Table of Contents

A b s t r a c t / S u m m a r y ................................................................................................................2
I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................................................................................................................2
A i m s / O b j e c t i v e s ....................................................................................................................3
T h e o r y ...........................................................................................................................................4
A p p a r a t u s ....................................................................................................................................7
E x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e ........................................................................................................8
R e s u l t s ..........................................................................................................................................9
S a m p l e C a l c u l a t i o n s .............................................................................................................19
D i s c u s s i o n s ...............................................................................................................................20
C o n c l u s i o n s ..............................................................................................................................21
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ..................................................................................................................21
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................................................................22
A p p e n d i c e s ...............................................................................................................................22

1|Page

ABSTRACT / SUMMARY

The main purpose of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the

Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered
duct and to measure the flow rate and both static and total pressure heads
in a rigid convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of
steady flow rates. The apparatus used is Bernoullis Theorem
Demonstration Apparatus, F1-15. In this experiment, the pressure
difference taken is from h1- h5. The time to collect 3 L water in the tank
was determined. Lastly the flow rate, velocity, dynamic head, and total
head were calculated using the readings we got from the experiment and
from the data given for both convergent and divergent flow. Based on the
results taken, it has been analysed that the velocity of convergent flow is
increasing, whereas the velocity of divergent flow is the opposite,
whereby the velocity decreased, since the water flow from a narrow area
to a wider area. Therefore, Bernoullis principle is valid for a steady flow
in rigid convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for a range of
steady flow rates, and the flow rates, static heads and total heads pressure
are as well calculated. The experiment was completed and successfully
conducted.

INTRODUCTION
In fluid dynamics, Bernoullis principle is best explained in the
application that involves in viscid flow, whereby the speed of the moving
fluid is increased simultaneously whether with the depleting pressure or
the potential energy relevant to the fluid itself. In various types of fluid
flow, Bernoullis principle usually relates to Bernoullis equation.

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Technically, different types of fluid flow involve different forms of

Bernoullis equation.

Bernoullis principle complies with the principle of conservation of

energy. In a steady flow, at all points of the streamline of a flowing fluid
is the same as the sum of all forms of mechanical energy along the
streamline. It can be simplified as constant practices of the sum of
potential energy as well as kinetic energy.

Fluid particles core properties are their pressure and weight. As a

matter of fact, if a fluid is moving horizontally along a streamline, the
increase in speed can be explained due to the fluid that moves from a
region of high pressure to a lower pressure region and so with the inverse
condition with the decrease in speed. In the case of a fluid that moves
horizontally, the highest speed is the one at the lowest pressure, whereas
the lowest speed is present at the most highest pressure.

AIMS / OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the validity of Bernoulli equation when applied to a
steady flow of water in a tapered duct.

2. To measure flow rate and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid
convergent / divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow
rates.

2|Page

THEORY
The specific hydraulic model used in this experiment is Bernoullis
Theorem Demonstration Apparatus, F1-15.

The test section, which is provided with a number of hole-sided

pressure tapings, connected to the manometers housed on the rig, is
indeed an accurately machined clear acrylic duct of varying circular cross
section. The tapings allow the measurement of static pressure head
simultaneously.

A flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section.

Flow rate and pressure in the apparatus may be varied independently by
adjustment of the flow control valve, and the bench supply control valve.

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Consider a system whereby Chamber A is under pressure and is

connected to Chamber B, which is as well under pressure. The pressure in
Chamber A is static pressure of 689.48 kPa. The pressure at some point, x
along the connecting tube consists of a velocity pressure of 68.95 kPa
exerted 10 psi exerted in a direction parallel to the line of flow, plus the
unused static pressure of 90 psi, and operates equally in all directions. As
the fluid enters chamber B, it is slowed down, and its velocity is
changed back to pressure. The force required to absorb its inertia
equals the force required to start the fluid moving originally, so that the
static pressure in chamber B is equal to that in chamber A.

From the above illustration, Bernoullis principle relates much with

incompressible flow. Below is a common form of Bernoullis equation,
where it is valid at any arbitrary point along a streamline when gravity is
constant.

...............(1)

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where:
is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
is the acceleration due to gravity,
is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the
positive z-direction pointing upward so in the direction opposite
to the gravitational acceleration,
is the pressure at the point, and
is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
I f e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) i s m u l t i p l i e d w i t h f l u i d d e n s i t y , , it can be rewritten as the
followings;

...........(2)
Or
........(3)
where:
is dynamic pressure,

i s t h e piezometric head o r h y d r a u l i c h e a d ( t h e s u m o f t h e
elevation z and the pressure head and
is the total pressure (the sum of the static
pressure p and dynamic pressure q).
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure
is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often,
gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even
zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid before
2|Page

zero pressure is reached. In liquids, when the pressure becomes too low,
cavitations occur. The above equations use a linear relationship between
flow speed squared and pressure.
Generally in many applications of Bernoullis equations, it is
common to neglect the values of g z term, since the change is so small
compared to other values. Thus, the previous expression can be simplified
as the following;

.......(3)
where p0 is called total pressure, and q is dynamic pressure, whereas p
usually refers as static pressure. Thus,
Total pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure.......(4)
However, a few assumptions are taken into account in order to
achieve the objectives of experiment, which are as the followings:
The fluid involved is incompressible
The flow is steady
The flow is frictionless

APPARATUS

Venturi meter
Pad of monometer tubes
Pump
Stopwatch
Water
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Water tank equipped with valves water controller

Water hosts and tubes

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. T h e t e s t s e c t i o n t u b e i s s e t t o b e c o n v e r g i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l o w .
2. T h e p u m p s w i t c h i s o p e n e d . T h e f l o w c o n t r o l v a l v e i s t h e n o p e n e d a n d

the bench valve is adjusted to allow the flow through the manometer.
3. T h e a i r b l e e d s c r e w i s o p e n e d a n d t h e c a p i s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e

adjacent air valve until the same level of water in manometer is

reached. The bench valve is adjusted until the h1 h5 head difference
of 50mm water is obtained.
4. T h e b a l l v a l v e i s c l o s e d a n d t h e t i m e t a k e n t o a c c u m u l a t e a k n o w n

volume of 3L fluid in the tank is measured to determine the volume

flow rate.
5. T h e w h o l e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d u s i n g ( h 1 h 5 ) 1 0 0 a n d 1 5 0 m m w a t e r .
6. N e x t , t h e e x p e r i m e n t i s r e p e a t e d f o r d i v e r g e n t t e s t s e c t i o n t u b e .

1|Page

RESULTS
Convergent Flow

Pressure difference = 50 mm water

Volume (m3) = 0.003
Time (s) = 46
Flow rate (m3/s) = 6.522x10-5

No
1
2

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

head, h
h1

(m)
0.00

(m2)
490.9

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

h2

Static

Dynamic

Total

Velocity

head

head,

head

(m/s)
0.1329

h, (m)
145x

(m)
0.0009

ho (m)
0.1459

0.4299

10-3
135 x

0.0094

0.1444

-6

3
4
5

h3
h4
h5

0.0687

x10
109.4

0.0732

x10-6
89.9

0.0811

x10-6
78.5
x10-6

-3

0.5961

10
125 x

0.0181

0.1431

0.7255

10-3
110 x

0.0268

0.1368

0.8308

10-3
95 x

0.0352

0.1302

10-3

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Pressure difference = 100 mm water

Volume (m3) = 0.003
Time (s) = 31
Flow rate (m3/s) = 9.677x10-5

No
1
2
3

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

head, h
h1

(m)
0.00

(m2)
490.9

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

0.0687

x10-6
109.4

h2
h3

Static

Dynamic

Total

Velocity

head

head,

head

(m/s)
0.1971

h, (m)
170 x

(m)
0.0020

ho (m)
0.1720

0.6379

10-3
145 x

0.0207

0.1657

0.8846

10-3
125 x

0.0399

0.1649

-6

4
5

h4
h5

0.0732

x10
89.9

0.0811

x10-6
78.5
x10-6

-3

1.0760

10
100 x

0.0590

0.1590

1.2330

10-3
70 x

0.0775

0.1475

10-3

Pressure difference = 150 mm water

Volume (m3) = 0.003
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Time (s) = 25
Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.200x10-4

No
1
2
3

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

head, h
h1

(m)
0.00

(m2)
490.9

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

0.0687

x10-6
109.4

h2
h3

Static

Dynamic

Total

Velocity

head

head,

head

(m/s)
0.2444

h, (m)
190 x

(m)
0.0030

ho (m)
0.1930

0.7910

10-3
160 x

0.0319

0.1919

1.0970

10-3
125 x

0.0613

0.1863

-6

4
5

h4
h5

0.0732

x10
89.9

0.0811

x10-6
78.5
x10-6

-3

1.3350

10
90 x

0.0908

0.1808

1.5290

10-3
40 x

0.1192

0.1592

10-3

Divergent Flow
Pressure difference = 50mm water
Volume (m3) = 0.003
Time (s) = 30
Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.000x10-4
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No
1
2
3

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

head, h
h1

(m)
0.00

(m2)
490.9

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

0.0687

x10-6
109.4

h2
h3

Static

Dynamic

Total

Velocity

head

head,

head

(m/s)
0.2037

h, (m)
155 x

(m)
0.0021

ho (m)
0.1571

0.6592

10-3
130 x

0.1403

0.2703

0.9141

10-3
120 x

0.0426

0.1626

-6

4
5

h4
h5

0.0732

x10
89.9

0.0811

x10-6
78.5

-3

1.1120

10
115 x

0.0630

0.1780

1.2740

10-3
105 x

0.0827

0.1877

Static

Dynamic

Total

x10-6

10-3

Pressure difference = 100 mm water

Volume (m3) = 0.003
Time (s) = 23
Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.304x10-4

No

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

Velocity

head

head,

head

head, h

(m)

(m2)

(m/s)

h, (m)

(m)

ho (m)
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1
2
3
4

h1
h2
h3
h4

0.00

490.9

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

0.0687

x10-6
109.4

0.0732

x10-6
89.9

0.2657

175 x

0.0036

0.1786

0.8596

10-3
135 x

0.0377

0.1727

1.1920

10-3
85 x

0.0724

0.1574

1.4510

10-3
80 x

0.1073

0.1873

0.1406

0.2156

Static

Dynamic

Total

-6

h5

x10
78.5

0.0811

-3

1.6610

x10-6

10
75 x
10-3

Pressure difference = 150 mm water

Volume (m3) = 0.003
Time (s) = 20
Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.500x10-4

No
1
2
3

Distance

Duct

Pressure

into duct

area, A

Velocity

head

head,

head

head, h
h1

(m)
0.00

(m2)
490.9

(m/s)
0.3056

h, (m)
185 x

(m)
0.0048

ho (m)
0.1898

0.0603

x10-6
151.7

0.9888

10-3
135 x

0.0498

0.1848

0.0687

x10-6
109.4

1.3711

10-3
55 x

0.0958

0.1508

h2
h3

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h4

h5

0.0732

x10-6
89.9

0.0811

x10-6
78.5

1.6685

10-3
45 x

0.1419

0.1869

1.9108

10-3
35 x

0.1861

0.2211

x10-6

10-3

Using Bernoullis Equation

(convergent
flow)

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head, h

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

(m)

(Va-Vb)
/Vb,

h1

0.1459

0.145

0.1329

490.9

0.1329

h2

0.1444

0.135

0.4295

151.7

0.4299

-0.09

h3

0.1431

0.125

0.5959

109.4

0.5961

-0.03

h4

0.1368

0.110

0.7251

89.9

0.7255

-0.06

h5

0.1302

0.095

0.8310

78.5

0.8308

0.02

Pressure Difference = 50mm

Using Bernoullis Equation

(convergent
flow)

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head, h

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

(m)

(Va-Vb)
/Vb

h1

0.1720

0.170

0.1981

490.9

0.1971

0.51

h2

0.1657

0.145

0.6373

151.7

0.6379

-0.09

h3

0.1649

0.125

0.8849

109.4

0.8846

0.04

h4

0.1590

0.100

1.0759

89.9

1.0760

-0.009

h5

0.1475

0.070

1.2331

78.5

1.2330

0.008
1|Page

Pressure Difference = 100mm

Using Bernoullis Equation

(convergent
flow)

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head, h

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

(m)

(Va-Vb)
/Vb,

h1

0.1930

0.190

0.2426

490.9

0.2444

-0.74

h2

0.1919

0.160

0.7911

151.7

0.7910

0.013

h3

0.1863

0.125

1.0967

109.4

1.0970

-0.03

h4

0.1808

0.09

1.3347

89.9

1.3350

-0.02

h5

0.1592

0.04

1.5293

78.5

1.5290

0.02

Pressure Difference = 150mm

Using Bernoullis Equation

(divergent
flow)
h1

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head, h

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

490.9

0.2037

-0.34

(m)
0.1571

0.155

0.2030

(Va-Vb)
/Vb,

1|Page

h2

0.1521

0.130

0.6585

151.7

0.6592

-0.11

h3

0.1626

0.120

0.9142

109.4

0.9141

0.01

h4

0.1780

0.115

1.1118

89.9

1.1120

-0.02

h5

0.1877

0.105

1.2738

78.5

1.2740

-0.02

Pressure Difference = 50mm

Using Bernoullis Equation

(divergent
flow)

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head, h

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

(m)

(Va-Vb)
/Vb,

h1

0.1786

0.175

0.2658

490.9

0.2657

0.04

h2

0.1727

0.135

0.8600

151.7

0.8596

0.05

h3

0.1574

0.085

1.1918

109.4

1.1920

-0.02

h4

0.1873

0.080

1.4509

89.9

1.4510

-0.01

h5

0.2156

0.075

1.6609

78.5

1.6610

-0.01

Pressure Difference = 100mm

Using Bernoullis Equation

(divergent

Difference

Equation

Pressure
Head

Using Continuity

Total

Static

Va =

Duct

Vb =

Head,

[2g(h-

Area,

Flow

(Va-Vb)

1|Page

flow)

Head, h

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106

rate Q/

(m2)

(m)

/Vb,
%

h1

0.1898

0.185

0.3069

490.9

0.3056

0.43

h2

0.1848

0.135

0.9885

151.7

0.9888

-0.03

h3

0.1508

0.055

1.3710

109.4

1.3711

-0.01

h4

0.1869

0.045

1.6686

89.9

1.6685

0.01

h5

0.2211

0.035

1.9108

78.5

1.9108

Pressure Difference = 150mm

Figure 1 Graph of Total Head versus Pressure Head for Convergent

Flow

Figure 2 Graph of Total Head versus Pressure Head for Divergent Flow

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Divergent Flow
Pressure difference = h1 - h5 = 100 mm water
Flow rate = 0.003/23
= 1.304 10-4 m3/s

Velocity, v =

Flow rate
Area into duct

= 1.304 10-4m3/s
1|Page

490.9 x 10-6 m2
= 0.2657 m/s

Dynamic head = v2
2g
= (0.2657 m/s)

2 x 9.81m/s2
= 0.0036 m

Total head = Static head + Dynamic head

= (0.0036 + 1175x10-3) m
= 0.1786 m

3|Page

DISCUSSION
Referring back to the objectives of the experiment, which are to
investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when applied to the
steady flow of water in a tapered duct as well as to measure the flow
rate and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent and
divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.
As fluid flows from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the velocity
of the flowing fluid increases. This is shown in all the results tables,
where the velocity of water that flows in the tapered duct increases as
the duct area decreases, regardless of the pressure difference and type
of flow of each result taken.
From the analysis of the results, we can conclude that for both
type of flow, be it convergent or divergent, the velocity increases as the
pressure difference increases. For instance, the velocities at pressure
head h5 at pressure difference of 50 millimetres, 100 millimetres and
150 millimetres for convergent flow are 0.8308 m/s, 1.5290 m/s and
1.2740 m/s respectively, which are increasing. The same goes to
divergent flow, whereby the velocities are decreasing when the pressure
difference between h1 and h5 is increased. Note that for divergent flow,
the water flows form pressure head h5 to h1, which is from narrow tube
to wider tube.
Next, the total head value for convergent flow is calculated to be
the highest at pressure head h1 and the lowest at pressure head h5,
whereas the total head for divergent flow is in a different case where it
is calculated to be the highest at pressure head h5 and the lowest at
pressure head h1.
There must be some error or weaknesses when taking the
measurement of each data. One of them is, the observer must have not
1|Page

read the level of static head properly, where the eyes are not
perpendicular to the water level on the manometer. Therefore, there are
some minor effects on the calculations due to the errors.

CONCLUSION
From the experiment conducted, the total head pressure increases
for both convergent and divergent flow. This is exactly following the
Bernoullis principle for a steady flow of water and the velocity is
increasing along the same channel.
The second objectives, where the flow rates and both static and
total head pressures in a rigid convergent / divergent of known
geometry for a range of steady flow rates are to be calculated, are also
achieved through the experiment.

RECOMMENDATION
Repeat the experiment several times to get the average value.
Make sure the bubbles are fully removed and not left in the
manometer.
The eye of the observer should be parallel to the water level
on the manometer.
The valve should be controlled slowly to maintain the pressure
difference.
The valve and bleed screw should regulate smoothly to reduce
the errors
Make sure there is no leakage along the tube to avoid the
water flowing out

2|Page

REFERENCES
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of

Fluid Mechanics, 3rd ed., 1998, Wiley

and Sons, New York.
Douglas. J.F., Gasiorek. J.M. and Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics,
3rd edition, (1995), Longmans Singapore Publisher.
Giles, R.V., Evett, J.B. and Cheng Lui, Schaumms Outline

Series

Theory

and

Problems

of

Fluid

Mechanics

and

Hydraulic, (1994), McGraw-Hill intl.

APPENDICES

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