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Strengthofmaterials Lab.Manual
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ProductionEngineering

Strengthofmaterialslab.manual
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Contents ___________________________________________________________________ S.No.Title Pg.no

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1.RockwellHardnesstest3 2.Brinellhardnesstest.5 3.Impacttest 8

4.Tensiontest14 5.Torsiontest19 6.Bendingtest 21

7.Sheartest24 8.Compressiontest26
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Instructions.1.Write observations, tables, diagrams, Specimen calculations intheblankleftsideofthejournalandotherstotheright.

ExperimentNo.1 _________________________________________________________________ Title Objective RockwellHardnesstest TodeterminethehardnesstheHardnessofthegiven SpecimenusingRockwellhardnesstest.

Materialsandequipmentsrequired Rockwellhardnesstestingmachine. Blackdiamondconeindenter, Hardsteelspecimen. Theory RockwelltestisdevelopedbytheWilsoninstrumentcoU.S.Ain1920. This test is an indentationtest usedforsmallerspecimens and harder materials. Thetest issubjectof IS: 1586.In this test indenter is forcedintothesurface of a test piece in two operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an indentationfromthedepthincreasedfromthedepthreachedunderadatumload duetoanadditionalload. Measurement ofindentation is made afterremoving the additional load. Indenter usedistheconehavinganangleof120degreesmadeofblackdiamond. Precautions 1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentationtoavoidthedeformationtobeextendedtotheoppositesurfaceofa specimen. 2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessaryconcentrationofstresses.Insuchcasedistancefromtheedgeto the center of indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation. 3. Rapidrateofapplyingloadshouldbeavoided.Loadappliedontheballmayrise alittlebecauseofitssuddenaction.Alsorapidlyappliedloadwillrestrictplastic flowofamaterial,whichproduceseffectonsizeofindentation. Procedure 1. Examinehardnesstestingmachine(fig.1). 2. Placethespecimenonplatformofamachine.Usingtheelevatingscrewraise theplatformandbringthespecimenjustincontactwiththeball.applyaninitial loaduntilthesmallpointershowsredmark. 3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the additionalloadapplied,bringbackoperatingvalvetoitsposition. 4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness number.

5. Repeattheprocedurefivetimesonthespecimenselectingdifferentpointsfor indentation. Observation 1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardnessnumberfromthedialofamachine. 2. CompareBrinellandRockwellhardnesstestsobtained. Figure.1

Rockwellhardnesstestequipment Result Rockwellhardnessofgivenspecimenis

ExperimentNo.2 ________________________________________________________________ Title Aim Brinellhardnesstest. TodeterminethehardnessofthegivenspecimenusingBrinellhardness test.

Specimenandspecimen Brinellhardnesstester(fig.2) Aluminumspecimen Ballindenter. Precautions 1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentationtoavoidthedeformationtobeextendedtotheoppositesurfaceof aspecimen. 2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessaryconcentrationofstresses.Insuchcasedistancefromtheedgeto the center of indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation. 3. Rapid rate of applying load should beavoided. Loadappliedon theball may rise a little becauseof itssudden action. Also rapidly applied loadwill restrict plasticflowofamaterial,whichproduceseffectonsizeofindentation. 4. Surfaceofthespecimeniswellpolished,freefromoxidescaleandanyforeign material. Theory Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent indentation under static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use underdirectstaticordynamicloads,onlyindentationhardnesstestwillbeuseful tofindoutresistancetoindentation. InBrinellhardnesstest,asteelballofdiameter(D)isforcedunderaload(F)onto asurfaceoftestspecimen.Meandiameter(d)ofindentationismeasuredafterthe removaloftheload(F).

Observation 1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardnessnumberfromequation(!). 2. CompareBrinellandRockwellhardnesstestsobtained.

Procedure

1.Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the expected hardness of the material. However test load shall bekept equal to 30 timesthesquareofthediameteroftheball(diameterinmm)
2 F=30.D

Whereballdiameter,generallytakenas10mm. Forguidelineshardnessrangeforstandardloadsgivenbelow Balldiameter 10 Load(kg) 3000 1500 500 RangeofBrinellhardness 96to600 48to300 16to100

2.Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [if ferrous metals are to be tested time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal 30 seconds] 3.Removetheloadandmeasurethediameterofindentationnearestto0.02mm usingmicroscope(projectedimage) 4.CalculateBrinellhardnessnumber(HB).AsperIS:1500. 5.Brinellhardnessnumber

p D D -

2 F D
2

- d

(1)

whereDisthediameterofballindenteranddisthediameterofindentation. Hardness numbers normally obtained for different materials are given below (under3000kgand10mmdiameterballused) Ordinary carbon steels medium 100to500 130to160 Structuralsteel 800to900 Veryhardsteel

Note:BrinelltestisnotrecommendedforthenmaterialshavingHBover630. Itisnecessarytomentionballsizeandloadwiththehardnesstestwhenstandard size ofballand load are not used. Becauseindentation done by differentsizeof ball and load on different materials are not geometrically similar. Ball also

undergoesdeformationwhenloadisapplied.Materialresponsetotheloadisnot sameallthetime. 6.Brinellhardnessnumberscanbeobtainedfromtables1to5giveninIS:1500, knowingdiameterofindentation,diameteroftheballandloadapplied.

Figure2

Brinellhardnesstester Result TheBrinellhardnessnumberofthespecimenis

ExperimentNo.3 _______________________________________________________________________ TitleImpacttest Aim TodeterminetheImpacttoughness(strainenergy)through IzodtestandCharpytest

Theory In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blowfromaheavyhammerandenergyrequiredbeingameasureofresistanceto impact. Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a heighth.Releaseoftheweightfromtheheighthswingstheweightthroughthearc ofacircle,whichstrikesthespecimentofractureatthenotch(fig..
2 Kineticenergyofthehammeratthetimeofimpactismv /2,whichisequaltothe relative potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the mass of the hammer and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is 2 gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s ) and h is the height through which hammer falls.Impactvelocitywillbe5.126m/sorslightlyless. Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops determines thevelocityandheightandmassofahammercombineddeterminetheenergy.

Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between potential energies is the fractureenergy. In test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale. If the scale is calibrated in energy units, marks on the scaleshouldbedrawnkeepinginviewangleoffall()andangleofrise(.Heighth1 andh2 equals, h1=R(1cos q)andh2=(1cos q). With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing energyalso increaseordecrease. Thiscanbeseenfromtheattachedscale with anyimpactmachine. Energyusedinfracturingthespecimencanbeobtainedapproximatelyas Wh1Wh2 This energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured,perunitareaatthenotch. IzodintroducedIzodtestin1903.TestisaspertheIS:1598 CharpyintroducedCharpytestin1909.TestisaspertheIS:1499.

a.Izodtest Specimenandequipment 1. Impacttestingmachine.(fig.3) 2. Specimenandvnotchisshowninthefig.4.Sizeofthespecimenis10mm X10mmX75mm Mountingofthespecimen: Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tensionside. Directionofblowofhammerisshowninfig.().Directionofblowisshowninfig Figure.3.a

IzodImpacttestingequipment

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Figure3.b

Schematicimpacttesting

Figure4

PositionofspecimenforIzodtest

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Procedure 1. 2. Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen.Also,measurethedimensionsof Thenotch. Raisethehammerandnotedowninitialreadingfromthedial,whichwillbe energytobeusedtofracturethespecimen. Placethespecimenfortestandseethatitisplacedcenterwithrespectto hammer.Checkthepositionofnotch. Releasethehammerandnotethefinalreading.Differencebetweenthe initialandfinalreadingwillgivetheactualenergyrequiredtofracturethe Specimen. Repeatthetestforspecimensofothermaterials. Computetheenergyofruptureofeachspecimen.

3.

4.

5. 6.

Observation Initialandfinalreadingofthedial. Result Strainenergyofgivenspecimenis

b. Charpytest Specimenandequipment: 1. Impacttestingmachine.(Fig.6) 2. Unotchiscutacrossthemiddleofonefaceasshownin(fig.5). Figure5

SpecimenforCharpytest

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Figure6

Charpyimpacttestingequipment

Mountingofspecimen Specimenistestedasabeamsupportedateachend(fig.7).Hammerisallowedto hitthenspecimenattheoppositefacebehindthenotch. Figure.7

Mountingofspecimen

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Procedure 1. Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen.Also,measurethedimensionsof Thenotch. 2. Raisethehammerandnotedowninitialreadingfromthedial,whichwillbe energytobeusedtofracturethespecimen. 3. Placethespecimenfortestandseethatitisplacedcenterwithrespectto hammer.Checkthepositionofnotch. 4. Releasethehammerandnotethefinalreading.Differencebetweenthe initialandfinalreadingwillgivetheactualenergyrequiredtofracturethe Specimen. 5. Repeatthetestforspecimensofothermaterials. 6. Computetheenergyofruptureofeachspecimen. Observation Initialandfinalreadingofthedial. Result Strainenergyofgivenspecimenis

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ExperimentNo.4 __________________________________________________________________ Title: Tensiontest

Aim:Todeterminethetensilestrengthofspecimen

Specimenandequipments Universaltestingmachine(fig7.a) Specimenasshowninthe(fig7.b) Ofdifferentferrousandnonferrousmaterials Figure7.a

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Figure.7b

Theory Thetensiletestismostappliedone,ofallmechanicaltests.Inthistestendsofa test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuringdevice.Iftheappliedloadissmallenough,thedeformationofanysolid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original positionassoonasloadisremoved.However,iftheloadistoolarge,thematerial canbedeformedpermanently.Theinitialpartofthetensioncurve(fig.8),whichis recoverableimmediatelyafterunloading,istermedaselasticandrestofthecurve, which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termedplastic.thestressbelowwhichthedeformationisessentiallyentirelyelastic is known as the yield strength of material. In some materials (like mild steel) the onsetofplasticdeformationisdenotedbyasuddendropinloadindicatingbothan upperandloweryieldpoint.However,somematerialsdonotexhibitasharpyield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes trough a maximumandthenbeginstodecrease.AsthisstagetheUltimatestrength,which isdefinedastheratioofthespecimentooriginalcrosssectionalarea,reachesa maximumvalue.Furtherloadingwilleventuallycauseneckformationandrupture. Usually a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile loadisappliedslowly.Duringthistesteitherroundorflatspecimens(fig.7)maybe used.Theroundspecimensmayhavesmooth,shoulderedorthreadedends.The load on the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the typeoftestingmachine. Figure.8

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Stressstraindiagram Procedure 1. Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen Diameter=d=, Totallengthofaspecimen, Crosssectionalarea=Ao=, Markgagelength(Lo)atthreedifferentportionsonthespecimen, coveringeffectivelengthofaspecimen.(thisisrequiredsothat neckedportionwillremainbetweenanytwopointsofgagelength onthespecimen.) 2. Gripthespecimeninthefixedheadofamachine.(Portionofthespecimen hastobegrippedasshowninthefig.7. Fixtheextensometerwithinthegaugelengthmarkedonthespecimen. Adjustthedialofextensometeratzero. Adjustthedialofamachinetozero,toreadloadapplied. Selectsuitableincrementsofloadstobeappliedsothatcorresponding elongationcanbemeasuredfromdialgauge. Keepspeedofmachineuniform.Recordyieldpoint,maximumloadpoint, pointofbreakingofspecimen. Removethespecimenfrommachineandstudythefractureobservestype offracture. Measuredimensionsoftestedspecimen.Fitthebrokenpartstogetherand measurereduceddiameterandfinalgagelength.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

Observations SpecimenpreparedfromM.Sbar/CI/Al 1. Diameter=d=mm

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2.

Gagelength(lo)=5Xd=mm Originalcrosssectionalareaofthespecimen 2 =Ao =mm Finalgagelengthobtained=Lo= Finaldiameterobtained=mm Observationtable1 Areaofa Stress 2 specimen N/mm (Ao)

3. 4. 5.

Sr. No

Loadapplied(N) (p)

Modulusof elasticity(E) 2 N/mm

Observationtable2. Sr. No Contractionin diameter(dd) (mm) Deformation Lateral inlength strain (mm) Linear strain Poisson ratio

Note 1. 2. Useverniercalipertomeasurediameter,gagelengthetc.forthespecimen. IfC.I.specimenistobetestedonlyoneobservationwillbetakenatfailure.

Results 1. Calculatestressandstrainforeveryintervalofappliedload. DrawstressstraincurveasshownintheFig.() Computethefollowing Modulusofelasticity Hookslawstatesthatstressisalwaysproportionaltostrainwithinelastic limit.Theratioofstressandstrainisconstant,calledmodulusofelasticity oryoungsmodulus(E) E=Stress/strain=Constant=E=, b. Yieldstress(fy) Thepoint,atwhichstrainincreaseswithoutincreaseinstress,isknownas Yieldpoint.Stressmeasuredatyieldpointiscalledyieldstress. c. Tensilestrength: Maximumcarryingcapacityofamaterialintensioniscalledtensile

2. a.

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strength Tensilestrength=maximumtensileload/originalcrosssectional Area. Percentageelongation: Theextensionproducedinagagelength,expressedasapercentage ofitsoriginalvalue(LO) %Elongation=[(LOLo)/Lo]X100 whereLoisfinalgagelengthafterfracture. e. Percentagereductioninarea: =[(AoAo)/Ao ]X100 whereAoisfinalreducedcrosssectionalareaafterfracture.

d.

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ExperimentNo.5 Title Torsiontest

Aim:Tofindthemodulusofrigidity. Specimenandequipments 1. 2. 3. 4. Atorsiontestingapparatus, Standardspecimenofmildsteelorcastiron. Twistmeterformeasuringanglesoftwist Asteelruleandcalipersandmicrometer.

Figure.9.

Torsionequipment Theory Atorsiontestisquiteinstrumentalindeterminingthevalueofrigidity(ratioofshear stresstoshearstrain)ofametallicspecimen.Thevalueofmodulusofrigiditycan befoundoutthroughobservationsmadeduringtheexperimentbyusingthetorsion equation: T C q Tl or C = = Ip l I q WhereT=torqueapplied, Ip=polarmomentofinertia, C=modulusofrigidity, =Angleoftwist(radians),and l=gaugelength.

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In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed supportandtheotherendtoapulley.Thepulleyprovidesthenecessarytorqueto twisttherodbyadditionofweights(w).Thetwistmeterattachedtotherodgivesthe angleoftwist. Procedure 1. Preparethetestingmachinebyfixingthetwotwistmetersatsomeconstant lengthsfromfixedsupport. Measurethediameterofthepulleyandthediameteroftherod. AddweightsinthehangerstepwisetogetanotableangleoftwistforT1 andT2 UsingtheaboveformulacalculateC

2. 3. 4.

Conclusion: Result Modulusofrigidityoftheshaft

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ExperimentNo.6 ______________________________________________________________________ Title Aim Bendingtest Tofindthevaluesofbendingstressesandyoungsmodulusofthe materialofabeam(sayawoodenorsteel)simplysupportedatthe endsandcarryingaconcentratedloadatthecenter.

Materialandequipment 1. 2. Universaltestingmachine Beamofdifferentcrosssectionsandmaterials(saywoodorsteel)

Figure.10

Specimendetailsandmounting Theory If a beam is simplysupportedat the ends and carries aconcentrated load at the center, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original positionofthebeamanditspositionafterbendingisdifferentatdifferentpoints(fig) along the length if the beam, being maximum at the center in this case. This differenceiscalleddeflection. Inthistypeofloadingthemaximumamountofdeflection()isgivenbytherelation,

d =

Wl3 48 Ei

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or E = Wl3 48 EI

WhereW=loadactingatthecenter,N l=lengthofthebeambetweenthesupports,mm 2 E=youngsmodulusofmaterialofthebeam,N/mm I=secondmomentofareaofthecrosssection(momentofinertia)ofthebeam, 4 abouttheneutralaxis,mm Bendingstress: Asperbendingequation,

M s b = I y

WhereM=bendingmoment,Nmm
4 I=momentofinertia,mm 2 s b =Bendingstress,N/mm y=distanceofthefiberofthebeamfromtheneutralaxis.

Observation ReferFig. Widthofthebeam=mm(forrectangularcrosssection) DepthofthebeamD=mm(forcircularcrosssection) 3 4 Momentofinertiaofrectangularsection=bd /12=mm 4 Momentofinertiaofcircularsection=mm Initialreadingofthevernier=.mm (Itshouldbesubtractedfromthereadingtakenafterputtingtheload) S. Load Bending No W(N) moment
M = Wl (N - mm3) 4

Bendingstress Deflection Youngsmodulus d (mm) ofelasticity My sb = (N/mm2) I

Wl3 2 E= (N/mm ) 48 d I

Precautions 1. 2. 3. Makesurethatthebeamandloadisplacedattheproperposition. Crosssectionofthebeamshouldbelarge Notedownthereadingsofthevernierscalecarefully.

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Procedure 1. AdjustthesupportsalonetheUTMbedsothattheyaresymmetricallywith respecttothelengthofthebed Placethebeamontheknifeedgesontheblockssoastoprojectequally beyondeachknifeedge.Seethattheloadisappliedatthecenterofthe beam. Notetheinitialreadingofvernierscale. Applyaloadandagainnotethereadingofthevernierscale.

2.

3. 4.

5.

Goontakingreadingapplyingloadinstepseachtimetillyouhave minimum6readings. Findthedeflection(d)ineachtimebysubtractingtheinitialreadingof vernierscale. Drawagraphbetweenload(W)anddeflection(d).Onthegraphchoose anytwoconvenientpointsandbetweenthesepointsfindthecorresponding

6.

7.

Wl3 valuesofWand d.Puttingthesevaluesintherelation E = 48 d I

CalculatethevalueofE. 8. Calculatethebendingstressesfordifferentloadsusingrelation sb = givenintheobservationtable. 9. Repeattheexperimentfordifferentbeams.
My as I

Result a. Bendingstress..units b. Youngsmodulusunits

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ExperimentNo.7 _______________________________________________________________________ Title Aim Sheartest Tofindtheshearstrengthofgivenspecimen

MaterialandEquipment 1. 2. 3. Figure Universaltestingmachine Sheartestattachment Givenspecimen

Shearingfixture Observation Diameterofthepind=.mm Crosssectionalareaofthepin(indoubleshear)

2 2 =2X p/4Xd =.mm

Loadtakenbythespecimenatthetimeoffailure,W=.(N) Strengthofthepinagainstshearing(t)

t=

4W 2 =N/mm 2 pd2

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Procedure 1. Insertthespecimeninpositionandgriponeendoftheattachmentinthe upperportionandoneendinthelowerposition SwitchontheUTM Bringthedragindicatorincontactwiththemainindicator. Selectthesuitablerangeofloadsandspacethecorrespondingweightin thependulumandbalanceitifnecessarywiththehelpofsmallbalancing weights Operate(push)thebuttonfordrivingthemotortodrivethepump. Graduallymovetheheadcontroleverinlefthanddirectiontillthespecimen shears. Notedowntheloadatwhichthespecimenshears. Stopthemachineandremovethespecimen.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

Repeattheexperimentwithotherspecimens. Precautions 1. 2. Themeasuringrangeshouldnotbechangedatanystageduringthetest. Theinnerdiameteroftheholeintheshearstressattachmentshouldbe slightlygraterthanthespecimen. Measurethediameterofthespecimenaccurately.

3.

Result.
2 ShearstrengthofthespecimenN/mm

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ExperimentNo.8 _______________________________________________________________________ Title Aim Compressiontest Tofindthecompressivestrengthofgivenspecimen.

MaterialandEquipment Universaltestingmachine, Compressionpads, Givenspecimen, Theory

This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally compressiontestiscarriedouttoknoweithersimplecompressioncharacteristics ofmaterialorcolumnactionofstructuralmembers. It has been observedthat forvarying heightof member, keepingcrosssectional andtheloadappliedconstant,thereisanincreasedtendencytowardsbendingof amember. Memberundercompressionusuallybendsalongminoraxis,i.e,alongleastlateral dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of materials. Effective lengthmustbetakenaccordingtoendconditionsassumed,atthetimeofthetest. Astheendsofthememberismadeplainandfitbetweentwojawsofthemachine, fixedendisassumedforcalculationofeffectivelength.Effectivelengthistakenas 0.5LwhereLisactuallengthofaspecimen Figure

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Observation
2 Crosssectionalareaofthespecimenperpendiculartotheload=A=mm

Loadtakenbythespecimenatthetimeoffailure,W=.(N)
2 Strengthofthepinagainstshearing(s)=[W/A]N/mm

Procedure 1. 2. 3. 4. Placethespecimeninpositionbetweenthecompressionpads. SwitchontheUTM Bringthedragindicatorincontactwiththemainindicator. Selectthesuitablerangeofloadsandspacethecorrespondingweightin thependulumandbalanceitifnecessarywiththehelpofsmallbalancing weights Operate(push)thebuttonfordrivingthemotortodrivethepump. Graduallymovetheheadcontroleverinlefthanddirectiontillthespecimen fails. Notedowntheloadatwhichthespecimenshears Stopthemachineandremovethespecimen. Repeattheexperimentwithotherspecimens.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

Precautions 1. 2. 3. Placethespecimenatcenterofcompressionpads, StoptheUTMassoonasthespecimenfails. Crosssectionalareaofspecimenforcompressiontestshouldbekeptlarge ascomparedtothespecimenfortensiontest:toobtaintheproperdegree ofstability.

Result
2 CompressivestrengthofthespecimenN/mm

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