Trends in Food Science & Technology 10 (1999) 254260

Review

Development of advanced edible coatings for fruits

Hyun Jin Park*
Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea University, 5-Ka, Anam-Dong, Sungbuk-Ku, Seoul 136-701, South Korea (tel: 82-2-3290-3450; fax: 82-2-927-9028; e-mail: hjpark@kuccnx.korea.ac.kr)
Edible coatings can provide an additional protective coating for fresh products and can also give the same eect as modied atmosphere storage in modifying internal gas composition. Recently, several edible coatings for preserving fruits such as oranges, apples, and grapefruits were successfully applied. But, in some cases, edible coatings were not successful. In fact, fruit quality was worse. The success of edible coatings for fresh products totally depends on the control of internal gas composition. This article is designed to help develop a systematic means of selecting edible coatings to maximize quality and shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables. Methods will be introduced to select edible coatings based on their gas permeation properties relative to controlling internal gas composition of target products. # 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Major losses in quality and quantity of fresh fruits occur between harvest and consumption [1]. Savings obtained through reduction of postharvest fruit losses is regarded as ``a hidden harvest'' [2]. Through a better understanding of the respiration process of fresh fruits, several techniques have been developed that are successful in extending shelf life. Controlled atmosphere storage and modied atmosphere storage have been used for preserving fruits by reducing their quality changes and quantity losses during storage. Edible coatings on fresh fruit can provide an alternative to
*H.J. Park is also with the Department of Packaging Science, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0370, USA.

modied atmosphere storage by reducing quality changes and quantity losses through modication and control of the internal atmosphere of the individual fruits.

A historical view of edible coatings

Wax was the rst edible coating used on fruits. The Chinese applied wax coatings to oranges and lemons in the 12th and 13th centuries [3]. Although the Chinese did not realize that the full function of edible coatings was to slow down respiratory gas exchange, they found that wax-coated fruits could be stored longer than nonwaxed fruits. In the 1930s hot-melt paran waxes became commercially available as edible coatings of fresh fruits such as apples and pears. Erbil and Muftugil [4] reported that coating of peach surfaces with wax emulsions decreased water vapor and oxygen transmission, thus diminishing respiration rate and increasing shelf life of the fruit. Nisperos-Carriedo et al. [5] and Baldwin et al. [6] observed that oils or waxes and cellulose had similar eects of preventing spoilage and retaining fresh-picked quality for tropical fruits. Several attempts have been made to develop other materials that could be used to coat, produce and modify internal gas composition for short-term storage. El Ghaouth et al. [7] and Zhang and Quantick [8] suggested that chitin and chitosan (deacetylated chitin) from marine invertebrates could be used for making a transparent lm for application as an edible coating on fruits and vegetables. In 1982, Lowings and Cutts reported on an edible coating material that is nonphytotoxic, tasteless, odorless, and eective in preserving fruits. This coating material is a mixture of sucrose fatty acid esters (SFAE), sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, and mono- and di-glycerides. SFAE was originally developed as an emulsier. However, it has been established that the ripening of fruits be retarded by a coating of SFAE. SFAE mixtures have been commercially available since the 1980s, for coating fruits and vegetables, under the trade names `TAL Pro-long' and `Semperfresh' [915]. Park et al. [16,17] applied zein coating on the surface of tomatoes and reported that the lm coating delayed color change, weight loss and maintained rmness during storage.

Problems associated with edible coatings to be overcome

Even though some edible coatings have been successfully applied to fresh produce, other applications have

0924-2244/00/$ - see front matter Copyright # 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 92 4 - 2 24 4 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 00 3 - 0

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adversely aected quality. Modication of internal atmospheres by the use of edible coatings can increase disorders associated with high carbon dioxide or low oxygen concentration [18]. Smock [19] indicated that waxing apples and pears inhibited normal ripening rate and if sucient wax was applied respiration was greatly inhibited and alcoholic avors were developed by anaerobic fermentation. Smith and Stow [11] reported that apples (cv. Cox's Orange Pippin) coated with sucrose fatty acid ester did have reduced detrimental changes in terms of fruit rmness, yellowing and weight loss, but also had increased core ush incidence. Park et al. [17] reported that tomatoes coated with 2.6 mm zein lm produced alcohol and o-avors internally which were attributable to an internal gas composition too low in oxygen and too high in carbon dioxide. Smith et al. [20] summarized the eects on physiological disorders associated with modication of internal atmosphere by use of coatings, as core ush, esh breakdown, and accumulation of ethanol and alcoholic o-avors. Wax and SFAE mixtures are the most widely used edible coatings for fruits and vegetables. But, they are not equally eective on all produce. Another problem is that consumers tend to be wary of waxy coatings. Therefore, development of alternate edible coatings that do not impart a waxy taste are desirable. The eects of edible coatings on internal gas composition and their interactions on quality parameters must be determined for coated fresh produce. For example, color change and rmness are very important quality parameters in fruits. As Shewfelt et al. [21] stated, color change, rmness loss, ethanol fermentation, decay ratio and weight loss of edible lm coated fruits are all important quality parameters for some products. Success of edible coatings for fruits depends mainly on selecting lms or coatings that can give a desirable internal gas composition that is appropriate for a specic product. Also, if a coating is too thick detrimental eects can result due to an internal oxygen concentration below a desirable and benecial level and an associated increased carbon dioxide concentration above a critical tolerable level. Such a condition leads to anaerobic fermentation. This is to accomplished by: (a) developing several edible coatings, (b) measuring gas permeation properties of selected coatings, (c) measuring diusion properties of skin and esh of selected fruits, (d) predicting internal gas compositions for the fruits coated with edible lms, and (e) observing coating eects on the quality changes of fruits.

tion properties of the coatings after being placed on fruits. Therefore, separate at lms need to be prepared and tested. Two primary known methods of preparation of at lm were described by Kamper and Fennema [22] and Aydt et al. [23]. An OX-TRAN 1000TM (Mocon Modern Control, Inc., Minneapolis, MN) is usually used to measure oxygen permeability, and WVP was measured using a variation of the ASTM Standard Method E 96 (ASTM, 1987), known as the ``cup method''. CO2 permeability can be measured using a modied permeability cell designed by Gilbert and Pegaz [24] . Gas and water vapor permeabilities of the coatings can be calculated as shown in Box 1. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor permeabilities of edible coatings reported in the literature are presented in Table 1 and compared with other conventional plastic lms. The oxygen permeabilities of most edible coatings was lower than the conventional plastic lms [2932]. Oxygen permeability (OP) of SPE coatings is 13 times higher than those of polyethylene lm and is 410 times higher than those of polypropylene lm. OP of SPE coatings are similar to cellulose lm values but are higher than those of protein edible coatBox 1. Gas permeability The permeation can be described mathematically by Fick's rst law. The ux (J) which is proportional to the concentration gradient can be dened in one direction as follows: J D@C=@X 1

Where, J is the ux, the net amount of solute that diffuses through unit area per unit time (g/m2.s or ml/m2.s), D is the diusivity constant (m2/s), C is the concentration gradient of the diusing substance and X is the thickness of the lm (m) [2528]. With the two assumptions, (1) the diusion is in steady state and (2) there is a linear gradient through the lm, the ux (J) is given by J DC2 C1 =X Q=A t 2

Where, Q is the amount of gas diusing through the lm (g or ml), A is area of the lm (m2) and t is the time (s). After application of Henry's law, the driving force is expressed in terms of partial pressure dierential of gas and a rearrangement of terms yields the following equation in terms of permeability. Q=A t D S p2 p1=X P p=X 3

Gas permeation properties of edible coatings

There are several possible edible coatings for fruits, such as cellulose, casein, zein, soy protein, and chitosan. These were chosen since they have the desirable characteristics of generally being odorless, tasteless and transparent. It is not easy to measure the gas permea-

Where, S is the Henry's law solubility coecient (mole/ atm), p is partial pressure dierence of the gas across the lm (Pa) and P is the permeability ((ml or g) m/m2.s.Pa). Then, the permeabilities of O2, CO2 and H2O vapor can be calculated from the following equation [2528]; P Q X=A t p 4

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Table 1. O2, CO2 and H2O vapor permeabilities of edible coatings Filma SPE Chitosan Zein Wheat gluten MC (L) HPC (L) HPC/Lipid Cozeen PE PP PVC PET Permeability O2b 2.100.0001 0.0014 0.360.16 0.200.09 2.170.45 3.570.03 3.440.06 0.89 8.30 0.550.005 0.0917.99 0.130.30 CO2b 2.671.09 2.131.43 69.019.33 143.93.76 81.74.58 5.2526.10 26.1 1.3526.98 0.671.12 H2O Vaporc 0.000420.04 0.49 0.1160.019 0.6160.013 0.0920.003 0.1100.004 0.0820.003 0.407 0.000650.06 0.00071

a SPE is Sucrose Polyester; (L) refers to low level of plasticizer; MC is Methyl cellulose; HPC is Hydroxypropyl cellulose; PE is Polyethylene; PP is Polypropylene; PVC is Polyvinyl chloride; PET is Polyester [22,29,3133] b Unit of permeability is in .m/m2.s.Pa; f is the abbreveation for femto (1015) c Unit of permeability is ng.m/m2.s.Pa; n is the abbreviation for nano (109)

ings such as zein. CO2/O2 permeability ratios of edible coating lms are higher than those of plastic lms. The permeability ratios of protein lms are lower than those of cellulose lms. SPE coatings present very high water vapor barriers compared with other edible coatings [30]. Water vapor permeability (WVP) of SPE coatings is lower than that of polyethylene lm and more than 100 times lower than the values for cellulose and protein lms. These high oxygen and water vapor barrier properties will make SPE coatings desirable for fresh produce as a replacement for wax. WVP of other edible coating lms are much higher than those of plastic lms [33]. WVP of wheat protein lm was 0.6030.630 ng.m/ m2.s.Pa, which was the highest among all edible lms tested [34]. Plastic is the most widely used food wrap, but water vapor commonly condenses on the inner surface of plastic packaging materials thus leading to potential microbial contamination in fresh produce [35]. Thus, a lm with greater WVP is desirable, although an extremely high water vapor permeability of a lm is also not desirable as it can result in excessive moisture loss of fruits during storage.

Diusivity determination on fruit skin and esh

Knowledge of diusivities of gases in bulky plant organs is essential in understanding the physiological changes, gas exchanges and internal gas composition. The internal gas composition of fruits is determined by the diusivities of skin, esh and stem [3638]. Burg and Burg [36] designed a system to determine gas resistance factors that can be used to estimate gas diusivities of bulky plant organs as the ratio of internal concentration to the ratio of the production of carbon dioxide and ethylene at steady state. Diusivities of gases in bulky plant tissue can be calculated as shown in Box 2.

Several reports exist on determining the diusivities of the bulky plant organs [3641]. Burg and Burg [36] dened a resistance factor (R) which could be estimated for bulky plant organs, banana and tomato, as the ratio of internal concentration to the ratio of production of carbon dioxide and ethylene at steady state. They estimated that more than 60% of gas exchange takes place through the stem scar in tomatoes. But this resistance factor is only an empirical value without conventional dimensions, and is not constant with changes in the surface to volume ratio. Cameron and Yang [37] measured the eux of a metabolic inert gas, ethane which, is neither produced nor metabolized to a signicant degree by the tissue. It was shown that over 97% of gas exchange of tomato fruits occurs through the stem scar. But the measurement of ethane eux introduces several uncertainties because they did not measure the diusivities of exocarp, pericarp and stem scar separately. Solomos [40] , in a review of principles of gas exchange in bulky plant organs, considered stationary states for carbon dioxide diusion through spherical and cylindrical shaped plant organs and determined diusivities of esh and skin of apple with the peeled and intact fruit. But the eect of the stem for gas transfer was not considered in determining the apparent diusivities of apple. The wax undoubtedly serves as a gas barrier to oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor and other metabolic gases and also provides protective functions (for example, mechanical damage, fungal and insect attack). Therefore, it can be assumed that the primary factor that regulates the internal concentration of gases is the skin in bulky plant organs. In apple, the resistance of apple skin to gas diusion was 10 to 20 fold greater than that of the esh, depending on the cultivar [40, 41]. Chinnan and Park [38] constructed a diusion cell from

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PlexiglassTM and an apparatus for diusivity measurement as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Gas diusivities of exocarp plus pericarp, pericarp and stem scar increased as the tomatoes developed from green stage to red stage. During the ripening process the progressive loss of rmness is the result of a gradual transformation of protopectin into pectin which is degraded by enzyme, polygalacturonase, in the cell wall [42]. This enzymatic

degradation of pectin is probably attributed to greater diusion of gases in the bulky organs of fruits.

Measurement of internal gas composition

Box 2. Diusivity calculation Gas exchange in bulky plant tissue can be approximated by Fick's rst law. The ux of a gas of Fick's law is dependent on gradient of concentration and diusivities of plant organs. But to determine the gradient of gases, Fick's second law can be employed [2528,40,41]. If diffusion is one dimensional and the diusion coecient is constant, the rate of transfer through unit area becomes: @C=@t D@C=@X 1

At non-steady state, all the solutions can be obtained either by the method of separation of variables and Fourier series or by the Laplace transformation. If surface concentrations are constant, the following boundary and initial conditions may apply: C C1 ; C 0; C 0; x 0; t0 x L; t0 0 < x < L; t 0

A cylindrical plug of tissue can be removed from individual fruits (orange, apple, tomato, cantaloupe, water melon, and pineapple) using a rubber stopper corer. A glass tube can be sealed around the hole in the surface of the produce sample. In order to measure internal gas composition, gas in the glass tube can be allowed to equilibrate with internal gases [16,17,43]. Then a gas sample can be taken from the glass tube with a syringe injected through the sealing stopper. By immersing both the produce sample and the attached glass tube in water, atmospheric contamination at the point of syringe insertion can be prevented. Gas samples can be analysed by gas chromatography. Required equilibrium times (when gas composition of the inside of the glass tube is constant) need to be determined by periodically monitoring gas changes inside the glass tube. Equilibrium time can be expected to vary with variety, ripeness, temperature and harvesting season for various fruits but, two hours is usually enough time [44]. Using gas permeation data of edible coatings, diusivity data of skin and esh of the fruits, and the mathematical models, internal gas composition can be predicted for selected fruits. Predictions of internal gas compositions with and without coatings will enable better matches to be made between individual fruits and individual edible coatings. The mathematical model could be veried by comparing predicted and measured internal gas composition for various coating materials and thickness on selected fruits. Gas diusion models will be determined according to physical shape and composition of individual fruits. For example, if one dimensional steady state diusion with a constant diusion coecient is assumed, the gas diusion model for a hollow sphere can be used to predict internal oxygen composition of some fruits such as apples and cantaloupes as follow: In one dimensional diusion with a constant diusion coecient, the rate of gas transfer in the sphere is [2527,40]: @C=@t D@2 C=@r2 2=r@C=@t 1

Prediction of internal gas composition

The solution in the form of a trigonometrical series is: Cx; t C1 1 x=L

1 X 2=p C1 =n sinnx=LexpDn2 p2 t=L2 2 n1

As t approaches innity the terms involving the expoential vanish and we simply have the linear concentration distribution. The rate at which the gas emerges from unit area of the face x=L of the test sample is given by D@C=@XxL , which is easily deduced from equation (2). By integrating them with respect to t, we obtain the total amount of diusing substance Qt which has passed through the membrane in time t as follows:
1 X Qt =LC1 Dt=L2 1=6 2p 1expDn2 p2 t=L2 3 n1

As t approaches innity, equation (3) approaches the line: Qt DC1 =Lt L2 =6D This has a intercept L on the t-axis given by: Lt L2 =6D 5 4

On substituting u=Cr in the equation (1), we have: @u/@t=D(@2C/@r2). At steady state, the dierential equation of this case is: dr2 dC=dr=dr 0 2

The intercept Lt is referred to as the `time lag'. Thus, the measured values of concentration of the diusion constant from the linear portion of the plot [38,39].

In a hollow sphere where, a  r  b, if gas concentrations are kept constant at the surfaces such that they are C1 at r a, and C2 at r b, then C aC1 b r

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bC2 r a=rb a. By integrating with respect to time t over the surface area, the total amount of diusing gas Qt passing through the wall can be determined by: Qt 4pDapp abC2 C1 =b a 3

Qt 4pDapp abC2 C1 =b a RO2 W

Where: Dapp is apparent diusivity of the hollow sphere and a and b are constants for individual fruits [2527,40]. However, at steady state the ux of oxygen passing through the spherical fruit wall should equal the rate of gas consumption, thus:

where: R(O2) is respiration rate of oxygen per fruit and W is weight of the fruit. Internal oxygen composition, C1, can be predicted using equation (4). Correlation factors will be calculated from actual measurement of internal gas composition. Also, predicted internal gas composition of edible lm coated fruits will be veried by measuring internal gas composition [40,41,45]. Also optimum edible coating thickness can be calculated for each produce-coating combination as shown in Box 3.

Fig. 1. Diusion cell: (1) sample holder, (2) gas chamber, (3) sample, (4) sample retainers, (5) threaded bush, (6) sealing O-ring, (7) tubing adapters, (8) thumb nuts, (9) thread rods. The diusion cell was constructed from PlexiglassTM for determining diusivities [38,39]. The cell is composed of three main parts: the sample holder, supplying chamber and sampling chamber. The face of each part be tooled for an O-ring which provides a tight connection.

Fig. 2. Apparatus for diusivity measurement: (1) diusion cell, (2) water bath, (3) ask, (4) mineral oil, (5) test gas inlet, (6) nitrogen inlet, (7) three-way valve, (8) three-way connector, (9) two-way valve, (10) sampling chamber, (11) silicone septum, (12) gas owmeter, (13) brass tubing. Diusivity measurement can be done by the following procedures in [38]. Each of the cored and sliced sample prepared for the study can be placed in the diusion cell, and a pre-mixed gas (9.9% O2, 10.1% CO2, 80.0%, N2) can be introduced to the supplying chamber. The amount of CO2 and O2 diused through the sample in time t into the sampling chamber can be measured by gas chromatography. The sampling interval is 5 min, and the total sampling period is 2 hr. The diusion cell is immersed in a water bath maintained at 21 C. All equipment for determining gas diusivities are placed in a heat-insulated chamber, and the temperatures at several places inside the chamber monitored.

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Box 3. Optimal thickness for edible coating The hollow sphere model can be used also to determine the edible coating optimal thickness in some fruits, such as apple and cantaloupe. In the edible lm coated apple and cantaloupe, the ux of oxygen passing through the spherical fruit wall from the center to the interface of the lm coating and the fruit surface should equal the ux of oxygen passing throguh the edible coating from the interface of the lm coating and the fruit surface to the atmosphere, and should equal the rate of oxygen consumption of the edible lm coated apple and cantaloupe at steady state [40,41,45]. Qt 4pDapp abC2 C1 =b a 4p Dcz C2 Cx =X b2 Rc O2 W 1

Where: Rc(O2) is the oxygen consumption rate of coated fruits, Dcz is the diusivity of edible coatings and X is the thickness of the edible coating. Cx is oxygen concentration at the surface between the edible coating and the surface fruits. Optimal coating thickness which will create a desirable range of internal oxygen concentrations (C1) in apples, (i.e., 23%), and cantaloupe, (35%) will be calculated from the following equation: X 4p Dcz C2 Cx b2 =Rc O2 W 2

Where b+X becomes b when X is very small. Cx is determined from equation (1) with C2=Cx.

Measurement of quality and shelf life change

Quality criteria for edible lm coated fruits must be determined carefully, and the quality parameters must be monitored throughout the storage period. For example, color change and rmness are very important quality parameters in some fruits. Color change, rmness loss, ethanol fermentation, decay ratio and weight loss of edible lm coated fruits need to be monitored [21]. Color change can be monitored by the change in hue angle. An Instron universal test machine can be used to measure rmness with a non-destructive method [45]. Sensory evaluation and consumer acceptability tests need to be examined during storage.

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