A History of Anthropology

Thomas Hylland Eriksen & Finn Sivert Nielsen

Inhoudsopgave
1 Beginnings.............................................................................................................................4 1.1 Herodotus and other Greeks...........................................................................................4 1.2 After Antiquity...............................................................................................................4 1.3 The impact of the European onquests..........................................................................4 1.4 !hy a"" this is not quite Anthropo"ogy yet....................................................................# 1.# The En"ightenment.........................................................................................................# 1.$ %omanticism...................................................................................................................$ 2 &ictorians' Germans and a (renchman..................................................................................$ 2.1 Bio"ogica" and socia" e)o"utionism * +organ................................................................, 2.2 Bastian' Ty"or and other &ictorians...............................................................................2.3 The Go"den Bough and the Torres E.pedition...............................................................2.4 /iffusionism...................................................................................................................0 2.# The 1e2 3ocio"ogy........................................................................................................0 2.$ /urkheim........................................................................................................................0 2., +a. !e4er...................................................................................................................15 3 (our founding fathers...........................................................................................................15 3.1 Boas and historica" particu"arism.................................................................................11 3.2 +a"ino2ski and the Tro4riand 6s"anders......................................................................11 3.3 %adc"iffe7Bro2n8s 8natura" science of society8..............................................................11 3.4 +auss and the search for socia" phenomena................................................................12 3.# Anthropo"ogy in 10359 :ara""e"s and di)ergences........................................................12 4 E.pansion and institutiona"isation.......................................................................................13 4.1 A margina" discip"ine;..................................................................................................13 4.2 <.ford and the is"e' o"um4ia and hicago................................................................13 4.3 The /akar7/=i4outi E.pedition....................................................................................14 4.4 4.# u"ture and persona"ity................................................................................................14 u"tura" History............................................................................................................1#

4.$ Ethno"inguistics............................................................................................................1# 4., The hicago 3choo".....................................................................................................1# 1

4.- 8>inshipo"ogy8...............................................................................................................1$ 4.0 (unctiona"ism8s "ast stand.............................................................................................1, 4.15 3ome British outsiders................................................................................................1, # (orms of change...................................................................................................................1, #.1 1eo7E)o"utionism and cu"tura" eco"ogy.......................................................................1, #.2 (orma"ism and 3u4stanti)ism......................................................................................1#.3 +ean2hi"e in Britain9 the +anchester 3choo".............................................................1#.4 +ethodo"ogica" indi)idua"ism at am4ridge...............................................................10 #.# %o"e ana"ysis and system theory..................................................................................25 $ The :o2er of 3ym4o"s.........................................................................................................25 $.1 (rom function to meaning............................................................................................21 $.2 Ethnoscience and sym4o"ic Anthropo"ogy..................................................................21 $.3 Geert? and 3chneider....................................................................................................22 $.4 @A)i73trauss and 3tructura"ism....................................................................................22 $.# Ear"y impact.................................................................................................................23 $.$ The 3tate of the Art in 10$-.........................................................................................23 , Buestioning Authority..........................................................................................................23 ,.1 The %eturn of +ar.ism................................................................................................23 ,.1.1 3tructura" +ar.ism...............................................................................................23 ,.1.2 The not7quite7+ar.ists.........................................................................................24 ,.1.3 :o"itica" Economy and the capita"ist 2or"d system..............................................24 ,.2 (eminism * and the 4irth of ref"e.i)e fie"d2ork..........................................................2# ,.3 Ethnicity.......................................................................................................................2$ ,.4 :ractice Theory.............................................................................................................2$ ,.# The socio4io"ogy de4ate and 3amoa............................................................................2, - The end of modernism;........................................................................................................2, -.1 The end of modernism;................................................................................................2, -.2 The :ostco"onia" 2or"d.................................................................................................2-.3 A ne2 departure or a ne2 return to Boas;...................................................................20 -.4 <ther )oices..................................................................................................................20 0 %econstruction.....................................................................................................................35 0.1 Bio"ogy and u"ture ....................................................................................................31 0.2 G"o4a"isation and the production of "oca"ity................................................................31 0.3 :ostscript......................................................................................................................32 2

1 Beginnings
6t is unc"ear 2here 2e can fi. the starting point of Anthropo"ogy. !hat 2e are sure a4out' is that anthropo"ogy as the science of humanity originated in Cthe !estD and more particu"ar (rance' Great Britain' E3A and unti" !!2 a"so Germany. Historica""y speaking' anthropo"ogy is a European discip"ine.

1.1 Herodotus and other Greeks

Herodotos of Halicarnassus Fc. 4-4742# ). .G9 Greek historian' descri4ed peop"es that the Greeks maintained contacts 2ith and 2hom he met on his tra)e"s. important anthropo"ogica" pro4"em of ho2 2e shou"d re"ate to Cthe othersD; Fparado. of uni)ersa"ism1 )ersus re"ati)ism2G Socrates faith in uni)ersa" reason Fin :"atoDs /ia"oguesG )s. the re"ati)ist )ie2 of the Sophists that truth 2i"" a"2ays )ary 2ith e.perience and cu"ture. ross7cu"tura" encounters 2ere part of e)eryday "ife in the city7states. HBar4arianI J CforeignerD Fthey 2ere percei)ed as on"y a4"e to say C4ar74arDG Aristotle F3-47322 ). G9 reason' 2isdom and mora"ity are on"y human facu"ties. Humans are fundamenta""y socia" 4y nature. Funi)ersa"istic sty"e of thoughtG

1.2 After Antiquity

spreading of the Greek ur4an cu"ture Fo.a. through A"e.ander the GreatG created a comp"e.' mu"tinationa" society mid7fourth century9 hristianity 2as esta4"ished as state re"igion and the %oman Empire started fa""ing apart. Europe fe"" apart' hurch he"d continent together. Throughout the +idd"e Ages' Europe 2as a periphery. Marco PoloDs 2ritings F12#471323G a4out his e.pedition to hina Ibn Khaldun F13327145$G9 de)e"oped one of the first non7re"igious socia" theories' he stresses the importance of kinship and re"igion in creating and maintaining a sense of so"idarity and mutua" commitment among the mem4ers of a group.

1.3 The impactof the European Conquests

travelogues reached 2ide audiences due to the young printing press. They 2ere fu"" of factua" errors Fe.g. Amerigo Vespucci9 uses Eurocentric description of C6ndiansD to promote a4so"utist monarchy and papa" po2erG. There is a"2ays a "arge distinction 4et2een the <thers and the e.isting order in Europe. onquest of America stimu"ated in Europe o the ongoing secu"arisation of European inte""ectua" "ife o the "i4eration of science from the authority of the hurch
1 2

to identify commona"ities and simi"arities Funi)ersa"sG 4et2een different societies. Emphasise the uniqueness and particu"arity of each society or cu"ture.

o the re"ati)isation of concepts of mora"ity and personhood. possi4"e to ask questions a4out de)e"opment of humanity em4ryonic notions of progress and de)e"opment

Michel de Montaigne F1#33702G9 cu"tura" re"ati)ist a)ant "a "ettreK coined the term C"e 4on sau)ageD Empiricists: ohn !oc"e F1$3271,54G: com4ined a uni)ersa"istic princip"e 2ith a re"ati)istic princip"e in his )ie2 that 2e are 4orn as a 4"ank paper' that can 4e 2ritten on through e.perience #homas Hobbes F1#--71$,0G9 the natura" "a2 is imp"icit in the 4io"ogica" needs of the indi)idua" F4y 4eing human one has rightsG ontinenta" %ationa"ists: $en% &escartes: 2e see the 2or"d through a fi"ter of ideas' the on"y thing 2e can 4e sure a4out is 2hat 2e think. L M attitude of methodo"ogica" dou4t

1.4 Why a this is not quiteAnthropo o!y yet.

4ecause a"" the 2ork mentioned so far 4e"ongs to either tra)e" 2riting or socia" phi"osophy 4ecause a"" 2riters mentioned are inf"uenced 4y their times and their society. Fis sti"" the case' 4ut anthropo"ogy makes no sense outside a modern conte.t G

1." The En i!htenment

the idea of progress seemed to 4e confirmed 4y the de)e"opment of techno"ogy first attempts to create an anthropo"ogica" science 2ere made9 o 'iambattista Vico F1,de EG9 La Scienza nuova A synthesis of ethnography' history of re"igion' phi"osophy and natura" science. His theory of socia" de)e"opment specified a num4er of transitiona" stages' not "inear 4ut through cyc"es of degeneration and gro2th o (aron de Montes)uieu F1,de EG9 De lesprit des loix A comparati)e' cross7cu"tura" study of "egis"ati)e systems. u"tura" phenomena "ike po"ygamy' canni4a"ism and s"a)ery can 4e e.p"ained 4y the function they ha)e in society as a 2ho"e. Persian Letters criticises (rance 4y emphasi?ing the e.oticness of the :ersians. home 4"indness3 in contemporary anthropo"ogy o The Encyc"opaedists &enis &iderot and dAlembert F1-de EG9 tried to co""ect' c"assify and systematise as much kno2"edge as possi4"e. They criticised the hurch' some materia" 2as at that time contro)ersia" 4ecause they made descriptions of Cordinary "ifeD Mar)uis de *ondorcet 2rote systematic comparisons 4et2een different socia" systems. ean+ ac)ues $ousseau: de)e"opment is not progressi)e 4ut degenerati)e.
3

<ur ina4i"ity to see our o2n cu"ture o4=ecti)e"y or from the outside

The natura" state is the idea"' through society 2e perish. Thus he made a significant step to cu"tura" re"ati)ism Fthough his ideas 2ere po"ari?ed9 either free and rationa" or unfree and corruptedG

1.# $omanticism
attention goes to the group Fi.s.o. the indi)idua" "ike in the en"ightenmentG and to emotion Fi.s.o. reasonG. Basica""y in Germany ohann 'ottfried von Herder F1-de EG9 attack on the (rench uni)ersa"ismK primacy of emotions and "anguageK defined society as a deep7seated' mythica" community. E)ery C&o"kD has its C&o"ksgeistD. Immanuel Kant F1-de EG9 true kno2"edge is deri)ed from sense impressions Fas @ock and Hume a"so saidG' 4ut moreo)er sensory data are fi"tered and shaped 4y the facu"ties of the mind. Acquisition of kno2"edge is thus a creati)e process. +an is in a sense una4"e to kno2 the 2or"d as it is in itse"f F/ing an 3ichG' 4ut he gains access to the 2or"d as it represents itse"f to him F/ing fNr +ichG. princip"e of methodo"ogica" indi)idua"ism4 - ', -, ., Hegel Feinde 1-de' 4egin 10de EG9 the indi)idua" is a"so a part and a resu"t of the process of kno2ing. The indi)idua" participates in a communicati)e fe""o2ship 2ith other peop"e. !or"d of kno2ing is therefore fundamenta""y co""ecti)e. princip"e of methodo"ogica" co""ecti)ism# !e"tgeist9 a 2or"d7spirit that e)o")es independent"y of indi)idua"s 4ut manifests itse"f through them. possi4"e to en)ision the 2or"d as a more or "ess systematic pattern of communication 4et2een persons. (irst ethnographic museums 2ere 4ui"t. (irst specia"ised ethnographic museums 2ere esta4"ished in German7speaking areas F&ienna' +unich and Ber"inG. German academics had 4egun to carry out empirica" studies of the customs of Cthe peop"eD. F&o"kskunde statt &O"kerkundeG

3ocia" onstruction of rea"ity

2 Victorians, Germans and a Frenchman

onte.t9 Bet2een the 1apo"eonic !ars F1,0271-1#G and !< 6' there is a rise of modern Europe due to the 6ndustria" %e)o"ution. :roduction 2as increased and therefore Europe cou"d feed more peop"e. onsequence9 popu"ation gre2. These changes pro)oked protest Feg. (rench %e)o"ution' hartist %e)o"tG. A ne2 socia"ist ideo"ogy comes into 4eing. !orkers diffuse o)er the 2or"d Fto 3outh Africa' 3i4eria' Argentina' E3A' PG' as a consequence ne2 po2er re"ations arise. An internationa"ised science emerged' prototype of the g"o4a" researcher is har"es /ar2in. Anthropo"ogy arose as an FacademicG discip"ine at this time.

2.1 %io o!ica and socia e&o utionism ' (or!an

4 #

@eading a7ists 4ased in Britain or E3A

The indi)idua" person as the starting point The notion that society is more fundamenta" than the indi)idua".

o e)o"utionism9 4ui"t on ideas of de)e"opment from the 1-th century 4o"stered 4y the e.perience of co"onia"ism starts in the 1-$5s 4y the inf"uence of /ar2in and 3pencer

o "eading idea in A7y in that time9 the psychic unity of mankind ontinenta" socio"ogists9 fo""o2ed the "ead of >ant and Hege" Fe.g. >ar" +ar. 7 1-1-7 1--3G o 3hared idea of socio"ogists9 society is an autonomous rea"ity that must 4e studied on its o2n terms' not 2ith methods of natura" science. o /ifference 2ith A7y9 concerned 2ith the interna" dynamics of !estern' industria" society !, H, Morgan9 o !orked 2ith 1ati)e Americans F6roquoisG and on the rights of 1ati)e Americans. o Curgent anthropo"ogistsD9 2anted to document the cu"ture of the 6ndians 4efore it 2as too "ate. o :ioneering 2ork on kinship9 "arge7sca"e comparati)e study of 1ati)e American kinship Qfirst typo"ogy of kinship systems Fdifference 4et2een c"assificatory$ and descripti)e, kinshipG. >inship 2as for +organ primari"y a point of entry to the study of socia" e)o"ution. o 6n his grand synthesis Ancient society' he distinguished three ma=or stages of cu"tura" e)o"ution9 sa)agery' 4ar4arism and ci)i"isation K, Mar/9 o Tried to reconci"e an idea"ist impu"se from German phi"osophy Fparticu"ar"y Hege"G 2ith a materia"ist 2or"d7)ie2 o 3ocietyJ infrastructure Fconditions for e.istenceG Q superstructure Fideationa" systemsG o :rimary contradiction in society is in the infrastructure 4et2een the re"ations of production Fthat organise "a4our and propertyG and the forces of production F e.g. techno"ogy or "andG. o <4=ecti)e interest of the 2orking c"ass is o)erthro2ing the ru"ing c"ass through re)o"ution. But the 2orking c"ass is =ust part"y a2are of this interest 4ecause the true po2er re"ations are concea"ed 4y an ideo"ogy that =ustifies the e.isting order. o :ro4"em9 c"ass mode" app"ica4"e to non7!estern societies;

$ ,

does not differentiate the categories kinsmen of the direct ascending "ine and kinsmen Cto the sideD /escripti)e systems differentiate kinsmen of the direct ascending or descending "ine from kinsmen Cto the sideD

2.2 %astian) Ty or and other *ictorians

Adolf (astian F1-2$7105#G9 continued the German tradition of research on &o"ksku"tur that had 4een inspired 4y Herder. He sharp"y criticised the simp"istic schemes of e)o"utionism. He 4e"ie)ed that a"" cu"tures ha)e a common origin' from 2hich they ha)e 4ranched off in )arious directions Fanticipated diffusionismG and that a"" humans share certain e"ementary patterns of thought' E"ementRrgedanken Fanticipated structura"ismG Henr0 Maine F1-227--G9 Ancient Law 6nquiry ho2 changes in "egis"ation ref"ect 2ider socia" changes. /istinguished traditiona" societies 4ased on status from modern societies 4ased on contract. ohann a"ob (achofen F1-1#7-,G "aunched a theory of origina" matriarchy. He argued in fa)our of an e)o"utionary theory that mo)ed from an initia" stage of genera" promiscuity to the first organised form of socia" "ife FmatriarchyG. This idea imp"ies that humanity progressed as fema"e "eaders 2ere rep"aced 4y ma"es. E,(, #0lor F1-327101,G9 o (irst British professor of A7y at Eni)ersity of <.ford. o E)o"utionist o /e)e"oped a theory of cu"tura" sur)i)a"so Esed a trait74y7trait comparati)e method o /efinition of cu"ture. u"ture J ci)i"isation J matter of degree J 2hat unites mankind o S Bastian and Herderian notion of C&o"kD 3ti"" uncommon to do fie"d2ork as an anthropo"ogist Fe.ception 2as 1ico"ai 1ico"aie)ich +ik"ukho7+ak"aiG 6mportance of kinship in this phase of the e)o"ution of anthropo"ogy

2.3 The Go den %ou!h and the Torres E+pedition

after 1-$5s7,5s' there 2as a quiet period in socio"ogy and anthropo"ogy first institutiona"isation of the discip"ine in Britain' Germany' (rance and the E3A and crysta""isation of independent nationa" traditions A research programme ca""ed &iffusionism 2as esta4"ished. 6t studied the origin and dissemination of cu"tura" traits. There 2as a "ack of accurate and detai"ed data' therefore first pu4"ications on anthropo"ogica" fie"d method. FNotes and Queries on AnthropologyG

u"tura" traits that had "ost their origina" functions in society' 4ut had continued' for no particu"ar reason' to sur)i)e

,', .ra1er9 @ast great &ictorian e)o"utionist' 2as a student of Ty"er and 4ecame kno2n for his 2ork CThe Go"den BoughD. (ra?er presented a 37step mode" of cu"tura" e)o"ution Fmagica" stageTre"igious stageTscientific stageG. His main concern 2as to identify patterns and uni)ersa" traits in mythica" thought. #he #orres E/pedition9 F1-0-G from Eni)ersity of am4ridge to the Torres 3traits F4et2een Austra"ia and 1e2 GuineaG to co""ect detai"ed data a4out the traditiona" popu"ation of the is"ands. Academics =oining 2ere A. . Haddon F?oo"ogistG' !.H.%. %i)ers Fpsycho"ogistG and .G. 3e"igman FdoctorG. They can 4e seen as the Cfirst true fie"d2orkersD. 3e"igman 4ecame "ater a centra" figure in British anthropo"ogy and mo)ed the focus from the :acific 6s"ands to Africa Fhe did "ots of 2ork in 3udanG

2.4 ,iffusionism
3tudied the geographica" distri4ution and migration of cu"tura" traits' and posited that cu"tures 2ere patch2orks of traits 2ith )arious origins and histories. Therefore a"" parts of a cu"ture are not necessari"y "inked into a "arger 2ho"e FS e)o"utionists9 societies are coherent and functiona" systemsG. 6t emphasised detai"ed empirica" kno2"edge and systematic comparison. !as chief"y a Germanic specia"i?ation' 2ith centres in Ber"in and &ienna. 6t had "itt"e direct inf"uence on British and (rench anthropo"ogy. /iffusionists de)e"oped comp"e. c"assifications of Kulturkreise and sur)eyed their possi4"e dissemination from an origina" centre. 6t 2asnDt a tota" 4reak 2ith e)o"utionism' 4ut they o4=ected to its uni"inea" and deterministic character /iffusionism 2as important for %ussian anthropo"ogy FUoche"son' Bogora?' 3htern4ergG

2." The -e. /ocio o!y

British Anthropo"ogy 2as inf"uenced 4y continenta" socio"ogy 8c"assica" socio"ogy89 refers to the oeu)re of some theorists 4et2een the 1-#5s and !< 6. Fe.g. +ar.' omte' 3pencerG 1st generation9 +ar.' omte and 3pencer 2nd generation9 TOnnies' /urkheim Fmost important for anthropo"ogyG' 3imme" and !e4er

2.# ,urkheim
De la division du travail social Le suicide and Les !or"es #l#"entaires de la vie r#ligieuse are his ma=or 2orks. He founded l$Ann#e sociologi%ue important for Anthropo"ogy is the 2ork &lassi'ication Pri"itive on the socia" origins of kno2"edge systems F2ith data main"y from Austra"iaG' 2hich he 2rote together 2ith his inte""ectua" successor +arce" +auss -

 concerned 2ith 8synchronic8 e.p"anations society as a socia" organism9 it is a "ogica"' integrated system' in 2hich a"" parts are dependent on each other and 2ork together to maintain the 2ho"e. 3o"idarity keeps society together Fmechanica" so"idarity0' organic so"idarity15G and arises from co""ecti)e representations11. 6n re"igion are the emotiona" attachment of indi)idua"s to co""ecti)e representations esta4"ished and strengthened. This attachment is formed 4y ritua"s' they create a rupture 4et2een the profane and the sacred. ou"d 4e seen as the founder of structura"7functiona"ism

2.0 (a+ We1er

Die protestantische (thik und der )eist des Kapitalis"us * methodo"ogica" indi)idua"ism12 :o2er J the a4i"ity to get someone to do something that he 2ou"d not other2ise ha)e done. @egitimate po2er J po2er 4ased on a minimum of physica" coercion and )io"ence' that has 4een accepted as a "ega"' mora"' natura" or God7gi)en fact of "ife 4y a popu"ace that has 4een taught to 4e"ie)e that this is so. 3 idea" types of "egitimate po2er9 traditiona" authority' 4ureaucratic authority' charismatic authority

society is a more indi)idua" and "ess co""ecti)e endea)our than for +ar. or /urkheim. 6t is an ad hoc order' that is generated 2hen different peop"e 2ith different interests and )a"ues meet and try to con)ince one another and arri)e at some kind of agreement. 6nf"uence on anthropo"ogists after !< 669 e.g. "ifford Geert? and (rederik Barth

3 Four founding fathers

tur4u"ent period of decay and rene2a" after !< 6 L optimism 4egun to fa"ter. 3ym4o"ic points of entry into modernity are (reud8s theory of dreams and the su4conscious and Einstein8s theory of genera" re"ati)ity in this period anthropo"ogy 2as transformed into a modern socia" science. 4 founding fathers had no shared programme' they effected a near7tota" reno)ation of 3 of the 4 nationa" traditions Fthe American' the British and the (rench * the Germanic tradition 2as dominated 4y diffusionismG

:eop"e support the e.isting socia" order and each other 4ecause they share the same e)eryday "ife' carry out the same tasks and percei)e each other as simi"ar
15

3ociety and mutua" commitment are maintained 4y peop"e8s perception of each other as different' 2ith compementary ro"es.
11 12

3ym4o"ic images or mode"s of socia" "ife that are shared 4y a group /omain of interest is the moti)ations of peop"e for their actions

3.1 %oas and historica particu arism

stationed in 1e2 Vork Fin E3' anthropo"ogy 4ecame 8cu"tura"8 anthropo"ogy after Ty"or8s definition of cu"tureG had recei)ed his training from German scho"ars 2ho 2ere sceptica" a4out e)o"utionism' he sympathi?ed 2ith diffusionism 47fie"d approach9 di)ided anthropo"ogy into "inguistics' physica" anthropo"ogy' archaeo"ogy and cu"tura" anthropo"ogy. +ethodo"ogica" strategy9 fie"d2ork 2as often team7oriented' 2as "ong7term and repeated many times o)er the years. This 2as due to 8the fie"d8 2hich 2as c"ose at hand in the E3. 8Historica" particu"arism8 in stead of e)o"utionism9 each cu"ture contains its o2n )a"ues and its o2n unique history' 2hich can' in some cases' 4e reconstructed 4y anthropo"ogists. Fintrinsic )a"ue in the p"ura"ity of cu"tura" practicesG @eft no grand theory or monumenta" 2ork due to his methodo"ogica" indi)idua"ism Fhe sought the particu"ar instance rather than the genera" schemeG students of his 2ere i.a. %uth Benedict and +argaret +ead

3.2 (a ino.ski and the Tro1riand 2s anders

studied under 3e"igman after ha)ing studied under the socia" psycho"ogist !i"he"m !undt spent near"y t2o years on the Tro4riand 6s"ands and 2rote on this fie"d2ork Argonauts o' the +estern Paci'ic 2hich 4ecame a re)o"utionary 2ork in anthropo"ogy ku"a trade9 circu"ating of sym4o"ic )a"ues o)er a "arge area 4et2een the is"ands of +e"anesia. +a"ino2ski 2as the pioneer in 8participant o4ser)ation8 his 2ork made c"ear the a4surdity of a comparati)e pro=ect that compared sing"e traits. L conte.t and interconnections 2ou"d from no2 on 4e essentia" qua"ities of any anthropo"ogica" account the indi)idua" as the system8s u"timate goa"' and his needs as the prime motor of socia" sta4i"ity and chance. Fmethodo"ogica" indi)idua"ismG

3.3 $adc iffe3%ro.n4s 4natura science of society4

studied Anthropo"ogy in am4ridge fie"d2ork on the Andaman 6s"ands Feast of 6ndiaG. Anda"an ,slanders 2as 2ritten in /iffusionist sty"e' "ater he 2ou"d read /urkheim and 4ecome a /urkheimian Anthropo"ogist Structural functionalism 6ndi)idua" is chief"y a product of society. %7B tried to disco)er a4stract structura" princip"es and socia""y integrating mechanisms. 3ocia" structure e.ists independent"y of the indi)idua" actors 2ho reproduce it and can 4e di)ided into discrete institutions 15

or su4systems' such as systems for conf"ict reso"ution' for socia"isation'...G. >inship systems' as =uridica" systems of norms and ru"es' are at heart of the socia" structure. 3tudents of +a"ino2ski 2ho "ater transferred to %7B9 E)ans7:ritchard' (ortes and +a. G"uckman 8+a"ino2kians89 (irth' A. %ichards' E. @each' 6. 3hapera during the inter2ar period there 2as an impressi)e institutiona" e.pansion of anthropo"ogy' in E> and in the co"onies.

3.4 (auss and the search for socia phenomena

nephe2 and student of /urkheim. ontinued his 2ork after /urkheim8s death' took o)er L$ann#e sociologi%ue di)ided the study of ay into three "e)e"s of inquiry9 ethnography9 detai"ed study of customs' 4e"iefs and socia" "ife ethno"ogy9 the empirica""y 4ased craft of regiona" comparison anthropo"ogy9 the phi"osophica""y informed theoretica" endea)our to genera"ise a4out humanity and society on the 4asis of ethnography and ethno"ogy

(ssai sur le don- gift e.change is a means of esta4"ishing socia" re"ations' it is mora""y 4inding' socia""y integrating' is regu"ated 4y firm' if imp"icit' ru"es' and has sym4o"ic aspects other important (rench contemporains9 Arno"d )an Gennep FLes rites de passage. and the phi"osopher @A)y7Bruh" Fla "entalit# pri"itiveG

3." Anthropo o!y in 15367 8ara e s and di&er!ences

common idea of the 4 founding fathers9 cu"tura" traits cou"d no "onger 4e studied in iso"ation Fimportance of conte.t' anthropo"ogy as a ho"istic scienceG differences in methods' theory and institutiona" organi?ation a"so systematic differences' 9 American Anthropo"ogy as a discip"ine 2as "arger and more esta4"ished than in Europe the (rench academic system 2as more centra"i?ed and therefore anthropo"ogy 2as the most e"itist of the nationa" traditions' 4ut a"so the most open7minded F4ecause the e"ite cooperated and discussed 2ith each otherG

4 E pansion and institutionalisation

After !< 66' the co"onia" empires 4egan to fade' 4ut in these years anthropo"ogy de)e"oped into a mature discip"ine. After 104# there came a ne2 2a)e of radica" reform.

11

4.1 A mar!ina discip ine9

the re)o"ution in anthropo"ogy that had 4een going on since 1025' "aid the methodo"ogica"' theoretica" and institutiona" foundations of the discip"ine. (rom the 1035s unti" the 1045s there came a period of conso"idation F2ith %adc"iffe7Bro2n' Benedict' +ead'...G the ne2 anthropo"ogy had a margina" identity from the outset9 founding fathers 2ere most of the time 8outsiders8 Fimmigrants' 2omen' Ue2s'...G it p"aced the 8sa)ages8 on an equa" footing 2ith midd"e7c"ass !esterners Fanthropo"ogists 2ere often radica"ist' po"itica""y speakingG

it remains a discussion if anthropo"ogists' the British in particu"ar' su4mitted or e)en contri4uted passi)e"y to the co"onia" regime. Fp#$9 W 6t has a"2ays 4een the case' and remains a fact that research agenda are constructed in particu"ar historica" conte.ts' and that they themse")es 4ear the imprint of these conte.ts. XG

4.2 :+ford and the is e) Co um1ia and Chica!o

in 1035 on"y one academic centre of the ne2 anthropo"ogy in Great Britain9 @ondon 3choo" of Economics' 2here +a"ino2ski presided Ftaught near"y the entire ne.t generation of British anthropo"ogists9 (irth' E)ans7:ritchard' :o2dermaker' %ichards' 3chapera' (ortes' @each' 1ade"' etcG in the mid735s' E)ans7:ritchard' and "ater %adc"iffe7Bro2n' came to <.ford. +ost important institutiona" de)e"opment in Br. Anthropo"ogy in ear"y 1035s9 the founding of the $hodes+!ivingstone Institute in @i)ingstone' 1orthern %hodesia. Famong the first research fe""o2s 2as +a. G"uckmanG %adc"iffe7Bro2n8s stay in hicago in the 35s stimu"ated the formation of a group of non7Boasian anthropo"ogists undisputed centre of American anthropo"ogy in E3 2as in 1V at o"um4ia Eni)ersity' 2here Boas reigned. (irst group of students Fmain"y European immigrantsG9 >roe4er' @o2ie' Go"den2eiser' 3apir' %adin 2nd group F4orn7and74red AmericansG9 Benedict' Hersko)its' +ead

non7Boasians9 %edfie"d' @. A. !hite' @inton' +urdock' :arsons 4Tc of !< 66' European scho"ars appeared in the E3AK i.a. Gregory Bateson F"inked structura"7functiona"ism and the more psycho"ogica""y oriented anthropo"ogy of Benedict and +eadG

4.3 The ,akar3,;i1outi E+pedition

3ome ha)e the impression that (rench Ay 4et2een 8The Gift8 and @738s 4ook on kinship' e.perienced an impasse. This impression is fa"se. Marcel 'riaule Ffirst ha"f of 25th centuryG9 12

student of +auss did fie"d2ork in A4yssinia "ed the co""ecti)e research pro=ect co)ering "arge areas of (rench Empire in Africa F&a"ar+&2ibouti E/peditionG aim9 stimu"ating ethnographic research in the region procuring o4=ects for the ethnographic museum in :aris inter a"ia study of /ogon peop"e in +a"i and their e.ceptiona""y comp"e. cosmo"ogy

(rench fie"d method differed from the idea" of participant o4ser)ationK they re"ated in a more 4usiness"ike 2ay to their informants than the British and Americans. 6mportance of fi"m and photography9 Griau"e 2orked 2ith ean $ouche' 2ho 2as the founder of the cin#"a v#rit#/0 $oger *aillois F10137,-G9 famous for his studies of ritua"' myth and the re"ationship 4et2een the sacred and the profane. He ana"ysed this /urkheimian topic through ta4oos in societies Michel !eiris F1051705G: L$A'ri%ue !ant1"e is a phi"osophica" and ethnographic tra)e"ogue that anticipated 8postmodernism8 or 8the ref"e.i)e turn8 in Ay 4y ha"f a century Maurice !eenhardt Ffirst ha"f of 25th centuryG9 2as famous for his study of the >anak of 1e2 a"edonia F+e"anesiaG. He had a successfu" career as a missionary' and got a post thanks to @A)y7Bruh" and +auss at the Eco"e :ratique des Hautes Etudes. (rench Ay de)e"oped in near comp"ete iso"ation from British and American traditions. E.ceptions 2ere :au" %i)et and A"fred +Atrau.

4.4 Cu ture and persona ity

$uth (enedict F1--,7104-G and +argaret Mead F10517,-G 2ere students of Boas and concentrated on the re"ationship 4et2een psycho"ogica" factors and cu"tura" conditions Fcu"ture and persona"ity schoo"G. +ain question is to 2hat e.tent human menta" characteristics are in4orn' and to 2hat e.tent they are acquired. They 2ere rather cu"tura"ist in their orientation. :atterns of emotion cou"d' so Benedict and +ead' a"so 4e shared and they 2ere a"so parts of cu"ture. This 2as a rather re)o"utionary idea. /espite the fact that they 2ere criticised' they took the first effecti)e steps to2ards esta4"ishing a psycho"ogica" Ay. Benedict9 inf"uence deri)es main"y from t2o 4ooks 2hich are "arge7sca"e comparisons9 Patterns o' &ulture and 2he &hrysanthe"u" and the Sword 6n Patterns o' &ulture she de)e"oped the idea that cu"ture may 4e ana"ysed as a macropsycho"ogica" pattern.

13

(i"mgenre that integrates the anthropo"ogist and the fi"m cre2 into the fi"m' in order to gi)e a more o4=ecti)e depiction of the circumstances on the set

13

6n 2he &hrysanthe"u" and the Sword she descri4ed the ethos14 of Uapanese cu"ture' 4ased on e.isting "iterature

+ead 2as a contro)ersia" 2oman' she 2as a po"itica" acti)ist and feminist. 3he conc"udes that if cu"ture shapes persona"ity' then it is possi4"e to change persona"ity 4y changing cu"ture. &o"ing o' Age in Sa"oa9 she compared the 8free8 sty"e of socia"isation in 3amoa 2ith the strict' authoritarian sty"e of the American midd"e c"ass. Her 2ork 2as said to 4e unscientific. ritiques 2ere part"y there =ust 4ecause she 2as a successfu" 2oman' 4ut sti"" one can say that here fie"d2ork 2as superficia" and her su4stantia" conc"usions mis"eading.

4." Cu tura History

Kroeber' 2ho 2as Boas8 first student' had other interests from those of Benedict and +ead. He 2as interested in cu"tura" history. The cu"tura" 2ho"e is the superorganic1# and cannot 4e disassem4"ed into their component parts 2ithout "osing their meaning. He is considered as an e.treme methodo"ogica" co""ecti)ist' 4Tc he argues that cu"tures ha)e their o2n' autonomous dynamics' independent of indi)idua"s. %ep"y of Boas9 cu"ture must not 4e reified' it is not an o4=ect independent of human 4eings.

4.# Ethno in!uistics

Ed3ard Sapir made a synthesis of "inguistics and Ay. His main 2ork Language is sti"" a standard 2ork of anthropo"ogica" "inguistics the Sapir+-horf H0pothesis9 differences in "anguages8 synta.' grammar' and )oca4u"ary entai" profound differences in the "anguage users8 2ay of percei)ing and "i)ing in the 2or"d. 3tudy of "anguage and cu"ture remained a pure"y American specia"isation unti" the ear"y 10$5s 2hen the %ationa"ity /e4ate arose in British Ay 3apir regarded cu"ture as "ess mono"ithic and integrated than his contemporaries. u"ture is rather a 4asis for disagreement than a consensus.

4.0 The Chica!o /choo

continuation of Boas8 ideas through a num4er of research pro=ects. 3ome of them di)erged radica""y from his o2n con)ictions' particu"ar"y the neo7e)o"utionist mo)ement of the 10#5s and 10$5s hicago group fo""o2ed Boas and 2as founded 4y :ark and Thomas in 1-05s. Their urgent cha""enge 2as to understand ethnic re"ations in the me"ting pot of metropo"itan hicago.

14
1#

3he referred to 8cu"tura" persona"ity8 as ethos

An integrated system that 2as more than 4io"ogica"' yet seemed to ha)e its o2n innate dynamics.

14

hicago 3choo" is 4est kno2n for its research on peasant societies in @atin America' Eastern Europe' and "ater in 6ndia. :easant studies had its roots in pre)ious studies of rura" communities' 4y East European socio"ogists' historians and economists Finter a"ia A"e.ander hayano)' ("orian !. YnanieckiG.

$obert $edfield F1st ha"f 25th centuryG9 2as concerned 2ith sho2ing ho2 the peasant 2ay of "ife created a particu"ar 8cu"tura" character8 hicago 2as a"so the 4irthp"ace of s0mbolic interactionism9 a pecu"iar microsocio"ogica" tradition that focused on detai"ed ana"yses of person7to7person interaction in "imited' often short7term settings Er)ing Goffman %aymond Bird2histe""

4.< 4=inshipo o!y4

the British structura"7functiona"ists descri4ed the structura" princip"es under"ying the "i)es of 8primiti)es8 4ut in a respectfu" 2ay +ost of them 2ere pupi"s of +a"ino2ski or %adc"iffe7Bro2n Me0er .ortes F105$7-3G9 2as a 3outh African Ue2' origina""y a psycho"ogist. He 4roke 2ith +a"ino2ski. (ortes8 specia"ity 2as kinship. 2he Dyna"ics o' &lanship a"ong the 2allensi 2as an important 2ork for structura"7functiona"ism the high point of structura"7functiona"ism 2as in 104,740' 2hen %7B' (ortes' G"uckman and E7: 2ere a"" gathered at <.ford. %7B sa2 kinship as the engine dri)ing primiti)e society' the g"ue that he"d it together and the mora" uni)erse in 2hich it "i)ed this 2as confirmed 4y (ortes8 studies E7: first 2as committed to kinship studies 4ut struck off "ater in a different direction

E7: carried out his fie"d studies in the 3udan during the 1035s under 3e"igman8s super)ision. +itchcra't 3racles and 4agic a"ong the Azande- on the one hand understands 2itchcraft as a 8safety )a")e8 that redirects socia" conf"icts into harm"ess channe"s Fan integrating de)ice in the 4est /urkheimian traditionG' on the other hand' it is an attempt to make sense of an a"ien 2or"d of thought. 2he Nuer- study of the po"itica" organi?ation of a patri"inear pastora"ist peop"e' 2ritten in spirit of %7B. onf"icts are organised a"ong kinship "ines. :rincip"e of segmentary organisation

+ore interest for Africa in British Ay9 pu4"ication of A'rican Political Syste"s 2ith contri4utions from British anthropo"ogists. 6t distinguished three types of African societies9 1G ega"itarian' sma""7sca"e societies' 2G state societies' 3G "ineage74ased segmentary society 2hich is decentra"ised' 4ut a4"e to form "arge' cooperati)e groups for specific purposes. 1#

4.5 >unctiona ism4s ast stand

(irth secured the direct continuity of the +a"ino2skian programme. He 2as first of a"" an empirica" researcher. @ike +a"ino2ski' he regarded interaction and the ongoing f"o2 of socia" "ife as more fascinating than a4stract structures. He 2as a methodo"ogica" indi)idua"ist. (irth assumed that society 2as an integrated' functiona" system.

4.16

/ome %ritish outsiders

Hocart' 1ade"' (orde 'regor0 (ateson F10457-5G9 his monograph Naven had "itt"e impact on contemporary Ay' 4ut he anticipated se)era" changes in the discip"ine. He married +ead and tried to c"ose the gap 4et2een American and British Ay' 2hich he regarded as unsucceeded.

! Forms of change
6n the decades fo""o2ing the 2ar' Ay 4ranched off in many directions' and it a"so 4ecame more tight"y integrated than 4efore. +utua" kno2"edge across nationa" 4oundaries 4ecame more 2idespread. There 2as an emergent interest in materia" conditions.

".1 -eo3E&o utionism and cu tura eco o!y

ne2 thoughts in Boas8 schoo"9 @o2ie sympathised 2ith e)o"utionism. He accepted that cu"tures' in some cases' e)o")e a"ong the same genera" "ines. He introduced mu"ti"inear e)o"ution Fe)o"ution might proceed a"ong different pathsG neo7e)o"utionism 2as introduced in the E3' thanks 3te2ard and !hite. !eslie -hite F10557,#G9 re=ected that cu"tura" re"ati)ist idea that cu"tures shou"d not 4e 8ranked8 on a de)e"opment sca"e' a"though he got rid of the mora" connotations that the &ictorian e)o"utionists had associated 2ith such rankings. (unctiona"ist )ie29 the function of society is to ensure the sur)i)a" of the group. There are techno"ogica" F2hich is the determining oneG' socia" and ideo"ogica" aspects of cu"ture. Buantitati)e am4ition9 the "e)e" of cu"tura" de)e"opment is the amount of energy harnessed 4y each inha4itant' measured through production and consumption.

Ste3ard: opposed the cu"tura" 8core8 Ftechno"ogy and the di)ision of "a4ourG to 8the rest of cu"ture8. 3 of his contri4ution ha)e had a "asting impact on Ay. He founded modern cu"tura" eco"ogy He de)e"oped a theory of mu"ti"inear e)o"ution' 4ased on archaeo"ogica"' historica"' and ethnographic e)idence He 2as an important pioneer in peasant studies

most important resu"t of !hite8s and 3te2ard8s theoretica" efforts 2as their interest in the re"ationship 4et2een society and ecosystem. 1$

 High points of cu"tura" eco"ogy9 %oy %appaport8s monograph Pigs 'or the Ancestors the 8+an the Hunter8 symposium at the Eni)ersity of hicago in 10$$ Fcu"ture 2as chief"y seen in terms of eco"ogica" adaptation

".2 >orma ism and /u1stanti&ism

(rom the 1045s on2ards' economic Ay 2as de)e"oped as a su4discip"ine. .ormalism: assumes that an economy might 4e descri4ed as a particu"ar kind of action that indi)idua"s ha)e e)ery2here and a"2ays engaged in * action in 2hich the indi)idua" stri)es to achie)e the ma.ima" 4enefit for himse"f andTor his househo"d. +a.imisation J economy. Economy is a uni)ersa" aspect of human socia" "ife. $a0mond .irth strength of forma"ism9 emphasis on the pragmatic choices of indi)idua"s

Substantivism: Economy is not a uni)ersa" form of action' 4ut an 8institutiona" process8. Karl Polan0i: argues that 2hat 2e ca"" 8the economy8 does not e.ist in pre7 capita"ist societies at a""' and that c"assica" economic theory can therefore "egitimate"y 4e app"ied on"y to capita"ist economies. /escri4ed three main types of economyK reciprocity' redistri4ution and market e.change. 3trength of su4stanti)ism9 its a4i"ity to descri4e economic systems as 4eing of fundamenta""y different kinds and characterised 4y different economic rationa"ities.

Bitter de4ate 4et2een 4oth continued 2e"" into the 10,5s and ended 2ith the inconc"usi)e rea"isation that the t2o schoo"s 2ere comp"ementary.

".3 (ean.hi e in %ritain7 the (anchester /choo

10#5s and 10$5s9 ma=or changes in British Ay. 6nte""ectua" "ineage from /urkheim )ia %adc"iffe7Bro2n and E)ans7:richard. change in focus from structure to meaning Fsee ne.t chapterG research at %hodes7@i)ingstone 6nstitute F"ater at +anchesterG 2as pioneering in its methods and su4=ect matter and 2as responsi4"e for the demo"ition of structura"7functiona"ism. !eaknesses of structura"7functiona"ism9 /ue to its e.p"icit assumption that societies tend to reproduce themse")es' it cou"d not account for change. %hodes7@i)ingstone 6nstitute sho2ed in "ong7term fie"d2ork that traditiona" socia" forms' such as kinship' might 4e maintained and e)en strengthened in situations of rapid change

1,

 +ethods of %7@ 6 2ere inno)ati)e9 e.periments 2ith quantitati)e methods Fstatistics' regression ana"ysisGK net2ork ana"ysis1$K e.tended case method1, an idea of change as fundamenta""y unpredicta4"e' 4ecause it 2as a resu"t of count"ess indi)idua" re"ations' each of 2hich 2as ref"e.i)e and )aria4"e. S idea of change as simp"e' ru"e7go)erned transformations 4et2een gi)en socia" conditions from structura"7functiona"ism 'luc"man9 indirect "eader of +anchester 3choo"' researcher of %7@ 6. 3outh7 African Ue2. %emained "oya" to the 4road frame2ork of structura"7functiona"ism. 6nterest in socia" conf"ict' 2hich is u"timate"y integrating. -ilson9 predicted that co"onia"ism 2ou"d u"timate"y resu"t in massi)e cu"tura" change and 8detri4a"isation8.

".4 (ethodo o!ica indi&idua ism at Cam1rid!e

though the +anchester 3choo" headed to2ards a reorientation of British Ay' the metaphor of society as a functiona""y integrated organism remained imp"icit in most of their 2ork. 6n am4ridge 2ork of +a"ino2ski 2as continued' 4ut it 2as a"so a )ita" centre of inno)ation in the discip"ine Fthrough (ortes and GoodyG. .irth Fpupi" of +a"ino2skiG9 the e.ceptiona" indi)idua" is a crucia" agent of change. :roposed a comp"ementary concept to the notion of a sta4"e socia" structure F2hich is staticG' name"y social organisation/5 mediated 4et2een British schoo" an American Ay. Political Syste"s o' 6ighland 7ur"a- a4out tensions and conf"icts in po"itics. 6t demonstrated that socia" "ife is intrinsica""y )o"ati"e' that cu"tura" categories are contested and open to different interpretations' and stressed the "egitimating functions of myth in po"itics. Political leadership a"ong Swat Pathans- the po"itics in 32at F:akistanG as a process fue""ed 4y indi)idua"s8 interests and their strategies 4odels o' Social 3rganisation- argues that socia" structure is a product of 8transactions810 L harshest attack on structura"7functiona"ism

Edmund !each F10157-0G9 3tudent of +a"ino2ski and (irth

.rederi" (arth F102-7 G:

1$

:ioneered 4y Uohn Barnes. 6t 2as designed to trace the changing re"ationships 4et2een peop"e 2ho 2ere not firm"y "oca"ised.
1,

:ioneered 4y Uaap )an &e"sen. A mode of inquiry 2here a sing"e dramatic e)ent or series of e)ents 2as iso"ated and studied in successi)e"y 2ider and 2ider conte.ts
1-

The actua" f"o2 of socia" "ife' in 2hich indi)idua" interests meet' conf"icts and compromises de)e"op' and the pragmatics of er)eryday "ife may de)iate from the norm 2ithout destroying it. FdynamicG
10

pragmatic7strategic e.changes 4et2een ma.imising indi)idua"s' 2hich e)entua""y generate a )a"ue consensus.

1-

his approach dre2 on the theory of games25 tried to grasp the dynamic f"o2 of a socia" fie"d fissured 4y conf"icting interests' 2as he"ped 4y progression of science of forma"ised mode""ing omparison 2ith E7:8s 2ork sho2s the shift that took p"ace in British Ay at the time. FE7: sa2 socia" structure as an o)erarching princip"e' 2hi"e the princip"e of indi)idua" ma.imisation p"ays a simi"ar part for Barth.

other anthropo"ogists associated 2ith am4ridge in the 10#5s9 Audrey %ichards' Uohn Barnes' (rederick Bai"ey L accent on po"itica" Ay' part of the "egacy from structura"7 functiona"ism

"." $o e ana ysis and systemtheory

study of socia" interaction 2as main"y a British mainstay. Though in the E3A' there 2as the 2ork of the hicago schoo" and the forma"ist economic anthropo"ogists' and the psycho"ogica""y oriented contri4utions of $alph !inton. /istinction 4et2een status21 and ro"e22. Best kno2n ro"e theorist is Erving 'offman: focused on the actor' on his or her moti)ations' strategies and decisions. the theory of comp"e.' se"f7regu"ating systems de)e"oped in 1045s 4y 1or4ert !iener focused on re"ationships of circu"ar causation or feed4ack' 2here 8cause8 and 8effect8 mutua""y inf"uence each otherK and the f"o2 of information in such circuits. 4SA: mo)e from the indi)idua" to2ards "arge7sca"e processes (ritain9 attention mo)ed from the co""ecti)e to2ards the indi)idua".

Another inno)ation of the ear"y post72ar years 2as *0bernetics

/ifferences Britain * E3A

" #he $o%er of &ym'ols

most important American sym4o"ic anthropo"ogists9 "ifford Geert? and /a)id 3chneider FBoasian traditionG in Britain9 study of meaning 2as associated 2ith (ra?er' it 2as tainted 2ith e)o"utionism and 2as 4est a)oided. Great e.ception J E)ans7:ritchard.

25 21

3ocia" "ife is a series of ?ero7sum games9 one person8s gain is antoher8s "oss

/efined 4y mora" norms' e.pectations from other indi)idua"s and a peson8s forma" position in a system of re"ations FstaticG
22

The person8s enactment of status in actua" 4eha)iour FdynamicG

10

#.1 >rom function to meanin!

interest in meaning 2as not entire"y a4sent from the mainstream of Br. 3ocia" Ay. Feg. Uack Goody and 6an !att9 2he &onse%uences o' Literacy8 concerned 2ith socia" functions of meaning. Evans+Pritchard hange in his o2n position 2as a mo)ement from function to meaning. re=ected search for 8natura" "a2s of society8 of structura"7functiona"ism' 4ut 2anted understand the meaning of particu"ar socia" institutions. eg. third )o"ume of the 1uer tri"ogy is more interpreti)e than e.p"anatory. +ain am4ition is to make sense of the 1uer 2or"d7)ie2' not to e.p"ain it socio"ogica""y.

Peter -inch' phi"osopher' 2he idea o' a social science and its relation to philosophyargues that it is impossi4"e to esta4"ish o4=ecti)e' 8testa4"e8 kno2"edge a4out cu"tura" phenomena' since their meaning is defined 4y the cu"tura" uni)erse of 2hich they are a part. Victor #urner F10257-3G9 during 10#5s710$5s' he de)e"oped a perspecti)e on sym4o"s and socia" cohesion' 2hich has 4ecome increasing"y inf"uentia" concept of the socia" drama9 some sort of rite of passage 2here under"ying norms are gi)en a sym4o"ic e.pression' and the ritua" there4y contri4utes to the integration of society. oncept of "imina"ity9 the ritua" is a process of transformation 2here4y a person mo)es from one defined state to another' 2ith an inter)ening period of uncertainty and crisis. /uring this period F"imina" stageG' neither o"d nor ne2 ru"es app"yK it is thus 4oth a critica" and a creati)e stage of 4eing. Emphasises mu"ti)oca"ity or mu"tip"e meanings of sym4o"s. student of E7: "inks sym4o"s to socia" institutions in the c"assic /urkheimian 2ay sym4o"s are means of socia" c"assification. The order of the c"assificatory system ref"ects and sym4o"ises the socia" order L intermediate' unc"assifia4"e phenomena represent a threat to socia" sta4i"ity S Barth9 an unorthodo.' unc"assifia4"e person is a potentia" entrepreneur. Findicates difference 4et2een systemic and actor7centred perspecti)esG

Mar0 &ouglas F10217 G9

#.2 Ethnoscience and sym1o ic Anthropo o!y

some of 3apir8s successors de)e"oped ethnoscience in the 10#5s. it 2as concerned 2ith descri4ing 8cu"tura" grammars8' through identifying the 4ui"ding74"ocks of semantic uni)erses or systems of kno2"edge. 25

om4ined the cu"ture and persona"ity schoo"8s interest in socia"isation' forma" "inguistics and the comparati)e study of c"assification 6t died out in the 10$5s 4ut pursued "ater in cogniti)e Ay.

The s2ing to2ards the study of meaning in E3A 2as inf"uenced 4y :arsons. Anthropo"ogists shou"d focus on the sym4o"ic and meaningfu" aspects of socia" "ife' 2hereas the socio"ogists shou"d focus on po2er' "a4our' and socia" organisation

#.3 Geert?and /chneider

4oth 3chneider and Geert? sa2 the di)ision 4et2een socio"ogy and Ay that :arsons proposed as a "imitation. They promoted an idea of cu"ture as an independent' se"f7 sustaining system' 2hich cou"d perfect"y 2e"" 4e studied 2ithout taking societa" conditions into account. Schneider F101-70#G9 proposed a far 4roader )ie2 of kinshipK it constitutes an entire cu"tura" uni)erse. He a4andoned the idea of kinship as a 4io"ogica""y 4ased mode" of human re"ations. !ithin the 8cu"ture of kinship8' each indi)idua" term deri)ed its meaning from the integrated semantic net2ork of 2hich it 2as a part. L redefinition of kinship from socia" structure to cu"ture. 'eert1 F102$ 7 G9 8thick description89 anthropo"ogists shou"d seek to descri4e the 2or"d from the nati)e8s point of )ie2. @eaned on /urkheim' !e4er' 3chNt? and :au" %icoeur. %icoeur had argued that society can 4e interpreted as a te.t' using the interpreti)e methods of hermeneutics23 that 2ere specifica""y e)o")ed for this purpose. Geert? introduced this notion of society as a te.t' that shou"d 4e read. 3ocia" phenomena must 4e read not on"y 4y the anthropo"ogists' 4ut 4y the mem4ers of society themse")es Findi)idua" as a readerG. L this does a2ay 2ith the distinction 4et2een methodica" indi)idua"ism and co""ecti)ism

#.4 @A&i3/trauss and /tructura ism

!%vi+Strauss F105-7 G9 part of inte""ectua" circ"e around 3artre. He f"ed to 1V during the 2ar Fhe 2as a =e2G and 2as inf"uenced 4y Boasian Ay and the "inguist %oman Uako4son. Les Structures #l#"entaires de la parent#8 2ristes 2ropi%ues8 Anthropologie structurale9 Esta4"ished structura"ism' 2hich is a theory that attempts to grasp the genera" qua"ities of meaningfu" systems Fin @738s o2n 2ork' of kinship and mythsG. 3uch systems consist of e"ements' 4ut the e"ements themse")es are re"ationships. u"ture enters kinship through marriage. +eaningfu" re"ationships are formed 4et2een groups through the e.change of 2omen.

23

+ethod of approaching a te.t that has its roots in medie)a" e.egesis of te.ts

21

#." Ear y impact

sma"" impact of @7s on Ang"o73a.on Ay 4efore the 10$5s @each 2as the first to 4e attracted 4y his theories $odne0 5eedham9 ear"y enthusiast for @73 Fstudied 2ith Uosse"in de Uongh in @eidenG most Ang"o7American anthropo"ogists 2ere deep"y suspicious of structura"ism' 4ecause it cou"d not 4e tested empirica""y. !ouis &umont F101170-G9 de)e"oped his o2n 4rand of structura"ism' 4y com4ining impu"ses from @73 2ith c"assica" European socio"ogy into an inf"uentia" theory of socia" integration and sym4o"ic meaning.

#.# The /tateof the Art in 15#<

Anthropo"ogy as a )ery di)erse discip"ine' it had e.panded demographica""y and 2as geographica""y dispersed. Ho2e)er' there 2as sti"" "itt"e contact 4et2een the 3 dominant nationa" traditions' part"y 4ecause of "anguage differences.

( )uestioning Authority
:ro4"em 2ith +ar.ism in Ay J it is essentia""y a theory of capita"ist society' and its message a4out 8precapita"ist societies8 2as couched in the "anguage of uni"inea" e)o"utionism.

0.1 The $eturn of (ar+ism

3te2ard' !hite and G"uckman 2ere inf"uenced 4y +ar. 4ut ne)er referred to him. L ideo"ogica" c"imate in 8#5s and 8$5s 2as neither congenia" nor recepti)e to +ar.ists. /uring "ate 8$5s' +ar.ist theory entered the standard academic )oca4u"ary se)era" distincti)e strands of +ar.ist Ay9 structural Mar/ism political econom0 cu"tura" +ar.ismTsuperstructure studies F2as esta4"ished in Ay in the -5s' entered through 3aid8s <rienta"ism and 2as inspired 4y Gramsci and (rankfurt 3choo"8s critique of the commodification of cu"tureG sensua" +ar.ism

6,7,7 Structural Mar/ism *laude Meillassou/: first e)idence of emerging (rench +ar.ist Ay +ar.ist ana"ysis of su4sistence production in agricu"tura" societies L it tried to map out the dynamics 4et2een the socia" re"ations of production and the techno"ogica" and en)ironmenta" means of production 22

app"y +ar.ist theory on African society FGuro of 6)ory oastG9 po2er rests on contro" o)er the means of human reproduction * o)er su4sistence goods and 2i)es 7 and not o)er the means of production F"ocating po2er 2as pro4"em in +ar.ist AyG

!ouis Althusser9 introduced a measure of f"e.i4i"ity in the infrastructure7superstructure re"ationship. /omination is determined 4y infrastructure. Maurice 'audelier9 mi. 4et2een +ar.ist Theory' A"thusser and comparati)e ethnography and @73. omparati)e study of different economic systems. >inship as part of 4oth superstructure and infrastructure. :roposed a 8forma"ised +ar.ism8 that "ooked for functions instead of particu"ar institutions that took care of economy. 6,7,8 #he not+)uite+Mar/ists American +ar.ist anthropo"ogists 2ere not that po"itica""y acti)e as their (rench co""eagues' 4ut their contri4utions had a more direct 4earing on g"o4a" in=ustice and essentia" po"itica" issues +ar.. Ay in E3A de)e"oped among 3te2ard8s' !hite8s and (ried8s students in the ear"y post2ar years' f"ourished in ,5s and high point 2as in -5s. Sahlins engaged creati)e"y 2ith the +ar.ist de4ates a4out modes of production and forms of su4sistence. His ideas 2ent from cu"tura" eco"ogy )ia +ar.ism to a concern 2ith sym4o"ism. Marvin Harris9 committed to Boasian Ay' "ater disco)ered !hite and 3te2ard. He de)e"oped his o2n research programme' or paradigm' 4ased on the notion that the materia" facts of economy and eco"ogy determine cu"ture direct"y. 6,7,9 Political Econom0 and the capitalist 3orld s0stem Eric -olf F1023700G9 "eading proponent of +ar.ist or +ar.ist7inf"uenced American Ay (urope and the people without history- inquiry into the comp"e. economic' cu"tura" and po"itica" effects of co"onia"ism on the peop"es studied 4y a7ists. !orked on peasant issues in +e.ico L Peasants- intert2ining of the destinies of "oca"ities 2ith "arge7sca"e processesK engine of these processes is most"y economic profit' resu"t is capita" accumu"ation in the centre and e.p"oitation in the periphery. !o"f 2asn8t a"one 2ith interest in 2or"d7system theory' imperia"ism and underde)e"opment Immanuel -allerstein' the 4odern +orld Syste" &ependenc0 theor09 F6.a. Andre Gunder (rank' 3amir AminG sought to demonstrate that e.change 4et2een rich and poor parts of the 2or"d amounted to capita" accumu"ation in the north and depri)ation in the south. Fdependency theorists 2ere most"y no a7istsG L this 2as due to 23

the pro4"em of ay8s re"ation to the issues of neo7co"onia"ism and 3d !or"d e.p"oitation poor masses of the tropics 2ere genera""y not considered 2orthy of sustained a7ica" attention. 3ing"e7peop"e approach fa)oured 4y 4oth the Boasians and the British' cou"d not easi"y 4e reconci"ed 2ith a concern 2ith g"o4a" po"itica" economy historica" re"ationship of ay to co"onia"ism had 4een one of indifference Fe.ception J +anchester schoo"G notion of 8de)e"opment8 2as a difficu"t to s2a""o2 for a7ists 2ho had 4een taught to 4e sceptica" of ethnocentric notions of socia" e)o"ution

Sidne0 Mint19 regiona" focus on the ari44ean F8Backyard of E3A8G +ar.ist po"itica" economy "eft "asting imprint on the profession9 directed attention to the comp"e. inter2ea)ings of "oca" and g"o4a" strands of inequa"ity and po2er' resistance and sur)i)a"K it ga)e attention to the imperati)e materia" conditions of "ifeK grapp"ed 2ith historica" change and 2ith the re"ationship 4et2een 8de)e"opment8 and cu"ture Eduardo Archetti9 8crosso)er8 A7ist 4et2een structura" +ar.ism and po"itica" economyK 2as interested in the under"ying "ogic of peasant societies and their re"ationship to the outside 2or"d.

0.2 >eminism ' and the 1irth of ref e+i&efie d.ork

in #5s and $5s it 2as 8not done8 to speak a4out persona" aspects of fie"d2ork. After pu4"ication of +a"ino2ski8s diaries a de4ate opened up. Group of young American 2omen a7ists responded practica""y to the issue FS %ationa"ity /e4ateG +o"en in the !ield- Anthropological (xperiences * Go"de L M idea of 8positioned8 fie"d2ork24 B19 Ho2 shou"d 2e act as ref"e.i)e fie"d2orkers; %esponded to 2ith series of detai"ed' practica" accounts of ho2 concrete fie"d2ork situations had in fact 4een tack"ed Ed3in Ardener9 7elie' and the pro:le" o' wo"en pro4"em of 2omen J a4sence of fema"e informants in ay F2omen are a muted groupG L due to the distinction 4et2een pri)ate and pu4"ic sphere. !omen are most"y present in pri)ate sphere' man in pu4"ic sphere.

B29 !hat ro"e does gender p"ay in socia" systems;

24

6dea that 4y ref"ecting on her persona" rZ"e in the fie"d' the a7ist "earns to understand e.act"y 2hat kind of data she has recei)ed

24

+o"en &ulture and Society 10,4' F+iche""e Y. %osa"do [ @ouise @amphereG 2omen8s efforts are confined to the immediate )icinity of the home' due to the physica" constraints imposed 4y frequent chi"d4irths Sherr0 :rtner9 ,s 'e"ale to "ale as nature is to culture; /escri4es the train of sym4o"ic associations that connects the socia""y oppressed F2omenG to the non7socia" 2or"d

0.3 Ethnicity
'eorge &e Vos and associates at Berke"ey9 crucia" aspect of ethnicity is se"f7 identification research on 8p"ura" societies82#9 e"a4orated 4y Michael ', Smith. /e4ate J 2hether the ethnic groups that make up p"ura" societies are in fact cu"tura""y discrete' since they ha)e often 4een su4=ected to intensi)e cu"tura" integration. /e4ate among ari44eanists monographs 4y British Africanists on ur4anisation and socia" change. Abner *ohen9 e.p"icit focus on the dua"' emotiona" and po"itica"' character of ethnic sym4o"s continuity 2ith +anchester 3choo" ethnicity is chief"y a socia" and po"itica"' rather than a cu"tura" phenomenonK it is the re"ationship 4et2een groups' not the cu"ture of groups' that gi)es them meaning L to a more processua" concept of 4oundary maintenance

(arth8s edited co""ection (thnic )roups and 7oundaries F10$0G

0.4 8ractice Theory

3herry <rtner posted in 10-4 that a ne2' o)erarching theoretica" paradigm had 4een emerging in ay during the pre)ious t2o decades L W practice theory X J an outgro2th of se)era" dominant tendencies in the discip"ine' most prominent"y the o"d contro)ersy 4et2een actor7oriented and structure7oriented approaches during the 10#5s' and the +ar.ist and feminist 2ork of the 10,5s. Encompassed a )ariety of different research agendas' 4ut common meta7theoretica" interest L unifying methodo"ogica" indi)idua"ism and co""ecti)ism' and e.p"oring the ro"e of the human 4ody situated in a materia" 2or"d as the main "ocus of socia" interaction. Term W practice X referred to +ar.. Aim to unify actor7orientation and structure7 orientation 2as not ne2. Anthon0 'iddens9 reiterates the contrast 4et2een agency and structure as a fundamenta" tension in socia" "ife. onscious strategic actor' acting 2ithin the

2#

3ocieties composed of mu"tip"e ethnic groups

2#

structura" constraints imposed 4y po2er on his 4ody is near"y identica" to <rtner8s concept of practice Pierre (ourdieu9 Ha4itus9 the permanent interna"isation of the socia" order in the human 4ody. 6t is a per)asi)e aesthetica" sty"e of action' 2hich determines the actor in the manner of a dance * you cannot 4reak out of it 2ithout "oss of grace. /istinction 4et2een do.a F2hat is taken for grantedG and opinion F2hat can 4e discussedG Michel .oucault9 discip"ine9 structure and po2er that ha)e 4een impressed on the 4ody' forming permanent dispositions.

0." The socio1io o!y de1ateand /amoa

)ery hosti"e 2e"coming of socio4io"ogy after !i"son8s 4ook 83ocio4io"ogy8 main point9 cu"ture is a 4io"ogica" adaptation &ere" .reeman9 +argaret 4ead and Sa"oa- the <n"aking o' an Anthropological 4yth comp"ete"y opposite findings as +ead8s monograph from 102his critique pro)oked a "ot of reactions' a"so 4ecause he 2rote as a 4io"ogica""y inc"ined a7ist.

!ith the socio4io"ogy de4ate and re"ated issues concerning nature )s nurture' the usua" po"iteness of a7ica" de4ate 2as discarded.

* #he end of modernism+

10-5s9 ur4an decay' competition' indi)idua"ism' ec"ecticism' hy4rids L age of dou4t9 affected the integrity of the )arious nationa" tradition in the discip"ineK their century7 o"d 4oundaries 2ere 4eginning to 4"ur.

<.1 The end of modernism9

mid710-5s9 crisis in ay9 ho2 can a7ist descri4e or represent the peop"e they study; Accusation 2ithin the discip"ine of 8e.otifying the other8 and maintaining the su4=ect7 o4=ect distinction 4et2een o4ser)er and o4ser)ed postmodernism9 different strains' main proponents he"d different )ie2s 8postmodern8 first defined 4y Uean7(ran\ois @yotard9 postmodern condition as a situation 2here there are no "onger any o)erarching 8grand narrati)es8 that cou"d 4e in)oked to make sense of the 2or"d as a 2ho"e. /ifferent )oices competing for attention' 4ut ne)er merging.

2$

 :ostmodernism as an ideo"ogy' an ana"ytica" perspecti)e and an aesthetic that descri4ed the 2or"d as discontinuous and fragmented. 6n Ay postmodernism 4ecame associated 2ith cu"tura" re"ati)ism great importance of Michel .oucault9 sho2ed ho2 the taken7for7granted frame2orks FW discours XG for understanding and acting upon the 2or"d changed historica""y. /iscours J a pu4"ic e.change of ideas' in 2hich certain questions' agendas and definitions e)o")ed as the resu"t of po2er strugg"es 4et2een the participants in the discourse' and imposed themse")es on the sensua" human 4ody. /iscours esta4"ishes a regime of kno2"edge 2orked inspiring for a7ica" 2ork9 ethnographic studies of discursi)e po2er Feg. A4u7@ughodG critiques of a7ica" inquiry &errida9 8deconstruction8 L to deconstruct a te.t J to "ocate the centre of po2er in it' and then "ook for unnoticed' margina" e.pressions' 2hich escape po2er' and a""o2 the reader to interpret the te.t in ne2 2ays. L (or Ay this means the end of ethnographic authority.

<.2 The 8ostco onia .or d

postco"onia" mo)ements in the arts and humanities cha""enged the right of metropo"itan inte""ectua"s to define 2ho 8the nati)es8 2ere and 2hat they 2ere "ike' and questioned the aesthetic and inte""ectua" authority of metropo"itan =udgements. .rant1 .anon9 7lack Skin +hite 4asks Hege"ian ana"ysis of the re"ationship 4et2een 4"ack and 2hite man in the co"onies. :sycho"ogica" portrait of the sense of inferiority and humi"iation Vine &eloria9 &uster Died 'or =our Sins :rof. 6n 1ati)e Am. 3tudiesK the 4ook 2as an attack on a"" kids of "i4era" authorities 2ho spoke a4out and on 4eha"f of 1ati)e Americans' pre)enting them from speaking on their o2n terms postco"onia" mo)ement 2as "aunched in particu"ar 4y Ed3ard Said8s 3rientalis" studies of the <rient from the !est had created an essentia"ised or reified image of their 2ay of "ife' 4ased on a simp"istic and mis"eading dichotomy 4et2een 8us8 and 8them8 and an am4i)a"ent fascination and disgust at the 8irrationa"8' 8sensuous8 and 8mystica"8 East. *ha"ravort0 Spiva"; Home K, (habha9 oncern 2ith suppressed )oices' eg the i""iterate' 2omen' "o2 castes' 4"acks. /econstruction of the hegemony of ma"e' !estern kno2"edge. ohannes .abian9 2i"e and the 3ther traditiona" cu"tura" re"ati)ism FBoasG had 4ecome difficu"t position to maintain 2, effects of postco"onia"ism on the discip"ine9

attention of a7ists dra2n to the "arge7sca"e processes of g"o4a" history de4ate stimu"ated attempts to conceptua"ise the specificity of A7ica" 2riting a4out specific regions

<.3 A ne. departureor a ne. return to %oas9

postmodernist mo)ement in American Ay9 Uames "ifford' 3tephen Ty"er' George +arcus' +ichae" (ischer' %enato %osa"do' :au" %a4ino2. <ther associates9 Uohannes (a4ian' %ichard Hand"er' @i"a A4u7@ughod' Uames (erguson shared concerns uncomforta4"e 2ith the reified 8othering8 and sought to redress this in )arious 2ays' often ad)ocating participation of informants as equa" partners in the production of kno2"edge Fe.perimenta" ethnographiesG. oncerned 2ith modes of representation and the po2er imp"ied 4y particu"ar sty"es of 2riting. critica" of Boasian Fand Geert?ianG idea of cu"tures as integrated 2ho"es 2ith deep historica" roots

Marcus and .ischer9 Anthropology as &ultural &riti%ue importance of ref"e.i)ityK ay shou"d engage in cu"tura" criticism 8at home8 4y 8defami"iarisation8 Fcreating a sense of strangenessG *lifford and Marcus9 +riting &ulture different scho"ars distanced themse")es from the idea of cu"ture as an integrate 2ho"e' questioned the rhetorica" de)ices of 8scientific8 ay' and argued the merits of 4oth 8dia"ogic8 methods and historica" conte.tua"isation in the increasing"y pro4"ematic art of a7ica" representation. L postmodernism dea"t 2ith te.ts no2 L connection 4et2een American postmodernist ay and "iterary studies ho2e)er' 4reak 2ith Geert?9 1G pro4"ematising the 37< re"ationship 4et2een a7 ist and informant and 2G they didn8t see cu"tures as integrated 2ho"es criticisms in "ine 2ith Geert?9 3te)en 3angren' Uonathan 3pencer' +ar)in Harris' Ernest Ge""ner L retreat from ay8s missionK poor"y defined concepts' s"appy thinking' careerism'... ref"e.i)e emphasis on sty"es of 2riting re=ection of a neutra"' non7positioned authoria" )oice app"ication of ref"e.i)ity to ay itse"f

ne2ness of postmodernism9

<.4 :ther &oices

at the fringes of modernism' there 2ere many a7ists 2ho sympathised 2ith some )ie2s of postmodernism 4ut incorporated them in esta4"ished a7ica" theory Victor #urner9 Theory of :erformance udith :"el0 and Helen *allo3a09 Anthropology and Auto:iography "ooked critica""y at the =uncture of kno2"edge production and persona" e.perience 2-

 Maril0n Strathern9 2he )ender o' the )i't +e"anesian cu"ture has 4een serious"y misread 4e Europeans imposing their o2n concepts and pre=udices on itK c"assica" theories of e.change and identity are defecti)e in that hey do not take gender into account $o0 -agner9 2he ,nvention o' &ulture cu"tures are pure"y sym4o"ic constructions' 2ith an inherent capacity for change' inno)ation and ref"e.i)ity #im Ingold9 (volution and social li'e de)e"oped a frame2ork for the study of humanity in its socia"' cu"tura"' 4io"ogica" and en)ironmenta" dimensions' 2ithout reducing on to the otherK proposes to 4ring ay c"oser to other 8"ife sciences8 T2o research fie"ds that sought the "ink 4et2een ay and natura" sciences a0 of development 4udget for de)e"opmenta" aid increased during ,5s L M peasant studies and economic ay L a7ists 2ere among the first to argue the need to orient aid 2ork to2ards sma""er7sca"e pro=ects' to2ards 2omen' and to2ards eco"ogica" a2areness Fthis is no2 2ide"y acceptedG medical a0 contri4uted an understanding of socia" conte.t to standard medica" 2ork %ona"d (ranken4erg Fstudent of G"uckmanG 1ancy 3cheper7Hughes FEni)ersity of a"iforniaG Arthur >"einman

Third research fie"d9 stud0 of nationalism inspired 4y 3 4ooks9 1G Nations and Nationalis" FGe""nerG 2G ,"agined &o""unities FBenedict AndersonG 3G 2he ,nvention o' 2radition FHo4s4a2m and %angerG 6t is more in the margins of the postmodern mo)ement' rather than among its most prominent spokesmen' that most "asting contri4utions of postmodernist de4ate must 4e sought.

, -econstruction
1005s9 fragmentation of the discip"ineK disarrayK increase in pu4"ications' conferences' academics' and mem4ers of associationsK di)ersificationK "arger attention for non7 metropo"itan European anthropo"ogiesK hegemony of Eng"ish "anguage in discip"ine FL po2er asymmetry Q homogenisationTheterogenisation of discip"ineG continuities 2ith the past9 intensi)e participant o4ser)ation the 2or"d is socia""y and cu"tura""y constructed 4acking off from e.treme postmodern positions to2ards a more 4a"anced ethnographic 8rea"ism8

ne2 features to the ay9 20

any simp"e distinction 4et2een us and them' or o4ser)er and o4ser)ed' has 4ecome difficu"t to defend L sharpening of a2areness of ethica" issues in ay any simp"e modern7traditiona" dichotomy has 4ecome near"y indefensi4"e phenomena" gro2th in transnationa" connections of e)ery kind L "eaded to questioning of the taken7for7granted "ink 4et2een groups of peop"e and 4ounded geographica" "oca"ities to 2hich they 84e"ong8. 1e2 interest in the physica" territories occupied 4y peop"e' 2hether they 4e traditiona" ecosystems' ur4an cityscapes' or )irtua" cy4erscapes 1005s had fina""y and successfu""y discredited the o"d idea of 8a peop"e8 possessing 8a shared cu"ture8. L "ong7term drift a2ay from /urkheimian notions of society as an autonomous system

5.1 %io o!y and Cu ture

re)ita"isation of the re"ationship 4et2een ay and se)era" of the natura" sciencesK sti""' there are tensions and distrust 4et2een natura" sciences and socia" sciences. T2o 4road fami"ies of a7ica" approaches that engage more direct"y 2ith the natura" sciences interdiscip"inary fie"d of cognitive sciences suggest a tentati)e re)i)a" of uni)ersa"ism in ay and a re)ersa" of the post7 structura"ist and postmodern trends' 2ith their re=ection of anything reminiscent of scientific pretensions in ay e)o"utionary theory or neo+&ar3inism re7emerging of socio4io"ogy in 1005sK a7ists ha)e most"y re=ected their ideas 4ut the de4ate is "ess )io"ent as it used to 4e uni)ersa"ism 2 c"usters of research9 e)o"utionary ay9 takes as its point of departure ad)ances in human genetics 2hich seem to indicate that the degree of interpersona" so"idarity is determined 4y kinship distance e)o"utionary psycho"ogy9 de)e"opment of a theory of the human mind 2hich sa2 it as composed of specific domains that had origina""y e)o")ed as an adapti)e response to the en)ironment

5.2 G o1a isation and the production of oca ity

g"o4a"isation9 any process that renders the geographica" distance 4et2een "ocations irre"e)ant. /e4ate on ne2ness of g"o4a"isation L /idn8t it a"2ays e.ist; Eriksen and 1ie"sen9 4eyond dou4t that the speed and )o"ume of modern f"o2s of information' peop"e and goods are unprecedented in human historyK though "ong7 distance net2orks of trade' kinship' ritua" e.change and po"itica" conf"ict ha)e pro4a4"y e.isted7 on a much sma""er sca"e7 as "ong as society itse"f.

35

 /istinction 4et2een g"o4a"isation and g"o4a"isation studies a g"o4a"ising process has erased the 4arriers around the region' 4ut a7ists are 4usy "oca"ising themse")es in it and defining the 8ethnographic region8. @oca" effects of g"o4a"isation g"o4a"isation emerged after studies of ethnicity and nationa"ismK po"itica" economyK +ar.ian7@eninist theory of imperia"ismK peasant studiesK modernisation studies E"f Hanner?9 study of American ghetto "ife in hicago tradition cu"ture as a f"o2' process and partia" integration rather than sta4"e' 4ounded systems of meaning. Genera" g"o4a" processes ha)e specific "oca" consequences. FL g"oca"isationG ne2 B8s L inno)ati)e theoretica" formu"ations actor7net2ork theoryK (runo !atour Ar2un Appadurai9 2he production o' localityany society must interact 2ith this conte.t L ay shou"d seek to e.p"ain f.e. %itua"s as instruments for 8producing "oca"ity8 Marc Aug%9 Non>Lieux sta4i"ity of 8p"ace8 can no "onger 4e taken for granted in this disem4edded 2or"d

kinship 4et2een g"o4a"isation studies and postmodernist deconstructionism F3trathernK George +arcusG emergence of g"o4a"isation studies L fina" demise of the c"assica" a7ica" notions of 8cu"ture8 and 8society8 caused main"y 4y fact that there is an empirica" rea"ity to 4e o4ser)ed' 2here e)en the idea" type of the sta4"e' iso"ated' 8authentic society8 or cu"ture' seems increasing"y anachronistic criticisms9 g"o4a"isation as a mere"y fancy name for neo7imperia"ism' c"eansed of po"itica" dimension ay shou"d continue to emphasise the "oca" and the unique prophets of g"o4a"isation e.aggerated the reach of modernity

5.3 8ostscript
some of the c"assic tensions of ay are sti"" intact ay as a genera"ising science )s. ay as one of the humanities a7ies of society focusing on agency' socia" structure' po"itics )s. a7ists of cu"ture focusing on sym4o"s' menta" structures' meaning approaches that primari"y see society and cu"ture s historica" phenomena )s. approaches that primari"y search for time"ess' unchanging structures and patterns

31

...and others L it is on"y if these conf"icts are made sufficient"y e.p"icit that the discip"ine can continue to thri)e' can de)e"op ne2 perspecti)es and ne2 kno2"edge.

32