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CONDUCTIVITY THEORY AND MEASUREMENT

What is Conductivity?
Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry a current. Current flow in liquids differs from that in metal conductors in that electrons cannot flow freely, but must be carried by ions. Ions are formed when a solid such as salt is dissolved in a liquid to form electrical components having opposite electrical charges. For example, sodium chloride separates to form Na and Cl! ions. "ll ions present in the solutions contribute to the current flowing through the sensor and therefore, contribute to the conductivity measurement. Electrical conductivity can therefore be used as a measure of the concentration of ioni#able solutes present in the sample. Conductivity Units Electrical resistivity uses the unit of ohm meter or m. Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. $ather than use the units 1m1, in %&'% the unit (siemens) *symboli#ed by the capital letter +, was adopted by the -eneral Conference on .eights and /easures as an +I derived unit. 0he unit for electrical conductivity becomes siemens per meter. 0he siemens unit is named after .erner von +iemens, the %&th century -erman inventor and entrepreneur in the area of electrical engineering. North "merican practice continues to see the use of unit mho1cm to measure conductivity, where the unit (mho) is a reciprocal ohm. 0he word (mho) is the word (ohm) spelled bac2wards. 3ecause of the history of conductivity measurements in micromho1cm and millimho1cm, it is common to see these measurements translated to microsiemens1cm and millisiemens1cm because there is a one!to! one correspondence between these units.
MEASUREMENT resistance conductance resistivity conductivity UNITS ohm siemens, mho ohm siemens<cm!% ,ohm<cm!%

Table 1 Electrical conductivity measuring units

Conductivity Terminology and Formulas

conductivity =
where

K cell % R %/ %44 T 56

conductivity is the temperature! compensated reading in siemens1cm7 8cell 9 cell constant in cm!% , typically in the range 4.4%1cm to 641cm7 $ 9 measured resistance in ohms7
9 temperature compensation factor as : change per ;C, typically close to 5.47

00C9 measured temperature of the sample in ;C.

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Conductivity measurement is typically read out as microsiemens per centimeter *A+1cm, millisiemens per centimeter *m+1cm,

Conductance Data for Commonly Used Chemicals

Examples of conductance of various materials with changing concentration are shown in illustration %. +odium hydroxide *Na?=, exhibits variable temperature!related rates of concentration change. It is clear from the graph that both +ulfuric acid, *=5+?@,, and nitric acid, *=N?B,, have unusual conductivity vs weight relationships as well. It clearly shows that there is no (conductivity constant) between chemical combinations.

resistivity =

% conductivity % conductance
l A

resistance =

cell constant = K cell =

where l 9 distance in cm between the electrodes A 9 area in cm5 of the electrodes

Cell Constant
0o determine the amount of current that will flow through a 2nown amount of liquid, the volume between the two electrodes must be exact and the current must be 2ept consistent and moderate. 0his is 2nown as the cell constant. "ny effective volume change changes the cell constant and current, too much volume will result in noise *low

% siemens mho = = cm cm ohmcm % S / m=%4 @ S / cm=%4B mS / m

Illustration 1 Conductivity (S/cm vs chemical concentration

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current,, or too little volume in electrolytic effects *high current,. 0he cell constant recommended will vary depending on the conductivity range of the solution. =igh conductivity requires a high cell constant and low conductivity requires a low cell constant. Industrial users may have a wide range of applications with unpredictable variables. Ideally, IC Controls would chec2 the ranges of conductance for all the applications and recommend appropriate cell constants. =owever, we may be dealing with un2nowns and upsets. 0o provide for un2nowns the IC Controls model @66 conductivity analy#er auto range capability allows for a tenfold increase or decrease in range by the microprocessor. 0he user can achieve full accuracy at a far greater range than was historically possible. For example, a %.41cm constant recommended for 4!%,444 A+1cm can read accurately up to 4!%4,444 A+1cm or down to 4!%44 A+1cm full scale. Not only is accuracy assured over a greater conductivity range, but you can use fewer cell constants.

su!stance
acids bases salts neutral water

" chan#e per $%

%.4 to %.E %.F to 5.5 5.5 to B.4 5

Table $ Ty"ical tem"erature res"onse

In industrial applications, temperature often fluctuates and requires temperature compensation. 0his is generally accomplished by using an automatic, linear temperature compensation method. In most cases, the variations in temperature are corrected using automatic temperature compensation, 5: per CC is deemed acceptable. .ithout temperature compensation big errors can result, 64CC x 5:1CC 9 %44: off, or 64: error in readingD In laboratory applications, where measurements must be made with accuracy and consistency in various chemical combinations, manual temperature

Temperature Compensation

Illustration ! Tem"erature res"onse o# ty"ical solutions Illustration $ Tem"erature com"ensation values

Ionic movement, and therefore conductivity measurement, is directly proportional to temperature *see illustration 5,. 0he effect is predictable and repeatable for most chemicals, but unique to each chemical. 0he effect is instantaneous and quite large *typically %:! B: 1 CC, with reference to the value at 56CC *see table 5 and illustration B,. "lso refer to formula on page % of the report where refers to : change.

compensation can be considered for each application. 0he temperature is set in the manual 0C mode. For on!line process applications the IC Controls @66 conductivity analy#er allows the user to set the 0C constant in :1CC to match the curve in the 2nown temperature range of the 2nown process chemical. Where the process mixture produces an unkno n the default 5: per CC can be used7

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alternatively, tests can be performed and a custom value can be set in the @66. +ome chemicals that are frequently diluted for use have changing non!linear temperature compensation requirements, so IC Controls has programmed special versions with 0C in a graph in the memory7 e.g. Na?= @66!5%, =5+?@ @66!55, =Cl @66!5B, NaCl @66!5@, that read out in : concentration. "dditionally the @66!EB offers calibration and 0C for high! purity water with very low conductivity.

liquid and the apparent cell constant *scale, biological growths, oils, wax, gum, etc,. $educing the area for current!carrying liquid. " conductivity cellJs physical si#e and shape are important. 0he only restrictions on an ionJs movement are the physical limits of the liquid. " conductivity analy#er measures all the current that will flow between two electrodes7 thus if there are no restrictions not only will the shortest path between the electrodes carry current, but also other roundabout paths will carry a smaller share of current. 0he controlled volume of a good conductivity sensor places physical limits on the liquid and controls current paths, which is identified by the cell constant. 0he cell constant can be accurately determined by dipping the sensor in a recogni#ed conductivity standard, *preferably traceable to NI+0 since literature references are frequently in conflict over conductivity values,. 0he standard should be near the high end of the range of operation for the cell constant of the sensor or in the range of interest. +ensors with low cell constants li2e 4.4%1cm tend to have large electrode surfaces which are close together, ma2ing for fairly large sensors. 0hey need a long, slim container to be fully immersed in liquid for calibration. +ensors with medium cell constants li2e 4.%1cm and %.41cm are much smaller and more compact and can usually be calibrated in a bea2er suspended above the bottom. =igh range cells with %41cm, 541cm and 641cm constants usually include an internal liquid passage that requires a long thin vessel to be immersed or may require a pumped sample for calibration.

Sensor Cleaning
"s the volume *distance, between the two electrodes is exact, fouling of the sensor can alter the distance between the electrodes and change the cell constant. 0herefore, 2eeping the electrode clean is important. 0he @66 analy#er will determine the cell constant at the point of calibration and condition of use and compensate accordingly. Changing cell constants will then not be a factor adversely affecting repeatability.

Conductivity Calibration
"s mentioned above, a calibration schedule should be adhered to. .hile it is a quic2, single point process, it is important that all applications be accurately reflected with ac2nowledgment of the set 0C and cell constant. 0he @66 will 2eep in memory a record of calibration dates, values, and cell constants that can be downloaded to your computer for proof of performance or to trend the sensor cell condition. If the user calibrates using a laboratory bench top unit as a calibration standard, there is a grab sample method incorporated into the @66 analy#er that enables the user to standardi#e the reading to correspond with the lab unit. Gsing lab standardi#ation or the high integrity of the model @66 calibration is the convenience choice of the user.

Use of NIST Traceable Standards

IC Controls manufactures conductivity standards and performs quality control using NI+0 materials. Certificates of traceability to NI+0 materials are available as H1N "%&44BBB

Theory of Calibration
Heriodic calibration of conductivity sensors in continuous use is recommended. Iarious factors can affect the physical limits on the

Where to Perform Conductivity Calibrations

" suitable place to conduct a calibration is at a counter or bench with a sin2 in an instrument

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Guide to Cell Constant Usable Ranges

%E&& %'NSTANT cm,.
4.4% 4.45 4.% 4.5 4.6 %.4 5.4 6.4 %4.4 54.4 64.4

(ESI)N RAN)E /S0cm

4 to %4 4 to 54 4 to %44 4 to 544 4 to 644 4 to % 444 4 to 5 444 4 to 6 444 4 to %4 444 4 to 54 444 4 to 64 444

&'WEST RAN)E /S0cm

4 to % 4 to 5 4 to %4 4 to 54 4 to 64 4 to %44 4 to 544 4 to 644 4 to % 444 4 to 5 444 4 to 6 444

*I)* RAN)E /S0cm

4 to %44 4 to 544 4 to % 444 4 to 5 444 4 to 6 444 4 to %4 444 4 to 54 444 4 to 64 444 4 to %44 444 4 to 544 444 4 to 644 444

'+ER,RAN)E /S0cm
4 to % 444M 4 to 5 444M 4 to %4 444M 4 to 54 444M 4 to 64 444M 4 to %44 444M 4 to 544 444M 4 to 644 444M 4 to % 444 444M 4 to % 444 444M 4 to % 444 444M

M &ote' use over!range with caution. +ome sensor designs may limit when used on over!range and may not reach the maximum shown.
Table ! Cell constant usable ranges

shop or laboratory. =owever, IC Controls provides 2its that are 2ept small and portable so that they can be ta2en to installation sites, along with a container of water for cleaning1rinsing and a rag1towel for wiping or drying. Calibration at the site offers the advantage of ta2ing into account the wiring from the analy#er to the sensor, and correcting for any errors induced. .hen calibrating, ensure there are no air

bubbles inside the cell7 air bubbles will cause low conductivity readings. $emove bubbles by tapping the sensor or alternately raising and lowering the sensor to flush them out. .ith the conductivity cell centered in the bea2er and no air bubbles in the cell, monitor for the reading to stabili#e and then calibrate the analy#er. NoteK the reading may gradually change while the sensor equilibrates to the standard temperature. .ith analog conductivity analy#ers the technician must decide when the temperature is stable and then turn the standardi#e adLuster. .ith a microprocessor!based analy#er such as the model @66, the program acts as an expert thermal equilibrium detector and flashes its reading until temperature stabili#es. " somewhat different but steady *non!flashing, reading indicates calibration is complete.

Selecting Conductivity Sensors

In order to ensure integrity of conductivity readings, several steps are needed to consider the above factors. First, a survey should be made of all applications. 0he user should fill

Illustration % Conductivity sensor calibration

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in Conductivity A""lication Analysis sheets for each measurement point, factoring in varying chemical combinations, conductivity ranges and temperatures. 0his will allow for a selection of sensor styles and cell constants to allow standardi#ation. "t this time IC Controls would address the followingK %, +ensor recommendation ! .e will attempt to stay with as few cell constants and style variations as possible. For example, the IC Controls model @4@!%.4 may be a suitable, economical choice. 5, "naly#er recommendation ! 0he IC Controls model @66 may be recommended because of its wide range capability, accuracy and automatic compensation flexibility. B, Cleaning +chedule ! "t least for fouling applications, to ensure sensor and cell constant integrity. @, Calibration +chedule ! 0o document accuracy and ensure repeatability is maintained. IC Controls will be happy to answer any questions and wor2 with users to ensure reliable conductivity readings. In North "merica we can be reached toll!free at %!F44! 5E6!&%E%, or internationally contact us atK Fax ! 6%& &@%!F%E@, email ! salesNiccontrols.com .ebsite ! www.iccontrols.com

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