
l(x)
= O totc lim
xx
O
l(x) = + q .
Aoq
1. A0o ,iuti utto io_tci ovo oc otvc_ci otvutqoci oto oq-
cio x
O
.
2. Leoto ,iuti uv 0cootc l(x) + g(x) = l(x) c lim
xx
O
l(x) = I totc
g(x) = l(x) l(x), cvocvc tvu_ci to lim
xx
O
g(x) xui civui
lim
xx
O
g(x) = lim
xx
O
l(x) lim
xx
O
l(x) = I l.
3. Leoto. Livui ioc otvutqoci ,iu xu0c x e (u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |), uu
uot lim
xx
O
l(x) = l totc xui lim
xx
O
g(x) = l. Ac u cvoiucci coc q
ui0qtixq tiq l(x
O
) q g(x
O
).
4. A0o uot ,iu vuuoci,u uv l(x) = x
2
xui g(x) = x
3
c_otc oti
lim
xO
l(x) = lim
xO
g(x) = O, utto oc oc oquivci oti ,iu
x e (1, O) . (O, 1) c_otc l(x) = g(x).
5. Leoto ,iuti lim
xx
O

1
l(x)
=
1
()
= O.
92 Kcuiuio 3
6. A0o ,iuti uv 0cootc l(x) =
1
l(x)
c lim
xx
O
l(x) = O totc l(x) =
1
l(x)
xui voci vu qv tvu_ci to lim
xx
O
l(x). H._. uv l(x) =
1
(x 1)
3
totc
l(x) = (x 1)
3
c lim
x1
l(x) = O. 'Oc lim
x1
l(x) = , lim
x1
+
l(x) = +,
uu q l ocv c_ci oio otuv x1.
'Aouqoq 2
Occotc ti otvutqoci l xui g c ttvot:
l(x) = x 1, x , O xui g(x) =
i
(x 1)
2
, i = O, O x = 1
(u) u |citc tu lim
x1
l(x) xui lim
x1
g(x), uv tvu_otv.
lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)];
(,) Iiu ti oiuoc tic tot i e (, O) . (O, +) vu tvoio,ioctc to
lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)].
Aoq
(u) lim
x1
l(x) = lim
x1
( x 1) = O
lim
x1
g(x) = lim
x1

i
(x 1)
2
= i lim
x1

1
(x 1)
2
=
'
+ , uv i > O
, uv i < O
(|) lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)] = lim
x1
l(x) lim
x1
g(x) =
'
O(+) , uv i > O
O() , uv i < O
uvoooioiotic.
(,) l(x)g(x) = ( x 1)
i
(x 1)
2
=
i(x 1)
(x 1)
2
( x + 1)
=
i
(x 1)( x + 1)
(i) Av i < O totc:

lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)] = lim
x1

i
(x 1)( x + 1)
= +
lim
x1
+
[l(x)g(x)] = lim
x1
+

i
(x 1)( x + 1)
=
x1
[l(x)g(x)].
(ii) Av i > O, ooiu ocv tvu_ci to lim
x1
[l(x)g(x)].
'Aouqoq 3
Yvoio,iotc tu cvocvu oiu, uv |c|uiu uttu tvu_otv.
(u) lim
x+
[2lnx ln(x
2
+ 1)] (|) lim
x+
ln( x
2
+ 1 x)
Aoq
(u) 'Lotc l(x) = 2lnx ln(x
2
+ 1) = lnx
2
ln(x
2
+ 1) = ln
x
2
x
2
+ 1
.
'Oc lim
x+

x
2
x
2
+ 1
= 1 uu lim
x+
l(x) = ln1 = O.
(|) 'Lotc g(x) = ln( x
2
+ 1 x).
Totc x
2
+ 1 x =
1
x
2
+ 1 + x
c lim
x+

1
x
2
+ 1 + x
= O.
'Au lim
x+
g(x) = lim
x+

_
ln
1
x
2
+ 1 + x
= .
'Aouqoq 4
'Lvu ui xoitvu iu uvootuoq l ctcv c tu_ttqtu t m/sec uvti-
0ctu vo to ctu cvo votuot, tot ovoiot q tu_ttqtu tot vcot
civui u m/sec (u < t). H cvc,ciu vot ooctci to ui oivctui uvo tq
otvutqoq:
L(t) =
u l t
3
t u
ovot u > O civui iu otu0cu xui q cvc,ciu L ctictui oc 1oule.
(u) Yvoio,iotc to lim
tu
+
t+
Aoq
(u) lim
tu
+
L(t) = lim
tu
+

ult
3
t u
= ul lim
tu
+

t
3
t u
= ul(+) = +
vot oquivci oti otuv q tu_ttqtu tot uiot xovtu oto ctu
tot votuot, civui ooq vcivot xui q tu_ttqtu tot vcot, totc
0u xutuvuicoci voit c,uiq cvc,ciu ,iu vu oiuvtoci iu uvo-
otuoq l ctcv (vuxtixu, 0u xoitvu xui 0u |ioxctui oto ioio
co otvc_c).
94 Kcuiuio 3
(|) lim
t+
L(t) = lim
t+

ult
3
t u
= ul lim
t+

t
3
t
= ul lim
t+
t
2
= +
vot oquivci oti otuv q tu_ttqtu tot uiot civui voit c,uiq,
q xutuvuicoq cvc,ciu ,iu tqv cvitctq uttq tq tu_ttqtu
civui tcuotiu.
'Aouqoq 5
Av ,iu ti otvutqoci l xui g vot oiovtui oc cvu oiuotqu oq
(u, x
O
) . (x
O
, |) io_tci lim
xx
O

l(x)
g(x)
= 1 totc ,iu tic tot x voit xovtu oto
x
O
vootc vu io_tiototc oti l(x) = g(x).
Hopoeiuo. Occotc ti otvutqoci l(x) = 1 + x 1 xui g(x) =
x
2
.
(u) Acitc oti lim
xO

l(x)
g(x)
= 1.
(|) Yvoio,iotc vooc,,iotixu tq 1O, 1O5, O,3, O,OO2.
Aoq
(u) lim
xO

l(x)
g(x)
= lim
xO

1 + x 1
x
2
=
O
O
uvoooioiotiu.
'Au
l(x)
g(x)
=
( 1 + x 1)( 1 + x + 1)
x
2
( 1 + x + 1)
=
x
x
2
( 1 + x + 1)
=
2
1 + x + 1
ovotc lim
xO

l(x)
g(x)
= 1.
(|) Iiu tic tot x voit xovtu oto O vootc vu io_tiototc oti
1 + x 1 =
x
2
1 + x = 1 +
x
2
.
(i) Iiu tov tvoio,ioo tq 1O oc vootc toixu vu 0cootc
x = 9 uot ovc vouvucotc to x vcvci vu vuivci tic
voit xovtu oto O. Axoiot0otc tqv vuuxutc oiuoixuoiu:
1O = 1 + 9 = 9
_
1
9
+ 1 = 3 1 +
1
9
= 3
_
1 +

1
9

2
= 3,167
2quciooq: 10 = 3,1623 oooiouevp ue conputer.
(ii) 'Ooiu ,iu tov tvoio,ioo tq 1O5.
(iii) O,3 =
3
1O
=
3
1O
ovot 3 = 4 1 = 4
_
1
1
4
= 2 1
1
4
= 2
_
1
1
8
= 1,75.
'Au O,3 =
1,75
3,167
= O,5525.
2quciooq: 3 = 0,5477 oooiouevp ue conputer.
'Aouqoq 6 ,Hpopuo Euoo)
Tiu o0o,cviu vu-
uiiqio,uu c-
_otv ioiu |uoq 1 m,
tq 3 m, 2 m, 1 m u-
vtiotoi_u, xui uvc-
_otv ctut tot xu-
tu 1 m, ovc uivc-
tui xui oto oiviuvo
o_qu.
3
2
1
x
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m
(u) u cxuoctc c otvutqoq tot x to c|uoo tot o_quto.
(|) Av L(x) q otvutqoq tot c|uoot, vu cic,ctc uv civui otvc_q
xui vu xuvctc tq ,uixq tq vuuotuoq.
Aoq
(u) (i) 'Otuv O x 1 totc to c|uoo tot o_quto cututui ovo
uvo to vcto vuuiiqio,uo xui civui L(x) = 3x.
(ii) 'Otuv 1 < x < 2 to c|uoo tot o_quto vciiu|uvci oio to
vcto vuuiiqio,uo xui tivotu uiio, uu L(x) = 3.
(iii) 'Otuv 2 x 3 totc ovc uivctui
oto o_qu c_otc: L(x) =
[(ABLZ) + (HOKA) (BHAL)] +
+ (ZLIA) = (2x 2) + 1
oqiuoq L(x) = 2x 1.
(iv) 'Otuv 3 < x < 4 to c|uoo tot o_q-
uto vciiu|uvci oio to vcto
xui oio to octtco vuuiiqio-
,uo, uu L(x) = 5.
2 2 2
1
1
A
Z
L A
A B H
O
K
I
x
1m 1m 1m
96 Kcuiuio 3
(v) 'Ooiu c to (iii) tvoio,ictui oti L(x) = x + 1 otuv 4 x 5.
'Au q otvutqoq c|uoot civui:
L =
'
3x , O x 1
3 , 1 < x < 2
2x 1 , 2 x 3
5 , 3 < x < 4
x + 1 , 4 x 5
(|) Livui ctxoio vu ocici xuvci oti q L(x)
civui ,iu xu0c x e [O, 5] otvc_q. H ,u-
ixq tq vuuotuoq uivctui oto oiviuvo
o_qu.
1 2 3 4 5 x O
3
5
6
y
y L(x)
'Aouqoq 7
Occotc cvuv xtxiixo tocu
AOB uxtivu R c cvixcvtq
,cviu x ovc uivctui oto oi-
viuvo o_qu.
(u) u tvoio,ioctc to qxo
tq _ooq AB xui to q-
xo tot "|ciot" AI c
otvutqoq tq ,cviu x,
ovot I civui to coo tot
toot
AB.
(|) u tvoio,ioctc to qxo
tq _ooq BI xui to q-
xo tot "|ciot" ZL c
otvutqoq tq ,cviu x,
ovot L civui to coo tot
toot
BI.
O
R
R
A
A
I
L
Z B
x
2
x
2
(,) u |citc tu oiu tq _ooq AB xui tot "|ciot" AI otuv xO.
(o) u uvoocictc oti lim
xO

AI
ZL
= 4.
Aoq
(u) Yvoio,iotc to AB uvo to o0o,cvio ti,cvo OAB:
q
x
2
=
AB
OB
AB = R q
x
2
. 'Au AB = 2AB = 2R q
x
2
.
Iiu to |cio AI c_otc: AI = OI OA = R OA ovot
OA = R otv
x
2
vuii uvo to ti,cvo OAB. 'Au AI = R
_
1 otv
x
2
.
(|) 'Ooiu c to (u) tvoio,ictui oti:
BI = 2R q
x
4
xui ZL = R
_
1 otv
x
4
.
(,) lim
xO
AB = lim
xO

_
2R q
x
2
= O
lim
xO
AI = lim
xO

]
1
1
R
_
1 otv
x
2
= O
(o) lim
xO

AI
ZL
= lim
xO

R
_
1 otv
x
2
R
_
1 otv
x
4
=
O
O
uvoooioiotiu.
Totc
1 otv
x
2
1 otv
x
4
=
_
1 otv
x
2

_
1 + otv
x
2

_
1 + otv
x
4
_
1 otv
x
4

_
1 + otv
x
4

_
1 + otv
x
2
=
q
2

x
2

_
1 + otv
x
4
q
2

x
4

_
1 + otv
x
2
=
4 q
2

x
4
otv
2

x
4

_
1 + otv
x
4
q
2

x
4

_
1 + otv
x
2
(_qoiovoiqouc tqv tuttotqtu q2u = 2quotvu).
Lvocvc lim
xO

AI
ZL
= lim
xO

4 otv
2

x
4

_
1 + otv
x
4
1 + otv
x
2
=
412
2
= 4.
2roicio Aioopiuoo Aoyiouoo
9 4.1
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
lti uxoiot0c ,uixc vuuotuoci vu cctuoctc:
(u) Av q l c_ci oio oto x = x
O
.
(|) Av q l civui otvc_q oto x = x
O
.
(,) Av q l civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x = x
O
.
(i)
x
(ii)
x
(iii)
x
(iv)
x

Aoq
(i) Yvu_ci to lim
xx
O
l(x) xui q l civui otvc_q xui vuu,c,ioiq oto
x = x
O
.
(ii) Yvu_ci to lim
xx
O
l(x), uiiu q l ocv oictui oto x
O
, ovotc ocv cc-
tuotc tq otvc_ciu xui tqv vuu,c,ioiotqtu.
(iii) Acv tvu_ci to lim
xx
O
l(x), q l civui uotvc_q oto x = x
O
xui otvc-
vc ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq.
(iv) Yvu_ci to lim
xx
O
l(x), q l civui otvc_q oto x = x
O
, uiiu q C
l
o_q-
utici ,cviuxo oqcio, uu q l ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq.
'Aouqoq 2
3
x
2
x
O
= O.
Aoq
Occotc to vqiixo:
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
=
3
l
2
l
=
1
3
l
Aot lim
lO
+

1
3
l
= + c_otc oti q l ocv civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
= O.
'Aouqoq 3
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = ,x x
O
, civui otvc_q xui vuu-
,c,ioiq oto x = x
O
.
Aoq
H l civui otvc_q oto x = x
O
c uvoittq tiq voitcvtixq otvutq-
oq. Iiu tqv vuu,c,ioiotqtu cctuotc tu victixu oiu:
lim
lO
+

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
= lim
lO
+

,l,
l
= 1
1OO Kcuiuio 4
lim
lO

l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
= lim
lO
,l,
l
= 1
Lvocvc, q l civui otvc_q oto x = x
O
, uiiu ocv civui vuu,c,ioi-
q.
'Aouqoq 4
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = x x
O
x = x
O
.
Aoq
Lctuotc to vqiixo:
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
=
l
l
=
1
l
xui uot lim
lO
+

1
l
= + ocv tvu_ci q vuu,c,o tq l oto x = x
O
.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui q otvutqoq l: RR c
l(x) =
'
,x
2
+ ox , uv x 1
ux
2
+ |x , uv x > 1
u cctuoctc ,iu voic tic tcv u, |, ,, o:
(u) H l civui otvc_q oto x
O
= 1.
(|) H l civui vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
= 1.
Aoq
(u) 'L_otc oti:
lim
x1
l(x) = , + o lim
x1
+
l(x) = u + | l(1) = , + o
Lvocvc, ,iu vu civui q l otvc_q oto x
O
= 1 0u vcvci:
u + | = , + o (1)
(|) 'L_otc oti ,iu x 1 q l O:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
,(1 + l)
2
+ o(1 + l) , o
l
= ,l + (2, + o).
Ovotc lim
lO

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= 2, + o.
Iiu x > 1 q l > O c_otc oti:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
u(1 + l)
2
+ |(1 + l) , o
l
=
ul + (2u + |) +
(u + |) (, + o)
l
= ul + (2u + |)
uot io,c tq otvc_ciu tq l oto x
O
= 1 io_tci oti u + | = , + o.
Lvocvc lim
lO
+

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= 2u + |.
Iiu vu civui q l vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
= 1 0u vcvci:
2, + o = 2u + | (2)
Avo ti o_coci (1) xui (2) voxtvtci oti , = u xui | = o.
'Aouqoq 2
u cctuoctc uv q otvutqoq l(x) = ,x 1,
3
x
O
= 1.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
l(1 + l) l(1)
l
=
,l,
3
l
=
l
2
,l,
l
= l,l,.
Lvocvc lim
lO

l(1 + l) l(1)
l
= O xui uu l'(1) = O.
'Aouqoq 3
2,x 2,
x
2
2x + 4
civui vuu,c,ioiq
oto x
O
= 2.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
1O2 Kcuiuio 4
l(2 + l) l(2)
l
=

2,l,
(2 + l)
2
2(2 + l) + 4

l
=
2,l,
l(l
2
+ 2l + 4)
Lvocvc:
lim
lO

l(2 + l) l(2)
l
=
1
2
lim
h0
+

l(2 + l) l(2)
l
=
1
2
xui uu ocv tvu_ci to l'(2).
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu ucootuto u_ici vu uvc|uivci xutuxotu c u_ixq tu_ttq-
tu 1,28 m/sec. Ao,c |iu|q otqv toooooiu u_ici vu _uvci ucu,
ctoi cotc to to tot ctu uvo l sec vu oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq
g(l) = 1,28l O,16l
2
m.
(u) Hoiu civui q coq tu_ttqtu tot ucootutot otu _ovixu oiuotq-
utu [3, 4], [3, 3,5] xui [3, 3,1];
(|) Hoiu q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tot ucootutot tq _ovixq oti,q
l = 3 sec;
(,) Hoiu q oti,iuiu tu_ttqtu tq _ovixq oti,q l = 5 sec; Lxcivq
tq oti,q to ucootuto uvc|uivci q vctci;
(o) Hotc to ucootuto 0u vcoci oto couo;
Aoq
(u) Ou civui:
g(4) g(3)
4 3
= O,16
g(3,5) g(3)
3,5 3
= 4,92
g(3,1) g(3)
3,1 3
= 4,83
(|) Ou civui:
lim
lO

g(3 + l) g(3)
l
= O,32 m/sec
(,) Livui lim
lO

g(5 + l) g(5)
l
= O,32 m/sec xui to ucootuto vctci.
(o) 'Otuv g(l) = O, uiiu o_i ,iu l = O, uiiu ,iu l = 8 sec.
'Aouqoq 2
lc 0coxuoiu 2O C, o o,xo V (oc ll) 1,33 gi O
2
o_ctictui c tqv
vicoq tot P (oc alm) c tov ttvo V =
1
P
.
(u) Hoio civui o coo t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V c otvu-
tqoq tq vicoq P, otuv q vicoq P utuvctui uvo 2 alm oc 3 alm;
(|) Hoio civui o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V otuv q vicoq P ,i-
vci 2 alm;
Aoq
(u) O coo t0o tot o,xot oivctui uvo to vqiixo:
V(3) V(2)
3 2
=
1
3

1
2
=
1
6
ll
To uvqtixo vooqo tvooqicvci ciuttcoq tot o,xot c tqv
utqoq tq vicoq.
(|) O t0o ctu|oiq oivctui uvo to oio tot vqiixot:
V(2 + l) V(2)
l
=
1
2 + l

1
2
l
=
1
2(2 + l)
xui V'(2) =
1
4
ll/alm.
'Aouqoq 3
lc iu xictou q uo u_ici vu vctci uvo to
vuvc co tq oto xutc c otu0co t0o
4 cm
3
/sec. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot t-
ot t tq uot vot uctctui oto xutc co
tq xictou, uv to to cxuctui c otvu-
tqoq tq uxtivu uvo tov ttvo t =
R
v
.
t
1O4 Kcuiuio 4
Aoq
'L_otc oti V =
1
3
vR
2
t =
R
3
3
, ovotc:
V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
R
3
(l
O
+ l) R
3
(l
O
)
3l
=
R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l

R
2
(l
O
+ l) + R(l
O
)R(l
O
+ l) + R
2
(l
O
)
3
Ovotc lim
lO

R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
=
1
R
2
(l
O
)
lim
lO

V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
oqiuoq:
R'(l
O
) =
V'(l
O
)
R
2
(l
O
)
.
'Aouqoq 4
u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tq oiu,cviot cvo xt|ot c otvu-
tqoq tq uxq tot.
Aoq
H oiu,cvio cvo xt|ot civui q tvotcivotou
cvo o0o,cviot ti,cvot c xu0ctc vict-
c u xui 2u. Lvocvc
o
2
= u
2
+ 2u
2
= 3u
2
q o = 3u.
Totc c_otc oti
o(u + l) o(u)
l
= 3.
Lvocvc, xutuiq,otc oti:
o'(u) = 3.
u
o
2u
'Aouqoq 5
Av o o,xo iu ouiu ctu|uiictui c otu0co t0o, vu uvooci-
ctc oti o t0o ctu|oiq tot c|uoot tq cviuvciu tq civui u-
vtiotoc uvuio,o tq uxtivu tq.
Aoq
'L_otc oti lim
lO

V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
= c. 'Oc V =
4
3
vR
3
, ovotc:
V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
4
3
v
R
3
(l
O
+ l) R
3
(l
O
)
l
=
4
3
v
R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
[R
2
(l
O
+ l) + R(l
O
)R(l
O
+ l) + R
2
(l
O
)].
Lvocvc c_otc oti: lim
lO

R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
=
3c
4v
1
3R
2
(l
O
)
=
c
4vR
2
(l
O
)
.
O t0o ctu|oiq tot c|uoot L = 4vR
2
tq cviuvciu iu
ouiu civui:
lim
lO

L(l
O
+ l) L(l
O
)
l
= lim
lO

_
4v
R
2
(l
O
+ l) R
2
(l
O
)
l
=
8vR(l
O
) lim
lO

R(l
O
+ l) R(l
O
)
l
.
'Au c_otc oti: lim
lO

L(l
O
+ l) L(l
O
)
l
= 8vR(l
O
)
c
4vR
2
(l
O
)
=
2c
R(l
O
)
.
'Aouqoq 6
'Lvu ucoviuvo vctuci vuui-
iqiu vo to couo c otu-
0cq tu_ttqtu 6OO iiiu/l xui
viqoiuci cvu otu0o Radai.
Av to to oto ovoio vctuci
to ucoviuvo civui 2 iiiu,
vooo ,q,ou cicvctui q u-
vootuoq uvucou oto uco-
viuvo xui oto otu0o, tq _o-
vixq oti,q vot q oiovtiu
uvootuoq tot civui 1,5 iiiu;
'Louo ltu0o Radai
Aoq
'Lotc S(l) q oiovtiu uvootuoq xui l
O
q
_ovixq oti,q, ovot S(l
O
) = 1,5 iiiu. H
uvootuoq tot ucoviuvot uvo to otu0o
Radai oivctui uvo tov ttvo: d = S
2
+ 4.
Lvocvc o t0o ctu|oiq tot d tq
_ovixq oti,q l = l
O
oivctui uvo to oio
(lO) tot vqiixot:
2m
d
R
A
A S
1O6 Kcuiuio 4
S
2
(l
O
+ l) + 4 S
2
(l
O
) + 4
l
=
S
2
(l
O
+ l) S
2
(l
O
)
l[ S
2
(l
O
+ l) + 4 + S
2
(l
O
) + 4]
=
S(l
O
+ l) S(l
O
)
l

S(l
O
+ l) + S(l
O
)
S
2
(l
O
+ l) + 4 + S
2
(l
O
) + 4
'Oc lim
lO

S(l
O
+ l) S(l
O
)
l
= 6OO iiiu/l, ovotc:
d'(l
O
) = S'(l
O
)
2S(l
O
)
2 S
2
(l
O
) + 4
=
6OO1,5
2,5
= 36O iiiu/l.
9 4.2 4.5
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
(i) l
1
(x) = x
2
lnx, ,iu x > O
(ii) l
2
(x) = x qx lnx, ,iu x > O
(iii) l
3
(x) = x
2
cx, ,iu x e R xv +
v
2
, x e Z;
(iv) l
4
(x) = 2
x
log
2
x, ,iu x > O
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) l
1
'(x) = (x
2
)' lnx + x
2
(lnx)' = x(2lnx + 1)
(ii) l
2
'(x) = (x)' qx lnx + x (qx)' lnx + x qx (lnx)' =
qx lnx + x otvx lnx + qx
(iii) l
3
'(x) = 2x cx + x
2

1
otv
2
x
=
x
otv
2
x
(x + q2x)
(iv) l
4
'(x) = 2
x
ln2
lnx
ln2
+ 2
x

1
x ln2
= 2
x

_
lnx +
1
x ln2
'Aouqoq 2
(i) l
1
(x) =
x
2
+ 3
x 3
, ,iu x e R 3;
(ii) l
2
(x) = ox, ,iu x e R xv, x e Z;
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) l
1
'(x) =
2x(x 3) (x
2
+ 3)
(x 3)
2
=
x
2
6x 3
(x 3)
2
(ii) l
2
'(x) =
_
otvx
qx
'
=
1
q
2
x
'Aouqoq 3
(i) l
1
(x) = q(2x + 5)
(ii) l
2
(x) = ln(qx), ,iu x > O
(iii) l
3
(x) = (2x 3x
2
)
3
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) l
1
'(x) = otv(2x + 5)(2x + 5)' = 2otv(2x + 5)
(ii) l
2
'(x) =
1
qx
(qx)' = ox
(iii) l
3
'(x) = 3(2x 3x
2
)
2
(2x 3x
2
)' = 3(2 6x)(2x 3x
2
)
2
'Aouqoq 4
(u) u tvoio,io0ci q octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
1
(x) = xe
x
.
(|) u tvoio,io0ci q titq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
2
(x) = ln
_
x + 2
x 2
, ,iu x > 2.
(,) u tvoio,io0ci q tctutq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq
l
3
(x) =
x + 3
x 3
, ,iu x = 3.
Aoq
(u) Livui l
1
'(x) = e
x
(x + 1) xui l
1
"(x) = e
x
(x + 2)
1O8 Kcuiuio 4
(|) Livui l
2
'(x) =
1
x + 2

1
x 2
=
4
4 x
2
, f
2
"(x) =
4
(4 x
2
)
2
(2x) =
8x
(4 x
2
)
2
xui l
2
(3)
(x) =
8(3x
2
4)
(4 x
2
)
3
(,) Livui l
3
(4)
(x) =
144
(x 3)
5
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,io0ci q octtcq vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = e
ux
x
v
,
v e N.
Aoq
Livui:
l'(x) = e
ux
x
v1
(ux + v)
l"(x) = e
ux
x
v2
[u
2
x
2
+ v(u + 1)x + (v 1)]
'Aouqoq 2
u tvoio,io0ci q 1OOO-ootq vuu,c,o tcv otvutqoccv l
1
(x) = e
x
xui l
2
(x) = u
x
, c O < u = 1.
Aoq
Livui: l
1
'(x) = l
1
"(x) = = l
1
(1OOO)
(x) = e
x
cvc io_tci oti:
l
2
'(x) = u
x
lnu
l
2
"(x) = u
x
ln
2
u

l
2
(1OOO)
(x) = u
x
ln
1OOO
u
'Aouqoq 3
(u) u vuu,c,ioctc tq ,vcotq tuttotqtu:
1 + x + x
2
+ + x
v
=
x
v+1
1
x 1
(|) u tvoio,ioctc to u0oiou:
1 + 23 + 33
2
+ + v3
v1
Aoq
(u) 'L_otc oti:
1 + 2x + 3x
2
+ + vx
v1
=
vx
v+1
(v + 1)x
v
+ 1
(x 1)
2
(|) Octovtu x = 3 |ioxotc oti:
1 + 23 + 33
2
+ + v3
v1
=
v3
v+1
(v + 1)3
v
+ 1
4
=
3
v
(2v 1) + 1
4
'Aouqoq 4
'Lotc P vu,utixo voitcvto ,iu to ovoio io_tci q o_coq:
(P'(x))
2
= P(x), ,iu xu0c x e R
u |c0ci o ttvo tot voitcvtot P.
Aoq
Av P(x) = u
v
x
v
+ u
v1
x
v1
+ + u
1
x + u
O
, totc
P'(x) = vu
v
x
v1
+ (v 1)u
v1
x
v2
+ + u
1
.
Lvocvc oi tuci tcv oto voitcvtcv (P'(x))
2
xui P(x) 0u civui i-
oc, oqiuoq:
2(v 1) = v q v = 2.
ltvcvc, P(x) = ux
2
+ |x + , xui P'(x) = 2ux + | cvc voxtvtci oti:
4u
2
x
2
+ 4u|x + |
2
= ux
2
+ |x + ,
ovotc:
4u
2
= u, 4u| = |, |
2
= , xui
(u, |, ,) = (O, O, O) q
_
1
4
, |, |
2
, | e R.
Kutuiq,otc ioivov oti citc P O, citc P(x) =
1
4
x
2
+ |x + |
2
.
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu uttoxivqto oiuvtci uvootuoq S otu l vctu octtcoicvtu tq
cxxivqoq tot ioq c:
11O Kcuiuio 4
S(l) = l
3
+ ul
2
+ |l m, O l 1O
(u) u |citc tqv cvitu_tvoq tot uttoxivqtot ovoiuoqvotc _o-
vixq oti,q l, c O l 1O.
(|) u |citc ,iu voic tic tot u to uttoxivqto cvi|uotvci ctu
uvo tu 6 vctu sec tq xivqoq tot.
Aoq
(u) Livui ,(l) = S"(l) = 6l + 2u m/sec
2
.
(|) Ou vcvci ,(l) O ,iu 6 l 1O, oqiuoq u 3l, ,iu 6 l 1O, c-
vocvc u 3O.
'Aouqoq 2
'Lotc to ,vcoto uvo tov qicxtioo otvuixo (V):
V =
q
i
(q = otio, i = uvootuoq)
u uvoocictc oti ,iu to otvuixo utto io_tci:
V"(i) +
2
i
V'(i) = O
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
V'(i) =
q
i
2
xui V"(i) =
2q
i
3
Lvocvc:
V"(i) +
2
i
V'(i) =
2q
i
3
+
2
i

_

q
i
2
= O
'Aouqoq 3
Miu ouou |ioio,cv oc cvu cxcuvo,uixo ivotitotto votcivci vu
iq0otv iu ociu uvo voiqvtixu ctu ,iu tq oiuocoq cvo ot,-
xcxicvot cioot uiuivu uvo tqv cuuvioq. Mctu tqv cuo,q
tcv ctcv uttcv o ui0o () tcv uiuivcv cxtiutui oti 0u ctu-
|uiictui c tov _ovo (l) otcvu c tq otvutqoq:
(l) = 3l
3
+ 2l
2
1Ol + 6OO, O l 1O
u |c0ci o t0o utqoq tot viq0toot tov 2
o
xui 6
o
_ovo, xu-
0c xui vooc uiuivc 0u tvu_otv tov 8
o
_ovo.
Aoq
O t0o utqoq civui:
'(l) = 9l
2
+ 4l 1O
ovotc '(2) = 34, '(6) = 338 uiuivc to _ovo.
O otvoiixo viq0too ctu uvo 8 _oviu 0u civui
(8) = 38
3
+ 28
2
1O8 + 6OO = 2184 uiuivc.
'Aouqoq 4
Tu o,uvixu uvo|iqtu vot i_vovtui oc cvuv toutivo uvoocxtq, v._.
oc iu iivq, ciuttcvotv xut' u_qv to ot,ovo tq iivq cc otot
q toq ouoci ctoi cotc vu tvuci vuii ioooviu oto oixoototq-
u. Iiu cvu tctoio oixoototqu to ot,ovo ctu|uiictui c vo to
_ovo l c cq:
l(l) = 1OO
_ l
2
4l + 4
l
2
+ 4
, O l < 8
Hc uiiuci to ot,ovo 1, 2 xui 3 qcc ctu tq iq cvo otiot
o,uvixcv uvo|iqtcv;
Aoq
O t0o ctu|oiq tot ot,ovot civui:
l'(l) =
4OO(l
2
4)
(l
2
+ 4)
2
'Au l'(1) = 48, l'(2) = O xui l'(3) = 11,8, oqiuoq tqv vctq qcu t-
vu_ci ciuttcoq tot ot,ovot xutu 48, ctu uvo 2 qcc ocv t-
vu_ci ottc ciuttcoq ottc utqoq, cvc ctu uvo 3 qcc tvu_ci
11,8 utqoq.
'Aouqoq 5
O ui0o tcv cicv cvo ,tvuotqiot vot uvoic viv uvo cixu
_oviu oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
(l) = 1OO(64 + 4l)
2
3
, O l 52
ovot civui o ui0o tcv cicv otqv u_q iu c|oouou l. Hc
utuvotuv o ui0o vccv cicv u_ixu (l = O), xui vc otqv u_q
tq 4O
q
c|oouou; Hoio o ui0o tcv cicv ti oto uttc _ovi-
xc oti,c;
112 Kcuiuio 4
Aoq
O t0o utqoq tcv cicv civui:
'(l) =
8OO
3(64 + 4l)
1
3
'Au '(O) = 66,7 oqiuoq vcivot 66 q 67 uv0cvoi tqv c|oouou xui
(O) = 16OO ciq otqv u_q.
Mctu tqv 4O
q
c|oouou c_otc:
'(4O) = 43,9 xui (4O) = 3688 ciq
'Aouqoq 6
H coq ot,xcvtcoq tot CO (ovocioiot tot uv0uxu) otqv
utoouiu oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(l) = O,881443l
4
1,45533l
3
+ O,695876l
2
+ 2,878O1l + 293, l , O
ovot l civui q ovuou ctqoq tot _ovot xui vuivci tic l = O, 1,
2, . xui xu0c ovuou _ovot uvtiotoi_ci oc vciooo 4O ctcv (l = O
to 186O) xui q l ctictui oc cq oto cxutotio uvu xt|ixo cxu-
tooto (m/cm
3
). Hoio o t0o ctu|oiq tq ot,xcvtcoq otqv
u_q tot uicvu (l = 1) xui otqv u_q tot 199O (l = 3,5);
Aoq
O t0o ctu|oiq tq ot,xcvtcoq civui:
l'(l) = 3,525772l
3
4,36599l
2
+ 1,391752l + 2,878O1
'Au l'(1) = 3,429 m/cm
3
xui l'(3,5) = 1O5,43 m/cm
3
.
9 4.6 4.7
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,ioctc tqv vuu,otou tcv uxoiot0cv otvutqoccv:
(i) l
1
(x) =
1
x + 2
, ,iu x > 2
(ii) l
2
(x) =
1
3
x
2
, ,iu x = O
(iii) l
3
(x) =
_
x +
1
x
2
, ,iu x = O
(iv) l
4
(x) = c
2
x, ,iu x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) !
1
(x) = ln(x + 2) + c
(ii) !
2
(x) =
x

2
3
+ 1

2
3
+ 1
+ c = 3
3
x + c
(iii) Aot l
3
(x) = x
2
+
1
x
2
+ 2 0u civui !
3
(x) =
x
3
3

1
x
+ 2x + c
(iv) Aot l
4
(x) =
q
2
x
otv
2
x
=
1 otv
2
x
otv
2
x
=
1
otv
2
x
1 0u civui
!
4
(x) = cx x + c
'Aouqoq 2
u uvoocictc oti oi otvutqoci tq octtcq otqiq civui oi vu-
u,otoc tcv otvutqoccv tq vctq:
ltvutqoq l Huu,otou !
ox, ,iu qx > O ln(qx), ,iu qx > O
lnx, ,iu x > O x(lnx 1), ,iu x > O
Aoq
Axci vu vuu,c,iootc ti vuu,otoc otvutqoci.
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci q vuu,otou tcv uxoiot0cv otvutqoccv:
(i) l
1
(x) = u
x
, c O O xui O < u = 1
(iii) l
3
(x) = 1 + c
2
x, ,iu x = xv +
v
2
, x e Z
114 Kcuiuio 4
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
(i) !
1
(x) =
u
x
lnu
+ c
(ii) !
2
(x) =
x(lnx 1)
lnu
+ c
(iii) !
3
(x) = cx + c
'Aouqoq 4
u tvoio,ioctc tqv vuu,otou otvutqoq tq l(x) =
1
1 + qx
,
x = 2xv
v
2
, x e Z.
Aoq
Hoiiuviuoiuotc xui oiuiotc c (1 qx). Totc:
l(x) =
1 qx
otv
2
x
=
1
otv
2
x

cx
otvx
ovotc:
!(x) = cx
1
otvx
+ c
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x) c l: RR
+
. u it0ci to vo|iqu u-
_ixcv ticv:
'
y' = y
y(O) = y
O
Aoq
Avo tqv cuo,q 2 c_otc oti:
y'
y
= 1 q (lny)' = 1 q lny = x + c q y = e
x+c
q y = c
1
e
x
.
Iiu vu tvoio,iootc tq otu0cu c
1
0ctotc x = O, ovotc y(O) = y
O
= c
1
xui y = y
O
e
x
.
'Aouqoq 2
'Lotc otvutqoq y = l(x) c l: RR xui l(O) = ln2. u it0ci to vo-
|iqu u_ixcv ticv:
e
x
(y' y) =
e
x
e
x
+ 1
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
e
x
(l'(x) l(x)) =
e
x
e
x
+ 1
q e
x
l'(x) e
x
l(x) =
e
x
e
x
+ 1
q
(e
x
l(x))' = (ln(e
x
+ 1))'
Lvocvc c_otc:
e
x
l(x) = ln(e
x
+ 1) + c q l(x) = e
x
ln(e
x
+ 1) + ce
x
Iiu x = O |ioxotc c = O, ovotc:
y = l(x) = e
x
ln(e
x
+ 1).
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci o ttvo tq otvutqoq y = l(x) ,iu tqv ovoiu ,vciotc
oti:
y' = 2x
3
3
xui oti q C
l
oic_ctui uvo to oqcio A(O, 2).
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
y = l(x) =
x
4
2
3x + c
Iiu x = O civui c = 2, cvocvc:
l(x) =
x
4
2
3x + 2
'Aouqoq 4
Aivctui otvutqoq y = l(x), c l: RR. u it0ci to vo|iqu u-
116 Kcuiuio 4
_ixcv ticv:
'
l"(x) = 2x + 5
l'(1) = 2
l(1) =
5
6
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
l'(x) = x
2
+ 5x + c.
Iiu x = 1 civui c = 4, ovotc:
l'(x) = x
2
+ 5x 4.
Kutoviv voxtvtci oti:
l(x) =
x
3
3
+
5x
2
2
4x + c
1
.
Iiu x = 1 c_otc oti c
1
= 2, ovotc:
y = l(x) =
x
3
3
+
5x
2
2
4x + 2.
'Aouqoq 5
u |c0ci iu oiuoixq ciocoq 1
q
tuq xui iu 2
q
, ti ovoic i-
xuvovoici q otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c:
l(x) = ln(x + x
2
+ 1)
Aoq
Huu,c,iotc tqv l xui |ioxotc oti:
y' = l'(x) =
1
x + x
2
+ 1

_
1 +
x
x
2
+ 1
q y' =
1
x
2
+ 1
vot civui q qtotcvq oiuoixq ciocoq 1
q
tuq.
Av uvuvuu,c,iootc tqv ciocoq uttq:
y'( x
2
+ 1) = 1
c_otc oti:
y"( x
2
+ 1) + y'
x
x
2
+ 1
= O q (x
2
+ 1) y" + x y' = O
vot civui q qtotcvq oiuoixq ciocoq 2
q
tuq.
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
'Lvu xuvctuvio iotiovioIxot _qoiovoicvtu ti ctqoci tot
oooctot (o,uvo vot ctuci tqv tu_ttqtu tot oxuot) xutu-
iq,ci oti q tu_ttqtu tot oxuot tot oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
t(l) =
e
l
1O
1OO
vuttixu iiiu/min, ,iu O l 3O
u |c0ci q otvutqoq 0coq tot iotiovioIxot xui vu |c0ci voou
iiiu oiqvtoc xutu to _ovixo oiuotqu uvo l = 1O min cc
l = 2O min.
Aoq
Aot t(l) = S'(l) c_otc oti: S'(l) =
e
l
1O
1OO
.
H vuu,otou tq e
l
1O
civui q 1Oe
l
1O
+ c, ovotc:
S(l) =
1
1OO
1Oe
l
1O
+ c =
1
1O
e
l
1O
+ c.
Iiu vu tvoio,iootc tq otu0cu c uxci vu _qoiovoiqootc iu
u_ixq tiq tq S, oti S(O) = O, ovotc:
S(O) =
1
1O
+ c q c =
1
10
.
'Au:
S(l) =
e
l
1O
1O

1
1O
=
e
l
1O
1
1O
, ,iu O l 3O.
Iiu vu |otc tqv uvootuoq vot oiqvtoc to iotiovioIxo uvo
l = 1O min cc l = 2O min, 0ccotc tq oiuou:
S(2O) S(1O) =
e
2O
1O
1O

1
1O

e
1O
1O
1O
+
1
1O
=
e
2
e
1O
= O,46 vuttixu iiiu.
'Aouqoq 2
H tcivq xtxiooiu tot vciooixot LYKAL!AHl B' tq Liiqvi-
xq Mu0qutixq Ltuiciu civui 3OO uvti,uu tqv c|oouou. H
118 Kcuiuio 4
LML tvoio,ici oti to vciooixo 0u utqoci tqv xtxiooiu tot c
t0o
1
5

5
l
4
+
2
9
tct_q uvu c|oouou (0cccvtu vuvtu tov xovtivo-
tco uxcuio ui0o tct_cv), tu cvocvu tiu _oviu. Hoiu 0u civui
q xtxiooiu tot vciooixot ctu uvo 32 c|oouoc;
Aoq
Av q otvutqoq l(l) cxuci tqv xtxiooiu tot vciooixot, totc
c_otc oti:
l'(l) =
1
5

5
l
4
+
2
9
.
H vuu,otou tq otvutqoq
5
l
4
= l
4
5
civui q:
l
4
5
+ 1
4
5
+ 1
+ c =
5
9
l
9
5
+ c =
5l
5
l
4
9
+ c.
Lvocvc:
l(l) =
2l
9
+
l
5
l
4
9
+ c =
l
9
(2 +
5
l
4
) + c.
Iiu vu tvoio,iootc tq otu0cu c, _qoiovoiotc tqv u_ixq otv-
0qxq l(O) = 3OO, ovotc c = 3OO. 'Au q xtxiooiu tot LYKAL!AH B'
oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(l) =
l
9
(2 +
5
l
4
) + 3OO
ovotc q xtxiooiu ctu uvo 32 c|oouoc 0u civui:
l(32) =
32
9
18 + 3OO = 364 tct_q.
'Aouqoq 3
ltqv A0qvu iu xuioxuiivq qcu, to ovocioio tot uv0uxu ci-
vui 2 cq oto cxutotio (ppm). To Yvot,cio Hci|uiiovto
vo|icvci oti uv ocv vu0otv utotqu ctu xutu tot vcot, q ot-
,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot tot uv0uxu otqv utoouiu 0u utu-
vctui c t0o:
1
1OOO
(l
2
+ 2Ol + 1OO) cq uvu cxutotio (m)
oc l _oviu uvo tcu. Hoiu 0u civui q ot,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot
tot uv0uxu oc 3 _oviu uvo oqcu;
Aoq
A ot|oiiootc c l(l) tq ot,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot tot uv-
0uxu, ovotc c_otc:
l'(l) =
1
1OOO
(l
2
+ 2Ol + 1OO).
Ovotc:
l(l) =
1
1OOO

_ l
3
3
+ 1Ol
2
+ 1OOl + c.
'Oc l(O) = 2 ovotc c = 2, uu:
l(l) =
1
1OOO

_ l
3
3
+ 1Ol
2
+ 1OOl + 2OOO .
Lvocvc, oc 3 _oviu uvo oqcu, q ot,xcvtcoq tot ovocioiot
tot uv0uxu 0u civui:
l(3) =
1
1OOO
(9 + 9O + 9OO + 2OOO) = 2,999 m.
'Aouqoq 4
To ,vcoto ototqu "cxxcc uu" vci,uctui uvo tq oiuoi-
xq ciocoq:
mx" = lx
ovot x q uvootuoq c otvutqoq tot _ovot l xui l otu0cu.
u uvoocictc oti iu itoq vot ixuvovoici uttq tq oiuoixq civui
tq oq:
x = c
1
otv(cl) + c
2
q(cl)
c c
2
=
l
m
xui c
1
, c
2
otu0cc.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
x'(l) = c
1
c q(cl) + c c
2
otv(cl)
x"(l) = c
1
c
2
otv(cl) c
2
c
2
q(cl)
Lvocvc:
mx" = mc
2
(c
1
otv(cl) + c
2
q(cl)) = lx.
12O Kcuiuio 4
9 4.8 4.9
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
u uvoocictc oti q ,uixq otvutqoq l: RR, c l(x) = ux + |
civui:
(u) Ivqoic utotou uv u > O.
(|) Ivqoic 0ivotou uv u < O.
(,) ltu0cq uv u = O.
Aoq
Houvc io_totv tu qtotcvu uot l'(x) = u.
'Aouqoq 2
u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu q otvutqoq l(x) = e
ux
, ,iu ti
oiuoc tic tq vuuctot u e R.
Aoq
Livui l'(x) = ue
ux
, ovotc uv u > O q l civui ,vqoic utotou ,iu xu0c
x e R, cvc uv u < O q l civui ,vqoic 0ivotou ,iu xu0c x e R.
'Aouqoq 3
Aivctui iu otvutqoq l: (u, |) R c ti cq ioiotqtc:
(i) l"(x) > O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |).
(ii) Yvu_ci , e (u, |), tctoio cotc l'(,) = O.
Ti io_tci ,iu to oqcio (,, l(,)); Ti 0u io_tci uv uvti tq (i) ci_uc o-
ti l"(x) < O, ,iu xu0c x e (u, |);
Aoq
ltqv vctq vcivtcoq to oqcio (,, l(,)) civui 0coq tovixot ciu-
_iotot, cvc otq octtcq vcivtcoq civui 0coq tovixot c,iotot.
'Aouqoq 4
u uvoocictc oti q xt|ixq otvutqoq:
l(x) = ux
3
+ |x
2
+ ,x + o, u = O
ocv c_ci tovixu uxotutu uv |
2
3u, O.
Aoq
Livui l'(x) = 3ux
2
+ 2|x + ,.
H oiuxivotou tq l' civui A = 4(|
2
3u,) O, ovotc citc q l' ocv c_ci
iu, uu ocv tvu_otv vi0uvu uxotutu, citc c_ci ovuoixq iu
uiiu oiutqci otu0co vooqo, ovotc vuii ocv c_ci uxotutu.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
u uvoocictc oti q otvutqoq l: R
o
,
;, c
l(x) =
ux + |
,x + o
, ovot u, , = O
ocv c_ci tovixu uxotutu uv uo |, = O.
Ti ot|uivci otuv uo |, = O;
Aoq
Livui l'(x) =
u(,x + o) ,(ux + |)
(,x + o)
2
=
uo |,
(,x + o)
2
.
Lvocvc, citc l'(x) > O ,iu xu0c x e R
o
,
;, otuv uo |, > O, citc
l'(x) < O otuv uo |, < O. Ovotc q l ocv c_ci tovixu uxotutu otuv
uo |, = 0.
Av uo |, = O, totc l'(x) = O, ovotc q l civui otu0cu.
'Aouqoq 2
u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu q otvutqoq
l: [O, 5] R, c:
l'(x) = (x 1)
3
(x 2)
2
(x 3)
122 Kcuiuio 4
Aoq
O vivuxu ctu|oicv tq l civui o uxoiot0o:
l
l
O O O
x O

5

1 2 3
Lvocvc q l vuotoiuci tovixo ciu_ioto oto x
O
= O, tovixo c,i-
oto oto x
1
= 1, tovixo ciu_ioto oto x
3
= 3 xui tovixo c,ioto oto
x
4
= 5. lto x
2
= 2 q l vuotoiuci otuoio oqcio, to ovoio ocv civui
uxotuto.
'Aouqoq 3
Aivctui q otvutqoq l: (O, +)R, c l(x) =
lnx
x
.
(u) u cictq0ci c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu.
(|) u ot,xi0otv oi tic l(v) xui l(e).
(,) u ot,xi0otv oi ui0oi e
v
xui v
e
.
Aoq
(u) 'L_otc oti l'(x) =
1 lnx
x
2
xui tov uxoiot0o vivuxu ctu|oicv:
l
l
O
x O
e
T.M.
(|) Aot v > e xui q l civui ,vqoic 0ivotou ,iu xu0c x , e, c_otc
oti l(v) < l(e).
(,) Livui:
l(v) < l(e) q
lnv
v
<
lne
e
q e lnv < v lne q ln(v
e
) < ln(e
v
) q
v
e
< e
v
.
'Aouqoq 4
Aivovtui oi otvutqoci l, g: (O, +)R, c:
l(x) =
x e
x
x + e
x
xui g(x) = x xlnx
(i) u uvoocictc oti vuotoiuotv c,ioto oc oqcio c xoivq tc-
tqcvq.
(ii) u cctuoctc c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu tq otvu-
tqoq l(x) = l(x) + g(x).
Aoq
(i) 'L_otc oti l'(x) =
2e
x
(1 x)
(x + e
x
)
2
xui tov uxoiot0o vivuxu ctu|oicv:
l
l
O
x O
1
Iiu tq g c_otc oti g'(x) = lnx xui tov uvtiotoi_o vivuxu:
g
g
O
x O
1
(ii) H l c_ci uxi|c tqv ioiu ctu|oiq c ti l xui g, oqiuoq:
l
l
O
x O
1
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
To to cvo vtutiot (oc m) ctu uvo l sec vtqoq, oivctui uvo tq
124 Kcuiuio 4
otvutqoq:
l(l) =
1
6
l
3
+ 8l
2
+
33
2
l + 5, l , O.
u cctuoctc votc o vtutio utto uvc|uivci xui votc xutc|uivci.
Aoq
Axci vu cictqootc tq ovotoviu tq otvutqoq l, oqiuoq:
l'(l) =
1
2
l
2
+ 16l +
33
2
H l' c_ci ic 1 xui 33. H vctq uvoivtctui uot l , O, ovotc c-
_otc tov uxoiot0o vivuxu ctu|oicv:
l
l
O
l O
33
Lvocvc oto _ovixo oiuotqu [O, 33] o vtutio utuvci oiuxc
to to tot, cvc ,iu l > 33 u_ici xui vctci.
'Aouqoq 2
To viq0o tcv c,xiqutcv tu tcicttuiu 1O _oviu oc iu vo-
iq (1989 1999) oivctui xutu vooc,,ioq uvo tq otvutqoq:
l(l) = O,O3l
3
+
368,64
l
ocxuoc c,xiqutu, O < l 1O
u cctuoctc voiu _oviu ci_uc tqv ciu_iotq c,xiqutixotqtu.
Aoq
Axci vu cictqootc tq ovotoviu tq otvutqoq l, oqiuoq:
l'(l) = O,O9l
2

368,64
l
2
=
O,O9
l
2
(l
4
4O96).
'L_otc:
l'(l) = O l
4
= 4O96 l = 8 q l = 8.
H l = 8 uvoivtctui uot l > O, ovotc c_otc tov uxoiot0o vivuxu
ctu|oicv:
l
l
O
x O
8
Lvocvc to 1997 ci_uc tq ixotcq c,xiqutixotqtu.
'Aouqoq 3
H vi0uvotqtu P vu |c0ci cvu qicxtovio oc uvootuoq i uvo tov
vtqvu cvo utoot too,ovot oivctui uvo tqv ciocoq:
P =
4i
2
u
O
3
e

2i
u
O
, ovot u
O
otu0cu.
Aot |citc tqv vuu,c,o tot P c vo i, tvoio,iotc tqv tiq tot
i otuv q vi0uvotqtu civui c,iotq, oqiuoq tqv vio vi0uvq tiq tot i.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
P'(i) =
4
u
O
3

]
1
1
2ie

2i
u
O
+ i
2
e

2i
u
O

_

2
u
O
=
8ie

2i
u
O
u
O
4
(u
O
i).
Lvocvc c_otc tov uxoiot0o vivuxu ctu|oicv:
P
P
O
i O
Ovotc q P vuotoiuci c,ioto ,iu i = u

O
.
'Aouqoq 4
Avo cvu xouti _utovi o0o,cviot o_quto, c victc 6 cm xui
8 cm, vu xutuoxctuo0ci cvu xotti o_quto o0o,cviot vuuiiqic-
vivcoot, uvoi_to oto vuvc co, ctoi cotc vu c_ci to c,ioto ot-
vuto o,xo.
126 Kcuiuio 4
Aoq
Ko|otc tcoocu tctu,cvu xoutiu
uvo ti ,cvic tot _utoviot victu x
xui o_qutictui cvu o0o,cvio vuui-
iqicvivcoo o,xot:
V(x) = x(6 2x)(8 2x) = 4x(3 x)(4 x),
,iu O < x < 3.
Totc c_otc oti:
V'(x) = 4(3x
2
14x + 12)
xui q V vuotoiuci oto otuoiu oq-
ciu:
x
8
6
x
1
=
7 13
3
xui x
2
=
7 + 13
3
.
Aot x
2
> 3, uvoivtctui. Lvioq:
l"
_ 7 13
3
= 4
_
6
7 13
3
14 = 8 13 < O
uu q l vuotoiuci c,ioto oto x
1
=
7 13
3
.
'Aouqoq 5
Miu totiotixq cvi_ciqoq o,uvcvci cxooc c iccociu. Ku-
0c totiotixo iccocio c_ci 5O 0coci. 'Otuv oi cvi|utc tot icc-
ociot civui uxi|c 3O, totc q ctuiciu qtu 5OOO o_. xutu utoo.
Iiu vu utqoci tot cvi|utc, q ctuiciu xuvci tqv cq vooou:
Ko0e eieov eiotp 0o ueiovei toto 100 p,. tp ,peoop to0e ooo
eiotp
u |c0ci to viq0o tcv cvivicov cvi|utcv vot vcvci vu c_ci xu0c
iccocio, cotc q cvi_ciqoq vu c_ci c,iotovoiqoci tu cooou tq.
Aoq
H otvutqoq cooocv ,iu x cvivicov cvi|utc uvo tot 3O civui q c-
q:
L(x) = (3O + x)(5OOO 1OOx) = 1OOx
2
+ 2OOOx + 15OOOO ou_c.
'L_otc totc oti:
L'(x) = 2OOx + 2OOO
ovotc q L c_ci c,ioto oto x
O
= 1O uot L"(1O) = 2OO < O. 'Au q c-
vi_ciqoq c,iotovoici tu cooou tq uv oc xu0c iccocio c_ci 4O
utou.
'Aouqoq 6
u voooioio0otv oi oiuotuoci o0o,cvi-
ot c,iotot c|uoot, to ovoio civui c,,c-
,ucvo oc ioovicto ti,cvo victu
1 cm, uv q iu victu tot o0o,cviot vcic-
_ctui oc iu victu tot ti,cvot (|i. l_q-
u).
A
B I
L
K A
M A
Aoq
'Lotc x = AM xui y = KA. Av 0ccqootc to to AA tot ti,cvot
ABI, totc tu ti,cvu ALA xui AAI civui ooiu, ovotc:
AL
AA
=
LA
AI
q
AA x
AA
=

KA
2

BI
2
q
3
2
x
3
2
=
y
1
q y = 1
2
3
x
c tot vcioioot O < y < BI = 1 xui O < x < AA =
3
2
.
To c|uoo tot o0o,cviot oivctui uvo to ,ivocvo:
xy = x
_
1
2
3
x =
2
3
x
2
+ x.
H otvutqoq l:
_
O,
3
2
R c:
l(x) =
2
3
x
2
+ x
c_ci vuu,c,o:
l'(x) =
4
3
x + 1 =
4
3
_
x
3
4
xui otuoio oqcio oto x
O
=
3
4
.
128 Kcuiuio 4
Aot l"
_ 3
4
=
4
3
< O c_otc oti q l vuotoiuci c,ioto oto x
O
=
3
4
ovotc to o0o,cvio c_ci oiuotuoci
3
4
cm xui
1
2
cm
xui c|uoov
3
8
cm
2
.
'Aouqoq 1
Aivctui otvutqoq l: RR vuu,c,ioiq oto x
O
. u uvoocictc oti:
(i) lim
lO

l
2
(x
O
+ l) l
2
(x
O
)
l
= 2l(x
O
)l'(x
O
)
(ii) lim
lO

(x
O
+ l)l(x
O
) x
O
l(x
O
+ l)
l
= l(x
O
) x
O
l'(x
O
)
Aoq
(i) 'L_otc oti:
l
2
(x
O
+ l) l
2
(x
O
)
l
=
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
(l(x
O
+ h) + f(x
0
))
uv' ovot voxtvtci to qtotcvo.
(ii) 'L_otc oti:
(x
O
+ l)l(x
O
) x
O
l(x
O
+ l)
l
=
x
O
l(x
O
) x
O
l(x
O
+ l)
l
+ l(x
O
) =
(x
O
)
l(x
O
+ l) l(x
O
)
l
+ l(x
O
)
xui c_otc to qtotcvo uvotcicou ,iu lO.
'Aouqoq 2
O o,xo V tot _ciot ctut oto ooxcvtcv ouicv c,uicvci
c vo to _ovo. H uxtivu tq cctcixq ouiu utuvci c otu-
0co t0o 2 m/l, cvc q uxtivu tq coctcixq ouiu utuvci c
otu0co t0o
1
2
m/l. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq tot o,xot V, o-
tuv q cctcixq uxtivu ,ivci ioq c 3 m xui q coctcixq c 1 m.
Aoq
O o,xo V 0u oivctui uvo tq oiuou tcv o,xcv tcv oto ouicv:
V =
4
3
v (R
2
3
R
1
3
)
ovot R
2
q uxtivu tq c,uiq ouiu xui R
1
q uxtivu tq ixq.
'L_otc totc oti:
V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
4
3
v
]
1
1 R
2
3
(l
O
+ l) R
2
3
(l
O
)
l

R
1
3
(l
O
+ l) R
1
3
(l
O
)
l
=
4
3
v
R
2
(l
O
+ l) R
2
(l
O
)
l
(R
2
2
(l
O
+ l) + R
2
(l
O
)R
2
(l
O
+ l) + R
2
2
(t
0
))

]
1
1

R
1
(t
0
+ h) R
1
(t
0
)
h
(R
1
2
(t
0
+ h) + R
1
(t
0
)R
1
(t
0
+ h) + R
1
2
(t
0
))
Lvocvc:
lim
lO

V(l
O
+ l) V(l
O
)
l
=
4
3
v [R
2
'(l
O
)3R
2
2
(l
O
) R
1
'(l
O
)3R
1
2
(l
O
)] =
4
3
v (239
1
2
31
2
) = 7Ov m
3
/l.
'Aouqoq 3
O ui0o |uxtqicv (l) oc iu ot,xcxicvq xuiiic,ciu ctu-
|uiictui ctu tq _qoq cvo |uxtqioxtovot c cq:
(l) =
1OOOO
1 + l
2
+ 2OOO
ovot o _ovo l cxuctui oc min. u |c0ci o t0o ctu|oiq
xui to viq0o tcv |uxtqicv 1 xui 2 min ctu tq _qoq tot |u-
xtqioxtovot.
Aoq
O t0o ctu|oiq civui: '(l) =
2OOOOl
(1 + l
2
)
2
. Lvocvc:
'(1) = 5OOO xui '(2) = 16OO.
'Aouqoq 4
ltq toixq _qoiovoicitui ctcc q cvvoiu tq cioixq 0cotq-
tu tvo otu0cq vicoq C
P
, q ovoiu oictui c o t0o ctu|oiq
13O Kcuiuio 4
tq 0cotqtu q c vo tq 0coxuoiu T, oqiuoq:
C
P
= q'(T)
Av uvo vciuutixu ocoocvu civui ,vcoto oti C
P
= A + BT, ovot A,
B otu0cc, vu tvoio,ioctc tq otvutqoq q c vo T. Hc uvio-
voicitui q otvutqoq uttq uv q C
P
civui otu0cu, oqiuoq uvcu-
tqtq tq 0coxuoiu;
Aoq
'L_otc oti q'(T) = A + BT, ovotc:
q(T) =
B
2
T
2
+ AT + C, ovot C otu0cu.
Av q C
P
qtuv otu0cu, totc:
q'(T) = C
P
q q'(T) = C
P
T + C
1
, ovot C
1
otu0cu.
'Aouqoq 5
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x), c l: RR. u it0otv oi oiuoixc c-
iococi:
(i) y' + y = x, ovot x otu0cu, voiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
xui tu oto
ciq tq ciocoq.
(ii) y' y = x, ovot x otu0cu, voiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
xui tu oto
ciq tq ciocoq.
(iii) y" = y, voo0ctovtu tqv y' otu oto ciq tq ciocoq.
Aoq
(i) Livui e
x
(l'(x) + l(x)) = xe
x
q (l(x)e
x
)' = xe
x
. Ovotc:
l(x)e
x
= xe
x
+ c q l(x) = x + ce
x
, ,iu xu0c x e R.
(ii) Livui e
x
(l'(x) l(x)) = xe
x
q (l(x)e
x
)' = xe
x
. Lvocvc:
l(x) = x + c
1
e
x
, ,iu xu0c x e R.
(iii) Livui l"(x) + l'(x) = l'(x) + l(x).
Hoiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
|ioxotc:
(e
x
l'(x))' = (e
x
l(x))' q e
x
l'(x) = e
x
l(x) + c
2
q l'(x) l(x) = c
2
e
x
.
Hoiiuviuoiuovtu c e
x
|ioxotc:
(e
x
l(x))' = c
2
e
2x
q e
x
l(x) = c
2

e
2x
2
+ c
3
q l(x) = c
4
e
x
+ c
3
e
x
,
,iu xu0c x e R.
'Aouqoq 6
Aivctui q otvutqoq y = l(x), c tqv l vuu,c,ioiq oto (O, +). u
it0ci to vo|iqu u_ixcv ticv:
xy' = (x + 1)y,
,iu x > O xui l(1) = e.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
xl'(x) l(x) = xl(x) q
xl'(x) l(x)
x
2
=
l(x)
x
q
_
l(x)
x
'
=
l(x)
x
Lvocvc:
l(x)
x
= ce
x
q l(x) = cxe
x
.
Aot l(1) = e c_otc oti c = 1, ovotc:
l(x) = xe
x
, ,iu xu0c x > O.
'Aouqoq 7
u cictq0ci q xt|ixq otvutqoq:
l(x) = ux
3
+ |x
2
+ ,x + o, c u > O
c vo tq ovotoviu xui tu uxotutu, otuv |
2
3u, > O.
Aoq
'L_otc oti:
l'(x) = 3ux
2
+ 2|x + ,
'Otuv |
2
3u, > O, q l' c_ci oto ic:
x
1
=
| |
2
3u,
u
x
2
=
| + |
2
3u,
u
xui q l c_ci vivuxu ctu|oicv:
l
l
O O
x

x
: :
ovotc vuotoiuci tovixo ciu_ioto oto x
1
xui tovixo c,ioto oto x
2
.
132 Kcuiuio 4
'Aouqoq 8
u |citc tu ct,q tcv 0ctixcv ui0cv vot c_otv otu0co u0oi-
ou c xui c,ioto ,ivocvo tq titq otvuq tot cvo xui tq oct-
tcq tot uiiot.
Aoq
'Lotc x, z oi ui0oi c x + z = c q z = c x. Ociotc vu |otc tq
c,iotq tiq tq otvutqoq:
l(x) = x
3
(c x)
2
, ,iu O < x < c.
H vuu,c,o tq l civui:
l'(x) = 3x
2
(c x)
2
2x
3
(c x) = x
2
(c x)(3c 5x)
q ovoiu vuotoiuci c,ioto oto x
O
=
3c
5
.
'Aouqoq 9
lc ooocvq ouiu:
(u) u c,,uci xtiivoo c c,ioto o,xo.
(|) u c,,uci o0o xcvo c c,ioto o,xo.
Aoq
(u) 'Lotc x to to tot c,,c,ucvot xtiivoot
xui y q oiucto tq |uoq tot. O o,xo tot
xtiivoot civui:
V = v
_
y
2
2
x
xui y
2
= 4R
2
x
2
, ovotc:
V(x) =
v
4
(4R
2
x
2
) x
2R
x
y
c 0coq vi0uvot uxotutot oto x =
2R 3
3
.
Livui V"
_ 2R 3
3
= vR 3 < O, ovotc to oiixo c,ioto cvitt,_u-
vctui oto oqcio
_ 2R 3
3
,
2R 6
3
.
(|) O o,xo tot xcvot oivctui uvo tov
ttvo:
V =
1
3
vy
2
x
ovot x civui to to AK tot xcvot
xui y q uxtivu KI tq |uoq tot. Tu
ti,cvu AKI xui AIA civui ooiu, o-
votc:
AK
AI
=
AI
AA
q AI
2
= AKAA q
x
2
+ y
2
= x2R q y
2
= x(2R x).
Ovotc o o,xo tot xtiivoot oivctui
uvo tov ttvo:
x
O
A
B I
K
y
A
V(x) =
1
3
vx
2
(2R x), ,iu O < x < 2R
c c,iotq tiq ,iu x =
4
3
R.
'Aouqoq 10
Aivctui cvu xtxiixo _utivo oioxo xui 0ciotc vu xutuoxctu-
ootc cvu iito xuc oc o_qu xcvot, ctoi cotc vu c_ci c,ioto
o,xo.
i
2x
O
O
O
H
l
i
p
B
B
A
A
Aoq
'Lotc i q uxtivu tot xtxiixot oioxot, uvo tov ovoio xo|otc cvuv
xtxiixo tocu OAB c AB = 2x. H uxtivu tq |uoq tot xcvot vot
xutuoxctuctui ioottui c:
=
2xi
2v
=
i
v
x
cvc to to l ioottui c:
l
2
= i
2

2
q l =
i
v
v
2
x
2
.
134 Kcuiuio 4
ltvcvc, o o,xo V tot iitot oivctui uvo tq o_coq:
V(x) = v
2

l
3
=
i
3
3v
2
x
4
(v
2
x
2
), ,iu O < x < v
vot vuotoiuci c,ioto oto x
1
=
6v
3
c V(x
1
) =
2v
3
(3 6) xui
l = O,574i <
1
3
(oiuctot tq |uoq).
'Aouqoq 11
Oi vo,ic civui i,utu cvo voitcot (ovc tu viuotixu), cvo
oiuittq (ovc vco q uixooiq) xui iu _cotixq otoiu. Avuui-
tqtq votvo0coq civui to voitcc vu uvuci,vtctui viqc c to
oiuittq. Ocootvuixu, to vo|iqu utto cictutui c otvutq-
oci tot ic,ocvot otvtcicotq cvc,otqtu u c vo tq ot,xc-
vtcoq x. 'Lvu tctoio ,vcoto xui oqcu xiuoixo ovtcio votu-
0qxc to 194O uvo tot !loiy xui Huggins:
lnu
1
= ln(1
2
) +
_
1
1
V

2
+ i
2
2
ovot o ocixtq 1 uvtiotoi_ci otov oiuittq xui o ocixtq 2 oto voit-
cc, cvc:
2
=
x
2
V
2
x
1
V
1
+ x
2
V
2
, V
1
, V
2
o,xoi xui V =
V
2
V
1
xui i q vuucto tot ovtciot vot tvoio,ictui uvo vciuutixu
ocoocvu. H 0cootvuixq oici oti iu t,q uoq tvu_ci otuv
i > V
1
) voitc-
q;
Aoq
!o_tci oti:
(ln[u
1
(
2
)])' =
1
1
2
+
_
1
1
V
+ 2i
2
= O (1)
(ln[u
1
(
2
)])" =
1
(1
2
)
2
+ 2i = O (2)
Atvovtu to ototqu tcv oto uttcv ciococcv c vo
2
xui i
|ioxotc:
i = i
xio.
=
1
2(1
2
)
2
xui uvtixu0iotcvtu otqv (1) |ioxotc oti:
(V 1)
2
2
+ 2
2
1 = O
ovotc q uvoocxtq tiq civui:
2
=
1
2( V + 1)
xui i
xio.
=
1
2

_
1 +
1
V
2
.
Iiu voit "|uiu" voitcq (V
2
>> V
1
) c_otc oti to
1
V
tcivci oto O,
ovotc i
1
2
, tiq vot ,iu _oviu _qoiovoiq0qxc otq Bioq_uviu
c cvociq uvuciiotqtu cvo voitcot xui cvo oiuittq.
2roicio Ozouzqporiuoo
Aoyiouoo
9 5.1 5.2
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
'O
1
4x
3
dx.
Atoq
'O
1
4x
3
dx =
'O
1
(x
4
)' dx = [x
4
]
O
1
= 1
'Aouqoq 2
'1
2
(2x + 1) dx.
Atoq
'1
2
(2x + 1) dx =
'1
2
2x dx +
'1
2
1 dx =
'1
2
(x
2
)' dx +
'1
2
(x)' dx = [x
2
]
1
2
+ [x]
1
2
=
4 1 + 2 1 = 4
'Aouqoq 3
'1
1
e
2x
dx.
Atoq
'1
1
e
2x
dx =
'1
1

_
1
2
e
2x
'
dx =
]
1
1
1
2
e
2x

1
1
=
1
2
(e
2
e
2
)
'Aouqoq 4
'O
2v
otv3x dx.
Atoq
'O
2v
otv3x dx =
'O
2v

_
q3x
3
'
dx =
]
1
1
q3x
3

O
2v
=
q6v
3

qO
3
= O
'Aouqoq 5
u uvooci_0ci oti
'O
1
(x 1) dx O.
Atoq
Av O x 1 (x 1) O, ovotc
'O
1
(x 1) dx O.
'Aouqoq 6
u uvooci_0ci oti
'O
1
x
2
dx ,
'O
1
x
3
dx.
Atoq
Occotc x
2
x
3
= x
2
(1 x) = x
2
(x 1) , O, ,iu x e [O, 1], uu
x
2
x
3
, O q x
2
, x
3
, ,iu x e [O, 1].
'Au
'O
1
x
2
dx ,
'O
1
x
3
dx.
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) =
x + 1
e
x
xui xutoviv vu
138 Kcuiuio 5
tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
x
e
x
dx.
Atoq
l'(x) =
(x + 1)'e
x
(x + 1)(e
x
)'
(e
x
)
2
=
e
x
(x + 1)e
x
e
2x
=
e
x
(1 x 1)
e
2x
=
x
e
x
'Au
'O
1
x
e
x
dx =
'O
1
x
e
x
dx =
'O
1
l'(x) dx = l(1) + l(O) =
2
e
+ 1 = 1
2
e
.
'Aouqoq 2
2
+ 1 + x) xui xu-
'O
1
1
x
2
+ 1
dx.
Atoq
l'(x) =
1
x
2
+ 1 + x
( x
2
+ 1 + x)' =
1
x
2
+ 1 + x

_
2x
2 x
2
+ 1
+ 1 =
1
x
2
+ 1 + x
x + x
2
+ 1
x
2
+ 1
=
1
x
2
+ 1
'Au
'O
1
1
x
2
+ 1
dx =
'O
1
[l(x)]' dx = [l(x)]
O
1
= l(1) l(O) = ln( 2 + 1).
'Aouqoq 3
u |c0ci q vuu,c,o tq otvutqoq l(x) = x + xlnx, x > O xui xu-
'1
e
lnx dx.
Atoq
l'(x) = 1 + (x)' lnx + x(lnx)' = 1 + lnx + x
1
x
= lnx
'Au
'1
e
lnx dx =
'1
e
l'(x) dx = l(e) l(1) = e + elne + 1 1ln1 = 1.
'Aouqoq 4
Av l(x) = xe
x
xui g(x) = (ux + |)e
x
, vu |c0otv tu u, |, ctoi cotc q g
vu civui vuu,otou tq l xui xutoviv vu tvoio,io0ci to
'O
1
xe
x
dx.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
g'(x) = (ux + |)'e
x
+ (ux + |)(e
x
)' = ue
x
(ux + |)e
x
=
(u ux |)e
x
= [ux + (u |)]e
x
Totc:
l(x) = g'(x) xe
x
= [ux + (u |)]e
x
x = ux + (u |) u = 1
xui u | = O u = 1, | = 1, uu g(x) = (x 1)e
x
.
Lvocvc:
'O
1
xe
x
dx =
'O
1
l(x) dx =
'O
1
g'(x) dx = g(1) g(O) =
(1 1)e
1
(O 1)e
O
=
2
e
+ 1 = 1
2
e
.
'Aouqoq 5
Av l'(x) = 2x xui l(1) = O, vu tvoio,io0ci to l(O).
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
'O
1
l'(x) dx = l(1) l(O) q
'O
1
2x dx = O l(O) q [x
2
]
O
1
= l(O) q
l(O) = 1.
'Aouqoq 6
Av q otvutqoq l civui otvc_q xui vuu,c,ioiq oto oiuotqu
[u, |] c l(u) = l(|), vu uvoocictc oti
'u
|
l'(x) dx = O.
14O Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
Livui
'u
|
l'(x) dx = l(|) l(u), uiiu l(|) = l(u), ovotc
'u
|
l'(x) dx = O.
9 5.3
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
(u)
'O
1
(u + 1) du (|)
'1
1
(l
2
1) dl
Atoq
(u)
'O
1
(u + 1) du =
]
1
1 u
2
2
+ u
O
1
=
1
2
+ 1 =
3
2
(|)
'1
1
(l
2
1) dl =
]
1
1 l
3
3
l
1
1
=
_
1
3
1 +
1
3
1 =
2
3
2 =
4
3
'Aouqoq 2
(u)
'1
2
_
l +
1
l
+
1
l
2
dl (|)
'1
9
x + 1
x
dx
Atoq
(u)
'1
2
_
l +
1
l
+
1
l
2
dl =
'1
2
_
l +
1
l
+ l
2
dl =
]
1
1 l
2
2
+ lnl +
l
1
1

1
2
=
4
2
+ ln2
1
2

1
2
ln1 + 1 = 2 + ln2
(|)
'1
9
x + 1
x
dx =
'1
9
_
x
x
+
1
x
dx =
'1
9
_
1 +
1
x
dx = [x + lnx]
1
9
=
9 + ln9 1 ln1 = 8 + ln9
'Aouqoq 3
(u)
'1
2

x
2
+ 1
x
dx (|)
'1
2

2u
2
+ u + 1
u
du
Atoq
(u)
'1
2

x
2
+ 1
x
dx =
'1
2
_
x +
1
x
dx =
]
1
1 x
2
2
+ lnx
1
2
=
4
2
+ ln2
1
2
ln1 =
3
2
+ ln2
(|)
'1
2

2u
2
+ u + 1
u
du =
'1
2

_ 2u
2
u
+
u
u
+
1
u
du =
'1
2
_
2u + 1 +
1
u
du =
]
1
1 2u
2
2
+ u + ln,u,
1
2
=
8
2
+ 2 + ln2
2
2
1 ln1 = 4 + ln2
'Aouqoq 4
'1
4
1 + l
l
dl.
Atoq
'1
4
1 + l
l
dl =
'1
4
_ 1
l
+
( l)
2
l
dl =
'1
4
_
1
l
+ l dl =
'1
4
(l

1
2
+ l
1
2
) dl =
]
1
1
l

1
2
+ 1

1
2
+ 1
+
l
1
2
+ 1
1
2
+ 1

1
4
=
]
1
1
l
1
2
1
2
+
ll
1
2
3
2

1
4
=
]
1
1
2 l +
2l l
3

1
4
=
2 4 +
2
3
4 4 2
2
3
= 4 +
16
3
2
2
3
= 2 +
14
3
=
2O
3
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx.
142 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx =
1
2

'O
1
2x
x
2
+ 1
dx =
1
2

'O
1
(x
2
+ 1)'
x
2
+ 1
dx =
1
2
[ln(x
2
+ 1)]
O
1
=
1
2
ln2
'Aouqoq 2
'O
1
x(x
2
+ 1)
1999
dx.
Atoq
'O
1
x(x
2
+ 1)
1999
dx =
1
2

'O
1
(2x)(x
2
+ 1)
1999
dx =
1
2

'O
1
(x
2
+ 1)'(x
2
+ 1)
1999
dx =
1
2

]
1
1 (x
2
+ 1)
2OOO
2OOO

O
1
=
1
2
2
2OOO
2OOO

1
2
1
2OOO
2OOO
=
2
2OOO
1
4OOO
'Aouqoq 3
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx.
Atoq
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx =
'O
1
2x
2 x
2
+ 1
dx =
'O
1
(x
2
+ 1)'
2 x
2
+ 1
dx = [ x
2
+ 1]
O
1
= 2 1
'Aouqoq 4
'
v
6
v
3

qx
otv
2
x
dx.
Atoq
'
v
6
v
3

qx
otv
2
x
dx =
'
v
6
v
3
(qx)otv
2
x dx =
'
v
6
v
3
(otvx)'otv
2
x dx =
=
]
1
1 otv
1
x
1

v
6
v
3
=
]
1
1
1
otvx

v
6
v
3
=
1
otv
v
3

1
otv
v
6
= 2
2
3
= 2
2 3
3
=
6 2 3
3
'Aouqoq 5
'e
e
4
1
xlnx
dx.
Atoq
'e
e
4
1
xlnx
dx =
'e
e
4
(lnx)'
lnx
dx = [ln(lnx)]
e
e
4
= ln(lne
4
) ln(lne) = ln4 ln1 = ln4
'Aouqoq 6
'e
e
2
ln
3
x
x
dx.
Atoq
'e
e
2
ln
3
x
x
dx =
'e
e
2
(lnx)' ln
3
x dx =
]
1
1 ln
4
x
4

e
e
2
=
ln
4
e
2
4

ln
4
e
4
=
16
4

1
4
=
15
4
'Aouqoq 7
'O
v
xotvx dx.
Atoq
'O
v
xotvx dx =
'O
v
x(qx)' dx = [xqx]
O
v

'O
v
(x)'qx dx =
'O
v
qx dx =
[otvx]
O
v
= otvv otvO = 1 1 = 2
'Aouqoq 8
'O
v
e
x
qx dx.
Atoq
'O
v
e
x
qx dx =
'O
v
(e
x
)'qx dx = [e
x
qx]
O
v

'O
v
e
x
(qx)' dx =
144 Kcuiuio 5
= e
v
qv e
O
qO
'O
v
e
x
otvx dx =
'O
v
(e
x
)'otvx dx =
[e
x
otvx]
O
v
+
'O
v
e
x
(otvx)' dx = e
v
otvv + e
O
otvO
'O
v
e
x
qx dx =
1 + e
v

'O
v
e
x
qx dx
'Au,
'O
v
e
x
qx dx = 1 + e
v

'O
v
e
x
qx dx 2
'O
v
e
x
qx dx = 1 + e
v

'O
v
e
x
qx dx =
1 + e
v
2
.
Hpouriu Eopuoy
'Aouqoq 1
H ,uutciu ovotouotcv tot Buixuvixot Huvcviotqiot tvoio,i-
ci oti o ui0o tcv c,,ucv tcv ovotouotcv oti ctuvtt_iuxc
ovotoc utuvctui c t0o '(l) = 2OO(1 + O,2l)

1
2
oc l _oviu uvo
oqcu. Av o ui0o tcv c,,c,ucvcv oitqtcv civui 1OOO, |ci-
tc cvu ttvo vot voooioici tov ui0o tcv c,,ucv oc l _oviu
uvo oqcu. Hoio 0u civui o otvoiixo ui0o tcv oitqtcv vot
0u c,,uotv otq o_oiq oc 5 _oviu;
Atoq
Livui '(l) = 2OO(1 + O,2l)

1
2
, uu
(x) (O) =
'O
x
2OO(1 + O,2l)

1
2
dl =
2OO
O,2

'O
x
O,2(1 + O,2l)

1
2
dl =
1OOO
'O
x
(1 + O,2l)'(1 + O,2l)

1
2
dl = 1OOO
]
1
1
(1 + O,2l)

1
2
+ 1

1
2
+ 1

O
x
=
= 1OOO
]
1
1
(1 + O,2l)
1
2
1
2

O
x
= 2OOO [ 1 + O,2l]
O
x
= 2OOO( 1 + O,2x 1).
To (O) = 1OOO, uu:
(x) 1OOO = 2OOO 1 + O,2x 2OOO q (x) = 2OOO 1 + O,2x 1OOO.
Oi otvoiixc c,,uc tu 5 vctu _oviu oivovtui uvo:
'O
5
(x) dx =
'O
5
2OOO(1 + O,2x)
1
2
1OOO dx =
2OOO
'O
5
(1 + O,2x)
1
2
dx
'O
5
1OOO dx =
2OOO
O,2

'O
5
(1 + O,2x)'(1 + O,2x)
1
2
dx 1OOO [x]
O
5
=
1OOOO
]
1
1
(1 + 0,2x)
1
2
+ 1
1
2
+ 1

0
5
1OOO(5 O) =
2OOOO
3
[(1 + O,2x) 1 + 0,2x]
0
5
5000 =
20000
3
(2 2 1) 5OOO =
12190 5OOO = 7190
'Aouqoq 2
lc iu _cu, o uvucvocvo coo oo cq tcv ,tvuixcv, xutu tq
,cvvqoq tot, uiiuci c t0o g'(l) =
5,45218
(1 + 1,O9l)
O,9
_oviu uvu cto,
ovot l civui tu ctq xui to l = O uvtiotoi_ci oto cto 19OO. Bcitc tq
otvutqoq vot cxuci tov uvucvocvo coo oo cq tcv ,tvui-
xcv oc _oviu xutu tq ,cvvqoq tot, uv o uvucvocvo coo oo
cq xutu to cto 19OO qtuv 5O,O2 _oviu. Hoio 0u civui o uvucvo-
cvo coo oo cq iu ,tvuixu vot 0u ,cvvq0ci to 2OOO;
Atoq
'L_otc:
146 Kcuiuio 5
g(l) g(O) =
'O
l
5,45218
(1 + 1,O9x)
O,9
dx =
'O
l
5,45218
1,O9
(1 + 1,O9x)'(1 + 1,O9x)
O,9
dx = 5,OO2
]
1
1 (1 + 1,O9x)
O,1
O,1

O
l
=
5,OO2
_ (1 + 1,O9l)
O,1
O,1

1
O,1
=
5,OO2
O,1
[(1 + 1,O9l)
O,1
1] =
5O,O2(1 + 1,O9l)
O,1
5O,O2
'Au g(l) 5O,O2 = 5O,O2(1 + 1,O9l)
O,1
5O,O2 g(l) = 5O,O2(1 + 1,O9l)
O,1
O coo oo cq to cto 2OOO 0u civui:
g(1OO) = 5O,O2(1 + 1,O91OO)
O,1
= 5O,O2(11O)
O,1
= 5O,O21,6O = 8O,O3 _oviu
'Aouqoq 3
O coo ovotouotq vot civui c,,c,ucvo oc ocivuio otcvo-
,uiu oiuxciu 2O c|oouocv, u0uivci c t0o '(l) = 6e
O,O5l
(O l 2O), ovot '(l) o t0o ctu|oiq tot ui0ot tcv icccv
vot ,uci uvu icvto o ovotouotq ctu uvo l c|oouoc oto oci-
vuio. Av tvo0cootc oti o coo ovotouotq cxivuci to ocivuio
c 6O icci to icvto, |citc tq otvutqoq (l) vot cxuci tqv
tu_ttqtu tcv ovotouotcv ctu uvo l c|oouoc.
Atoq
Livui '(l) = 6e
O,O5l
, uu xui
(l) (O) =
'O
l
'(x) dx =
'O
l
6e
O,O5x
dx =
6
O,O5

'O
l
(O,O5x)'e
O,O5x
dx =
12O [e
O,O5x
]
O
l
= 12O(e
O,O5l
1) = 12O 12Oe
O,O5l
Iiu (O) = 6O, c_otc:
(l) 6O = 12O 12Oe
O,O5l
(l) = 18O 12Oe
O,O5l
'Aouqoq 4
Xqoiovoicvtu otoi_ciu uvo iu xtqviutixq xiivixq, oi xtqviu-
toi tvoio,iotv oti to coo to iu utou oxtiicv ctu|uiic-
tui c t0o l'(l) =
52,87O6e
O,32277l
(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
2
cxutootu to qvu, ovot to t-
o tot oxtiiot ctictui oc cxutootu xui q qiixiu l oc qvc uvo
tq ,cvvqoq tot. Bcitc otvutqoq l(l) vot cxuci to coo oo t-
ot cvo oxtiot l qvcv, uv to coo to tq utou uttq xutu
tq ,cvvqoq civui 19,4 cxutootu. Hooo civui to coo to cvo oxt-
iot 8 qvcv;
Atoq
Livui:
l(x) l(O) =
'O
x
l'(l) dl =
'O
x
52,87O6e
O,3277l
(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
2
dl =

52,87O6
2,449O,3277

'O
x
2,449O,3277e
O,3277l
(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
2
dl =

52,87O6
O,8O25

'O
x
(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)'(1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
2
dl =
65,8824
]
1
1 (1 + 2,449e
O,3277l
)
1
1

O
x
= 65,8824
]
1
1
1
1 + 2,449e
O,3277l

O
x
=
65,8824
1 + 2,449e
O,3277x
19,1
'Au l(x) 19,1 =
65,8824
1 + 2,449e
O,3277x
19,1 ovotc l(x) =
65,8824
1 + 2,449e
O,3277x
.
Iiu x = 8 c_otc l(8) =
65,8824
1 + 2,449e
O,32778
= 55,93 cm.
9 5.4
Aouqoci Eunooq
'Aouqoq 1
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot vcixicictui
uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) =
1
x
, ti ct0cic x = 1,
x = 2 xui tov uovu x'x.
x 1 2
y
O
l(x)
1
x
148 Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
L =
'1
2

1
x
dx = [lnx]
1
2
= ln2
'Aouqoq 2
ctui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
2
x xui tov
uovu x'x .
x
y
O 1
l(x) x x
Atoq
L =
'1
O
(x
2
x) dx =
]
1
1 x
3
3

x
2
2

O
1
=
1
3
+
1
2
=
1
6
'Aouqoq 3
xicictui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) = x
3
xui
tqv ct0ciu c ciocoq y = x.
x
y
O 1
1
l(x) x

y x
Atoq
l(x) = l(x) g(x) = x
3
x = x(x
2
1) = x(x 1)(x + 1). 'Au:
l O O O
x :

:

1 O 1
Ovotc: L =
'1
O
(x
3
x) dx
'O
1
(x
3
x) dx =
]
1
1 x
4
4

x
2
2

1
O

]
1
1 x
4
4

x
2
2

O
1
=

_
1
4

1
2

_
1
4

1
2
=
1
4
+
1
2

1
4
+
1
2
=
1
2
'Aouqoq 4
vcixicictui uvo ti otvutqoci
l(x) = x
2
3 xui g(x) = x
2
1.
x
y
O
l(x) x

3
g(x) x

1
1 1
Atoq
H l(x) = l(x) g(x) = x
2
3 + x
2
+ 1 = 2x
2
2 = 2(x
2
1) = 2(x + 1)(x 1)
xui oto oiuotqu [1, 1] q l(x) O. 'Au:
L =
'1
1
l(x) dx =
'1
1
2(x
2
1) dx = 2
]
1
1 x
3
3
x
1
1
=
2
_
1
3
1 + 2
_

1
3
+ 1 = 4
4
3
=
8
3
2ovbcrc Aouqoci
'Aouqoq 1
l(x) = xe
x
xui ti ct0cic c cioc-
oci x = 1, x = 1.
x
y
O 1
1
l(x) xe

15O Kcuiuio 5
Atoq
l(x) = xe
x
xui e
x
> O ,iu xu0c x e R, uu:
l(x) , O ,iu xu0c x , O xui l(x) O ,iu xu0c x O
ovotc L =
'1
O
l(x) dx +
'O
1
l(x) dx. Aiiu:
'u
|
l(x) dx =
'u
|
x(e
x
)' dx = [xe
x
]
u
|

'u
|
(x)'e
x
dx = [xe
x
]
u
|

'u
|
e
x
dx =
[xe
x
]
u
|
[e
x
]
u
|
= [(x 1)e
x
]
u
|
Ovotc L = [(x 1)e
x
]
1
O
+ [(x 1)e
x
]
O
1
= 1 2e
1
+ 1 = 2
2
e
.
'Aouqoq 2
l(x) =
x
x
2
+ 1
xui ti ct0cic c ci-
ococi x = O, x = 1.
x
y
O 1
l(x)
x
x 1
Atoq
l(x) =
x
x
2
+ 1
xui l(x) , O ,iu xu0c x , O.
Ovotc L =
'O
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx =
1
2

'O
1
(x
2
+ 1)'
x
2
+ 1
dx =
1
2
[ln,x
2
+ 1,]
O
1
=
1
2
ln2
'Aouqoq 3
ctui uvo tq otvutqoq l(x) =
5
x
xui tqv ct-
0ciu c ciocoq y = 6 x.
x 1 5
y
O
l(x)
5
x
y 6 x
Atoq
l(x) = l(x) g(x) =
5
x
6 + x =
5 6x + x
2
x
=
x
2
6x + 5
x
=
(x 5)(x 1)
x
'Au:
l O O O
x
:

:

O 1 5
Ovotc:
L =
'1
5
x
2
6x + 5
x
dx =
'1
5
_
x 6 +
5
x
dx =
]
1
1 x
2
2
6x + 5ln,x,
1
5
=

25
2
+ 3O 5ln5 +
1
2
6 + 5ln1 = 12 5ln5
'Aouqoq 4
ixicictui uvo ti otvutqoci
l(x) = x
3
, g(x) = x
2
x + 1 xui ti ct-
0cic x = O, x = 2.
x
y
O 2
l(x) x

g(x) x

x 1
Atoq
l(x) = l(x) g(x) = x
3
x
2
+ x 1 = x
2
(x 1) + x 1 = (x 1)(x
2
+ 1).
To x
2
+ 1 > O ,iu xu0c x e R. 'Au:
l O
x :
1
Ovotc:
L =
'O
1
l(x) dx +
'1
2
l(x) dx =
152 Kcuiuio 5
'O
1
(x
3
x
2
+ x 1) dx +
'1
2
(x
3
x
2
+ x 1) dx =

]
1
1 x
4
4

x
3
3
+
x
2
2
x
O
1
+
]
1
1 x
4
4

x
3
3
+
x
2
2
x
1
2
=

_
1
4

1
3
+
1
2
1 +
_
4
8
3
+ 2 2
_
1
4

1
3
+
1
2
1 =
5
2
'Aouqoq 1
2
1 + x), x > 1
xui xutoviv vu tvoio,io0ci to oioxiqcu
'2
3
1
x
2
1
dx.
Atoq
l'(x) =
1
x
2
1 + x
( x
2
1 + x)' =
1
x
2
1 + x

_
2x
2 x
2
1
+ 1 =
1
x
2
1 + x
x + x
2
1
x
2
1
=
1
x
2
1
Ovotc
'2
3
1
x
2
1
dx =
'2
3
l'(x) dx = l(3) l(2) = ln( 8 + 3) ln( 3 + 2).
'Aouqoq 2
(u)
'O
1
(x 1)
24
dx (|)
'O
1
1
(3x 4)
3
dx
Atoq
(u)
'O
1
(x 1)
24
dx =
'O
1
(x 1)'(x 1)
24
dx =
]
1
1 (x 1)
25
25

O
1
=
1
25
(|)
'O
1
1
(3x 4)
3
dx =
1
3

'O
1
(3x 4)'(3x 4)
3
dx =
1
3

]
1
1 (3x 4)
2
2

O
1
=

1
6

]
1
1
1
(3x 4)
2

O
1
=
1
6

_
1
1
16
=
15
96
=
5
32
'Aouqoq 3
(u)
'O
1
x
x + 1
dx (|)
'O
1
x
2x + 1
dx
Atoq
(u)
'O
1
x
x + 1
dx =
'O
1
x + 1 1
x + 1
dx =
'O
1
_
1
1
x + 1
dx =
'O
1
1 dx
'O
1
1
x + 1
dx = 1
'O
1
(x + 1)'
x + 1
dx = 1 [ln,x + 1,]
O
1
= 1 ln2
(|)
'O
1
x
2x + 1
dx =
1
2

'O
1
(2x + 1)'
2x + 1
dx =
1
2
[ln,2x + 1,]
O
1
=
1
2
ln3
'Aouqoq 4
(u)
'1
2
(2x 1)
11
dx (|)
'O
1
e
3x+2
dx
Atoq
(u)
'1
2
(2x 1)
11
dx =
1
2

'1
2
(2x 1)'(2x 1)
11
dx =
1
2

]
1
1 (2x 1)
12
12

O
1
=
1
24
(1
12
1
12
) = 0
(|)
'O
1
e
3x+2
dx =
1
3

'O
1
(3x + 2)'e
3x+2
dx =
1
3
[e
3x+2
]
O
1
=
1
3
(e
5
e
2
)
154 Kcuiuio 5
'Aouqoq 5
'O
1
x
2
+ 1
x
3
+ 3x + 1
dx.
Atoq
'O
1
x
2
+ 1
x
3
+ 3x + 1
dx =
1
3

'O
1
3x
2
+ 3
x
3
+ 3x + 1
dx =
2
3

'O
1
(x
3
+ 3x + 1)'
2 x
3
+ 3x + 1
dx =
2
3
[ x
3
+ 3x + 1]
O
1
=
2
3
( 5 1) =
2 5 2
3
'Aouqoq 6
'
v
4
v
2

otvx
1 + qx
dx.
Atoq
'
v
4
v
2

otvx
1 + qx
dx =
'
v
4
v
2

(1 + qx)'
1 + qx
dx = [ln,1 + qx,]
v
4
v
2
= ln2 ln
_
1 +
2
2
'Aouqoq 7
'O
v
4

e
1+cx
otv
2
x
dx.
Atoq
'O
v
4

e
1+cx
otv
2
x
dx =
'O
v
4
(1 + cx)'e
1+cx
dx = [e
1 + cx
]
O
v
4
= e
2
e
'Aouqoq 8
(u)
'1
e
x
2
ln(5x) dx (|)
'O
v
x q(2x) dx
Atoq
(u)
'1
e
x
2
ln(5x) dx =
'1
e

_ x
3
3
'
ln(5x) dx =
]
1
1 x
3
3
ln(5x)
1
e

'1
e
x
3
3
[ln(5x)]' dx =
]
1
1 x
3
3
ln(5x)
1
e

'1
e
x
3
3
1
5x
5 dx =
e
3
3
ln(5e)
1
3
ln5
1
3

'1
e
x
2
dx =
e
3
3
ln(5e)
1
3
ln5
1
3

]
1
1 x
3
3

1
e
=
e
3
3
ln(5e)
1
3
ln5
1
9
(e
3
1)
(|)
'O
v
x q(2x) dx =
'O
v
x
_
otv(2x)
2
'
dx =
]
1
1

xotv(2x)
2

O
v
+
'O
v
(x)'
otv(2x)
2
dx =
votv(2v)
2
+
OotvO
2
+
1
2

'O
v
otv(2x) dx =
v
2
+
1
2

'O
v

_
q(2x)
2
'
dx =

v
2
+
1
2

]
1
1
q(2x)
2

O
v
=
v
2
+
1
4
[q(2v) qO] =
v
2
'Aouqoq 9
(u)
'O
2
,1 e
x
, dx (|)
'O
2v
,otvx, dx
Atoq
(u) To 1 e
x
> O uv xui ovo uv 1 > e
x
q e
O
> e
x
q O > x.
'Ooiu, 1 e
x
< O uv xui ovo uv O < x
xui 1 e
x
= O uv xui ovo uv x = O.
'L_otc:
1 e

O
x
:
O
'Au ,1 e
x
, = 1 e
x
,iu x < O xui ,1 e
x
, = (1 e
x
) ,iu x , O.
H l(x) = ,1 e
x
, civui otvc_q, ovotc:
156 Kcuiuio 5
'O
2
,1 e
x
, dx =
'O
2
(1 e
x
) dx = [x e
x
]
0
2
= e
2
2 1 = e
2
3
(|) Livui:
otvx
O O
x

O 2v
'Au:
'O
2v
,otvx, dx =
'O
v
2
otvx dx
'
v
2
3v
2
otvx dx +
'
3v
2
2v
otvx dx =
[qx]
O
v
2
[qx]
v
2
3v
2
+ [qx]
3v
2
2v
= 4
'Aouqoq 10
u tvoio,ioctc to oioxiqcu
'O
v
otv
3
x dx _qoiovoicvtu tq |u-
oixq ti,cvoctixq tuttotqtu q
2
x + otv
2
x = 1 q uiio tovo.
Atoq
'O
v
otv
3
x dx =
'O
v
otv
2
x otvx dx =
'O
v
(1 q
2
x)(qx)' dx =
'O
v
(qx)'dx
'O
v
q
2
x(qx)' dx = [qx]
O
v

]
1
1 q
3
x
3

O
v
=
1
3
(q
3
v q
3
O) = O
'Aouqoq 11
u tvoio,io0ci to c|uoov vot oi-
ctui uvo tq ,uixq vuuotuoq tq
otvutqoq l(x) = (x
2
+ 2x)e
x
xui tov
uovu x'x.
x
y
O 2
l(x) (x 2x)e

Atoq
Livui l(x) = x(x + 2)e
x
xui to e
x
> O ,iu xu0c x e R, uu:
l O O
x

: : 2 O
L =
'2
O
l(x) dx =
'2
O
(x
2
+ 2x)e
x
dx =
'2
O
(x
2
+ 2x)(e
x
)' dx =
[(x
2
+ 2x)e
x
]
2
O

'2
O
(x
2
+ 2x)'e
x
dx = O
'2
O
(2x + 2)e
x
dx =
'2
O
(2x + 2)(e
x
)' dx = [(2x + 2)e
x
]
2
O

'2
O
(2x + 2)'e
x
dx =
2 + 2e
2

'2
O
2e
x
dx = 2 + 2e
2
+ 2[e
x
]
2
O
= 2 + 2e
2
+ 2 2e
2
= 4
'Aouqoq 12
otuoci tcv otvutqoccv l xui g:
(u) l(x) = x
2
, g(x) =
x
3
3
(|) l(x) = lnx, g(x) = (lnx)
2
x
y
O 3
l(x) x

g(x)
x
3
x
y
O 1
e
l(x) lnx
g(x) (lnx)

Atoq
(u) l(x) = l(x) g(x) = x
2

x
3
3
=
3x
2
x
3
3
=
x
2
(3 x)
3
=
x
2
(x 3)
3
158 Kcuiuio 5
l O O
x

: : O 3
Ovotc L =
'O
3
l(x) dx =
'O
3
_
x
2

x
3
3
dx =
]
1
1 x
3
3

x
4
12

O
3
= 9
27
4
=
9
4
(|) l(x) = l(x) g(x) = lnx ln
2
x = lnx(lnx 1)
l O O
x

: : 1 e
Ovotc L =
'1
e
l(x) dx =
'1
e
(lnx ln
2
x) dx =
'1
e
lnx dx
'1
e
(x)' ln
2
x dx =
'1
e
lnx dx [xln
2
x]
1
e
+
'1
e
x 2lnx
1
x
dx =
'1
e
lnx dx e + 2
'1
e
lnx dx = 3
'1
e
lnx dx e = 3
'1
e
(x)' lnx dx e =
3[xlnx]
1
e
3
'1
e
x(lnx)' dx e = 3e 3
'1
e
1 dx e = 2e 3[x]
1
e
=
2e 3e + 3 = 3 e
'Aouqoq 13
Iiu cvu oo_cio c vco tot l = 3m vot uociuci coc cvo uvoi,-
uto otov vt0cvu, ,vciotc oti io_tci q uxoiot0q ciocoq ,iu
tq ctu|oiq tot tot l oc o_coq c to _ovo l:
l'(l) =
l(l)
727
lc vooo _ovo to to tot vcot 0u tuoci to 1 m;
Atoq
'L_otc oti l'(l) =
l(l)
727
q
l'(l)
l(l)
=
1
727
, ovotc:
'O
l
l'(x)
l(x)
dx =
1
727

'O
l
1 dx q 2
'O
l
l'(x)
2 l(x)
dx =
1
727
(l O) q
2[ l(x)]
O
l
=
1
727
l q 2 l(l) 2 l(O) =
1
727
l
xui uot l(O) = 3 civui:
2 l(l) =
1
727
l + 2 3 q l(l) =
1
1454
l + 3
Av l(l) = 1 totc:
1 =
1
1454
l + 3 q l = 1454( 3 1) = 1O64 sec
'Aouqoq 14
To c|oouoiuio xooto vuu,c,q qicxtixcv iuvtqcv _uqiq
xutuvuicoq oc cvu c,ootuoio oivctui uvo tq otvutqoq K(x) xui
o t0o ctu|oiq tot xootot civui K'(x) = O,OOOOO6x
2
O,OOO6x + 2
oc _iiiuoc ou_c ovot x civui o ui0o tcv iuvtqcv vot vu-
u,ovtui. Av to otu0co c|oouoiuio xooto civui 1OOOOO ou_c,
vu tvoio,io0ci to otvoiixo xooto ,iu tq vuu,c,q 5OO iuvtqcv.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
K(l) K(O) =
'O
l
K'(x) dx q
K(l) K(O) =
]
1
1 O,OOOOO6x
3
3

O,OOO6x
2
2
+ 2x
O
l
q
K(l) K(O) = O,OOOOO2l
3
O,OOO3l
2
+ 2l
To K(O) = 1OO, uu:
K(l) = O,OOOOO2l
3
O,OOO3l
2
+ 2l + 1OO
To qtotcvo xooto civui to:
K(5OO) = O,OOOOO25OO
3
O,OOO35OO
2
+ 25OO + 1OO =
751OOOOOOO,OOOOO2 251OOOOO,OOO3 + 1OOO + 1OO =
15O 75 + 1OOO + 1OO = 1175 _iiiuoc ou_c
'Aouqoq 15
O t0o ctu|oiq tq tiq tq ovuou ot,xcxicvot cioot ,t-
16O Kcuiuio 5
vuixciot xuiitvtixot oivctui uvo tq o_coq P'(x) =
25Ox
(16 + x
2
)
3
2
ovot x
civui q voootqtu tq qcqoiu qtqoq tot voIovto oc cxuto-
vtuoc. u |c0ci q otvutqoq tq qtqoq, uv q q tiq xu0c ovu-
oo civui 5O o_. otuv q qtqoq civui 3OO ovuoc voIovto.
Atoq
'L_otc oti:
P(x) P(O) =
'O
x
P'(l) dl q P(x) P(O) =
'O
x
25Ol
(16 + l
2
)
3
2
dl q
P(x) P(O) = 125
'O
x
2l (16 + l
2
)

3
2
dl q
P(x) P(O) = 125
'O
x
(16 + l
2
)'(16 + l
2
)

3
2
dl q
125
]
1
1
(16 + l
2
)

1
2

1
2

O
x
q P(x) P(O) =
25O
16 + x
2

25O
4
Lvocvc P(x) =
25O
16 + x
2

25O
4
+ P(O).
To P(3) = 5O, uu:
5O =
25O
16 + 9

25O
4
+ P(O) q P(O) = 5O
25O
5
+
25O
4
q P(O) =
25O
4
ovotc:
P(x) =
25O
16 + x
2

25O
4
+
25O
4
q P(x) =
25O
16 + x
2

ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΙΚΑ Α ΤΑΞΗ 2 ΚΥΚΛΟΥ ΕΠΑΛ ΟΕΒΔ PDF

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ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΙΚΑ Α ΤΑΞΗ 2 ΚΥΚΛΟΥ ΕΠΑΛ ΟΕΒΔ PDF

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2oyypoci

- H. M. Biuo : Aiouxtc Mu0qutixcv L. M. Hoittc_vciot.

Tu vioiu (o_qutu,c,u) ovc uivctui oto o_qu uxoiot0otv tiu

AB voxtvtotv uv uvo ti ot-

O oivio ocixtq xu0c otvtcicotq tot u,vcotot xu0oici tq 0coq

q AX = B, ovot A civui o vivuxu tcv otvtcicotcv, X o vivuxu tcv

ic,ctui cvutqcvo vivuxu tot ototquto xui vuici oqu-

xui voci otvovtixu vu ,uci AX = B ovot A

'Ovc uivctui uvo tov vuuvuvc vivuxu q o_ctixq u0oiotixq ot-

x = 13,4 Mcoq tiq

x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq

x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovo-

x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq o-

x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to vq-

x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iq-

x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui

x = 162 cm xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 5,7 cm.

x = 181 cm xui q ttvixq uvoxiioq civui s = 5,8 cm.

x = 14,5 xui ttvixq uvo-

x xui ttvixq uvo-

x ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-

x totc coq (uvoittq) uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouc-

x totc oiuxtuvoq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to vqiixo:

x totc ttvixq uvoxiioq tq ctu|iqtq ovouctui to:

Lvioq vuutqotc oti to oqcio l

l(x) xui lim

), cvc otq octtcq oti to x tcivci oto x

l(x) = O, ocv oictui lim

l(x) = l(O) = lim

l(x) = O xui lim

lnx , O < x < 1

l(x) = 2, q l civui otvc_q oto uxo tot

(4x + u) = 4 + u xui lim

(u) Acotc iu cqvciu otq ,uixq vuuotuoq.

- 'Opto ck0cttkq ouvptqoq oto ctpo

f(x) O,1 O,OOOO1 1O

'Oio ltvc_ciu ltvutqoq 157

K(x) 33,88 19,81 18,4O 18,O5

oc Pqtc: Hqiixo Mc,ioto|u0icv ocv

Bciticvovtu oiuxc tqv tc_vixq tot, o oocu uxoiot0ci _ci

civui ,vqoic 0ivotou ,iu oic ti ti-

(x) totc xui K

'(x) < O, ovotc q K

(|) (i) To ,, o, c c xicioto oixtto vot cxivu uvo to A xui xutuiq-

O) c_ci c u0oiou otoi_cicv

'Ooiu, q titq otqiq tot AB voxtvtci uv voiiuviuoiuootc

(|) A0o. H._. Av A =

x ioottui c to xiuou vot c_ci ui0qtq to u-

x + I. Iiu tq oiuxtuvoq c_otc:

l(x) = , ocv tvu_ci to lim

l(x) = +. 'Au iu cixovu tq l 0u vootoc

l(x) = 2,u, + 2, lim

l(x) = 3 xui l(4) = 3, uu q l civui otvc_q oto

K(x) = 5O xui lim

ltoi_ciu Aiuoixot Ao,ioot 99

Ovotc q P vuotoiuci c,ioto ,iu i = u

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