1

CABLE ELEMENT
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
8f. 0f.k.8.$l000k
ProoI. Assistant, civil engineering
department, collage oI engineering, Al-
Mustansiriya Unv.
8$1801
The recent developments have taken place
during the three decades in the cable-
suspended and cable-stayed bridges that are
very appealing aesthetically and are also very
important structures. Slender masts and towers
laterally supported by gays or stiII cables are
usually adopted Ior this purpose as they
provide economical solutions compared with
Ireestanding towers. The behavior oI such
structures is inIluenced by many Iactors and
parameters making a highly complex problem.
This highly non-linear problem is exhibited
either by gays due to sags, low level oI
pretension or by masts or towers due to large
displacements and beam-column eIIects, in
addition to the eIIect oI wind loading at
various heights, initial geometry eIIects such
as initial tension in cables, initial imperIection
in tower members, lack oI Iit, temperature,
support yielding, etc. Thus, such structures
experience simultaneous increase in axial
thrust and lateral loads in both directions, such
a combination can actually introduce a highly
non-linear problem that could be solved either
by Iinite element technique or by beam-column
theory. In this paper the cable element used in
the cable - Irame interaction structures such as
bridges and towers oI all types and purposes
shall be discussed Irom all aspects concerning
the material, the arrangement and structural
details.
-,-;-' ,~'--' J--=- _,=
-,-'' ,-- -' -''= ,--''
-='-- -'--' - ,---'' ---+'' - - ,-----'' -'=''
-`='' :
,---+'' ',='' - -'-'' -'---'' ---
,''-=, ,--- ,-,-= - '+' '-' ,'-=''
--'=' ,'-- , , += - ,=,'-'' '+-''-` '=-
-,'-' _'= -'= -'' ,---'', ,---+'' -',=-'',
-'-,-- - '+' '-' -'---'' -- -,---, .,'=-, ,---
,=' += - '+-,== -= - =-'- ,- , - '
-,''-`', -',=-'' -- ' _'= --'' ,-''
' -'-'' -,= '+--, `,-='' -,= ='-, ---=-'
--'' - -,-'' . '-=-- `-'- '-= -=-'' '- --,
'-`'- . .,'=- = --=', ` ='- _- .,'-='',
,-,'' -'-'' ) .'-='' ( -'---'' -=--- -'',
-'='--`' -'- -`'--`' _'-', -'-'' ,-='',
-'-'' .
Cable-structure interaction and methods of connection
I. Idealized interaction
In the analysis or design oI cable-stayed towers or bridges, diIIerent combinations
are possible between supports Ior the towers and cable attachment to them, as shown
in table (1). The tower base generally is either Iixed (as in short span cable-stayed and
cable-suspended bridges, and some types oI guy towers) or pin (as in most guy towers
and long-span stay bridges).
The pin-connections are subjected to very heavy bearing stresses in addition to their
complicated erection, rocker-towers, pin bearing at the base, aIIord the most
economic and scientiIic design Ior bridges oI longer span, they eliminate the stresses
Irom unbalanced cable Iorces without requiring movable saddle construction, iI
rocker tower are adopted, they must be secured against tipping during erection. In
2
addition this type oI connection prevents the cable shortening owing to the 3-D eIIect
caused by twisting moments induced by the lateral movement oI the connected joints.
When Iixed base is used then the tower is Iirmly anchored at the base oI the tower
pedestals, it is Iree to deIlect longitudinally under the deIormations oI the cables when
they are Iixed to tower.
The cables are generally continuous over saddles located inside the towers, saddles
are either bolted to the supports or provided with rollers, when Iixed saddles are used,
the resultant unbalanced horiontal Iorces must be calculated and allowed in the
design oI the tower, unless it is oI the rocker type.
II the saddles are movable, the eccentricity oI the vertical reaction under various
loading conditions must be accounted Ior. The roller support Ior the saddle permits its
horiontal movement. The resultant tensions oI the cable should pass through the
middle oI the roller nest to give an even distribution oI stress. The Iriction oI the
rollers is so small that the angle oI inclination oI the resultant reaction is negligible.
Instead oI circular rollers, rockers may be used so as to Iurnish a greater diameter
thereby reducing Iriction and roller bearing stress. ockers, however, must be secured
against excessive motion liable to cause overturning. ollers, meanwhile serve to
reduce the bending stresses in the towers due to an unbalanced horiontal cable pull
resulting Irom special loading conditions and temperature. n the other hand, they are
expensive, add erection complications, increase maintenance, and merely substitute
eccentric vertical loading Ior the unbalanced horiontal pull. n, the whole, Iixed
saddles provide a simple and saIer solution
(
22
)
.
II. Actual interaction
The Iixed and pin saddles described earlier give an idealied picture oI the Iield Iixed
or movable cable supports, a typical arrangement oI these supports diIIers Irom one
structure to another, they are usually provided at the top oI the tower as well as at
intermediate locations along the tower, depending on the number oI the cables used.
These supports are either: -
- ixed to the tower by means oI welding or riveting.
- Movable supports by means oI rocker or roller devices.
There are other eIIects that must be taken into considerations such as anchoraging
cables to pedestals, cable numbers and cable spacing and arrangement.
100 60 8l8l8.
This type oI analysis depends on the behavior oI inclined cable under its own weight
-see Iigs.1 2-, which Iollows two approaches
(2), (1)(22)
:
-The exact catenary approach.
-The approximate parabola approach.
When the required data oI cables (such as dimensions, and initial tensions) Ior the
certain structure (towers or bridges) are unknown, a type oI analysis called the
preliminary analysis must be used in order to evaluate the initial values oI cable
tensions in order to include it in the next stage oI analysis oI the structure which is the
non-linear analysis.
3
The exact catenary approach
The diIIerential equation oI the equilibrium curve shown in Iigures (1) (2) is
(1)
: -
H
w
dx
v d

=
sec
2
2
------ (1)
where:
is the inclination oI the cable to the horiontal at any distance x since
tan| =
dy
dx
, so (eq.1) may be written as
(1)(22)
:-
d y
dx
w

dy
dx
2
2
2
1
2
1 = +
|
\

|
.
|

(
----(2)
by integrating and organiing
(1)(22)
:-
( ) 2
2
1

+ =
x H w x H w
e e
H
w
v
----(3)
This equation is called the catenary equation thereIore, a cable under its own weight
hangs in a catenary. When the stay is taken to be a straight bar then the elastic stretch
or elongation is
(2)
: -
( )
l
EA
F F
L
s
2

1
cos

= A ------ ()
The approximate parabolic approach
II the sag ratio q I l is small, all the Iormula Ior the catenary may be replaced, with
suIIicient accuracy, by the Iormula Ior parabolic cables, this means that the cable is
subjected to uniIorm vertical load only. Although a parabola is only an approximation
to the exact catenary analysis, the parabolic equation is Iamiliar to most practicing
engineers
() (1)
. The elastic stretch or shortening in the cable is approximately equal
to (see igs. () ()): -
o
c
s
A
HL
L
cos E
= A ----- ()
The preliminary analysis
The Iirst step to non-linear analysis is to obtain an approximate set oI reactions
at the guy level
(2)(3)
. The tower is assumed to behave as a continuous beam over
rigid supports, with the supports located at each guy level. A standard linear analysis
is utilied in which the tower segments between supports are treated as beam-column
elements using the ordinary () and (2) stability Iunctions
(1)
at , so the tower is
treated as an ordinary structure (with no cables) having either solid section or lattice

section depending on the type oI tower, the reactions oI the rigid supports then
represents the initial guy reactions which are ready to enter the non-linear analysis.
The initial tensions are calculated in the cables by the Iollowing means
()
: -
- Measuring accurately the position oI the end joints and control the sag oI the
cable.
- ontrolling accurately the ero stress length and Iinal length oI the cable due to
initial tensions.
- II cable is attached to eye bar links at the end initial measuring the stress in the
eye bar can control tension.
100 0ll08f 080l0 88l8l8
In spite oI the Iact that the behavior oI the material oI the structural elements in cable-
stayed structures is linear-elastic, the overall load displacement relationship Ior the
structure is non-linear under normal design loads
(12)
, the overall non-linear behavior
originates Irom Iour primary sources
(), (1), (13),(2)
: -
1. The non-linear axial Iorce-elongation relationship Ior the inclined cables stays
due to sag caused by their own weight.
2. The non-linear axial Iorce and bending movement deIormation relation Ior the
towers and masts (i.e. the stability non-linearity including the bowing eIIect).
3. The geometrical changes caused by large displacement under normal design
loads.
. Special eIIects increasing results oI non-linearity (such as, temperature,
industrial imperIections, support yields, etc.) both in mast and cables
(2)
.
The bowing eIIect cannot be taken into account in the cable elements since they
cannot be treated as Ilexural elements or beam-column elements. This means that no
Ilexural rigidity, though no application oI stability or bowing Iunctions could be
concluded. The non-linear behavior oI the cable is treated by many procedures but the
most important one is the equivalent modulus oI elasticity technique
()
.
As it will be detailed in Appendix-A- the value oI the cable is a Iunction oI
many variables (see eq. A-3, ). When the cable tension increases, the sag decreases
(see Iigure ), and the apparent axial stiIIness oI the inclined cable increases. A
convenient method to account Ior this variation in the cable axial stiIIness is to
consider an equivalent straight chord member with an equivalent modulus oI
elasticity
()
. This combines both the eIIect oI material and geometrical deIormations
such that the axial stiIIness oI the equivalent chord member becomes equal to the
apparent axial stiIIness oI the actual curved cable, this concept was Iirst introduced by
Ernst, and has been veriIied by several additional investigators
()
. This quivalent
oI the cable is given by two approaches see ig.3-
(), ()
:
a. The tangent eq.... b. The secant eq..
( )
i
e
e
eq
F
A wl
12
1
tan
2
.
E
+
E
= E ------- ()

otice that this equation is another Iorm oI (eq. A- 3), while: -

( ) ( )
2 2
2
.
2
1
sec
f i
e f i
e
eq
F F
A F F wl E +
+
E
= E ------- ()
quation () gives the tangential or instantaneous value oI the equivalent modulus
when the tension in the cable equals i or when the cable tensile stress is equal to
o, iI the cable changes Irom i to I during the application oI a certain load
increment (which is equivalent to a change in cable stress Irom oi to oI, then the
secant value oI the equivalent modulus oI elasticity over the load increases
(1)
.
In the non-linear analysis, all cables are treated initially as straight members and
represented geometrically by their chords, the actual shape, however, is a catenary. It
can be replaced by parabola to avoid tedious calculations and especially when sags
are smaller or tensions are higher than true length oI the curved cable (arc length )
which can be expressed by a series
(12)
: -
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =

2
2
2

cos
2
cos
1
H
W
H
W
L L
o o
c

---------- ()
The third and subsequent terms inside the bracket are very small compared to the Iirst
and second terms, so they can be neglected, then the diIIerentiation oI (eq.) yields
(12)
: -
ds
W

d
o c o
= +
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| 1
2 12
2
2
2
3
cos cos
A ---------- ()
Which can be transIormed to the elongation oI the cable due to the change in
(12)
:-
o
EA
L
dH
ds
cos
~ -------- (1)
ThereIore, the axial deIormation oI the chord due to the change in is
(12)
: -
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
2
2 2
3
2
12
1
cos 12
cos
cos H
l w
AE
HL
H
W L
EA
L
dH
dL
o
c c
o
c

---------- (11)
n the right hand side oI this equation, the Iirst term, is linear representation oI the
elastic stretch oI the cable (i.e eq. or ), while the second term, is non-linear and
inversely proportional to
3
- see Iig. ()()-. II a parabola cable shape is adopted,
a modiIied stiIIness oI cable should be used in the analysis, so
(12)
: -
) ( ) AE r EA =
. mod
---- (12-a)...where:
3
2
12
cos
1
1
H
EA w
r
o

+
= -------(12-b)
owever, r varies as varies as increases Irom
1
to
2
, an average
cable stiIIness should be used so that
(12)
:

) ( ) A r A
mod.
=
1
-- (12-c)..where:
( )
2 2
2 1
2
1
2 1
12
cos
1
1
H H
H H EA w
r
o
+
+
=

-- (12-d)
Which means an iterational technique oI solution must be adopted and that the cable
stiIIness is adjusted in every iteration, however, the non-linear eIIect can be
compensated by applying a pair oI imaginary Iorces at the ends oI each cable,
instead oI changing the cable matrices in each step. So, Ior the h
th
iteration, the
condition oI equilibrium gives
(12)
:
) )
)
( )

A A
A

o h
o
n
=

1
------- (13)
The second non-linear eIIect oI cables is caused by the change oI the angle due to
displacement at both ends, this change in slope, or the rotation oI the chord, is small
compared with the original slope, thereIore the change in vertical and horiontal
components oI the cable Iorces are approximately
(12)
: -


A = A
A = A
cos
sin
S J
F H
------ (1-a)
( ) ( )
c
T G T G
L
u w w u

cos sin + +
= A ---------- (1-b)
Summing up both non-linear eIIects oI cables and the imaginary Iorces that have to be
applied at the end oI the cables aIter the n
th
iteration
(12)
: -


sin cos
cos sin
2
1
n n
n n
K F F
K F F
A =
A =
-------(1)
The above detailed non-linear behavior can be replaced by the equivalent modulus oI
elasticity oI cable (eq. -) to include all the above geometrical non-linear eIIects in
addition to any material with non-linear behavior, so introducing an additional eIIect
oI temperature
(12)
: -
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ~ A
2
2 2 2
.
2
cos
1
H
l w
L t L t L
o
c temp

---------- (1)
And rearranging all the eIIects oI parabolic equation we have what we called the cable
non-linear equation
(12)
: -
( ) +
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + A =
c c
o
o
o
c
o
o
o e
c o
c
e
c
L t
H
l w
L
H
l w
AE
L H
L H H
AE
L
H f
o O

2
2
2 2
2 2
2 3
cos
2 12
1
cos
( ) 1
2
cos
12
2 2 2 2 2
= t
l w L
AE
L l w
H
c
e
c

---------- (1)

nowing the initial and Iinal geometry (i.e. Ac c-c

o
), the change oI temperature
and the change oI vertical load, iI any, a new value oI can be solved. This
equation is oI a third order that may have three roots. The correct root was Iound to be
always larger than the largest value oI e.g.
2
which will cause either a
maximum or minimum I ()
(12) (2)
see igs. -.
The value oI
2
was Iound by solving the quadratic equation Ior obtained by
using cIc and using the positive sign beIore the square root quantity Ior the
standard solution oI the quadratic equation, The correct root oI is then Iound by
halI interval search between
2
and an arbitrary higher value,
3
, i.e.
(2)
: -
1. Set

2 3
2
=
+
, then
2. Set
2

iI I (

)I (
2
)
3. Set
3

iI I (

)I (
2
)
. epeat this process till

is elevated, then.
.
correct

.
AIter this long operation and having solved the value oI , the value oI A can be
easily determined:
o
H H H = A ------ (1)
Then the modiIied value is: -
cos
. mod
A
L
L
H
E E
o
c
c
A
A
= = -------(1)
The principle oI this method Ior solving I () is shown in Iigure (), and the modiIied
value is shown in Iigure (). or more exact iterational modiIied method,
(eq. ) shall be adopted as an initial value oI eq. then (eq. ) shall be adopted as
the governing equation oI the method oI equivalent modulus oI elasticity oI cables in
the rest oI n
th
iterations.
100 1.$.N.0l l00 080l0 0l0M0l l 8800
Two approaches are available to analye cable structure non-linearly
(1)(23)
:
a. The Iinite element approach.
b. The beam-column approach
In the Iirst approach two alternatives are available. A truss element representation oI
cable is used with (sag) and an increased number oI elements is used to decrease
the error with value equal to e, hence there is no need Ior the equivalent
value or it may be analyed using one parabolic cable element with the value to
be taken Irom (eq. ,) having one D..each end). In this approach, the T.S.M. oI
cable in local coordinates is-see ig.-
(2)
: -

| |
| | | | | |
T S M
A

T
eq
c
. . = = + =

(
+

(
1 1
1 1
---------- (2-a)
where the sub-matrices:
| |

c
=

(
(
(

1
1
-------- (2-b), and
eq.
are taken Irom (eq. -).
In the second approach, which is the approach adopted in the present work, the T.S.M.
can be determined by the Iollowing procedure Iirst adopted by Saafan
(1)
(1):-
The basic idea is based on the original truss element in space and since the Iinite
deIlection theory is responsible Ior obtaining a solution tangent to the actual non-linear
Iorce-deIlection curve at any intermediate stage, then the elements oI this T.S.M. t
ij

are obtained as partial derivations oI the Iorce vector with respect to each one oI
the displacements. Thus: -
(
(
(
(
(

=
(

1
1
1
. . .
U
Q
U
Q
U
Q
U
Q
U
Q
M S T
o
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

(
(
(

=
1
1 11
t t
t t

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) c
c c
c c
c c
c c
c c
c c

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
= 1
ln ln
ln ln
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
n nm nl n nm nl
mn m ml mn m ml
lm l lm l
n nm nl n nm nl
mn m ml mn m ml
lm l lm l
L
A E
c
eq
-----(21)
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
l lm l lm
ml m mn ml m mn
nl nm n nl nm n
l lm l lm
ml m mn ml m nm
nl nm n nl nm n
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
ln ln
ln ln
----------22
So, (eq. 22), is the Iinal T.S.M. in global coordinates adopted in the work concerning
the cable element in space which is the most eIIicient method oI analying the cable-
Irame interaction structures since it Iollows the actual shape oI cable
(1)(1)
.
T

ConcIusions
The most eIIicient method oI analying the cable-Irame interaction structures is the plane
or space tangent stiIIness matrix non-linear analysis (T.S.M.) method, since it Iollows the
actual shape oI cable consequently with the load applied. With the great beneIits oI
computers this type oI analysis is simpler and quicker than the actual catenary approach or
the approximate parabola approach or even the non-linear approach.
References
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ournal oI Structural ngineering, ol.1.
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ngland, 12.
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Division, AS., ol., o. ST2, ebruary 1, pp. 33-.
1
1. Sideek. .., 1. Shear and 3-D deIormation eIIects on the stability oI
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inear Analysis oI ombined eam and able Structures, International ournal
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SYMS:
A: cable cross-sectional area.
d
c
: the diameter oI the cabled
r
: the diameter oI the rope.
E: the modulus oI elasticity oI cable.
e: the straight cable modulus oI elasticity the eIIective modulus oI elasticity oI the cables.
eq.: the equivalent modulus oI elasticity oI the cables (taken Irom (eq. , )).
i: the sagged cable modulus oI elasticity.
I: the sag oI cable.
i
,

I
: the initial and Iinal cable tensions respectively.

o
: the initial tensile axial Iorce i.

1
: the tensile axial Iorce aIter Iirst stage oI loading.
11
: the horiontal component oI the cable tensile Iorce.
: the stiIIness matrix corresponding to the T-1T
l: the horiontal chord length h c cos
o
c ( iI cos l).
: the arc length oI cable.
c: the chord length oI cable.
l, m, n: the direction cosines oI the member center line.
n
r
: number oI ropes the cable consisting oI .
: the stiIIness matrix oI the truss element =

(
A
e c
1 1
1 1

p}: the column vector oI the Iorces in the member axis u}.
T-1PT-1TUU the stress resultant related to the number oI loads P}.
T: the orthogonal transIormation matrix.
T
-1
: the orthogonal matrix inverse.
u}: the column vector oI the displacements in member axis
U: the column vector oI the displacement in the common axis.
w: the load intensity (weight oI the cable (Iorcelength).
o: Tensile stress in the cable A: tensile axial Iorce.
: speciIic gravity oI the cable.
I
: Al -Al1 c.
A
l
: - c Al1 - c1
able inclination.

initial cable inclination.
|
.
|

\
|
A A =
.
strain axial the
temp
c
e
L
L
c , A
e
(eq. 1), A
temp.
(eq.2)
I
Ac

c
l
x
w
|

w sec |

A A

igure (1):
The inclined
cable
arrangement
igure (2): Inclined
cable under its own
weight
12
Figure (4): Method of finding correct root of cabIe equation.
Figure (5): PrincipaI of iterationaI technique in cabIe structure
igure (3): ariation
oI Ideal Modulus With
Span ength

2 3
2
=
+
=
H
f
c
c
=
H
f
c
c
orrect
orrect root

3
13
( b ) ( a )
x

x
y
Figure (6): TypicaI cabIe eIement in IocaI co-ordinates (a) actuaI
eIement with sag= == =0, (b) ideaIization and D.O.F
(17)
.

d
=
2
y
d
=
2
d
TabIe (1): Types of cabIe - tower interaction
BASE LEGEND: FIXED SADDLE
ROLLER OR ROCKER SADDLE
FIXED
PIN-
BEARING
igure (): The
negligible bending
stress oI wire.
1
FFl80lk . 108, 08l08l f00fll08, 80 00089l0f 0l 080l08.
A cable may be composed oI one or more structural ropes, structural strands, locked
coil strands or parallel wire strands.
A strand, with the exception oI a parallel wire strand, is an assembly oI wires Iormed
helically around a center wire in one or more symmetrical layers and is produced in
accordance with the AS1M standards A-58 specifications
(1)
. A strand may be used either
as an individual load-carrying member, where the radius oI curvature is not a major
requirement, or as a component in the manuIacture oI structural rope. The structural strand is
generally preIerred to rope Ior cable-stayed bridges, and towers, while ropes are suitable in
cable-suspended bridges and highly sagged towers. The three main types oI strand
conIiguration are the helically wound strand, the parallel wire strand, and the locked coil
strand
A rope is composed oI a plurality oI strands helically laid around a core and is covered
by AS1MA -3 standard specifications
(1)
, in contrast to the strand, a rope provides increased
curvature capability and is used where curvature oI the cable becomes an important
consideration.
The modulus oI elasticity is constant but is a Iunction oI the Iorce acting on the cable.
The rope oI twisted strands that are a Iurther step towards economy in the construction oI
inclined cable bridges and towers. The value oI modulus oI elasticity Ior these cables closely
approaches that oI the plain wire, and this Iact has a Iavorable inIluence on the deIormations
because oI the live load. The reduction oI the value oI the modulus oI elasticity due to cable
sag, however, produces the same percentage oI Iigures as Ior the locked coil cables. ut as
there are no plastic elongations, as in cables, the erection deIormations can be accurately
calculated in advance. It will be thereIore possible to allow Ior the Iatigue strength between
2 psi and 2 psi (1.1

and 2.31

km
2
) provided that anchorages and
curves do not impose any reduction.
The majority oI the existing cable-stayed bridges use pre-formed, pre-stretched, or
galvanized locked-coil wire rope. This type exhibits more eIIective protection against
corrosion as well as more Iavorable properties compared with those oI a conventional spiral
rope manuIactured Irom round wires, so it introduces higher density oI the material with
higher modulus oI elasticity that is almost exactly halIway between the value oI the spiral
cable and the solid structural steel. The Ilexibility required at curves is maintained in spite oI
the above properties because oI its spiral construction, moreover, locked-coil cables are
largely insensitive to bearing pressure because the individual layers oI proIile wires support
each other through their Iace and not just by point contact as in spiral cables
(21)
.
The total elongation or stretch oI a structural strand is the result oI several component
deIormations such as those due to its own weight, temperature, and industrial imperIections,
however, the pre-stretching meant here is the one called constructional stretch which is
caused by the lengthening oI the strand lay (pitch length oI the wire helix) due to subsequent
adjustment oI the wires in a strand into a denser cross section under load, this type oI stretch
is permanent. According to AS1M A-58 the total pre-stretch load should not exceed oI
the rated breaking strength oI the strand
(21)
.
According to AS1M A-58 speciIications, the elongation readings Ior computing the
modulus oI elastic, they are taken when the strand or rope is stressed to not less than 1 oI
the minimum rated breaking strength or more than oI the pre-stretching load. The
modulus oI elasticity shall not be less than 21

psi (1.1

km
2
) Ior 12 - 21 in
(12.-.1 mm) nominal diameter strand and 231

psi (1.1

km
2
) Ior 2 in (.
mm) and larger nominal diameter strands, these values are Ior normal pre-stretched helical
1
types strands. or a parallel-wire strand the modulus oI elasticity is in the range oI 21

-
2.1

psi (1.31

- 1.1

km
2
).
The modulus oI elasticity oI the rope is low Ior low loads and increases as the load is
increased into the normal working range. reep may occur Ior sustained loads. The stiIIness
oI the cable-Irame structure depends largely upon the tensile stiIIness oI the stay cables, the
apparent modulus oI elasticity
I
may be expressed as: -
f
f
c
o
= E ----------(A-1)
While the ideal modulus oI elasticity oI the cable EI under an axial load with its own
weight to be considered and a sag I is introduced: -
e f
e f
i
E + E
E E
= E ----------(A-2)
To Iind A
l
and i, one oI the analytical approaches must be adopted: -
a. The catenary behaviorb. The parabolic behavior.
The comparison between the catenary and parabola indicates negligible diIIerence
(
22
)
.
ThereIore, the catenary may be satisIactorily approximated over this length by a parabola.
So, eq. (A-2) becomes aIter some derivational eIIort: -
( ) | |
e h
e
i
L E +
E
= E
3 2
12 1 o
-------(A-3)
II we assume a straight locked-coil steel wire rope eq. (A-3) becomes: -
( )
( )
2
3 2 3
tonin
1 2 . 2 1
1
o
h
i
L

+
= E ----------(A-), in It. and o is in
tonin
2
Assuming numerical values Ior span and stresses o, M.S. Trotisky
(
21
)
Iormulated eq.
(A-) to illustrate the (i--o) cable behavior, this behavior is shown in Iigure (2).
The general Iactor oI saIety oI the cable may be taken as
1
2. Iollowing practice in USA
and urope. This coeIIicient represents the reserve oI the strength oI the cable with respect to
the loading. The calculated strength oI the cable may be expressed as: -
m m
a
=
11 1 2
----- (A-)
Where m
1
. is the coeIIicient oI the perIormance oI material in structure.
m

m res
2
1

1
= = .
Some authors take it as .), res ~ 2.
Flexural and shear behavior of bent cable: Under longitudinal tension applied to a
spirally wound rope, transverse Iorces are developed between the individual wires. This
reduces the ultimate capacity below the sum oI the capacities oI the individual wires Ior two
reasons: -
a. A combined stress system exists at the contact areas: plastic Ilow at the contact areas
causes necking oI the wires and results in reduction in their cross-sectional areas.
b. When rope is bent over a saddle, two additional eIIects are present: -
1
c. ending stresses are set up, and
d. Transverse radial Iorces are applied to the rope.
or single wire oI diameter d bent to a diameter D at its centerline, the bending stress is
calculated (see Iigure.).
- AIter substituting into the Iormula I MyI the value M I, we have:
D
d
R
v
f E = E =
---------- (A-), Where is the modulus oI elasticity oI the wire.
or a spirally wound rope, over a saddle oI a moderate length, it appears probable that shear
movement can occur between adjacent wires, and that the bending stress approaches the
value given in (eq.A- ), with d equal to the diameter oI the rope.
onsidering that each wire in the strand makes one complete turn around the core oI a strand,
each wire takes either the upper or lower position and the corresponding stresses change their
signs. This results in the equaliing oI the stresses in the wires in addition, because oI the
Iriction eIIect under transverse compression, there is a certain redistribution oI the stresses
among the separate wires in the cross-section oI the cable. ecause oI these Iactors the
bending oI the cables over a saddle is disregarded in the analysis and the cable is not
represented as a beam-column element, so the Ilexural rigidity and the shear rigidity are
ignored. owever the I and the u values shall be calculated and included in the case
studies oI this work to illustrate how small they are.
In spite oI a small value oI the shear parameter u oI the cable, there is a small notation here.
It must be considered that the shape Iactor n oI cable cannot be calculated as (
11 . 1 = n
) Ior
the corresponding solid circular section but the cable cross section consists oI a number oI
ropes and wires and since the actual shape Iactor deIinition is: -
n
A
A
w
=
2
r r
c
d n
d
= ---------- (A-)
Although, the n value makes no sense since the small eIIect oI shear in the contribution oI
the cable element stiIIness but it obviously diIIers Irom the (1.11) value oI (eq.A-), again
this equation has originality. More important is the eIIect oI the transverse compression oI
the cables, which results in bi-axial stress oI diIIerent sign in the wires, which leads to
reduced bearing capacity oI the material (21). The above argument means that there is no
bowing eIIect to be added to the axial displacement. The torsional moment however dose
aIIect the axial displacement but the technique used in the cable-tower interaction joints does
not permit the cable to twist since it transmits the twisting moments applied on the cables due
to joint movements oI rockers connected to the point oI interaction between cable and mast.