CVE 202: Strength of Materials

BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS

On every vertical section of a loaded horizontal beam a shear force and/or bending moment

will occur, the magnitudes of which can be determined by calculation or from shear and

moment diagrams. Therefore, at every vertical section an internal resisting shear and/or

moment must be developed for a free body of any segment of the beam to be in equilibrium.

These internal resistances are functions of the shape ad area of the cross section of the beam

and can be expressed as internal shear stress and bending stress. The stresses may be thought

of as representing the effect of the adjacent portion of the beam on the section under

consideration.

For the design and analysis of a beam, it is necessary to calculate the induced stresses that occur

at specific locations, so as to compare these values with some allowable stress for the material

used. Since the bending moment is generally the basis for beam design, discussion at first will

deal exclusively with the bending stresses developed.

1
 P P
A
B
Y
A

--------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
C D X------------------- X
RR
RL A
a b c Y
Section A-A

P
++
V
O -
P
Pa

M.O

Figure 1.1 Load, shear and Moment diagrams

2
 A B
-----
----------------------
-----
----------------------

-----
----------------------

-----
----------------------
Bꞌ
Aꞌ
J F
-------------------------------------
------------------------------------- Jꞌ
-------------------------------------
Fꞌ
-------------------------------------
-------------------------------------
C D ----------
S Cꞌ Dꞌ

(a) Unloaded beam (b) Loaded beam

Figure 1.2: Beam segment deformation

Consider the straight horizontal beam of rectangular cross-section shown in Figure 1.1,

which is subjected to equal vertical loads P. The beam is simply supported and will bend (or

deform) as shown by the dashed line. The beam is assumed weightless and the shear and

moment diagrams are shown. Assume the beam cross-section to be symmetrical with respect

to the X-X and Y-Y axis as shown. The loads are applied in the plane of the Y-Y axis. The

intersection of the two axes represents the centroid of the cross section. Therefore, axis X-X

may be termed centroidal axis. In addition, assume the beam to be homogeneous, of a material

that obeys Hooke’s law and with a modulus of elasticity of equal value in both tension and

compression. Consider the segment of the beam between planes AC and BD shown in Figure

1.1. The segment lies between the two equal loads P where no shear (and, therefore, no shear

stress) exists. This segment of the beam is subjected to uniform bending moment. The straight

unloaded condition and the bent loaded condition are in Figure 1.2. Initially in the unloaded

condition, line segments AB, JF and CD are of equal length.

3
 As the beam deforms (bends) under load, segment AB shortens to Aꞌ B ꞌ and segment

CD lengthens to C ꞌD ꞌ, as shown in Figure 1.2b. The top of the beam is in compression and the

button is in tension. Because of the uniform moment in the central portion of the beam,

segments Aꞌ B ꞌ, Jꞌ Fꞌ and Cꞌ D ꞌ will be circular arcs. Many experiments have confirmed that

the deformation takes place in such a manner that planes AC and BD before bending remain

plane after bending. In addition, note in Fig. 1.2b that planes Aꞌ Cꞌ and Bꞌ D ꞌ remain

perpendicular in the neutral plane at their points of intersection.

In Figure 1.2, the centroidal plane remains the same length in both the unloaded and

loaded conditions (JF = Jꞌ F ꞌ) indicating no shortening or elongating and therefore, no

compression or tension. The plane in the member on which there is no tension or compression

is called the neutral plane and the intersection of the neutral plane with a cross-sectional plane

is called the neutral axis. In a homogeneous member, the neutral plane passes through the

centroid of any cross section and defines a centroidal axis of the cross section.
Max shortening Max compression

Compression
N.A N.A
-------------------------------------------
O
O
------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------Tension
-------------------------------------

Maximum elongation Max tension

RA
Bottom Fibre

Strain distribution Stress distribution

Simply supported beam

Figure 1.3. Strain and stress Distribution

Assuming that the stress in any fibre does not exceed the proportional limit of the material, it

follows from Hooke’s law that the stress in any fibre at a given section is proportional to the

distance from the neutral axis in that fibre. Therefore, the stress distribution like the strain

4
distribution, is triangular in shape. The stress varies from zero at the neutral axis at the top outer

fibre and a maximum tensile stress at the bottom outer fibre.

Y
The Flexure Formula

----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
------------
------------
b

------------
Sc (compression) Infinitesimal
A
area “a”
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C compression
NEUTRAL
Neutral AXIS
View y y
-------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------
X X
C tension

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x
Y
Sb (Tension) Neutral axis
A
Stress distribution

(a) Beam side view (b) Section A-A

Figure 1. 4: Flexure formula derivation

Figure 1.4a shows the side view of a small part of a simply supported beam with a typical

stress distribution at some arbitrary location. Figure 1.4b shows the cross section of the beam.

The beam is symmetrical with respect to the X-X and Y-Y axes. The section shown is

rectangular but the following discussion is valid for a cross section. The width of the section is

denoted by b. The distance from the neutral axis to an infinitesimal area a is denoted by y. The

distance from the neutral axis to the outer fibre of the cross section is denoted.

The bending stress (either tension or compression) that develops at the outer fibre (a distance

C from the neutral axis) will be referred to, for now, as Sb(max). This maximum bending stress

at the outer fibre is the bending stress that is usually of greatest importance. Calculate by

proportion, the bending stress that develops at a distance y from the neutral axis. For now, refer

to this lesser stress as Sb. I can be expressed as

5
 𝑆 b(max)
)(𝑦)
Sb =
𝐶

Recalling that force is equal to the product of stress and area, we write the force developed on

infinitesimal area a as

𝑆 b(max)
)(𝑦) (a)
𝐶

The moment of the preceding force with respect to the X-X axis can be calculated as

𝑆 (𝑦2)
b(max)
) (a)
𝐶

Finally, the total moment, with respect to the X-X axis of all the internal forces acting on all

the infinitesimal area ca be written

𝑆 ) ∑ 𝑦2(𝑎)
b(max)

2
Note that the mathematical quantity ∑ 𝑦 (𝑎) is the moment of inertia of a cross section about its X-X axis

and is represented by the symbol I. Therefore, the expression for the total moment may be written as

6
𝑆b(max)
) I.
𝐶

Since this total internal moment holds in equilibrium the moment due to the external loads M

is sometimes called an internal resisting moment and can be expressed as

𝑆b(max) 𝐼
M= ) …………equ.1
𝐶

where: M = the bending moment due to external loads or the internal resisting moment (N.M)

Sb(max) = the bending stress developed at the outer fibre (Pa)

I = the moment of inertia about the neutral axis (M4)

C = the distance from the neutral axis to the outer fibre (m)

Rewriting this expression and solving for the stress gives

𝑀𝐶
sb(max) = ………. Equ 2
𝐼

Since stresses are proportional to distance from the neutral axis, we can also write the

expression for bending stress developed at any distance y from the neutral axis

𝑀𝑦
sb = ……………….. Equ. 3
𝐼

where sb, in this case will be less than the maximum bending stress that occurs at the outer

fibre. Note that substitution of C for y in equ. 3 results in equ. 2. Since for all practical purposes,

it is the maximum bending stress that is of importance, we omit the ‘(max)’ from Sb(max), with

7
the understanding that it is the maximum bending stress with which we are working (unless

otherwise noted).

We can also rewrite equ. 1 to find the maximum resisting moment, or allowable moment, for

a cross section. To use this expression, the allowable bending stress must be known.

𝑆b(all)𝐼
MR = …………Equ 4
𝐶

where MR = the allowable moment (N.M)

Sb(all) = the allowable bending stress (Pa) and I and C are as previously defined.

In these various forms of the flexure formula, note that the moment of inertia I and the distance

C are both functions of the size and shape of the beam cross section. They are both geometric

properties of the cross section and do not depend on the material or span length of the beam or

on the type of loading on the beam. The quantity I/C, therefore, is also a geometric property.

I/C is called the section modules and is generally represented by the symbol S. The section

modulus has units of m3 and can be calculated using the moment of inertia.

The flexure formula can thus be rewritten and used in the following forms depending

on whether the problem is one of analysis or design. For analysis problems

𝑀
sb = ……..Equ. 5
𝑆

OR M R = sb(all)S ………….Equ. 6.

For design problems, the most convenient and most used form is

8
 𝑀
required S =
𝑆b(all))

Computation of Bending Stresses

In the analysis of beams, one type of problem involves calculating maximum bending stress.

This stress will occur at the outer fibres at the section of the beam where the bending moment

is maximum. In computing the maximum bending stress, the location and the magnitude of the

maximum bending moment must be calculated first. The value of the section modules (or the

moment of inertia and the C distance) must then be calculated or obtained from standard tables

of properties of sections. By substituting these values in equ. 5 or Equ. 2, we obtain the

maximum bending stress.

Question

Briefly describe the methodology of obtaining maximum bending stress of beams.

Answer

1. Determine the location and the magnitude of the maximum bending moment

2. Determine the value of the section modules or the moment of inertia and the C distance.

3. Substitute these values in the appropriate bending stress equation

Example 1. Nominal 127 mm

X – strong steel pipe

6kN

d 3.5m d
3.5 m

Figure Q1: Beam.

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An extra strong steel pipe weighing 30.9Kg/m and having a nominal diameter of 127mm

is to be used as a simple beam with a span length of 7m, as shown in Figure Q1. The pipe

supports a concentrated load at mid span of 6kN. Calculate the maximum bending stress

due to

(a) The weight of the pipe alone

(b) The concentrated load alone.

Take the section modulus as 121.5 x 103mm3.

Solution

Calculated weight of pipe w = mg = 30.9kg/m (9.81m/sec2)

= 303N/m.

For a simply supported beam, the moment due to the beam’s own weight is obtained

303𝑁/𝑚
𝑤𝑙2 ( )(7𝑚)2
𝑚
from M =
8
= 8
= 1856N-m

𝑃𝐿 (6𝑘𝑁)(7𝑚)
The maximum moment due to the applied concentrated load is M = 4 = =
4

10.5kN-m.
𝑀
The flexure formula Sb = is used to compute the bending stress as follows:
𝑆

(a) Due to the beam’s own weight

𝑀 1856 𝑥 103 𝑁.𝑚𝑚
Sb = = = 15.28N/mm2 = 15.28MPa.
𝑆 121.5 𝑥 103 𝑚𝑚3

(b) Due to the applied concentrated load.

𝑀
𝑆b = = 10.5 𝑥 106 𝑁.𝑚𝑚
121.5 𝑥 103 𝑚𝑚3
= 86.4MPa.
𝑆

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 We could also determine the total stress. Since the calculated stresses occur at the

same point in the beam, they are additive.

Total sb = 15.28 + 86.4 = 101.7MPa.

Homework 1

A timber beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of 2600N-m. The

cross section of the beam is 100mm by 150mm. The 150mm side is oriented

vertically.

(a) Calculate the maximum bending stress

(b) Calculate the bending stress 25mm below the top surface.

Answer: (a) 6.93 MPa

(b) 4.62 MPa.

Solution
100mm
-----------
-----------------------------

-----------
C=75mm
150mm
--------------------------------------
---------

Beam section

M = 2600N-m = 2.6 x 106N-mm

𝑏ℎ3 100 𝑥 1503

C = 75mm, I = = 2.812 x 107mm4
12 12

Sb=?

𝑀𝐶 2.6 𝑥 106 𝑁.𝑚𝑚 𝑥 75𝑚𝑚

S= = = 6.93N-mm2 = 6.93MPa
𝐼 2.8125 𝑥 107 𝑚𝑚4

c = 75mm – 25mm = 50mm

𝑀𝑐 2.6 𝑥 106 𝑁.𝑚𝑚 𝑋 50𝑚𝑚

S= = = 4.62MPa
𝐼 2.8125 𝑥 107 𝑚𝑚4

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 Shear Stresses in Beams

Internal resulting shear stresses are developed on every section of a loaded

horizontal beam where the vertical shear force has a numerical value other than

zero. The summation of these shear stresses provides the internal resisting shear

force that must be equal to the external vertical shear force for any free body of a

segment of the beam to be in equilibrium.

The distribution of the shear stress developed over the beam cross section is very

different from the bending stress distribution. The shear stress at those points on the

cross section where the bending stress is maximum. The location of the point of

maximum shear stress is almost always at the neutral axis. It should be noted that

this maximum value can occur on horizontal planes other than the neutral axis for

odd-shaped, in practical and uneconomical sections that are seldom encountered.

X
The General Shear Formula
D E

P CE
A CD
A D E B Load
A Diagram F
R Yi
RB
→ ∆ ← V
(b) free Body Area ‘a’
Ssbx Neutral axis
O O Shear (V) b
Diagram
C yx Plane F
Neutral axis
ME Moment (M)
MD Diagram
O O Y1
(a) (c) Section A-A

Figure 2.1: Derivation of horizontal shear formula

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For the derivation of the general shear formula, consider the load, shear and moment

diagrams in Figure 2.1a for a loaded simply supported beam. The free body diagram

for an element of this beam bounded by planes D, E, and F is shown in Figure 2.1b.

Planes D and E are initially an infinitesimal distance x apart, and plane F lines a

distance yi above the neutral axis. The object of the derivation is to establish an

expression for the horizontal shear stress Ss on the bottom surface of the element.

Let CD and CE represent the resultants of the compressive bending moment at E

exceeds that at D, CE is greater than CD. Since the element must be in equilibrium

and the sum of the horizontal forces, must equal zero, we must conclude that a

horizontal shear force is present on plane F. The horizontal shear force is the product

of a horizontal shear stress and the area of the bottom surface of the element may

be expressed as ssbx.

With reference to Figure 2.1c, consider an infinitesimal rectangular area that lies

parallel to the neutral axis on plane E of the element. The centroid of area a lies a

distance y from the neutral axis. The compressive bending stress on this area using
𝑦
the flexure formula is Sb = ME 𝐼

𝑦
and the force acting on area a is Sb(a) = ME 𝐼 (a)

The total force acting on the total area above plane F is then equal to C E.

∑ 𝑀𝐸 ∑ 𝑀𝐸
where CE = which can be rewritten as CE = ∑ 𝑦𝑎
𝐼 𝐼

Note in the preceding that ME and I are fixed quantities.

The quantity ∑ 𝑦𝑎 represents the moment of the total area of the element (above

plane F) on plane E about the neutral axis. This moment is generally designated by

the symbol Q and is termed the statical moment of the area. Therefore,

13
 𝑀𝐸𝑄
CE =
𝐼

In the same way, the resultant force CD acting on plane D of the element is found to be

𝑀𝐷𝑄
CD =
𝐼

𝑀 𝑄 𝑀 𝑄 𝑄
The difference between the two forces then is, CE – CD = 𝐸 - 𝐷 = (ME – MD)
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

Since the element is in equilibrium this value must equal the horizontal shear force on the

bottom surface of the element (plane F).

This force was noted earlier as ssbx Therefore

𝑄
ssbx = (ME – MD) 𝐼

𝑄
ss = (ME – MD) 𝐼𝑏
𝑥

As noted earlier the change in bending moment between any two points of a beam is equal the

area of the shear diagram between the same two points. With reference to Figure 2.1a, the area

of the shear diagram between planes D and E is equal to Vx. Substituting this for ME – MD in

the previous results in an expression commonly called the general shear formula

𝑉𝑥𝑄 𝑉𝑄
ss = =
𝐼𝑏𝑥 𝐼𝑏

Where ss = the horizontal (and vertical) computed shear stress on any given plane of a given

cross-section of the beam (Pa)

V = the computed vertical shear force at the given cross section (N)

Q = the statical moment about the neutral axis of the cross-sectional area between the horizontal

plane where the shear stress is to be calculated and the top (or bottom) of the beam (M3).

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 I = the moment of inertia of the entire cross section with respect to the neutral axis (the same I

used in flexure formula calculations (M4)

b = the width of the cross section in the horizontal plane where the shear stress is being

calculated (m).

The statical moment of area Q is the product of an area and a distance: Q = A𝑦̅

Where A is the area above or below the plane where the shear stress is to be found and 𝑦̅ is the

distance from the centroid of that area to the neutral axis of the cross section.
Y
-----------------------------------------------------------------

X --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
X

M ---------------------------------------------- M 𝒀2
𝒀1

a1

a2

Figure 2.2: Determination of Q

For a built-up cross section such as shown in Figure 2.2 that is composed of elements for which

areas can be determined and centroid can be located Q is calculated from Q = ∑ 𝑎𝑦̅ where ‘a’

represents the area of an element of the cross section and 𝑦̅ is the distance from the centroid of

that element to the neutral axis. In Figure 2.2, assume the shear stress is to be calculated on

15
 plane m-m located below the centroidal x-x axis. The area below plane M-M is divided into

two rectangular areas a1 and a2. The centroids of the area are located 𝑦̅1 and 𝑦̅2 from the neutral

axis and Q is calculated from Q = a1𝑦̅1 + a2𝑦̅2

The general shear formula can be rewritten in a form useful for the calculation of an allowable

shear force (or shear capacity) for a bending member. Denoting the shear capacity as VR,
𝑉𝑥𝑄 𝑉𝑄
equation ss = =
𝐼𝑏𝑥 𝐼𝑏

𝑆𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑏
yields VR = ( )
𝑄

where VR = the allowable shear force (or shear capacity) at a given cross section

Ss(all) = the allowable shear stress.

Example 2

b = 200
-------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------
Any d
arbitrary L
plane -----------------------------------------------
L
-----------------------------------------------
𝑌̅
g
h = 300
Neutral axis
ℎ
2

Figure 2.3. Beam Cross Section

The rough, solid rectangular timber beam in Figure 2.3, is 200mm x 300mm deep. The beam

is subjected to a vertical load, including a maximum shear V of 7000N.

(a) Calculate the maximum shear stress at the neutral axis

(b) Calculate the shear stress at 50mm above and below the neural axis

16
 (c) Calculate the shear stress at 100mm above and below the neutral axis

(d) Plot these stresses showing the distribution of the horizontal shear stress.

Solution
𝑉𝑄
Use the general shear formula ss = 𝐼𝑏
V = 7000N
b = 200mm
I = bh3/12 = 200(300)3/12 = 4.5 x 108 mm4
(a) Area A above the neutral axis is A = bd = 200 x 150 = 30000 mm2.
ℎ 𝑑
The distance from the centroid of area A to the neutral axis is 𝑦̅ = - = 150 – 75
2 2
= 75mm
Therefore, Q = A𝑦̅ = 30,000(75) = 2.25 x 106 mm3 and at the neutral axis
𝑉𝑄 7000 𝑥 2.25 𝑥 106
ss = 𝐼𝑏 = = 0.175MPa = 0.175MPa
4.5 𝑥 108 𝑥 200
(b) plane lies 50mm above the neural axis (g = 50mm). The area above the plane is

A = bd = 200 (100) = 2 x 104mm2.

The distance from the centroid of the area to the neutral axis is

ℎ 𝑑 300 100
𝑦̅ = 2 - = - = 100 mm
2 2 2

Calculate Q,

Q = A𝑦̅ = (2 x 104 x 100) mm3 = 2 x 106mm3

𝑉𝑄 7000 𝑥 (2 𝑥 106)
Then ss = 𝐼𝑏
= 4.5 𝑥 108 𝑥 200
= 0.156MPa.
b = 200

-------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------

ℎ
= 150
h = 300 2
-------------------------------
d
h = 300
𝑦̅
NA
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

L L
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------- Any arbitrary plane

Figure 2.4: Beam Cross section.

17
Placing the plane on which to calculate the horizontal shear stress at 50mm below

the neutral axis, g = 50mm.

A = bd = 200(200) = 4 x 104mm2.

The distance from the centroid of the area to the neutral axis is calculated from

𝑑 200
𝑦̅ = –g= – 50 = 50mm.
2 2

Therefore Q = Ay = 4 x 104 x 50 = 20 x 105mm3.

𝑉𝑄 7000 𝑥 20 𝑥 105
and ss = = = 0.156MPa
𝐼𝑏 4.5 𝑥 108 𝑥 200

As can be observed, the horizontal shear stress is the same whether 50mm above or

50mm below the neutral axis, which is due to symmetry with respect to the neutral

axis. This situation will exist for all corresponding plane above or below the neutral

axis where symmetry with respect to the neutral axis exists.

Placing the plane on which to calculate the horizontal shear stress at 100mm above

(or below) the neutral axis, calculate as follows (using plane L) above the neutral

axis, with g = 100 mm.

ℎ
d = 2 - g = 150 – 100 = 50mm

A = bd = 200(50) = 10,000 mm2

ℎ 𝑑
𝑦̅ = 2 - 2 = 150 – 25 = 125mm

Q = A𝑦̅ = 1 x 104 x 125mm

= 1.25 x 106 mm3

𝑉𝑄 7000 𝑥 1.25 𝑥 106

ss = = = 0.097 MPa
𝐼𝑏 4.5 𝑥 108 𝑥 200

Note that the outer fibres, Q would be zero. Therefore, the stress would also be zero.

18
 O
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.097
----------------------------------------------------------
0.156
---------------------------
--------------
NA NA
------------------------------------------------------------------------ 0.175
-----------------------------------------
--------------------------- h
0.156
------------------------------
-------------------------------
------------------
-------------------------
0.097
------------------------------
-------------------------
------------
---------------------------------------------
O ----------------------
----------------------
Side view Shear stress distribution

Figure 2.5: Shear stress distribution

Home Work 2

A rectangular beam 100mm in width and 250mm in depth is oriented with the large

dimension placed vertically. Using the general shear formula, calculate the

maximum shear stress when the beam is subjected to a maximum shear force of

140kN.

Answer – 8.4MPa.

Solution

100mm = b

d = 125
250mm = h NA
-----------------------------------------

𝑉𝑄
sb = 𝐼𝑏

𝑏ℎ3 100 𝑥 2503

I= 12
= 12
= 1.3 x 108mm3

19
b = 100mm.

A = bd = 100 x 125 = 1.2 x 104 mm2

ℎ 𝑑 250 125
y=2 -2 = - = 125 – 62.5 = 62.5mm
2 2

Q = A𝑦̅ = 1.25 x 104 x 62.5 = 7.8125 x 105mm3

140 𝑥 103 𝑥 7.8125 𝑥 105

sb = = 8.41MPa
1.3 𝑥 108 𝑥 100

Ans = 8.41MPa

20