The study of the human body I. How has man succeeded to develop a vast knowledge of the human body?

Man has succeeded to develop a vast knowledge of his body, through years of observation, experimentation and application of known facts. II. 1. hat sciences deal with the study of the human body? Many sciences study the normal human body. hat does biology deal with? !iology deals with the study of the living matter both "vegetal# plant and animal.

hy is biology divided into two areas? %ince biology is such a broad field it became necessary to divide it into two ma&or areas' (oology and botany. hat is (oology? *oology is the biology of animals as distinguished from botany which is concerned with plants, whether in a living or in a fossil state. +. ,re there any speciali(ed subdivisions within this area? -here are many speciali(ed subdivisions within this area. hat do we call hygiene? e call hygiene the science of preserving health. Its practical aim is to render /growth more perfect, decay less rapid, life more vigorous, and death more remote0. It is a very wide sub&ect embracing everything which affects physical and mental well1being of man. It re2uires ac2uaintance with many various sciences such as anatomy, physiology, physics, chemistry, meteorology, epidemiology etc. Hygiene is concerned with the rules and practices essential for healthful living. 3. III. hat is essential to know in order to understand the basis for such rules and practices? It is essential to know the structure of the body. .. ).

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1. hat science gives us information on the structure of the body? -he science of anatomy gives us information on the exact form, position, si(e and relationship of the various structures of the human body in health. $. hat would the study be called, if we were concerned only with body structures that can be seen with the unaided eye? If we were concerned only with body structures that can be seen with the unaided eye, the study would be called gross anatomy "macroscopically#. ). hat is called histology or microanatomy?

-he science dealing with the minute or microscopic structure of tissues and organs that make up the body is called histology or microanatomy. +. Have other speciali(ed areas of study in anatomy developed? 4es, many other speciali(ed areas of study in anatomy have developed such as' a# systemic anatomy, which stresses the various systems of the body5 b# regional anatomy dealing with specific regions of the body, such as the chest, the abdomen etc.5 c# developmental anatomy "embryology# being primarily concerned with the growth and development of the body and its various structures5 d# comparative anatomy which compares the structures of animals with each other and with man5 e# pathological anatomy having emphasis on diseased structures and their effects on the body. Is there any difference between medical anatomy and artistic anatomy? 4es, there is. Medical anatomy dissects, separates, and divides the human system into the finer microscopic details of forms to the very cell structure itself. ,rtistic anatomy visuali(es, combines and fuses the whole from the parts. .. Is it enough to know the structures of the body? 6h no, it isn7t. 3. hat else must we know? e must know how the various parts of the body function and this leads to the branch of science called physiology. 8. 9o you remember the three speciali(ed areas into which physiology has been subdivided? 4es, I do. -he study of physiology has been subdivided into' a# general physiology which is concerned with how the human body normally functions and how various body activities work together to maintain the healthy body5 b# cellular physiology dealing with activities of individual cells5 c# abnormal physiology "pathophysiology# is the study of disordered function or of function in diseased tissues. :. ,re there any other fields or branches of biological science? 4es, there are many various branches that depend upon the study of anatomy and physiology as a basis. ;. ill you mention any of these various branches? 4es, I will. <enetics stresses inheritance and factors involved in heredity. =mbryology is concerned with growth of the individual form the one1cell stage to the adult. Molecular biology studies the relationship of the laws of physics and chemistry to the living phenomena.

>athology deals with the cause of disease and deviation from normal function and structure. >sychology refers to the study of the mind and behaviour. >harmacology is the study of the response of living organisms to chemical stimuli. 1?. ,re these various fields of study isolated? 6h no, they aren7t. -hey are more and more interrelated and interdependent. 11. hat hori(ons have been widened in the last two decades? In the last two decades, electron microscopy, determination of chromosome abnormalities, chromatography, analysis of nucleic acids, and special immunologic identification techni2ues have widened the observational hori(on of oncology. @urthermore, cross fertili(ation between several basic sciences such as en(ymology, virology, cytology and genetics, has laid the basis for the new discipline of molecular biology and for the intriguing concept of malignancy as a molecular disease.

Basic phenomena of living organisms The protoplasm: the stuff of life hat are all organisms made up of? ,ll organisms, whether plants or animals, are made up of a specific material called protoplasm. -his is the /stuff of life0. -he word itself from the <reek protos and plasma means the first thing formed. -his protoplasm is made of units that have a distinct form. -hese units are called cells. hat is known abut this inconceivably complex, self1renewing substance called protoplasm? It is an organi(ation of a hundred million chemical compounds, every compound a molecule with a specific task all in action. -he parts are atoms, ions, electrons. ,nd they do not stand still. Movement is their life, and movement in the world of atoms is unimaginably swift. If an atom leaps from one compound to another A which we call a chemical reaction A the leap is performed in less than a millionth of a second. -herefore, the modern biophysicist does not count in seconds but in nanoseconds or thousandths of the millionth part of a second. ,ll events in the world of atoms unroll with atomic speed and protoplasm is an organi(ation of atoms unimaginable in number and in velocity of action. ). Ban we see protoplasm with the naked eye? 6h, no. e must have an instrument that magnifies a hundred million times in order to be able to see all its fine details. hat was one of the most spectacular inventions of the beginning of the $?th century? In 1;$+, Couis de !roglie discovered that electron particles behaved like waves, as does light. It turned out that their wave length is one hundred thousand times shorter than the wave +. $. 1.

length of ordinary light. ,s a result, electron microscopes were invented, a stream of electrons taking the role of light beams and magnetic fields serving as lenses. ith the electron microscope magnifications up to two hundred thousand times are common and, with photographic enlargements we now view specimens magnified over one million times. -his has literally opened up a new field of investigations inside the cell. hat is a human cell like? , human cell, greatly magnified as seen in an electron microscope, has a nucleus in the centre filled with chromatin granules and a dark mass the nucleolus. 9uring cell division the chromatin and the nucleolus condense into the chromosomes. %urrounding the nucleus is the dark wreath of the <olgi body. ,t the top of the cell is the centrosome with strands radiating from it. -o the left, seen as black and white specks, are the microsomes and &ust below them the considerably larger mitochondria. ,t the bottom are the lysosomes. hat are the main substances protoplasm is made of? >rotoplasm is composed of protein, carbohydrates, fats, inorganic salts, possibly hormones, vitamins, and water closely associated. hat are the properties of the protoplasm distinguishing living from non1living matter? -he following physiological properties of protoplasm may be used to distinguish living from non1living matter' 1# auto regulation "the ability to control all life process#5 $# contractility5 )# irritability "the ability to respond to stimuli#5 +# conductivity5 .# metabolism "the sum of all the chemical processes going on within a cell tissue, or organ#5 3# growth occurs by intussusception, on building up of new material by combinations of smaller molecules, such as the formations of proteins from aminoacids. <rowth in living matter is described as an increase in numbers accompanied by an increase in mass. :. ,re there many other properties by means of which we attempt to &udge whether matter is living or non1living? 4es, there are many such properties' a# adaptation "the ability of the cell to modify its behaviour in accordance with a change in environment#5 b# reproduction5 c# spontaneity5 d# rhythmicity "the repeated occurrence of events in a regular se2uence, for example heart beats and breathing# and e# memory "the ability to profit from previous experience by ad&ustment of their behaviour#. -hey help us to &udge whether matter is living or non1living. 8. 3. ..

;. Is it easy to say whether life does or does not exist? In some cases, it is very difficult to say whether life does or does not exist. -he viruses have not yet been definitely classified as living or non1living5 they are ultramicroscopic infective agents that cause various diseases. hat is known about viruses? , virus is little more than genetic material wrapped in a sac of protein and its life cycle is extremely simple. @irst, a virus approaches its victim, which may be a bacterial cell, or any other type of cell, attaches itself to it, and in&ects its hereditary material into it. Inside the cell the in&ected /chromosomes0 proliferate, exploiting the protoplasm of their host. @rom the exhausted cell hundreds of new parasitic viruses are disseminated. -his power of reproduction seems, however, to be the only living characteristic of the virus. 1?.

The organization of the body

1. hat is the bone composed of? !one is composed of a gluey substance collagen, which gives it flexibility and of calcium and phosphate, which give it rigidity. 6ne of the greatest threats to the aged is the ever1 increasing fragility of the bones5 this is due collagen substance. 6ften the aging person slips in the bathtub and fractures his hip. Has anyone ever heard of a child breaking his hip in a bathtub? hat would the best architect think if we proposed to him to build a house that would expand every day? He would think it is an absurdly impossible proposal. !ut this is a miracle that takes place in every human body. -he bone does the &ob with an army of osteoclasts or bonebreakers and osteoblasts or bone1builders and imperceptibly, as the child grows, the skeleton becomes larger without ever interrupting the functions of the body. -hus the problem of a skeleton that must grow for fifteen or more years without for a moment interrupting the activities of life is one that nature has solved in masterly fashion. ). Is the structure of bone testimony to Dature7s architectural genius? -he structure of bone is testimony to Dature7s architectural genius. !ones are continually undergoing reconstruction and the stresses to which they are sub&ected cause the formation first of fibres and then of girders along the line of stress. <radually the fine filigree work of the inner bone builds up. In %aint >eter7s cathedral and the temple -a& Mahal we admire the architecture of man5 in living bones we see the architecture of nature. +. hat is the use of the skeletal system? -he skeletal system has four ma&or functions' 1# it lands support5 $# it serves as a point of attachment of muscles5 $.

)# it protects the vital organs from external forces, the hard bony layers cover the brain, enclose the spinal cord etc.5 +# it forms the blood cells. In the adult all the erythrocytes and most types of leukocytes, plus the thrombocytes or platelets, are produced in the red marrow of bones. -he skeleton also serves as an efficient storage place for calcium, iron and certain metals which would be extremely toxic if free in the body. .. ith what is the muscular system concerned? -he muscular system is concerned with movements of the skeletal framework of the body. 3. hat does the nervous system coordinate? It coordinates the activity of nearly all the other organs and tissues. 8. hat is characteristic of the circulatory system? -he circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients and products resulting from metabolism, from the cells to the exhausted organs. :. hat does the respiratory system remove? It brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide. ;. hat system breaks down food? -he digestive system breaks down food that must precede its absorption into the blood stream for transport to cells of the body and subse2uent use. 1?. !y what system does the body get rid of waste products of metabolism? -he excretory system is concerned with ridding the body of waste products of metabolism. 11. hat is considered to be the second coordinating system of the body? -he endocrine system, whose glandular organs maintain the delicately balanced function of cells and tissues, is the second coordinating system of the body. 1$. hat is the difference between one coordinating system and the other? -he difference is that the effects of endocrine system appear rather slowly and are of longer duration than in the case of changes caused by the nervous system. 1). ith what is the reproductive system concerned? It is concerned with the production of ova and sperm. It also provides nutritional conditions during the prenatal life of the newly formed individual. 1+. hat are the viscera? -he viscera are the interior organs of the body. Eiscera is the plural of viscus, a name given to any large interior organ. -his term can be applied to the organs in any of the body cavities, although it is commonly used especially in reference to the organs of the abdomen. 1.. here the viscera are mainly found?

-he viscera are found in the two chief cavities marking up the interior of the body' the ventral, which is divided by the muscular diaphragm into the thoracic and the abdominopelvic cavities, and the dorsal in the cranium and the vertebral canal. 13. hat does the thoracic "chest# cavity contain? It contains the lungs, trachea, heart, great blood vessels, nerves and esophagus. 18. Into how many parts is the abdomen pelvic cavity subdivided? It is further subdivided into two parts' a# the upper area containing the stomach, liver, gall bladder, small and large intestines, spleen, pancreas and the kidneys5 b# the lower part which contains the urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, rectum and reproductive organs. 1:. hat are located in the dorsal body cavity? -he brain and spinal cord are located there. -he brain is located in the cranial portion of the cavity formed by the skull bones. -he vertebrae enclose the vertebral portion of the dorsal cavity which contains the spinal cord. Nutrition and elimination-the digestive system 1. hat task does the digestive system perform? -he digestive system performs the essential task of breaking up food into its chemical building units5 otherwise food cannot be absorbed through the intestinal wall and pass into the blood and lymph of the body. $. hat happens to the bolus, this nutritive cartridge, formed in the mouth? ,t first the bolus must pass a dangerous crossing A the opening of the trachea, or windpipe. It passes the movable cartilage known as the epiglottis. -hereafter is thrust along by peristaltic waves until it reaches the stomach. ). hat are the functions of the stomach? -he stomach works mechanically through its muscles fibres and chemically through its glands. Its basic function is the further moistening of the food, churning and grinding it and partly dissolving it in the gastric &uice, which contains hydrochloric acid and the protein1 digesting en(yme pepsin. a# How long does food stay in the stomach? -he length of time that food stays in the stomach depends on the digestive powers of the stomach conditioned by acidity and en(ymes. b# 6n what does the protection against the stomach digesting itself depend? -he stomach depends against being digested by its own &uices on the layer of mucus coating the stomach surface and also its blood supply. hen these fail, ulcer forms.

+. here does food enter after passing out of the stomach exit? -he food enters the intestine tract made up of the small and the large intestines thirty1feet long. -he small intestine is much the longer section about twenty five feet in length. It is confined in a tight space and although the loops intertwine they manage not to become enlarged. @ood moves slowly from loop to loop to allow to be mixed and chemically decomposed. It may take hours before the food undergoes the process of absorption through the four million villi. -hese villi are in constant motion like the fingers of sea anemones, dipping into the digestive broth, sucking up molecules from it, and making them part of the body. 4esterday meat, eggs or milk5 today human blood and tissueF .. hat is the most important segment of the small intestine and why? -he duodenum merits special attention because there the main glands of the digestive system, the liver and pancreas, empty their secretions for they attack on the three types of nutritional substances' starches, proteins and fats. 3. hat is the most effective of the digestive glands? -he pancreas is the most effective of the digestive glands. Its various en(ymes break down the starches into glycogen, the glycogen into maltose and the maltose into glucose. It breaks the proteins first into polypeptides, then peptides and even into amino acids A a tremendous taskF A although the en(ymes coming from intestinal glands help the final formation into amino acids. -he pancreatic lipase splits the complex molecules of fats into glycerine and fatty acids. -he pancreas tissue is interspersed with islets of a hormonal tissue, which produce insulin and glucagon. 8. hy is liver considered one of the busiest organs of the body? Civer has several, entirely different functions. a# It serves a filter from the intestines upward toward the heart in the systemic circulation. -he portal vein divides into millions of blood vessels among the liver cells inside the liver. -he liver cells swarm around the blood from the intestines and filter it. -his blood contains the amino acids and the carbohydrates and the multitude of other ingredients of all the foods we take in. b# -he liver cells test all the /imports0 and decide whether to admit or re&ect them. c# -he liver becomes the storehouse of digested food. d# It also detoxifies them. e# -he liver is an enormous chemical factory for the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fat. f# -he liver produces the bile, the digestive &uice. -he bile drips through the biliary channels into a sac, the gall bladder. -he bile remains in the gall bladder for hours and in time may form concretions or /stones0. Most persons do not even know that they carry these dubious gems. :. hat is the last part of the digestive tract? -he large intestine is the last part of the digestive tract. -he final section is the rectum. In contrast to the labyrinthine ma(e of the small intestines, the large intestine has a relatively fixed shape. It begins as the caecum and ends as the rectum. It is the waste1receiver of the body. -here, bacteria, microscopic fungi, yeast cells and algae thrive undisturbed by acids and en(ymes. In the

colon an entirely new process begins' the fermentation of the /indigestible0 residue of food by several hundred million micro organisms. ;. Is there a purpose for these micro organisms in the colon? Metchnikoff, the discoverer of the wandering cells of the blood, believed that they were parasites of decay producing toxins or poisons that hasten the aging of the body and that mankind would be infinitely better off if we could get rid of them. 6ther biologists proved that such organisms produce some beneficial vitamins, and protect against invasion by dangerous microbes. 1?. If we had to choose one of the most remarkable creations in the human body what would it be? It would be the extraordinary pair of organs, the kidneys, which filters waste products out of 1:? 2uarts of blood fluid every twenty1four hours. =ach human kidney is composed of a million filters called glomeruli attached to a million long, twisted tubules. ,s the filtrate flows through the tubules, the cells of the tubular wall reabsorb over ninety1nine per cent of the water and send it back into the blood stream. ater is the vehicle of almost all metabolic processes. ,bout a 2uarter of an hour after we drink a li2uid, some of it appears as urine in the bladder. -o get there it puts a burden not only on the kidneys but on the heart and the liver as well. -he heart must pump every gulp of fluid, the liver must do work of screening, and the kidneys must do the &ob of filtering the urine. 11. Ban a trained investigator see many significant things in the urine the kidney produces? 4es, he can see any kidney disorder. If he examines the urine microscopically, dead cells normally shed from the walls of the bladder or of the urethra are seen. If the filter sheds whole rows of cells, if protein is lost in the urine or if phagocytes are visible, the investigator knows that the kidney is ill and the patient may be suffering from nephritis, an inflammation of the kidney. -he trained investigator can even tell whether the inflammation is recent or chronic. 1$. hat do the kidneys filter? -hey filter about a hundred compounds the end products of metabolism. -he most conspicuous are the nitrates, the ashes of the amino group DH ), which characteri(e the amino acids, the chain links of the proteins. -he chemical group DH ) appears in the urine as urea. -he human body produces approximately thirty grams of urea daily. The vitamins Eitamins are organic substances necessary for the maintenance of normal metabolic function. -he vitamins resemble the hormones in many respects and have been aptly termed /exogenous hormones0. 6nly small amounts of the vitamins are re2uired for normal health. In the body they act as components of the important en(yme systems which cataly(e the reactions by which protein, fat and carbohydrate are metaboli(ed. -he vitamins are widely distributed in nature and ample 2uantities are furnished by a varied diet. %ome of the vitamins "e.g. vitamin G# may be formed by bacteria in the gut, while vitamin 9 is synthesi(ed by exposure of the skin to sunlight. ith these exceptions, the vitamins must be ingested in the food and restricted diets or

disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, interfering with absorption, and lead to vitamin deficiency. hen pronounced, such deficiencies give rise to easily recogni(able clinical syndromes "beriberi, pellagra, rickets, scurvy# which have been long recogni(ed. Milder forms of avitaminosis are much more common and also give rise to disability and ill1health. Eitamin deficiencies in the young result in retardation of growth and development. -he chief indications for the use of vitamin preparations are as prophylactics when an inade2uate intake may be anticipated "e.g. vitamin 9 in infants# or when definite avitaminosis exists. 9uring the early years of their investigation, vitamins were divided into fat1soluble and water1soluble constituents. ,s each new member was discovered it was designated by some letter of the alphabet, the components of the fat-soluble group including vitamins ,, 9, = and G, while the water-soluble group contained the heterogenous vitamin ! group and vitamin B. ,s to be expected, the fat1soluble vitamins are stored in the body and hence a deficiency of these results only after relatively long deprivation from an ade2uate supply or when factors in the gastro1intestinal tract "absence of bile, steatorrhea etc# prevent their absorption. -he water1 soluble vitamins, on the other hand, cannot be stored in the body large amounts and hence relatively short periods of deprivation lead to a deficiency. 9espite their great activity in minute amounts, the vitamins are relatively non1toxic when administered in moderate amounts, any excess ingested being excreted in the urine unchanged or destroyed in the body. Penicillin -he discovery of penicillin and its introduction into medicine has been called /the greatest contribution to medical science of the twentieth century0. Its discovery made available a most potent chemotherapeutic agent, and opened an entirely new field of therapy A the use of substances derived from moulds, bacteria, and lower organisms as remedial agents. Historical. In 1;$:, ,lexander @leming, while examining culture plates of staphylococci, noted that the organisms surrounding a growth of mould, which had accidentally contamined the culture plate, had undergone lyses. He proceed to culture the mould and demonstrated that the nutrient broth in which it had grown ac2uired the bactericidal properties which had been noticed in the original culture plate. -he mould responsible for the production of this hitherto unknown bactericidal substance was subse2uently demonstrated to be a strain of Penicillium notatum and the term penicillin was therefore used by @leming to designate the active bactericidal substance elaborated by this fungus. @leming also showed that the bactericidal activity of penicillin was specific for certain organisms and that on in&ection in animals, preparations of broth containing penicillin were relatively non1toxic. -he discovery of @leming received little attention during the following decade. However, during this period the remarkable success attained with the sulphonamide derivatives as chemotherapeutic agents and the recognition of their deficiencies stimulated interest in penicillin. Bhain, @lorey and their associates at 6xford undertook the purification of extracts containing penicillin and demonstrated their remarkable antibacterial properties. Dosage and mode of administration. -he dosage and route of administration of penicillin is determined by the nature and severity of the disorder being treated. In more serious ailments, intramuscular administration of 1?,??? to 1,???,??? units of the crystalline preparation dissolved

in 1 to 1? ml of water, saline or glucose is indicated. -hese in&ections are repeated every $ to 3 hours depending on the desired blood level. -he intramuscular route is preferred since intravenous in&ections may lead to thrombosis of the veins and subcutaneous in&ections may be painful and no so readily absorbed. hen very large doses are indicated, a continuous intravenous drip affords a convenient route of administration. hen given intravenously, penicillin is administered in normal saline or . per cent glucose containing $. to .? units of the drug per ml. >enicillin may also be in&ected directly into body cavities, for example into the pleural cavity or into an infected &oint or abscess cavity. -hese should be aspirated prior to the in&ection of the penicillin. -he in&ection of 1$?,??? units into the pleural cavity after the aspiration of an effusion will ensure a bacteriostatic concentration of the drug in the blood stream for $+ hours. @or local treatment of certain chronic infections of the respiratory tract "sinusitis, bronchiectasis etc#, penicillin may be inhaled in the form of a powder or spray. @or this purpose powdered penicillin or an aerosol of penicillin, made by nebuli(ing a solution containing $.,??? to .?,??? units of the drug is utili(ed. Earious forms of apparatus including tents, breathing boxes and nebuli(ers are available for this purpose. Drug tolerance -he failure of the individual to react to the ordinary dose of a drug is known as tolerance. Bertain species of animals tolerate 2uantities of drugs which would be fatal to others of the same si(e. In fact, so fre2uently is this the case that it is impossible to determine the fatal dose of any drug on an animal from experiments performed upon others of a different species, even though it be nearly related. 6ne of the most remarkable examples of this form of tolerance is met with the hedgehog, which resist large doses of many very active poisons. ,nother well1known example is the tolerance of the rabbit to large 2uantities of atropine. , form of tolerance which is a matter of everyday observations is that induced by the prolonged use of a drug, which has been called acquired tolerance, or mithridatism, from the tradition that Mithridates protected himself in this way from the danger of poisoning. -he most familiar example of this form of tolerance is that ac2uired for tobacco "nicotine#5 the first cigar often induces violent poisoning, but if a habit be formed, considerable amounts of nicotine may be absorbed without apparent harm, because the tissues become accustomed to the presence of small 2uantities of nicotine, and thus fail to react to it. this tolerance is entirely different from the immunity induced by toxins. ,n important form of tolerance is the resistance developed by pathogenic organisms for certain drugs. -hus by sub&ecting susceptible organisms to inade2uate doses of a drug it is possible to render them /drug fast0, that is, resistant to the drug even when used in what would originally have been an ade2uate dosage. -his form of tolerance can be ac2uired by organisms cultivated in vitro as well as in vivo. Eery often while some tissues ac2uire tolerance for a poison, others fail to do so, and either react in the same way as before or may suffer from the prolonged use of excessive 2uantities' for example, although after prolonged use morphine loses its action on the brain so that large doses have to be given to relieve pain, tolerance is less developed in the bowel, so that constipation continues to be induced by smaller amounts5 similarly in a dog tolerant to morphine, the cardiac inhibitory centre retains its sensitiveness to it. %ome animals fail to develop tolerance for certain

drugs5 for example the rabbit remains sensitive to morphine after prolonged treatment. It is to be noted that tolerance is soon lost if the drug be discontinued for some time. -his is of great importance in cases of opium1eating, for a person who has taken opium for a long time ac2uires a tolerance for the drug, so that sometimes enormous 2uantities are re2uired in order to induce the ordinary effects5 but if the habit be discontinued for some time, the tolerance is lost, and a dose which would formerly have had little effect may now induce dangerous poisoning. -he prolonged use of one drug may establish tolerance for others of the same class. -hus chronic drunkards become less sensitive to large 2uantities of alcohol, and are also more resistant to the action of other than ordinary persons, this being due to the fact that ether and alcohol act on the same nerve cells in the same direction, and probably induce the same changes in the protoplasm Drugs of the carbohydrate group Glucose "Dextrose#. -he most important simple sugar in the living cell is glucose. It accumulates in many fruits, cherries, strawberries, &uniper fruits "up to + per cent#, and grapes "up to $? to )? per cent#. <lucose is produced on an industrial scale by hydroly(ing starch with dilute acid. ,fter hydrolysis, the acid is neutrali(ed with sodium carbonate, and the solution is decolouri(ed and evaporated under vacuum to a syrup "li2uid glucose#. -his syrup which is widely used, contains not only glucose but also di1, tri1, and tetrasaccharides from incomplete hydrolysis of the starch. >ure glucose is obtained by crystalli(ation. <lucose has a variety of uses in technology "crystalli(ation inhibitors, in the fermentation industries, in tooth pastes, in the tanning industry, in silvering of mirrors, and many other things#. ructose "!evoluse#. -his sugar is obtained by hydrolysis of inulin, a polysaccharide of fructose. %ources of inulin are Helianthus tuberosus and Taraxacum officinale. hile glucose overflows into the urine, fructose is metaboli(ed by diabetic individuals. -he reason for this difference is not yet 2uite understood, but it is known that insulin counteracts the inhibitory action of the anterior pituitary on hexokinase, an en(yme which is involved in the phosphorylation of glucose, a step necessary for the further metabolism of glucose. >hosphorylation of glucose is impaired in the diabetic, while the phosphorylation of fructose is not influenced by insulin. @ructose is used in parenteral feeding and has been recommended in diabetic emergencies "acute ketoacidosis#. "oney. Honey consists of a concentrated solution or semi crystalline mixture of glucose and fructose in e2ual amounts together with small 2uantities of vitamins and other compounds. It is produced in the stomach of the bee by inversion of sucrose, which the bee collects from flower nectar. #ellulose. -he substance that makes up the ma&or parts of the cell wall in plants is a polysaccharide known as cellulose. Its molecule is built up of more than a thousand glucose units attached to each other in H1linkage to form a straight chain. Bellulose is insoluble in all ordinary solvents. It is prepared by extracting wood and other materials with strong alkali or calcium sulphite which dissolves the lignin, a substance that commonly accompanies cellulose. Bellulose may then be dissolved in %chweit(er7s reagent. Ipon acidification of the solution of the copper1cellulose complex, cellulose precipitates.

Bellulose is not readily hydroly(ed, but by use of elevated temperatures, high pressures, and high acid concentration hydrolysis is possible. -he free alcoholic groups of cellulose are easily acetylated. -his property is utili(ed in the manufacture of acetyl1cellulose, which is employed extensively in the manufacture of textile fibres. -he alcoholic groups can also be esterified with nitric and other acids. Ditrated cellulose is used in explosives. Bellulose is a most important foodstuff for herbivorous animals. -he animals does not produce the en(yme, cellulose, necessary for the hydrolysis of cellulose5 but microbes living in the rumen and the intestines of herbivorous animals produce cellulose and thus make cellulose utili(able as a food. ithout the existence of micro organisms cellulose would accumulate and life would soon be impossible on the earth because of the resulting shortage of carbon. Bellulose in the food of man serves as a filter and this contributes mechanically to the motility of the intestines. Bellulose, being chemically inert and insoluble, is used in surgery in the form of cotton fibres ":8 to ;) per cent cellulose#. Many plant fibres consisting mostly of cellulose are used in the manufacture of cloth and plastics.