Glossary of Sociological Terms

11-Plus Exam Examination introduced with the 1944 Education Act, sat by all pupils in the state sector at the age of 11. f they passed they went to the selecti!e "rammar #chool, or if they failed to the #econdary $odern #chool. %his exam still exists in some counties such as &ent and also in 'orthern reland. Exam made a!ailable only to a minority of )high-flyers) in #econdary $odern schools, offering a late chance to go to "rammar #chool at the age of 1(. A term associated with ,ill -utton to describe an increasingly insecure and polarised society. %he bottom *+ per cent is socially excluded by po!erty from the rest of society. %he next *+ per cent li!e in fear and insecurity of falling into po!erty. .nly the top 4+ per cent feel secure and confident.

1(-Plus Exam

)*+-*+-4+ society)

A abortion %he 19/0 Abortion Act permitted termination of pregnancy by a registered practitioner sub1ect to certain conditions and was introduced in 19/2. 3urrently around one-third of conceptions outside marriage are terminated in an abortion. Effecti!ely introduced )abortion on demand) for women outside marriage, pro!iding two doctors agreed the physical or mental health of the mother would be affected by the pregnancy. %he measured mo!ement from one social location to another, whether )upwards) or )downwards). %raditional definition of po!erty associated with an absence of basic human needs, such as food, shelter, warmth and clothing. t is often associated with the concept of a po!erty line. %hose below this line are in absolute po!erty. %his can be physical, sexual and !erbal. Associated with children but partners can be abused too. A means of ac6uiring something. n sociological terms, this is related to notions of ine6uality because people from different social groups ha!e differing chances of succeeding, or gaining entry to social institutions. Acculturation is the process whereby through contact between different cultures, a complex process of cultural adaptation and change occurs.

Abortion Act 419/05

absolute mobility

absolute po!erty

abuse

access

acculturation

achie!ed status

#ocial prestige or ran7ing that has been earned through effort, such as educational success, employment position, etc. A theoretical approach that sees action as something purposi!ely shaped by indi!iduals within a context to which they ha!e gi!en meaning. A 9abour go!ernment initiati!e whereby failing schools )named and shamed) by .fsted inspectors are run by a partnership between the school, local councils and local businesses. %he !iew that ageing process is delayed and 6uality of life is enhanced when old people remain socially acti!e. #ociological term for people engaging in roles or social interaction with others in the pursuit of meanings. 9in7ed to control theory of crime, it refers to the practice of ris7 assessment which identifies who and where in society poses the greatest ris7 of crime and de!iance. %hey are then targeted and acted against. t is associated with :eeley and #imon. %erm used by %alcott Parsons to explain why social change occurs. ;rawing on the wor7 of 3harles ;arwin, he !iewed change as e!olutionary and dri!en by functional need to adapt and respond to wider changes in the social en!ironment 4social structure5. %erm coined by 9ea and <oung to describe -ome .ffice inspired policies that stress that crime can be tac7led through a series of administrati!e measures, designed to deter crime by remo!ing opportunities. =esponsibility for crime is placed on people to loo7 after their property. %hese are self-managed pri!ately-sponsored schools within the state sector. Aetiology is the study of causes, commonly applied in the topic areas of health and de!iance in sociology.

action theory

action 8ones

acti!ity theory

actor

actuarialism

adapti!e upgrading

administrati!e criminology

ad!anced schools

aetiology

affluent wor7ers

%erm gi!en by "oldthorpe et al to the s7illed manual wor7ers they studied in 9uton. ,hen people of different ages experience ine6uality in the distribution of pri!ileges or power. Pre1udice and discrimination against people on the basis of age.

age stratification

ageism

agencies of socialisation

Agencies of socialisation are social institutions which form part of the process of passing on to people the norms and !alues of their society. t is from agencies of socialisation that we learn how to act in the way that others expect of us. #elf-moti!ated beha!iour. %his is in contrast to beha!iour shaped by wider structures we belong to and which act to influence how we beha!e. $axwell E. $c3ombs and ;onald 9. #haw used the term agenda setting to discuss the way in which the media can decide for people which things they should worry about by reporting some stories more than others Agencies of social control are social institutions which pass on to people the rules by which we all must li!e. ,hen men beha!e in a !iolent and anti-social manner, often as new way of asserting their masculinity when traditional forms, such as breadwinning and pro!ision, are not a!ailable. American sociologist associated with attempts to re!i!e functionalism in the 192+s as )neofunctionalism), although he has since distanced himself from this pro1ect. -e is a strong supporter for the principle of synthesising structure with action. :rench social philosopher who is associated with the influence of ideologies, from the institutions in society, ma7ing people conform through a false class consciousness. -e referred to these institutions as the )ideological state apparatuses) 4 #As5. A !iew which is dominated by the concerns of men and which marginali8es or obscures the interests of women. 'ame gi!en to =obert $erton)s model whereby he adapts ;ur7heim)s concept of Anomie to explain crime in terms of not ha!ing the means to achie!e society)s goals. ,hen indi!iduals no longer feel regulated by or integrated into a society where norms and !alues guiding conduct ha!e bro7en down. Academic study of all the cultures and societies within the world. %raditionally, anthropologists focused on non-,estern cultures? today they can e6ually study cultural life in industrial and urban locations.

agency

agenda setting

agents of social control

aggressi!e masculinity

Alexander, >effrey 41940-5,

Althusser, 9ouis 41912-199+5,

androcentric

anomic paradigm

anomie

anthropology

anti-essentialism

A stance ta7en 4e.g. by third wa!e feminists or postmodernists5 that recogni8es difference and indi!iduality within groups, rather than assuming e!eryone within a group is homogenous and has experiences and meanings in common. #ome pupils in schools form friendship groups that re1ect the aims and !alues of the school as a whole. Another term for the upper-class, but referring specifically to those associated with inherited wealth and nobility. Aristocracy is thus associated with titles, ancestral homes, and the landed gentry. %oday the upper-class also includes rich entrepreneurs and, to some extent, celebrity )1et set). Although he was not a sociologist, his belief that the parts of society, whilst contributing to the whole, remained independent of it, reflects elements of later sociological thin7ing. ,hen marital partners are chosen by parents, although the right to !eto or to choose partners with parental agreement is now common. %ypically associated with $uslim, -indu and #i7h religions of the #outh Asian community, but e6ually a feature of upper class family practice. An Anti-#ocial @eha!iour .rder. A#@.s are a contro!ersial element of 'ew 9abour policy to counteract criminal and antisocial beha!iour. 'eighbours complaining about indi!iduals are able to apply for an A#@. to control their actions. #ocial standing o!er which the indi!idual has no control, such as prestige associated with factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, etc. %he process whereby minorities adopt and blend into the dominant culture of the host nation. 'ot e6ual or balanced. .pposite of symmetrical which when applied to the family means e6uality. %he idea prominent in the nineteenth century that criminal types stemmed from less-de!eloped humans. t is associated with 3esare 9ombroso. :amilies whereby the meaning and 6uality of contact with extended 7in is restricted by geographical distance, described by Peter ,illmott %he people who buy or consume a media product

anti-school subculture

aristocracy

Aristotle 4*24-*(( bc5

arranged marriages

asbo

ascribed status

assimilation

asymmetry

ata!ism

attenuated extended family

audiences

authority

An expression of power exercised through the acceptance by the less powerful of the legitimacy of those in dominant positions. %he unconscious part of the ner!ous system connecting the brain to our internal organs, senses, s7in and muscles.

autonomic ner!ous system 4ans5

b @ac7 to @asics Policy of the >ohn $a1or 3onser!ati!e go!ernment 4199+19905 to return to strong family !alues, including support for the traditional family. %oo many scandals in!ol!ing 3onser!ati!e $Ps cheating on their families reduced the policy to moc7ery 4'@. >ohn $a1or e!en had an affair with Edwina 3urry5. %erm used to describe the 4'ew =ight5 reaction against feminism in the 192+s and 199+s. Adaptation of absolute po!erty associated with particularly Amartya #en. t defines po!erty in terms of the absence of common social social needs. $ost !ictims of domestic !iolence are women, although men can be battered by female partners or homosexual male partners. %here appears to be !ery little recorded !iolence between lesbians. :rench postmodernist, but he does not share the !iew that people as liberated by choice and di!ersity, but rather reduced to a state of stupor by the banality of a world dominated by media tri!ia and distortion, to the point that we can no longer differentiate between fiction and realityA a state he calls )hyperreality) and )simulacra). -e recognises the importance of consumption as a source of identity. -e sees consumption ha!ing replaced occupation and class as a new form of stratification. %hose with a means to 1oin in en1oy a lifestyle of )consumption fetishism) with those lac7ing the means being reduced to the status of outsiders as )flawed consumers). #chools and colleges deemed centres of excellence. %hey are held up as models to be emulated and the teaching staff are expected to share their good practice with neighbouring schools and colleges. As people ha!e fewer children, but are at the same time li!ing longer, family trees are becoming longer and thinner sometimes extending to four generations.

bac7lash

basic needs po!erty

battered partners

@audrillard, >ean 419(9-5

@auman, Bygmunt 419*C-5

@eacon schools

beanpole family

@ec7, Dlrich 41944-5

"erman sociologist who sees society as ha!ing undergone a fundamental change in the second half of the twentieth century lin7ed to an awareness of the possibility of catastrophic change from nuclear disaster, war or en!ironmental pollution. %he response has been to de!elop what he refers to as the )ris7 society). American sociologist particularly associated with de!eloping labelling theory. -e became a leading figure in the #ymbolic nteractionist mo!ement of the 19C+s and 19/+s particularly through his contributions to the topics of ;e!iance and Education, and his support for participant obser!ation as a research method. Putting a slant on something so that it reflects your pre1udices and !iews and it is not a true image of the world. %he notion that biological features ha!e an impact on beha!iour that is largely beyond an indi!idual)s control.

@ec7er, -oward 419(2-5

bias

biological determinism 4also 7nown as e!olutionary psychology5 bio-medical model of illness

%his suggests that the basis of disease, including mental illness, is physical in origin. %ypically expressed as the number of li!e births per 1+++ women of child bearing age. #ometimes 7nown as the )irregular economy) where wor7 is done in exchange for money but is not officially declared, particularly to the tax authorities. Argues any feminism which fails to fully examine and theori8e racism is flawed. %o eliminate women)s oppression, racism plus capitalism and patriarchy need to be challenged. %erm for the common African-3aribbean family headed by a lone female mother. #eries of fi!e 'ew =ight inspired papers written in the 190+s by 3ox and @oyson that condemned the failing nature of the comprehensi!e system. 3rime of ta7ing "odEs name in !ain. 9aws in D& only apply to the 3hristian "od A student of $ead, he coined the term )symbolic interactionism) and further de!eloped the concept of self through a recognition of the importance of choice as people thin7 through alternati!e courses of action.

birth rate

blac7 economy

blac7 feminism

blac7 matrifocal family

@lac7 Papers

blasphemy

@lumer, -erbert 419++-19205,

bossism

%erm associated with =obert $erton to refer to political rac7eteering. $erton saw the Fcorrupt political machineE as pro!iding a!enues of social mobility, not 1ust for indi!iduals, but also for some depri!ed subgroups. %he name &arl $arx ga!e to the dominant class who own the means of production in capitalism. Gictim study of 11,+++ citi8ens underta7en now annually by the -ome .ffice as another indication of amounts and trends in crime to compare with the official crime statistics. %heory of >ames H. ,ilson, similar to A.-. @ottoms) concept of )tipping) whereby informal social controls of law-abiding citi8ens 7eep areas respectable and largely crime-free. @ut if inci!ilities become common then areas soon decay into antisocial beha!iour and more serious crimes. A )modest but ade6uate budget) based on a combination of items considered essential by at least half the population and expert 1udgement. A post-structuralist feminist who challenges the assumption that women)s experiences are either all the same or e6ually oppressed. Adopting an anti-essentialist position she re1ects the collecti!e term )women) and ad!ocates a celebration of the differing experiences and attitudes amongst women.

bourgeoisie

@ritish 3rime #ur!ey

bro7en window thesis

budget standard approach

@utler, >udith 419C/-5,

c canalisation %he gi!ing of gender-specific toys, boo7s, games to boys and girls. A form of )occupational culture) reflecting the attitudes, !alues and beha!iour de!eloped by the police. %his culture is seen to promote both sexism and racism. Economic system seen by $arxists as centred on the oppression of the wor7ing class, through their exploited position of creating all the wealth, but since they do not own the means of production, they recei!e only a fraction of its !alue as wages. %he process of loc7ing people up, as with prison, borstal, detention centres and secure psychiatric hospitals. %erm that stems from the %hatcherite 192+sI199+s when mental health institutions were closed on humane grounds of eradicating Gictorian asylums and relocating the mentally ill bac7 with families or hostels within the community. 3ynics argue the policy was primarily to sa!e money.

canteen culture

capitalism

carceral

care in the community

case study

%he study of one person or incident and drawing conclusions from that study that can be applied more widely. #ystem of rigid layering of society associated with the -indu religion. 4194(-5 #panish social theorist who argues the defining transformation of society has been the recent communication re!olution and its global impact, creating a )networ7 society). Essentially a :reudian based psychological idea, particularly associated with :eshbach 419/15, who argues that on-screen !iolence may actually diminish real life !iolence. A similar argument is made by some feminists about pornography ,hen there is a clear and identifiable relationship between two factorsA one causes the other 4see also next item5. %he ultimate goal of positi!ists who belie!e that society is go!erned by laws and that in a matter of time these will be disco!ered allowing predictions to be made. 3losed circuit tele!ision. $any countries do not allow certain sub1ects to be shown or discussed in the media, most commonly, sex and !iolence. 3ensorship is when the bloc7ing of certain topics is official in some way. %erm associated with Edmund 9each to describe the romantic image of the traditional two-parent family featured on the bac7 of corn fla7e pac7ets in the 19/+s. %he assumption that there is a gradual mo!ement towards e6uality in con1ugal roles. Perhaps the most famous exponent of this theory is the wor7 of ,illmott and <oung and their !iew that roles are mo!ing towards symmetry. Parental super!ision or obser!ation of where their children are, who they are with and when they are expected home. #ociological department at the Dni!ersity of 3hicago where the perspecti!e of #ymbolic nteractionism was de!eloped. n the 19(+s and 19*+s they established a lin7 between the en!ironment, depri!ation and 1u!enile crime. "o!ernment funded agency set up to ma7e absent parents 4usually fathers, but exclusi!ely5 more financially responsible for their children whom they no longer li!e with.

caste

3astells, $anuel

catharsis

causal relationship

cause and effect relationship

33%G censorship

cereal-pac7et family

changing roles theory

chaperonage

3hicago #chool

3hild #upport Agency

church

A building in which people worship. #ociologically, a church refers to an organisation of people who share a certain system of beliefs. @elonging to, being a member of a nationality. %erm used by Pat 3arlen to describe the expectation imposed on women to accept a wage for wor7. %he process whereby social class becomes an identifiable phenomenon in both an ob1ecti!e and sub1ecti!e sense. t in!ol!es elements of class consciousness and action. %erm associated with %alcott Parsons to describe in his !iew the structure of the typical pre-industrial family Huestions with a determined set of fixed answers, often in the form of multiple choice. .pposite of an open society. n a closed society these is limited or no opportunity for social mobility. A situation 4such as a science laboratory5 where all !ariables can be controlled. %he idea that media messages ha!e a greater impact if the audience agrees with the media message beforehand. %he idea that people are unrecepti!e to media messages they do not agree with. 9i!ing together in a sexual relationship without ha!ing undergone a wedding ceremony. %erm associated with @asil @ernstein to reflect strong classification of sub1ects with differentiation and speciali8ation. t is particularly associated with traditional sub1ects and approaches to education that historically fa!oured the old middle class. %erm associated with Emile ;ur7heim to mean shared moral !alues deri!ed from religion - or it could also stem from the education system. %oday it may be associated with the mass mediaJ %erm associated with Emile ;ur7heim to reflect shared social !alues.

citi8enship class deal

class formation

classic extended family

closed 6uestions

closed society

closed system

cogniti!e consonance

cogniti!e dissonance

cohabitation,

collection code

collecti!e conscience

collecti!e culture

communal economy

%erm associated with "ershuny and Pahl applying to wor7 done outside the household but without money exchanging hands. %his includes !oluntary wor7, but also co!ers 7inship and neighbourhood-based networ7s pro!iding reciprocal ser!ices. 3ollecti!e body of people who share li!ing accommodation to !arying degrees. A form of social organisation that gi!es people a sense of belonging in some form to a larger group either geographically or as an identity. A consensus model of the police which sees the police force operating in a manner that reflects the will and !alues of the population, upholding law and order through a good relationship with the community. %erm that reflects the middle class who bought houses in the suburbs of towns and cities and commute to wor7. %erm used to describe the 1ointness of couples, not only in terms of the tas7s they perform, but e6ually in their leisure acti!ities too. A systematic comparison between societies or groups within a society. n this way relationships or correlations may be obser!ed, with comparisons ser!ing to explain whether there might be causal explanations in!ol!ed. %erm associated with @ob 3onnell that refers to how men 4e!en if they do not manifest )hegemonic masculinity5 still benefit from what he calls )the patriarchal di!idend) of cultural ideas that reflect the interests of men. :eminist term, associated with >udith @utler, to describe the cultural pressures that exist in most societies to conform to heterosexual practices. As feminists they feel lesbian expression, which many women feel, is suppressed. A :rench social-philosopher who coined the name )sociology) and de!eloped the sub1ect as a response to the Enlightenment. 3omte argued the case for determinate laws history necessarily mo!es through a succession of stages culminating in the scientific epoch of )positi!ism). %he circles identified by #haw and $c&ay of the 3hicago #chool whereby crime le!els decreased the further areas of 3hicago were away from the )8one of transition).

communes

community

community policing

commuting class

companionate

comparati!e method

complicit masculinity

compulsory heterosexuality

3omte, Auguste 41092-12C05,

concentric 8ones

confidentiality,

&eeping secrets so that people can spea7 freely about things that concern them, without fear of ridicule or embarrassment. 3ompeting for power and domination between social groups. %his social perspecti!e is associated with $arxism and feminisim. %heories which suggest that society is composed of groups of people in competition for resources and power. A term within =obert $erton)s anomic paradigm describing the typical law-abiding citi8en who continues to accept the goals and the means set by society, e!en though )failure) is the li7ely outcome. A commonly agreed position or set of !alues. 3onsensus is a 7ey concept associated with the functionalist perspecti!e. 'otion that a powerful minority conspire to promote their mutual self-interests o!er the ma1ority. %hings that control what the media may and may not report. ,hen an idea, concept or theory is open to criticism and challenge. %he ability to exert power o!er other people. %heory of crime that is not interested in why people brea7 the rules of society, but as7s what ma7es people conform in the first place. %his suggests that different social classes are becoming more ali7e in norms, !alues and culture. .ne of the first generation of American sociologists who is perhaps most famous for his phrase )loo7ing-glass self) a term that show how we build up a picture of our own identity form the reaction of others. Process whereby educational failure is not connected to unfair and une6ual structural factors, but internalised by indi!iduals in terms of personal inade6uacy or failure. 3riminal actions carried out by companies that ignore laws such as those relating to health and safety or which commit other illegal acts.. $arxists argue how both the si8e and significance of this is played down. -a8el 3roall argues how corporate crime is )softened) through the use of terms li7e )cons), )rip-offs) and )fiddles).

conflict

conflict theories.

conformity

consensus

conspiracy theory

constraints on the media. contestable

control control theory

con!ergence theory,

3ooley, 3harles 412/4-19(95

cooling out

corporate crime

correlations

Apparent lin7s between two !ariables, such as female and higher performance in the education system. 'ote a correlation is a lin7 not a determinant so being female does not guarantee educational success. ,hen the sub1ect matter of the researcher is unaware that research is being carried out. An act punishable by law, as being forbidden by statute or in1urious to the public welfare. %he way in which certain acts can become illegal as a result of changes in the law Another name for the neo-$arxist inspired =adical 3riminology, characterised by the wor7 of %aylor, ,alton and <oung with their 'ew 3riminology. %his report highlighted the considerable wastage of wor7ing class talent in @ritain. Along with the subse6uent =obbins 419/*5 it found correlations between measured ability, socioeconomic status and educational achie!ement. Police slang for dishonest recording of crime to reduce the official rate, also 7nown as )#panish practices). =arely used sociologically, a cult is a new religious mo!ement. %erm, particularly associated with "eorge "erbner, to highlight how the media can generate a distorted sense of reality that bears no relation to their actual personal experiences. %erm associated with Pierre @ourdieu that describes both the inherited !alue system and consumption practices of the higher social classes that helps them to )get on) especially through the education system. %he !alued 7nowledge of a culture. #ome people experience a culture which lac7s the social s7ills needed for success. #ome people do not ha!e access to cultural capital and do not gain the social 7nowledge rele!ant for success. %he differences between cultures. %his suggests that the media influence us through the steady repetition of ideas and images in the form of a drip-feed of ideas. t is associated with "reg Philo of the "lasgow $edia Dnit.

co!ert

crime

criminalisation

critical criminology

crowther report 419C95

cuffing

cult culti!ation analysis

cultural capital

cultural deficits,

cultural depri!ation,

cultural di!ersity cultural effects theory

cultural imperialism

%erm associated with >eremy %unstall to describe how ,estern 4typically D#5 media organi8ations create a new 7ind of post-colonial empire o!er %hird ,orld centred on ideas. %he imposition of ,estern cultural !alues on the assumption they are superior to non-western !alues. <our sense of right and wrong depends on the !alues of your culture. %he reinforcement of consensus norms, !alues and attitudes, including hegemonic ideology. $arxist critics see the mass media as a powerful institution of cultural reproduction. %he way in which a culture is passed on from one generation to the next. ,hen certain crimes become the cultural norm, e.g. !andalism in urban areas. %hese de!iant !alues are transmitted within and across generations o!er time. %erm gi!en to reflect the renewed interest in all aspects of culture and identity in the 192+s and 199+s. %his interest has to be seen as occurring at a time of the de!elopment of other crucial thin7ing, such as ideas on postmodernist society, globali8ation and en!ironmentalism. )%he web of meanings and !alues that indi!iduals li!e their life within) 4$ooney et al., (+++5. %he rules of your society %erm associated with .scar 9ewis who from his study in the 19C+s of shanty towns concluded that fatalistic attitudes were socialised into children ma7ing them adopt subcultural attitudes of complacency. %hey thus became resigned to li!ing in po!erty and lac7ed any moti!ation to free themsel!es from po!erty. %erm associated with Paul "ilroy to reflect how ethnic minorities ha!e de!eloped a culture that resists racial oppression. "ilroy sees crime as part of an )anti-colonial struggle) a political rather than a criminal act. ;eadline by which people no longer ha!e access to the public space and must be in their homes.

cultural penetration

cultural relati!ity

cultural reproduction

cultural transmission

cultural transmission 4criminal5

cultural turn

culture

culture of po!erty

culture of resistance

curfew

; dar7 figure of crime %his is also 7nown as the hidden figure of crime and refers to unreported and unrecorded crime about which little is 7nown.

dar7 side of crime statistics

'ame gi!en to the in!isible unreported and unrecorded crime that exists but is not 7nown. t represents the difference between the official crime rate and the real crime rate. %erm used to challenge the romantic !iew of the family by perspecti!es such as feminists and =adical Psychiatrists. %hey highlight the extent of conflict and !iolence in families. %ypically expressed as the number of deaths per 1+++ women of child-bearing age. ;ishonesty. %he di!ision of the population into tenths. %he right to decide how others should act. %he messages interpreted from a media )text) by the audience. 'oteA these may be different from the author)s encoded messages. @road concept about the how a person )comes across) in terms of appearance, attitude and manner. #ystem of go!ernment where people participate. &ey changes to the population which impact on the family. :or example, declining fertility rate, ageing population and delayed pregnancy. An organised religious grouping with many members, it is not lin7ed to the state and may be an off-shoot of another religion or church. ;ependency refers to a state of relying of someone else for your needs. n sociology, dependency culture is used to refer to people who rely on benefits to li!e instead of getting paid wor7. :rench mathematician, scientist, and philosopher, considered to be the father of modern philosophy and the famous phrase )3ogito ergo sum) 4) thin7, therefore am)5. -e de!eloped a dualistic system in which he distinguished between mind and matter. .ccurs when exposure to screen !iolence renders children less sensiti!e to the shoc7 and horror of such !iolence. %erm particularly associated with the neo-$arxist -arry @ra!erman who argues that not only the wor7ing class, but professionals li7e teachers and nurses are being des7illed in the wor7place. %his concept is lin7ed to proletarianisation.

)dar7-side) of the family

death rate

deceit decile group decision ma7ing decoding

demeanour

democracy demographic changes

denomination

dependency

;escartes, =enK 41C9/-1/C+5

desensitisation

des7illing

determinism

%he belief that one thing directly causes another. %he theoretical idea that people ha!e limited 4if any5 free will and that their li!es are shaped by structures external to them and beyond their control 4see #tructuralism below5. %he degree of industrialisation, health, welfare and education of a nation :ailure to conform to culturally expected norms of beha!iour. @rea7ing social rules %erm originally de!eloped by 9eslie ,il7ens, it refers to the unintended outcome of moral panics or social policies whereby the media, in particular, exaggerate the social problem out of proportion. %he concept was clearly illustrated by #tan 3ohen with his study of mods and roc7ers. %erm associated with -oward @ec7er to illustrate how de!iant beha!iour may result in social reactionIconse6uences that are self-perpetuating. ;e!iance can also include groups as well as indi!iduals. %his is the opposite of centralisation of power. "o!ernment rights and responsibilities ha!e been de!ol!ed 4gi!en bac75 to regions of the D&. ,ord deri!ed from the "ree7 meaning Lscattering of seedsL. As a result of global mo!ement of people, it reflects how immigrants bring elements of their culture to their new countries. Paul "ilroy explicitly tal7s of )@lac7 Atlantic) to describe elements of African culture in the blac7 communities across the globe. ,hen de!iance is learnt and transmitted by the proximity of de!iant people around, especially those who are proximate such as family and friends who !iewed as role models. %he differences between the educational achie!ements of certain social groups %erm associated with 3hristine ;elphy who argued that men spend considerably more on their own personal items of consumption than women. %he social differences in status and power between !arious social groups A physical or mental inability to do something that most other people would consider normal.

de!elopment

de!iance

de!iancy amplification

de!iant career

de!iant sub-cultures de!olution

diaspora

differential association

differential attainment,

differential consumption

differentiation

disability

discourse

3oncept of $ichel :oucault to illustrate how language shapes our thin7ing. :oucault belie!ed there is no such thing as absolute truth, but at any one moment in time a dominant )way of seeing) exists shaping our understanding. .!er time this discourse may well be replaced by another. Ability to act on a pre1udice An illness or a sic7ness that has recognisable symptoms A sense of being at odds with things or feeling cynical about something. %erm coined by Alan @ryman, which has some parallels with "eorge =it8er)s $c;onaldi8ation, which describes the ;isney 3orporationEs approach to consumersA themes, dedifferentiation of consumption, merchandising and emotional labour. %erm associated with 9ash and Drry to describe how the post-194C &eynesian demand-managed capitalism has been replaced by a more global multinational capital and a growth in the ser!ice class as manufacturing shifts to the %hird ,orld. :amilies that maintain significant contact with extended 7in despite geographical distance. %erm associated with ;a!id ;ownes to describe the limited aspirations of his wor7ing class adolescents who were more engaged in )leisure !alues). Gariety of cultural forms %he legal termination of marriage. ntroduced the concept of )no-fault) di!orce. %here was a significant growth in di!orce after this Act became effecti!e in 1901. %erm used in ethnomethodology to refer to how we ma7e sense of each e!ent we interpret as seeing it as an example, or )document) of a general type familiar to us in our commonsense. ;omestic labour is unpaid wor7 carried out in the home, housewor7

discrimination disease disenchantment

;isneyi8ation

disorgani8ed capitalism

dispersed extended family 4Peter ,illmott5 dissociation

di!ersity di!orce ;i!orce =eform Act, 1901

documentary method

domestic labour.

domestication of women

,omen were seen by many feminists 4such as Ann .a7ley5 to be e6ual to men and free from domestic responsibilities 4underta7en by children5 in pre-industrial society. #ubse6uently the factory system resulted in women and children excluded from the wor7place, and women)s primary role became that of being responsible for domestic roles. =ole theory associated with Er!ing "offman, closely aligned to #ymbolic nteractionism that uses the analogy of the theatre to describe the way people beha!e li7e )actors) in their )roles) on the )stage) of life. %erm associated with ;a!id $at8a referring to the common experience of most youth whereby they experience a period of de!iance which then passes as they gain adult responsibilities. ;e!iance cannot therefore be subcultural since most people )drift). %heory associated with @arron and 'orris that sees the labour mar7et di!ided between secure well-paid 1obs in the primary labour mar7et and those in insecure low-paid 1obs in the secondary labour mar7et. 3ommon family situation as women increasingly ta7e on the role as secondary breadwinner. Associated with especially 3hristine ;elphy, it is a feminist theory that recogni8es the impact of both the public world and the domestic world as impacting on the oppression of women. $arried women, in their oppression, ha!e so much in common they constitute a sex class. Also 7nown as #ocialist feminism.

dramaturgy

drift

dual labour mar7et theory

dual-income households

dual-systems theory

;ur7heim, Emile

412C2-19105,

:rench sociologist, who along with &arl $arx and $ax ,eber, is 7nown as one of the so-called )founders) of sociology. -is preoccupation with !alue-consensus, social solidarity and integration as characteristics of a healthy society 4in contrast to anomie5 has led to his association structural functionalism. -owe!er, it is doubtful if ;ur7heim would ha!e shared the right-wing politics of American functionalists, being associated with and encouraging socialists in his contemporary :rance.

E eco-feminism =eflects a desire to regenerate the wisdom of women as a means to liberate women and nature from patriarchal destruction. Associated with 3hicago #chool. #aw origins of crime located in the en!ironment that people were located in.

Ecological theory

edgewor7

%erm associated with 9yng referring to the acti!ities of young males see7ing thrills and excitement, such as goping to the edge of acceptable beha!iour and flirting with danger 4e.g. 1oy-riding or drug-ta7ing5. %erm that embraces formal, informal, non-formal learning. %he most significant education Act since the 1944 Education Act. ntroduced the concept of mar7et forces and competition into educational pro!ision. ;e!eloped in response to the Plowden =eport in the 19/+s as a form of compensatory education. #chools designated of EPA status were gi!en extra resources. Another word for e6uality. ,hen used with reference to the family it implies support for the changing roles theory of a mo!ement towards symmetry in roles, status and di!ision of labour of the con1ugal couple. %erm associated with #igmund :reud that small girls, suffering from penis en!y, are sexually attracted to their father. %erm associated with %homas $cPhail to describe the imposition of ,estern cultural ideas more insidious and as dominant as the military and mercantile colonialism of the past. %erm "raham Allan gi!es to the inner or )elementary) nuclear family consisting of wi!es, husbands, their children, brothers and sisters. #chools set up following industrialisation to educate the masses primarily in the basic s7ills of numeracy and literacy, together with moral education. t is belie!ed that a small group of !ery wealthy and powerful people control society %he notion that the wor7ing-class are adopting the !alues, attitudes and beha!iours of the middle-class. #upporters of this concept see society as mo!ing increasingly to a homogenous classless society. t is worth noting that "oldthorpe et al found con!ergence between the classes but re1ect embourgeoisement in their 9uton study. ,hen social phenomena can be measured and tested in an ob1ecti!e manner with the production of supporting data. %he belief in science as the only way to understand society.

education Education =eform Act 4E.=.A.5 1922

Educational Priority Area 4EPA5

egalitarian

electra complex

electronic colonialism

elementary family

elementary schools

elite theory

embourgeoisement

empirical

empiricism

employment-aggregate) model of class

;eri!ing an ob1ect classification of social class from large amounts of occupational data. #uch an approach is critici8ed by interpreti!ists for ignoring the meanings that lie behind class identity. :amilies when children ha!e grown up and left home. %erm gi!en to marriage where lo!e and romance ha!e longgone and couples stay together either because di!orce is not an option 4say for religious reasons5 or they simply cannot ma7e the effort to separate. %he messages put into a media )text) by the author. 'oteA these may be different from the audience)s decoded messages. $arriage between people of the same social category. Period between the first and fourth 6uarters of the eighteenth century when enlightened intellectual thin7ing replaced the );ar7 Age). %he old model of the world that had been shaped by the =oman 3atholic church for the past thousand years was increasingly challenged by new rational thin7ing and explanations. n short the Enlightenment is the period of history where )reason replaced faith) and pa!ed the way for the $odernisation of society. 9iterally a term meaning Fris7-ta7ersE, it generally refers to those who in!est in money-ma7ing pro1ects. %he upper-class is primarily made up these days of FnewE money 4self-made, rather than inherited5 with entrepreneurs outnumbering the old money of the aristocracy. People whose primary concern is the state of the planet. mportant law that made it illegal for men and women to be paid different wage-rates for the same 1ob. People ha!e same chances of access to power and wealth. %he e6ual ability to access the benefits of social institutions such as go!ernment and education %he way in which groups become defined as homogenous on the basis of predefined characteristics or dispositions. %he study of right and wrong. n sociology, it is essential that studies do not harm the people who participate in them. %here is a code of ethics organised by the @ritish #ociological Association which should be followed in any social research

empty nesters empty-shell marriages

encoding

endogamy Enlightenment, %he

entrepreneurs

en!ironmental mo!ement E6ual Pay Act 4190+5

e6uality e6uality of opportunity

essentialism

ethics

ethnicity ethnography

<our sense of the culture or nationality to which you belong. %his is the study of ordinary people. %he term was coined by "arfin7el and an ethnographic study usually suggests that an obser!ation has been carried out. nterpretati!e theoretical perspecti!e de!eloped by -arold "arfin7el that argues the case that people ma7e sense of the social world by applying commonsense reasoning. @elief that those with poor 6uality genes should be restricted from reproduction. %hrough interbreeding these defecti!e and dangerous people pose a threat to the genetic purity of the healthy. %heory 4supported by both functionalists and $arxists5 that the process of industrialisation caused the family to e!ol!e from extended to nuclear. %his is sometimes referred to as the )theory of fit). 'ot to be allowed access to something. %his can be in school, where children are excluded as a punishment. $ore importantly, exclusion is seen as a form of po!erty where people cannot participate fully in normal life because they cannot afford it. $arriage between people from different social categories. #et up scientific systems of studying beha!iour. ,hen the participant in an experiment beha!es unnaturally because of unnatural aspects of location, being monitored, etc. %erm used by %alcott Parsons to describe the domestic role of women in which they are expected to emotionally support their husbands and children. %he increasingly common experience of young people to stay longer li!ing with their parents, thus extending their dependency and prolonging the period of )youth). =eliability of research means if repeated the same results would be achie!ed. External reliability can be tested by repeating the research at subse6uent inter!als.

Ethnomethodology

eugenics

e!olutionary %heory

exclusion.

exogamy experimentation experimenter effect

expressi!e roles

extended transition

external reliability

: :. .%.%. women :inancially independent women in their twenties and thirties.

false consciousness

$arxist concept where the proletariat remain ignorant 4because of ideology5 of their true oppressed class position and actually support the economic system of capitalism that is exploiting them. %erm associated especially with &arl Popper who argued it was the duty of all scientists to constantly try and dispro!e their hypotheses. %erm associated with >ohn "illis to describe our daily experiences of family life, in contrast to )families we li!e by) that refers to ideals we sometimes assume or wish our family life to be. %erm associated with @arrett and $c ntosh to reflect how all alternati!es to the traditional family are !iewed as inferior and dysfunctional. %wo or more generations of people tied together through blood, marriage or adoption. Anthony "iddens adds how adult members are assumed to ha!e a responsibility for caring for children. %his was a 19th century, idea prominent first in the middleclasses, who saw the home as a pri!ate refuge of safety in contrast to the !iolent public world. t is ironic that women and children were seen as the main beneficiaries, but are most li7ely to be the !ictims of domestic !iolence. A term used to describe the differing forms of family organisation typical of modern @ritain %erm associated with >on @ernardes to illustrate the highly !aried and indi!idual experiences people ha!e within families according to age, gender, etc. %he attraction and fascination of crime as reflected by the popularity of stories and representations of crime and detecti!es in the mass media. People are frightened of being the !ictim of a crime, sometimes more than is necessary gi!en their realistic chances of being a !ictim. %erm fa!oured by the 'ew =ight to describe indi!iduals, parents, lone mothers etc. who are carefree in their attitude and fail to ta7e seriously their actions and responsibilities. %erm associated in particular with the 'ew =ight. :ec7lessness is a failure to address personal responsibilities, such as promiscuity, welfare dependency, !iolence, lac7 of discipline, etc.

falsification

)families we li!e with)

familism

family

family as a )safe ha!en)

family di!ersity

)family paths)

fascination of crime

fear of crimeA

fec7less

fec7less parents

federalism

A group of states 1oin together to form one larger go!ernment with a degree of power o!er them all %he practice of 7illing female babies purely because of their sex. n many societies, including @ritain, there is a cultural importance associated with males, historically lin7ed to continuing the family line, but in a sense simply stating the !iew that )boys are better). 3haracteristics reflecting cultural assumptions and roles associated with being female. A social construction of beha!iour and identity that ser!es as a standard for being female. %heoretical perspecti!es 4note the plural5. %hey see 4to !arying degrees5 the education system as patriarchal 4maledominated5. =ecent impro!ement in female performance is seen in spite of, rather than because of, the education system. #imilar to $arxist feminists but they place less emphasis upon the determinism of the economic system and more emphasis upon familial ideology. 3hildren who ha!e been brought up either primarily or exclusi!ely in the company of animals andIor ha!e had minimal or no contact with adults for a lengthy period. #uch children ha!e no social s7ills because they ha!e not had the learning process of human socialisation. %ypically expressed as the number of li!e births per 1+++ women of child-bearing age. >an Pahl studied how financial management was often une6ual with men typically controlling finances. #he did note a growth in e6uality, such as 1oint ban7 accounts. Applies to feminists acti!e around the turn of the last century and particularly associated with campaign for !otes for women. Another name for e!olutionary theory suggesting that the family changed from extended to nuclear to pro!ide a functional fit to the new industrial society that benefited from smaller more mobile families. A distincti!e set of subcultural !alues which ,alter @. $iller belie!es the lower wor7ing class are socialised into from an early ageA %oughness? Physical? #martness? Excitement? :ate? and Autonomy.

female infanticide

feminine

femininity

feminism

feminist $arxists

feral children

fertility rate

financial management

first wa!e feminism

)fit), %heory of

focal concerns

fol7 culture

Pre-industrial music, dancing, tales, festi!als, carni!als, remedies and restorati!es. A term associated with #tan 3ohen to refer to de!iant groups at the centre of )moral panics). .ften their negati!ity is exaggerated by the media, and they are !iewed generally as a threat to social order. Acti!ities that range from fishing, gathering nuts and berries, through to refuse gleaning and e!en shoplifting and other forms of pilfering and theft. ,hen indi!iduals are made to marry someone against their will. n (++1 there was a media debate about the extent to which )arranged marriages) were )forced marriages). %erm associated with the mass production society typified by -enry :ord)s production of the $odel % :ord. %his corporate organi8ation pursued by -enry :ord between 19++ and 19(+ became entrenched across entire economies after 194C. $ass production re6uires mass consumption. %he :ordist period declined around the 190+s, replaced by Post-:ordism. %he curriculum which is taught in schools. %he formal curriculum is the stated 7nowledge which children are expected to ac6uire. ,here monetary reward for wor7 is officially recogni8ed through the payment of taxation and wor7ers are protected by employment law and health and safety regulations. #ome socialisation is deliberate and structured within society, through institutions such as schools. ,illmott and <oung describe how the family e!ol!es o!er four distinct stages through human history. #tage 1A pre-industrial family? #tage (A family of industrialisation? #tage *A symmetrical family? #tage 4A family of the future 4)a return to asymmetry)5. %erm associated with Postmodernism, seeing society increasingly di!erse and indi!idualistic. People and component parts of society are less homogenous than they used to be. -owe!er, with di!ersity in!ariably comes uncertainty. %he economic ideological stance of the political right that there should be minimal go!ernment inter!ention in any mar7et. %he inspiration for this !iew is often cited as Adam #mith who argued mar7ets will efficiently allocate resources as if by an )in!isible hand).

fol7 de!ils

foraging

forced marriages

:ordism

formal curriculum

formal economy

formal socialisation

four #tages of the family

fragmented

free mar7et

fresh #tart

;iscredited scheme whereby failing schools were reopened with new management and )#uper -eads). 'ow failing schools are to be ta7en o!er by pri!ate sponsors. Approach of =adical 3riminologists who attempted to de!elop a theory of criminology that explained crime both in terms of structure and agency. %erm associated with macro-theories such as functionalism 4but also $arxism5 to reflect the interrelationship between society and 7ey social institutions li7e the family. 3onser!ati!e sociology perspecti!e that dominated sociological thin7ing until the 19/+s. t stresses the importance of the )functional fit) of the institutions that ma7e up society and the importance of socialisation of society)s norms and !alues in order to promote a consensus. :unctionalism has much in common with the !alues of the 'ew =ight, but there are some ma1or differences. %he purpose of a thing. %he desire to return to a FpureE form of religious belief often associated with conser!ati!ism and a desire to return to the !alues of the past.

fully social theory of de!iance

functional fit

:unctionalism

functions fundamentalism,

" "arfin7el, -arold 41910-5, American sociologist most famous for founding the microsociological approach of ethnomethodology. -ousing estates surrounded by high walls or fences and only residents and their guests are admitted through gates, 33%G and security guards. A cultural term reflecting social attributes associated with being male or female. %erm used by Pat 3arlen to describe the expectation imposed on women to ta7e on feminine beha!iour and accept the ideology of the family. %erm associated with #yl!ia ,alby to refer to the idea of how continuing patriarchy affects women in a differential way. deas of a study that can be applied to wider society.

gated communities

gender

gender deal

gender regimes

generalisability

generalised other

%erm associated with "eorge -erbert $ead to refer to the process of the de!elopment of self from the ) ) to the )$e). %he generalised other) stage refers to the organised attitudes of the whole community. .nce children appreciate these !alues then the self, located within the social world, is complete. %he ease with which the findings of one setting are li7ely to apply to similar settings. %he notion that genes ha!e an impact on beha!iour that is largely beyond an indi!idual)s control. A @ritish sociologist whose wor7 includes criti6ues of ma1or social theory, but he is particularly associated with the concept of structurationA which embraces elements of both structure and action. "iddens 6uestions whether we li!e in a Postmodern society, preferring the term )late modernity) instead. maginary barrier of hori8ontal segregation whereby top 1obs are !isible but certain groups 4women and ethnic minorities5 cannot penetrate this barrier of pre1udice and discrimination. 3rime that ta7es place across a number of countries, for instance drug smuggling ,hen icons and products are recognised across the world such as the olden arches of $c;onalds or the 3oca 3ola logo. A global culture is closely related to globalisation. %erm applied to the process of increasing global interconnectedness, whereby goods and ser!ices, capital flows, wor7ers increasingly mo!e around the world encouraged by trade and re!olutions in communications and technology. American nteractionist sociologist who de!eloped the perspecti!e further through his dramaturgical theory whereby he applies the analogy of the theatre to social lifeA actors, roles, front and bac7 stages, etc. Period following the #econd ,orld ,ar when for twenty years or so there was full employment, !ery low di!orce rate and a ,elfare #tate that supported people )from the cradle to the gra!e). ;espite the austerity immediately following the ,ar, the 19C+s and 19/+s became 7nown as the )affluent society). @asis of ,eberianIneo-,eberian class formation, whereby fragmentation and differentiation is recogni8ed within each class. %his contrasts with the relational !iew of class held by $arxists.

generali8ation

genetic determinism

"iddens, Anthony 419*2-5

glass ceiling

global crime

global culture

globali8ation

"offman, Er!ing 419((-192(5,

golden age

gradational

grammar #chools

#electi!e #chools in the state sector 4although some pri!ate schools use the name too5 where entry was gained through passing the 11-Plus examination. talian neo-$arxist sociologist whose wor7 is a deliberate attempt to unify social theory and political practice. -e is particularly associated with the concept of hegemony, which is recognition that the capitalist class cannot be secured by economic factors alone but re6uires political force in the form of dominant ideas. Prime $inister >ames 3allaghan in a famous speech at =us7in 3ollege, .xford 4190/5 blamed unemployment on the education system 4sic5, seeing the comprehensi!e system as failing to pro!ide school-lea!ers with s7ills needed by industry. -e called for a )"reat ;ebate) to critically re!iew education in @ritain. %he minority of old people who retire without financial worries due to significant sa!ings and good pension pro!ision. %hey en1oy high le!els of consumption and are acti!e participants in expensi!e leisure pursuits such as indulgent shopping, golf, foreign tra!el, etc. %his lifestyle is in mar7ed contrast with most old people who become increasingly impo!erished as sa!ings disappear and sur!i!ing on the meagre state pension becomes increasingly difficult. ,here theory is generated during and from the methodological research process.

"ramsci, Antonio 41291-19*05

"reat ;ebate

grey panthers

grounded theory

-abermas, >urgen 419(9-5, "erman sociologist, influenced by his wor7 with 7ey members of the :ran7furt #chool, but critical of neo-$arxists generally for their o!er-mechanical interpretation of $arx)s wor7. %he main theme of -abermas) theory is that !alid 7nowledge can only emerge from a situation of open, free and uninterrupted dialogue. 3oncept associated with Pierre @ourdieu that embraces both structure and agency. E!eryday assumptions that people hold about their social en!ironment 4structure5 affects their moti!ations and beha!iour 4agency5. Applied to the world of education habitus is recognising a )feel for the game), that is, a recognition by the wor7ing class that the basic rules of the game of life are stac7ed against them so they are unli7ely to succeed. 3riminal offence against people on the basis of pre1udice against them for example racially-moti!ated attac7s.

habitus

hate crime

ha!en in heartless world

%erm used by neo-$arxist 3hristopher 9asch and blac7 feminists to highlight that where people feel oppressed in society they may see the family !ery positi!ely as an escapist and welcoming institution to return to. @lac7 feminists adopt a similar !iew of the family. #o-called obser!er effect disco!ered by Elton $ayo in his experiments at the "E3? -awthorne plant in D#A. @y deteriorating the wor7ing conditions he found output went up, but only because the wor7ers were aware of being studied. A state of physical and mental well-being. %erm @ob 3onnell gi!es to emphasi8e the traditional patriarchal power that men generally en1oy o!er women. E!en if they do not exercise patriarchy in an aggressi!e way themsel!es, all men, he argues, deri!e benefit from cultural assumptions of male domination. 3oncept associated with Antonio "ramsci to explain how the upper-class maintain power through the subtle use of ideas to win the consent of subordinated groups. .rdinary people are led to belie!e that the pre!ailing existing order is somehow natural and normal. 3rime of proclaiming doctrines other than 3hristianity. People of ambiguous sexual identity, may ha!e sexual organs of both sexes. ;eri!ed from the "ree7 word hermeneuein meaning )to interpret), hermeneutics is the science of interpretation of texts, but is generally used as another term for the interpreti!e or phenomenological methodological approach. %he ideas and !alues informally learnt in education that are not part of the academic curriculum. %o functionalists this is respect for authority and society)s !alues, to $arxist it is blind obedience to authority figures, to feminists it is submission to males. Another name used by "ershuny and Pahl to refer to the )blac7 economy). Dsed to be described as Ldead white maleL culture since it re!ol!ed so much around composers, artists, dramatists, etc. who were male, white and li!ed some time ago e.g. $o8art, $onet, #ha7espeare, etc. t is often assumed that high culture is intrinsically good, and artistically superior to popular culture.

-awthorne Effect

health, hegemonic masculinity

hegemony

heresy hermaphrodites

hermeneutics

hidden curriculum

hidden economy

high culture

historical $aterialism

%his refers to &arl $arx)s !iew of human e!olution through a series of stages or )epochs)A primiti!e communism? Ancient society? :eudal #ociety? 3apitalism and 3ommunism. @ritish philosopher and political theorist who was a 7ey influence in the Enlightenment. -e is generally regarded as a pioneer of the concept of utilitarianism, modern political science, and rationalism. .nce defined as a a place of fixed or permanent residence for family or household, it is increasingly recogni8ed as less fixed, more of a symbolic habitat, in a society of increased mobility and mo!ement. "o!ernment department in charge of )law and order) and the policing of @ritain. %he -ome #ecretary is held responsible for the criminal 1ustice matters. All the same. 'o differentiation. .pposite of heterogeneity. 9iterally means fear of men, but in practice reflects pre1udice and discrimination against homosexuals. #exual attraction between two people of the same sex. 3ultural acceptance of homosexuality, as homophobia 4fear of homosexuals5 declines as society becomes more tolerant and open. %he di!ision of the employment mar7et into )men)s wor7) and )women)s wor7). %he origins are usually historical, but e!en today there is usually a pay and status differential between 1obs done primarily by men and 1obs done primarily by women.

-obbes, %homas 41C22-1/095

home

-ome .ffice

homogenity homophobia

homosexuality homosociality

hori8ontal segregation

household

#ingle person or group of people who share the same selfcontained accommodation. %hus, although many households are families, the term also includes people li!ing alone, couples or groups of unrelated people li7e students. People who share li!ing accommodation. A #cottish philosopher, historian, and economist, he was a ma1or influence upon Adam #mith and mmanuel &ant. -ume was also important in leading Auguste 3omte to positi!ism. %his is said to occur when ethnic cultures borrow styles, beha!iours and fashions from one another, as the boundaries between different ethnic groups are sub1ect to shift and blurring o!er time.

households -ume, ;a!id 41011-100/5,

hybrid identities

hyperghettoi8ation

%erm associated with ,ac6uant form his wor7 on inner-city 3hicago. -e obser!ed the process of )unde!eloping) of an inner-city areas in a short space of time, owing to a complex of factors including the remo!al of manufacturing industry lea!ing 4often ethnic minority5 labour with either no employment or dead-end employment. %erm associated with the postmodernist >ean @audrillard to illustrate how the powerful media can create an image of reality more real than reality itself. A belief that the mass media act as a drug so that people cannot feel the pain of existence. A suggested causal relationship that can form the basis and purpose of research in an attempt to pro!e or dispro!e this.

hyperreality

hypodermic syringe model,

hypothesis

iatrogenesis,

Any sic7ness or physical disability caused by the actions of a doctor. Philosophical concept that argues beha!iour is shaped primarily by the acti!e ideas that exist in people)s heads. %his is the opposite of )materialism) which sees beha!iour shaped by the material world people li!e in. #ense of self. %erm associated with 9ouis Althusser for socialising agencies that perpetuate ideas that promote false consciousness amongst the proletariat. #As include the family, education, religion, mass media, etc., which act as di!ersionary institutions or 1ustification for the system. n its simplest meaning this describes a )set of ideas) or a belief structure, but in practice ideologies reflect the thin7ing and interests of dominant groups in society. -ence feminists tal7 of )patriarchal ideology) and $arxists tal7 of )bourgeois ideology). @eing born out of wedloc7. Dsed to be a source of stigmati8ation, but currently 4+ per cent of babies are officially )illegitimate) so it has become normali8ed. %erm associated with 3loward and .hlin to describe the existence of an alternati!e de!iant opportunity structure that exists in areas where legitimate means 4good education, employment prospects and social mobility5 are not readily a!ailable. 9ac7 of a sense of health and well-being

idealism

identity ideological state apparatus

ideology

illegitimacy

illegitimate opportunity structure

illness

illness iceberg

%he amount of physical and mental ill-health in a community which is not reported and not 7nown about ,here researchers 4often subconsciously5 impose their !alues upon the research they are directing. #exual acti!ity between close 7in. $inor acts of de!iance, of an offensi!e or irritating nature.

imposition problem

incest inci!ilities

income

#ource of money, usually expressed as an annual amount, that is either earned from employment or unearned from assets of wealth such as shares, land or financial capital that recei!es interest. &ey term associated with ethnomethodology that refers to the idea that there can be no clear definition of a word since meaning deri!es from its use with other words and the context in which it is used. ;ata which allows researchers to compare rates of welfare, health and education between nations. 'ote that these indicators may !ary between countries. %axes paid by an intermediary to the go!ernment. %he most common forms are GA% and Excise duties. %hese are paid by shops on behalf of customers. %his is a political philosophy which promotes the rights and well-being of the indi!idual. t opposes state inter!ention for social well-being. Essentially biogenic or psychological theories that see criminal beha!iour stemming from genetics or personal experiences, especially in childhood. .ccurred in mid-eighteenth century to mid- nineteenth century 4104+-12C+5 in Europe, transforming society from rural agricultural to urban industrial. %his transformation is referred to as the period of modernisation. %he process of a culture or a region becoming more economically dependent on manufacturing than on farming. Process by which societies mo!e from agricultural to factoryImanufacturing employment. t is paralleled by the process of urbanisation. $any see the process of industrialisation as dysfunctional to the elderly, resulting in them become increasingly isolated and lonely.

indexicality

indicators of de!elopment

indirect taxation

indi!idualism,

indi!idualistic theories

industrial re!olution

industrialisation

industriali8ation

industriali8ation and the elderly

ine6uality

;ifferences in le!els of access to wealth and power between social groups %ypically expressed as the number of deaths of infants in their first year of life per 1+++ population. 3onsiders where people currently in a social class come from. n other words, how far are classes self-recruitingJ %his in!ol!es wor7 effort but does not always lead to monetary reward or official recognition as wor7. %his includes the )blac7 economy) and wor7 done in the home. Participants in research gi!e their permission for research to be conducted on them in full 7nowledge of what it is that they are agreeing to. %erm associated with 'eil Postman meaning the combination of )information) and )entertainment) to reflect how so-called serious programmes li7e the news are increasingly centred on entertainment. $arxist term to describe the economic base which is the foundation to capitalism, and the class relationship that is based upon the relations of production. :ormerly 7nown as );eath ;uties), it is tax payable on death by the estate of the deceased. %here is a tax-free threshold of around M(0+,+++. nheritance tax is one of the few taxes on wealth in the D&. =esponse within =obert $erton)s anomic paradigm when a person accepts the goals set by society, but re1ects the socially-acceptable means of achie!ing them. %erm used by %alcott Parsons to describe the breadwinner role of men in which they are expected to be primary pro!iders for their families. %erm associated with @asil @ernstein to reflect negati!e classification of sub1ects. t is commonly associated with the growth of new sub1ects, and the decline of traditional sub1ects. $icro sociological perspecti!e based on meanings that lie behind actions and how people relate to each other =efers to whether responses from respondents ha!e been internally consistent. %his can be chec7ed by randomly splitting the answers and chec7ing whether there common sentiments expressed in each.

infant mortality rate

inflow

informal economy

informed consent.

)infotainment)

infrastructure

inheritance tax

inno!ation

instrumental role

integrated code

nteractionism

internal reliability

interpreti!e approach

mportant theoretical approach closely associated with phenomenology and the sociological perspecti!e of interactionism that explains social life through the interpretation of the meanings that lie behind the beha!iour of indi!iduals. A social research style that emphasises understanding how people act in relation to others around them A research method that in!ol!es as7ing people 6uestions. %hese can be structured where all the 6uestions are written down in ad!ance, or unstructured, where the inter!iew is li7e a con!ersation. Any research which re!eals personal details without regard to the fundamental right of an indi!idual not to re!eal personal details %erm associated with American $arxist >. Anyon. %he )policing) is achie!ed through the curriculum being presented as politically neutral, but this only adds to its effecti!eness and ensures that alternati!e interpretations can be excluded on the grounds of extremism or bias. ;e!eloped in 19+C by :rench psychologist @inet. %he "erman psychologist #tern de!eloped the measure 7nown as ntelligence Huotient 4 H5. 3yril @urt promoted the idea for testing for innate intelligence in England through the 11-Plus exam. mportant !ictim study underta7en in 192/ and 199C on a demographically representati!e sample of 1,/++ people li!ing in slington, 9ondon. dentified new information on how people feared crime. %erm associated with %alcott Parsons to describe in his !iew the structure of the typical industrial family.

interpreti!ism

inter!iew

in!asion of pri!acy

in!isible policing

H tests

slington 3rime #ur!ey

solated nuclear family

> >et set 3ontro!ersial new component of the upper-class made up of celebrities who ha!e made not only lots of money, but ha!e become accepted through the honours system, and who mix with aristocracy and royalty 4e.g. #ir Elton >ohn and #ir $ic7 >agger5. %erm associated with =alph ;ahrendorf for economic growth accompanied by 8ero or e!en falling demand for labour. >ointness refers to a mo!e towards e6uality or symmetry in terms of con1ugal roles. ,illmott and <oung claimed to obser!e this trend in couples who had mo!ed to )"reenleigh).

>obless growth

>oint roles

& &arl $arx 41212 N 122*5 3onflict theorist, analyses capitalism and class. Primary thin7er and writer influencing the politics and social analysis of twentieth century capitalism %erm coined by ;a!id -argrea!es to describe the education mar7et effecti!ely li7e a system of franchises through the growth of sponsorship in schools. Economist who shaped the economic policies of the )golden age) of full-employment that existed in the 19C+s and 19/+s. n particular he ad!ocated )demand management) policies whereby go!ernments should ma7e-up any shortfall in spending to ensure demand e6uals supply at full employment le!el of the economy. 'amed after >ohn $aynard &eynes whose economics of demand-led full-employment resulted in a period of unparalleled growth and sustained affluence through the 19C+s to the end of the 19/+s. %ype of communes in srael where children are brought up separately to parents in dormitories with house7eepers. %he biological family unit is still, howe!er, recognised with daily )family time). "erman word for popular culture, but popularly used as a term of abuse, implying cultural artefacts that are mindless and worthless. %erm associated with ;aniel @ell to refer to the importance of those who produce and control 7nowledge 4typically professionals5 in securing a position of cultural ad!antage for themsel!es in post-industrial society.

&entuc7y :ried #chooling

&eynes, >ohn $aynard

&eynesian economics

7ibbut8

7itsch

7nowledge society

9 labelling theory Associated with -oward @ec7er. %heory of de!iance that argues that acts in themsel!es are not de!iant, but rather the social reaction which subse6uently labels such acts as )de!iant). -ence also 7nown as )social reaction theory). :emales are adopting macho characteristics in terms of their beha!iour towards sex, drin7ing and girl gangs. A !iew promoted by, for example, Anthony "iddens, which is an alternati!e to Postmodernity. nstead of seeing society as ha!ing progressed to a distinctly new type, it argues we are simply in a mature state of modernity.

laddette

late modernity

latent functions

9atent functions are associated with the functionalist =obert $erton? these are the conse6uences of manifest functions of which participants are unaware. 9ocal Education Authority. %hese are local councils, either for cities 4e.g. #outhampton5 or 3ounty 3ouncils 4e.g. -ampshire5. Publication of school exam performance inn tables so parents are encouraged to apply a consumerist approach to choosing schools. %erm, gi!en in hindsight, by >oc7 <oung to the =adical 3riminology wor7 he helped to author. %he o!ertly political nature of this wor7 he subse6uently regarded as nai!e. 3riminal perspecti!e associated with 9ea and <oung that through the )#6uare of 3rime) attempted to pro!ide an accurate and realistic explanation of crime that embrace offenders, !ictims, the #tate and informal controls. #ees offenders as young, male, wor7ing class and disproportionately blac7. @eha!iour that contra!enes formal rules 4laws5 of a society. %erm used by ;a!id ;ownes to describe the search for a )good time) by the adolescents in his study. $ost moderate of the feminists. %hey see society as patriarchal, but men and their beha!iour as misguided and ignorant rather than bad. %hey argue with reform and education that gender e6uality can be achie!ed. A ,eberian concept that reflects probability of success 4or failure5 o!er one)s life in terms of education, occupation, health, housing, etc. :amilies with much contact with extended 7in reinforced by local proximity of such 7in 4term is associated with Peter ,illmott5. A geographical region. A ma1or initiator of the Enlightenment. -e re1ected the rationalist !iew that a thin7er could wor7 out truths by reason alone, arguing that 7nowledge of the world could only be gained by experience. #tudies which follow a cohort of people through a number of years of their li!es.

9EA

league tables

left idealism

left realism

legal definition of crime leisure !alues

liberal feminism

life-chances

)local extended family)

locality 9oc7e, >ohn 41/*(-10+45,

longitudinal studies.

loo7ing glass self

%erm associated with 3harles -orton 3ooley to refer to how use other people to learn about oursel!es by studying their reactions to our presence. %he !iew supported by functionalists li7e %alcott Parsons, that since industriali8ation the family has lost most of its 7ey functions, mainly to external agencies li7e the state. 3losely associated popular culture and typical examples would be bingo, music hall, popular music, tabloid newspapers, etc. n contrast to high culture it lac7s status and is often !iewed as !ulgar, cheap and nasty, despite often appealing to a mass audience. 9iterally means )ragged proletariat). %erm used by &arl $arx to describe tramps and !agabonds at the bottom of society. Although $arx)s dichotomous !iew of class does not permit the existence of an underclass, this term is the closest $arx came to recogni8ing an underclass at the bottom of society. :rench postmodernist who coined one of the classic definitions of PostmodernismA )incredulity toward metanarrati!es). @y this he re1ects all grand-theory and the idea of the )bra!e new world) once offered by science.

loss of function theory

low culture

lumpenproletariat

9yotard, >ean-:rancois 419(9-19925,

$ macro-le!el %erm that usually applies to a grand-!iew such as of the whole of society or the social structure. "rand theories such as functionalism or $arxism which see society as a system made up of interdependent parts. %hese are the ideas and ways of li!ing of the ma1ority of people in a culture. :eminist play on the word )mainstream) to reflect how so much is !iewed from a male point of !iew and reflects the interests of men. $anifest functions are associated with the functionalist =obert $erton these are functions 7nown to, and intended by, the participants in a specific type of social acti!ity. 3ollecti!e name for social theorists, usually of the functionalist perspecti!e, who see the family e!ol!ing and adapting in a progressi!e way to fit the changing needs of wider society.

macro-theory

mainstream cultures.

malestream

manifest functions

march of progress theory

$arcuse, -erbert

41292-19095,

"erman neo-$arxist and an important member of the :ran7furt #chool in exile from 'a8i "ermany in the D#A. -e focused his wor7 on the $arxian concept of the superstructure, especially the )culture industry). As a member of the :ran7furt #chool he shared their !iew of the power of the media to di!ert the massesE attention away from the exploitati!e nature of capitalism. A legal contract between two people of opposing sexes offering rights and obligations under law.

marriage

$arx, &arl

41212-122*5,

A so-called )founder) of sociology. @esides being a 1ournalist and notable social theorist, a large portion of his life was spent acti!e in re!olutionary politics. -is lifeEs wor7 became dedicated to the o!erthrow of capitalism - the economic system he !iewed as causing the degradation and ensla!ement of the mass of the population. %heoretical perspecti!e lin7ed to the writings of &arl $arx that places a ma1or emphasis upon class conflict and how e!erything tends to reflect the interests of the dominant class through their economic position of holding wealth. %his is a !iew of society that suggests that social classes are in conflict with each other. %he people who own the means of production exploit the people who wor7 for them for wages. #ees the economic position of women as financially dependent upon men as crucial in their oppression. %his dependency fulfils two needs. :irstly, pro!ides cheap female wor7ers who can be exploited e!en more than men. #econdly, it ensures that household chores are done cheaply. %erm coined by Arthur @rittan to refer to the ideology 4ideas5 that 1ustifies patriarchy 4male domination5. A social construction of beha!iour and identity that ser!es as a standard for being male. Products that are manufactured to a formula in order to ma7e money rather than to reflect of artistic merit or talent. $uch of pop music, especially boyIgirl bands reflect mass culture with the #pice "irls being the classic example. :orms of communication using modern technologies which reach large numbers of people. 9ac7 of the physical things that you need for a good standard of li!ing. ,hen children suffer from the absence of their mother, in the case of >ohn @owlby because they were wor7ing mothers.

$arxism

$arxist theory

$arxist-feminism

masculinism

masculinity

mass culture

mass media

material depri!ation

maternal depri!ation

matriarchy $atrimonial and Proceedings Act, 1924

:emale domination especially within the family. mportant Act that remo!ed some of the maintenance obligations on husbands on former wi!es. 3ouples could apply for di!orce after 1ust two year of marriage. %erm coined by "eorge =it8er to reflect how ,eber)s prediction of rationali8ation is no longer confined to organi8ations and bureaucracies, but is typified in the :ordist methods of fast food operation. &ey criteria are efficiency, calculability, predictability and control. American sociologist closely associated with symbolic interactionism, his wor7 centres around the concept of self. -e recognised how important play was to children in de!eloping their concept of self. %hrough the )generalised other) we imagine how we appear to others and react in response to their 1udgements. %he physical or material resources used to produce goods and ser!ices necessary to sustain human existence and satisfy material needs. 'otion held by many 4including ;ur7heim and #pencer5 that pre-industrial societies were held together by their !alues, simplicities and similarityI common interests of the people. %his contrasts with the organic solidarity of complex industrial societies.

$c;onaldi8ation

$ead, "eorge -erbert 412/*-19*15.

means of production

mechanical solidarity

mechanistic societies

Pre-industrial societies, socially and technologically simple, where people are culturally similar and hold a shared !alue system. A social process whereby natural e!ents such as birth come to be seen as something that re6uires the input and control of medical staff dea that men no longer 7now how to be male, and female that their traditional roles and sources of identity ha!e been stripped from them as unemployment and di!orce pre!ent them from occupying the male roles of breadwinner and fathering. A society where there is e6uality of opportunity enabling the talented to rise up to occupy society)s most demanding roles. As a conse6uence it is considered fair and appropriate to reward these merited people with high income and status.

medicalisation

men in crisis

meritocracy

meritocracy,

%he best people rise to the top of the social structure because they are the most talented and best e6uipped to go!ern us. American sociologist who helped de!elop structural functionalism to a more sophisticated le!el, recognising functions could be manifest, latent and dysfunctional. $erton popularised phrases li7e )self-fulfilling prophecy), and although associated with functionalism, he 6uestioned the !ery notion of grand theory, ad!ocating instead )middle-range theories), which he !iewed as more appropriate in guiding empirical in6uiry. 9iterally means )big stories), but used by >ean-:rancois 9yotard to refer to the Post-Enlightenment assumption that science and technology would sol!e society)s problems and con6uer nature. 9yotard sees the grand theories of sociology 4$arxism, functionalism, etc.5 as metanarrati!es that ha!e e6ually failed to deli!er since there can ne!er be ob1ecti!es truths. #tatements are 1udged, not by truth, but usefulness. %he use of more than one sociological method in a single study to ensure reliability and !alidity. #ystematic study of society. %erm that usually applies on an indi!idual le!el - such as indi!idual moti!ations, actions and meanings. %erm that encompasses an interpreti!eIinteractionist approach where the focus is upon the indi!idual 4rather than the wider social structure5 and the meanings that lie behind beha!iour. Alternati!e to macro theory. nstead the focus is on indi!iduals and the meanings behind their beha!iour as with symbolic interactionism. mmigration, emigration, mo!ement of people %erm used by 9ea and <oung to refer to the form of policing that occurs when relationship between the police and community brea7s down. =adical feminist who using the term )sexual politics) argues that the basis of patriarchy is male control of ideas and culture. f politics generally is about power and influencing people, then the most important power relations are between men and women.

$erton, =obert 4191+-(++*5,

metanarrati!es

methodological plurality.

methodology micro-le!el

micro-sociology

micro-theory

migration military policing

$illet, &ate 419*4-5

$ills, 3. ,right 4191/-19/(5

American radical sociologist, although not strictly a $arxist, he was influenced by the :ran7furt #chool, and deri!ed his own form of critical theory. -e ad!ocated sociology to lin7 Fpublic issuesE and Fpersonal troublesE. :amilies who maintain minimal if any contact with extended 7in. %he term is associated with Peter ,illmott. ntroduced by the 1990 9abour "o!ernment to guarantee a minimum wage paid to those in employment. $any feel that it was introduced at too low a le!el to significantly impro!e the li!ing standards of those doing the lowest paid 1obs. t is currently 4(++*5 M4.C+ an hour. :eminist who uses the psychoanalytical ideas of #igmund :reud to explain why women accept the institutions and ideologies that oppress them. Dsing :reud)s concept of the unconscious she argues that ideas about females and femininity ha!e become so ta7en for granted that they are unconsciously ta7en as correct. %here is a !iew promoted by the 'ew =ight that welfare encourages welfare dependency. %hey argues that the welfare state should be cut bac7 to promote family !alues, discourage di!orce and limit lone mother)s access to welfare. %his theory suggests that the wealthier countries of the west support the impro!ing li!ing and political conditions in underde!eloped countries A social and artistic mo!ement of the beginning of the 3(+th which tried to criticise tradition and encourage people to do things in a new and FbetterE way %erm that applies to the period of industrialisation when society mo!ed from a rural agricultural society to an industrial-urban society characterised by the input of science and technology. $odernity is also associated with the ac6uisition of scientific and reasoned 7nowledge that enables humans to de!elop. t is associated with a period of history in which change was percei!ed as progress - mo!ing society away from the );ar7 Age) of the past. ,here extended 7in members feel an obligation to 7eep in touch, and significant ser!ices are exchanged as a matter of course. %erm is associated with "raham Allan. %erm describing a )coalition of nuclear families in a state of partial dependence) reflecting how nuclear families retain an element of autonomy yet relies on partial dependence on extended 7in. %erm is associated with Eugene 9itwa7.

minimal extended family

minimum wage

$itchell, >uliet 4194+-5.

modern post-industrial welfare society

modernisation theory,

modernism

modernity

)modified elementary familyE

)modified extended familyE

monogamy

A form of marriage in!ol!ing two people. #erial monogamy is becoming a common feature of contemporary society due to di!orce and remarriage. Process whereby industries come to be controlled by a single company. Giew that only one message 4!iew of e!ents5 is read by the audience when they watch or use a media product :rench philosopher and satirist who was a ma1or contributor to the Enlightenment. -is hugely influential 9)esprit des lois 410C+5 helped shape the American 3onstitution through ad!ocating the separation of the legislati!e, 1udicial, and executi!e powers. %erm associated with -oward @ec7er to describe the moral guardians who claim to operate and guard the public)s moral interests. %erm associated with particularly #tan 3ohen to generally mean an exaggerated public concern o!er a group 4)fol7 de!ils)5 or beha!iour that is !iewed as threatening to social order. $orbidity is illness and morbidity rates are the number of people who experience illness per thousand of a population $ortality is death, mortality rates are the number of people who die per thousand of a population. %erm imported from the D#A in the 190+s to refer to street assault and robbery. -all et al undertoo7 a famous study 4Policing the 3risis5 of how mugging became a moral panic in the 190+s - in their !iew to di!ert attention away from a )crisis of capitalism). 9arge companies with business interests in a number of different countries.

monopoli8ation

monosemy

$ontes6uieu 41/29-10CC5,

moral entrepreneurs

moral panic

morbidity and morbidity rate

mortality and mortality rates

mugging

multi-nationals

' '.D.%. 'ational Dnion of %eachers, acti!e in campaigning for the introduction of comprehensi!e schools. An area controlled and ruled by one go!ernment. A sense of allegiance to a single nation. "eographical and legal identity associated with a nation state.

nation state nationalism nationality

neo-modernisation theory

A blend of traditional and modernist solutions to the 6uestion of how countries can de!elop economically. %his is a post-modern !iew of youth culture which suggests that the cultural expressions of young people are indi!idualistic, short term and life style orientated. As traditional religious beliefs ha!e become less important in peopleEs li!es, they ha!e turned to other forms of spiritual expression such as candles, whale music, herbs, crystals and astrology. t is these beliefs that are !iews as new age. $any people who accept alternati!e spirituality form semi organised groupings such as ,icca or the ;ruids. %erm applied to the change of tactics of 9abour Party and the trade-union mo!ement away from confrontation and industrial action towards negotiation. A small and pri!ate group of people who follow a new religion or a new !ersion of an established religion Political perspecti!e that adopts a liberalist theoretical stance of minimal #tate inter!ention and support for the free-mar7et. t is highly critical of institutions li7e the ,elfare #tate, seeing it as simply encouraging welfare dependency and encouraging a brea7down of the family since it supports lone mothers and their children. t blames feminism for most society)s current problems. nstead of 1oining traditional organised political parties, many people are drawn to single issue politics such as concern with the en!ironment, anti-arms trade or anti-capitalism. 'ew =ight inspired policy of ma7ing education s7ills-based and geared to the needs of industry. Education too7 a significant turn in the 192+s towards training for the future wor7place, hence !ocational. %erm associated with &en =oberts to describe the growing number of low-s7illed wor7ers employed for their aesthetic 6ualities that reflect the company)s image and who are trained to appear committed to customer satisfaction. %his new wor7ing-class is fragmented, insecure, typically wor7ing part-time andIor unsocial or !ariable hours. %hey wor7 to ser!e the leisure time of others. %he wor7 is often stressful and demeaning for low wages. "altung and =uge pointed out that certain stories are more li7ely to be reported in the media than others according to criteria which they termed news !alues. %hese include good !isual images for tele!ision.

neo-tribes

new age

new age mo!ements 4'A$5

new realism

new religious mo!ements,

new right

new social mo!ements 4'#$5

new !ocationalism

new wor7ing-class

news !alues

'ewson =eport 199C

3ommissioned after the >ames @ulger murder to ascertain if the media does ha!e negati!e effects. t concluded that it did promote a degree of anti-social beha!iour. #mall-scale production targeted at specific mar7ets, usually up mar7et and high income. @ecause of the discerning nature of the clientele firms can charge high prices for specialised products and the consumers en1oy the conspicuous consumption element of exclusi!e products. %he leisure industry of clubbing and pubbing that has grown significantly in the past decade or so. %his pro!ides the location for many offences with three-6uarters of !iolent crime occurring between 9pm and *am at wee7ends by young males. Any world faith that does not focus on a belief in >esus Arrangements within a group of households for reciprocal ser!ices such as babyIpetIgranny-sitting, or barter exchanges )in 7ind) of, say, garden produce. ,hen the sample is not a true reflection of the target population. =ecognition that some criminal acts are of such a gra!e character that they offend against society)s consensus norms. %he normal and expected way to beha!e in a culture. 9iterally means the )new rich) and applies to those who ha!e achie!ed wealth in their own life-time by means other than through inheritance.

niche mar7ets

nocturnal economy

non christian religions non-mar7et exchanges

non-representati!e

normati!e definition of crime

norms nou!eau riche

. ob1ecti!e classification of class %he allocation of class according to formal criteria such as occupation of the indi!idual. %his may contradict sub1ecti!e classification of an indi!idual. %he attempt to be scientific and unbiased in study. A study techni6ue that in!ol!es watching people in their normal social settings - 3o!ert, o!ert, participant, nonparticipant watching others. %erm associated with #igmund :reud that small boys are in competition with their fathers for the lo!e of their mother.

ob1ecti!ity obser!ation

.edipus complex

official 3rime #tatistics

3ollected by the police on behalf of the -ome .ffice. $ost sociologists see them as under representing the true le!el of crime through underreporting and under recording. #tatistics collected by the "o!ernment or one of its agencies.

official #tatistics

.-9e!els

Examination introduced especially for the "rammar #chools, which became replaced in 192/ by the "3#E exam. 19th century @oston 3hristian community that practiced free lo!e and shared family roles. 9atest "o!ernment classification of social class based on occupation. t has eight layers includingA )-igher Professional? 9ower Professionals)? ntermediate 4non-manual5? )#mall employers and #elf-employed)? #uper!isory and 3raft? #emiroutine? =outine? and )ne!er-wor7ed unemployed).

.neida 3ommunity

.'# 3lassification

on-stage

;ramatical term used by Er!ing "offman in his analogy of the theatre to real life. =eflects the degree of consciousness felt by people as they engage in daily roles and feel pressure to conform to )scripts) of appropriate beha!iour. ,here schools and colleges are open to enrolment from anyone. n other words there is no selection. tchen 3ollege was the first sixth form college in the country and has embraced the philosophy of open access from day one. ,here schools ha!e to ta7e as many pupils as possible. Huestions where the respondent is in!ited to gi!e original and detailed answers, rather than being guided to choose one as with )closed 6uestions) A meritocratic society in which talent and ability rather than birth determines one)s social class location. Dnli7e a closed society there is opportunity for upward 4and downward5 social mobility. A situation 4such as real life society5 where it is impossible to control all !ariables. ;efining an abstract concept in such a way that it can be studied %erm associated with 3lar7e to describe how crime is opportunistic. .pportunity is lin7ed to the attracti!eness of targets and the accessibility of targets.

open access

open enrolment open 6uestions

open society

open system

operationalisation

opportunity theory

opting-out

%he option offered to schools to opt-out of 9EA control and funding, to be funded directly by central go!ernment. #uch schools were 7nown as "rant $aintained and in addition to extra funding were allowed to be partially selecti!e. @elief that society is li7e a biological organism ndustrial societies, of a complex social and technological nature, in which people are culturally !ery different from each other. .pposite of mechanical societies. %he complex interrelationships and interdependency of modern industrial societies that holds them together, in contrast to the simple mechanical solidarity of pre-industrial societies. ;erogati!e way of loo7ing at people who are different. @eing seen as FotherE is to be defined negati!ely and as an outsider. 3onsiders where people born into a social class ultimately end upJ %his is !ery close to the 6uestionA how much e6uality of opportunity is thereJ %erm associated with -oward @ec7er to refer to de!iant people, not because of their acts as such, but because they ha!e been labelled as de!iant. %erm gi!en by -oward @ec7er to apply to those with social power to be able to define the beha!iour of others as de!iant. @eha!iour which is regarded by such groups as undesirable or threatening is particularly li7ely to be defined as )de!iant). .pen - when the researcher is upfront about underta7ing research, so that the sub1ect matter of the researcher is clearly aware that research is being carried out. %erm that encompasses both the Dni!ersities of 3ambridge and .xford. #ometimes used as a shorthand term for high status middle class elites or professionals

organic analogy organic societies

organic solidarity

other

outflow

outsiders

o!erdogs

o!ert

.xbridge

P $odel prison in!ented by >eremy @entham of a circular design in which e!ery prisoner could be obser!ed by the warders located in a central !iewing area. A theoretical model used as a tool for understanding an issue in real life. t is a pattern of thin7ing. Pronounce it as FparadimeE American sociologist who contributed most to the

panopticon

paradigm

Parsons, %alcott 419+(-19095,

de!elopment of structural functionalism. participant obser!ation paternal A study techni6ue that in!ol!es obser!ing people by engaging with them in their normal social settings. =elating to fatherhood or to males in general t is a !iew that suggests that less able people 4and women5 should be cared for by the state because they cannot do this for themsel!es. $ale dominated. %he powerful authority of the male head within the family. %he term was used by $ax ,eber. :eminists !iew this in a negati!e light $eans male domination, or the profit and gain men deri!e from the oppression and wor7 of women. 9ineal descent through the fatherEs line. %erm for the social classification of agricultural wor7ers in a feudal society. %erm referring a hierarchy of status that can occur within any social group, e.g. within families, wor7place, etc. People of a similar status with whom you mix and identify with such as friends or wor7mates. nformation about indi!iduals such as diaries, memorabilia. %erm for sociological theoretical approach, such as functionalism, $arxism, nteractionism, etc. %he self-employed. $ost generally a $arxist term $icro sociological approach de!eloped by Alfred #chOt8 and Edmund -usserl that is often referred to as nterpreti!ism it is important to study that which can be obser!ed and to loo7 at the circumstances in which beha!iour occurs in order to understand its meaning A fixed basic minimum income below which effecti!e human life cannot be maintained. t is associated with #eebohm =owntree. A small scale study designed to test the methods intended for use in a large scale study %his is the copying of other peopleEs wor7, or the use of their

paternalism

patriarchal

patriarchal authority

patriarchy patrilineal peasant

pec7ing order

peer group personal data perspecti!e petit bourgeoisie

phenomenology, phenomenological approach

physical efficiency

pilot test 4study5 plagiarism

ideas without their permission. t is strictly illegal pluralism A !ariety of different !iews and perspecti!es on society ma7e up our culture %erm for the di!ision of society to extremes, such as the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer. An ideology is a belief system, so a political ideology refers to a belief system about the way in which society should be organised for the benefit of its members. A form of marriage in!ol!ing one woman and two or more men. A type of marriage in!ol!ing three or more people. A form of marriage in!ol!ing one man and two or more women. %he !iew that there is more than one way to understand or FreadE a media product and that different people will recei!e different messages depending on their culture, gender, age or other identities %his culture reflects mass consumed and commercially profitable media aimed at wide audiences, e.g. Pop music. ,hen population is neither rising nor falling by any significant extent. An area where people are concentrated, such as towns or cities. =apid growth in population. #cientific sociology, based on the !iew that only obser!able and measurable beha!iours should be studied %he !iew that women no longer need the feminism because there is now e6ual opportunity for men and women. %ype of society where mass production has been replaced by flexible production. #ociety, ha!ing gone through industrialisation, becomes characterised by the dominance of the ser!ice sector. %his term is associated with ;aniel @ell. %here are no social or political truths so people ha!e a choice about how they act and what they belie!e. Giew that society is in a new era distinctly different from the period of modernity that preceded it.

polari8ation

political ideologies

polyandry polygamy polygyny

polysemy

popular culture

population, stable

population centre population explosion positi!ism

post-feminism

post-:ordism

post-industrial society

postmodernism

postmodernity

post-structuralism

3omplex theoretical !iew that recognises we li!e in a structured world, but that those structures are not necessarily !isible. %erm that describes the ease of getting di!orced if a marriage has )irretrie!ably bro7en down). #ur!eys that are underta7en through the post. =esponse rates tend to be !ery poor using this method. A sense of being unable to afford necessary things. %erm that explores the meanings, experiences and measurement of po!erty o!er a period of time. %erm for when people in receipt of welfare benefits would be worse off financially if they were to ta7e a 1ob. %he ability to control others. "roup of people who exercise power and control. 3. ,right $ills saw this group in the D#A made up of military, political and business personnel. ,hen people ha!e a lac7 of control o!er their li!es and others. %he method a sociologist uses can actually be done effecti!ely in real life. #tereotyping, negati!e, positi!e, notion of other N pre!ious 1udgement. @road term that refers to agricultural and usually preliterate societies before they ha!e undergone a period of modernity 4industrialisation and urbanisation5. A group of people who share political aims and 1oin together to further their point of !iew. =efers to acts of de!iance, before and social reaction has occurred. t is a term associated with Edwin 9emert. ,ell-paid, secure 1obs of a permanent nature. $ethods conducted by the sociologist him or herself. %erm for simple pre-industrial and often pre-literate societies. %erm associated with ,illmott and <oung to describe how traits and characteristics of higher social classes become

postal di!orce

postal 6uestionnaire po!erty po!erty dynamics

po!erty trap power

power elite

powerlessness

practical pre1udice

pre-modern period

pressure and interest groups

primary de!iance

primary labour mar7et primary methods primiti!e society

principle of stratified diffusion

copied by lower social classes o!er time. pri!ate accounts ,hen respondents gi!e honest and fran7 accounts. t is associated with >ocelyn 3ornwell. =ecognition of how components of society can reflect both pri!ate personal problems, but e6ually be !iewed as a matter of public concern. t is associated with 3. ,right $ills. =efers to areas where entry is controlled, such as shopping malls and gated communities. %he process of selling off central and local go!ernmentowned assets and companies to the pri!ate sector. %erm for the isolated and inward-loo7ing nuclear family. %axation that increases as a proportion of income as income rises. $arxist concept that sees the middle-class identifying increasingly with wor7ing-class identity. %he traditional wor7ing-class who li!ed in tight-7nit communities lin7ed to traditional industries. %erm used by &arl $arx for the wor7ing-class in capitalism. Practice of ha!ing sexual relations within a limited time period with more than one partner. $essages that are con!eyed to support a particular !iew. t is particularly associated with how people can manipulate messages through the mass media. %he !alue of hard wor7. Early Protestants argued 4in contrast to =oman 3atholicism from which they had bro7en away from5 that wor7 could be spiritual. %he study of !oting beha!iour. ,hen respondents gi!e )best face) accounts that ma7e them appear good or reflect what they thin7 researchers want to hear. t is associated with >ocelyn 3ornwell. Principle that power should be gi!en to the public as )consumer choice). #ur!eys underta7en by mar7et research companies into peopleEs attitudes. %hey are commonly used during election campaigns.

pri!ate problems and public issues

pri!ate space

pri!atisation

pri!atised nuclear family progressi!e taxation

proletarianisation

proletarian traditionalists

proletariat promiscuity

propaganda

Protestant ethic

psephology public accounts

public choice theory

public opinion polls

public schools public space

-ighly exclusi!e pri!ate schools. A place with e6ual access to e!eryone such as the streets, par7s and recreation grounds. ,hen deliberately unrepresentati!e samples are chosen in order to pro!e a point. "oldthorpe, et al chose 9uton to research embourgeoisement as they thought it was a town li7ely to reflect this. f they did not find it in 9uton they concluded it was probably a concept not found anywhere in @ritain.

purposi!e sampling

Q 6ualitati!e %his refers to research that is concerned with meaning and emotions. %his in!ol!es the collection of meanings, collected from inter!iews, diaries, letters and obser!ation. t is usually richer and more detailed than 6uantitati!e data, but difficult to determine how representati!e it is as there is a danger of sub1ecti!ity. ,here findings from research can be measured in statistical form. %his refers to research concerned with numerical and statistical data. %his in!ol!es the collection of numerical data, collected from 6uestionnaires and obser!ation. ;ata that can be manipulated mathematically 4statistically5. %heory that highlights how homosexuals are proud to different from the )compulsory heterosexuality) of the past. Huestions are written on a piece of paper and respondents answer in their own writing. #ampling approach that in!ol!es gi!ing each inter!iewer a 6uota from pre-selected categories of people - e.g. x number of males, y number of females, 8 old people, etc.

6ualitati!e method

6uantifiable

6uantitati!e

6uantitati!e method

6ueer theory

6uestionnaire4s5

6uota sampling

R )race) Problematic term referring to real or apparent biological differences between groups of people. #ociologists see such biological differences as insignificant compared to cultural differences. ;iscrimination on basis of ethnicity, colour, religion, nation.

racism

radical feminists radical psychiatry

$ost extreme form of feminism. A theoretical approach to the family, !iewing it as highly dysfunctional to its members. t highlights the Fdar7 sideE of family life through conflict, manipulation of members, claustrophobic intensity, and lac7 of pri!acy, !iolence and abuse. %erm associated with the !iew that sociology should criticise power structures in society with reference to structural ine6ualities such as gender, class, ethnicity, disability Extremism in some form, often associated with critical theories such as feminism or $arxism. ,here e!eryone in a )sample frame) has an e6ual chance of being pic7ed. f the sample is small it may be unrepresentati!e. %heory of crime that argues indi!iduals will commit crimes if the percei!ed benefits outweigh the percei!ed costs. Pro!iding a logical reason for an idea. =eorganisation of an organisation to ma7e it more efficient. ;escribes how delin6uent gang members rebound from con!entional failure see7ing to create their own alternati!e status. t is associated with Albert 3ohen. 3onstructing sociology in a way that represents the real world and re1ects theoretical explanations. :amilies where one or both partners has separated or di!orced and has formed a new relationship with a second partner ta7ing with them some or all of their children. %erm of $erton)s anomic paradigm when the person re1ects the current society with its stress on success and also re1ects the means that society pro!ides to obtain the goals. A study that explores how media messages are recei!ed and decoded by the audience. =epeat offending by criminals. 3lues that pupils use in order to 1udge status of sub1ects in schools. Practice of treating e!eryone within a social group as ha!ing similar characteristics. %erm that describes how as indi!iduals we increasingly refer bac7 to our own actions. t is associated with Anthony

radical sociology

radicalism

random sample

rational choice theory rationali8ation reaction formation

realism

reconstituted families

rebellion

reception analysis

recidi!ism recognition rules

reductionism

reflexi!e modernity

"iddens and Dlrich @ec7. reflexi!ity &ey term in ethnomethodology that refers to our sense of order as stemming from a commonsense understanding of con!ersational processes. Also used to describe a personEs ability to thin7 about and perhaps change or conceal beha!iour and meaning A sense of identity based on a geographical area. n political terms, it is a desire to be go!erned by people who share the same identity. %axation that decreases as a proportion of income as income rises. GA% and excise duties are good examples of regressi!e taxation. %he !iew that the media is 1ust one of many influences on indi!idual beha!iour, but on-screen !iolence can reinforce !iolence, if a propensity exists already in the indi!idual. %erm that describes $arxist class formation, determined by your relationship to the means of production. %erm that describes how the apparent fairness of the education system actually inflicts upon the wor7ing-class a )symbolic !iolence). t is associated with Pierre @ourdieu. ,hen indi!iduals are poor in comparison to others. 9eft =ealism sees this as a 7ey factor in explaining crime. 9ac7ing the things that others in your culture expect to be able to afford. %he belief held by Post-structuralists and Postmodernism that there is no such thing as ob1ecti!e reality or truth. %he extent to which a study can be trusted to be dependable. f it is repeated, then broadly similar results will be obtained. deology, belief systems and power related to notion of deity. %he statistical li7elihood that some people who are !ictims of crime will become repeat !ictims 4largely because they are poor, powerless and li!e in depri!ed areas of high crime5. %he way in which people from certain social categories are represented in a stereotypical form in the media. s e!eryone in a society e6ually li7ely to appear in researchJ %he extent to which a sample can be said to reflect the social characteristics of a target population.

regionalism

regressi!e taxation

reinforcement theory

relational

relati!e autonomy

relati!e depri!ation

relati!e po!erty

relati!ism

reliability

religion repeat !ictimisation

representation in media

representation representati!e sample,

representati!eness

%he extent to which a small group can be said to reflect the social characteristics of a larger group from which it is drawn. %erm for agencies of law and order that become re6uired to maintain control when order brea7s down. t is associated with 9ouis Althusser. $arxist term for how unpaid domestic wor7 reproduces the wor7force on a daily basis. n!estigation to deri!e e!idence andIor test hypotheses. %he methodological approach to underta7ing research. A $arxist term, adopted also by feminists, to refer to the section of population employed when economy is buoyant and dumped when demand for labour is low. People re1ect dominant ideas or beha!iours and act in a way that is counter to the common trend of thought. ,hen norms and !alues ha!e to be relearned such as people being released from prison. %erm coined by "eoffrey Pearson to refer to the nostalgic way people assume society is deteriorating with higher crime. #omeone who answers 6uestions from a sociologist. 3ategory of $erton)s Fanomic paradigmE where both the goals and the means of society are lost sight of. Period of rapid social change, usually in!ol!ing a change to a significantly new regime. =adical feminist who !iews heterosexuality as the basis of patriarchy leading to the lin7age between sexual hegemony and !iolence against women. %erm associated with Dlrich @ec7 who argues people are increasingly aware of new forms of conflict and disagreement about ris7s, safety and security. A rite of passage is a ceremony or significant e!ent mar7ing a milestone in the life cycle, such as coming of age, graduation, marriage, lea!ing school, etc. #pecific beha!iour that has significant meaning. %he term was used by ;ur7heim in connection with primiti!e religions. 3ategory of $erton)s Fanomic paradigmE where a person, )goes

repressi!e state agencies 4rsa5

reproduction of labour

research research strategy reser!e army of labour

resistance theories

resocialisation

respectable fears respondent retreatist

re!olution

=ich, Adrienne 419(9- 5

ris7 society

rites of passage

ritual

ritualist

through the motions) of supporting goals but has no real interest in the outcome. role Acting the part in a socially accepted way, a set of expected beha!iours for a gi!en situation =oles in life which reflect merit and effort on the part of the indi!idual, such as gaining entry to uni!ersity, employment position, successful footballer, etc. =oles in life which are gi!en, such daughterIson. An indi!idual who is held up as an ideal example to copy from. -ow indi!iduals beha!e in the roles they perform as part of their daily life. %he term is associated with interactionist sociologists, such as Er!ing "offman. Acting out a situation. -ow as indi!iduals we perform a !ariety of roles concurrently, such as father, partner, wor7er, friend, etc. 'ame ,illiam 3hambliss ga!e to the wor7ing class gang he compared to the middle-class )#aints). #wiss-:rench philosopher who proposed that in return for a social contract between the people they would exchange their natural independence for a better 7ind of freedom. %he term for the high social class who exercise power and control o!er the rest of society. %erm for a collection of people li!ing in the country who share a combined sense of belonging. :erdinand %Pnnies called this FgemeinschaftE. Experiment in the D##= that abolished marriage, di!orce and effecti!ely the stable family. %he psychological damage to children ended the experiment in the 19*+s.

role, achie!ed

role, ascribed role model role performance

role playing roles, multiple

roughnec7s

=ousseau, >ean->ac6ues 4101(-10025

ruling class

rural community

=ussian )experiment)

# sacrament %erm for important significant moments of a religious nature in peopleEs li!esA birth, baptism, confirmation, marriage and funerals. 'ote that to many people these e!ents ha!e lost their religious significance. Anything ha!ing a religious 6uality and thus worthy of significant respect. 3rime of stealing or damaging church property.

sacred

sacrilege

#aint-#imon, 3laude

410/+-12(C5 early :rench sociologist who introduced the term industrial society and hence social class and the di!ision of labour into European social theory. 'ame ,illiam 3hambliss ga!e to the middle-class gang he compared to the wor7ing-class )=oughnec7s). A small number of people used in research. Pro!iding the sample is representati!e the results should be the same as if e!eryone in the target population was researched. ,hen a sample has the full characteristics of the target population. Dsing a smaller group within a population to represent the whole group. ,hen sample members are chosen according to a formula, such as e!ery fifth name on a register. %he list from which the sample is chosen from, e.g. school roll, electoral roll, postcode, etc. #ystems of punishments and rewards. $ental illness whose origins lie, according to the psychiatrist =.;. 9aing, from dysfunctional aspects of the family. 41299-19C95, a ma1or influence in the de!elopment of phenomenological sociology. Dsing the research methods of the natural sciences. %his approach is 7nown as positi!ism. %he #cottish element of the Enlightenment recognised a complex relationship between the indi!idual and structure. :eminist approach associated with the period of the ,omenEs 9iberation $o!ement of the 19/+s. =efers to the social reaction to de!iance. %his reaction defines the extent to which an act is socially constructed as de!iant. 9ow-wage, low-status 1obs with insecurity and poor wor7ing conditions. #ociological data collected by people other than the research team A small religious group that has bro7en away from a larger one? often secreti!e and closed to outsiders

saints

sample

sample, representati!e

sampling

sampling, systematic

sampling frame

sanction4s5 schi8ophrenia

#chOt8, Alfred

scientific method

#cottish Enlightenment

second wa!e feminism

secondary de!iance

secondary labour mar7et

secondary methods, sect4s5

secular secular society seculari8ation, segmentation segregated rQles

'on religious. A society where religion has lost its significance and influence. A process whereby traditional organised religion is losing significance in ,estern culture ;i!ision into categories. ,here each partner performs separate roles with regard to family di!ision f labour. ,hen areas of society are sub1ect to di!isions, such as religious communities in 'orthern reland. %he ability to restrict entrance to a school or other institution, usually on a social basis such as ability, gender or ethnicity. =efers to the image of what 7ind of person people thin7 they are. ,hen people loo7 at social categories, and decide whether or not they are in a category. =elated to education, a prediction is made and then, because it has been made, it comes or is made to come true. %he !iew we ha!e in our mind of oursel!es. People report on their own beha!iour, often used in studies of criminal beha!iour -ow non-!erbal symbols, colour, and icons impart cultural messages. Associated with #aussure Abbre!iation for #pecial Educational 'eeds. ,hen ideas are blown out of proportion, such as exaggerated figures of immigration. %he role the media plays in heightening sensiti!ity towards certain types of beha!iour. @eing aware of the feelings and rights of others. Extreme radical feminists who see7 a life experience as far away from men as possible. ncreasingly common experience of being married to different people o!er a period of time. %erm for managerial and professional wor7ers. t was

segregation

selection

self

self-categorisation

self fulfilling prophecy

self image self report sur!eys

semiology

#E' sensationalism

sensitisation

sensiti!ity separatists

serial monogamy

ser!ice class

de!eloped by "oldthorpe et al for the .xford $obility #tudy. ser!ice sector 9argest employment sector of a post-industrial economy comprising white-collar wor7ers. A biological classification as male or female. 3omparati!e numbers of males relati!e to females. 3lassification of heterosexuality and homosexuality. @rother or sister. %he correct way to act when one has been defined as unwell by other people. %erm for the people who ha!e more influence upon our beha!iour than others. t is associated with "eorge -erbert $ead. "erman sociologist who bridges the gap between classical sociologists li7e ;ur7heim and ,eber and interactionists who emphasised the )self) 43ooley and $ead5. %erm meaning the blurring of dreams and reality. t is associated with the postmodernist >ean @audrillard. @eing unmarried and without a long term partner. 410(*-109+5 a classical economist who praised the free mar7et system, so efficient it acted as if by an Fin!isible handE. #ample members are gained by recommendation or word of mouth. @road term relating to people and their interaction and engagement with each other. %his is beha!iour that comes about in terms of other people? it has a purpose that others would recognise. t is associated with the sociology of $ax ,eber %heory de!eloped by $ax ,eber which whilst recognising structures, sees an understanding of indi!idual action as crucial to explaining human beha!iour. %erm that describes a fully integrated member of society. t is associated with Emile ;ur7heim. A grouping in a classification to which people are allocated.

sex sex ratio sexuality sibling sic7 role significant other

#immel, "eorg 412C2-19125

simulacra

singlehood #mith, Adam

snowball sample

social

social action

social action theory

social being

social category

social change social closure

Alteration of economics, norms or !alues of a society ,hen upward mobility is pre!ented to those in a lower social position. Position in society as a group 4status5. ,hen social class is defined according to some fixed criteria, usually occupation. %he social class people thin7 they are. ,hen there is a strong bonding and sense of belonging within a group of people or society. t is associated with Emile ;ur7heim. ,hen there are di!isions and competing power struggles between groups of people. A generally agreed !iew of a social phenomenon. An assumption that suggests people realise that mutual respect and co-operation are necessary to ma7e society wor7. t was originally associated with >.>. =ousseau. %he way in which peopleEs beha!iour is affected by the social rules of the cultures in which in they li!e. 3oncept, associated with the 3hicago #chool, describing when mechanisms of social control are either wea7 or absent altogether. ,hen there is a large difference in status or prestige. :or example between the upper class and the underclass. 'otion held that society, or its component parts, could be )fine-tuned) to remo!e percei!ed problems. ,hen society is in balance and harmony, and therefore not sub1ect to pressures for change. t is associated with %alcott Parsons. @eing unable to participate in society because of po!erty.

social class social class, ob1ecti!e conception of

social class, sub1ecti!e conception of social cohesion

social conflict

social construction, social contract

social control

social disorganisation

social distance

social engineering

social e6uilibrium

social exclusion social existence social fact

External structural factors that impact upon indi!iduals. t is associated with ;ur7heim. @eing a full member of society. -a!ing une6ual access to rewards and power in society.

social inclusion social ine6uality

social integration

A social situation where people ha!e a sense of belonging and identity with !alue consensus. t is associated with ;ur7heim. Engagement of people in mutually meaningful beha!iour. People are unableIunwilling to ha!e normal social relationships. 3an be !oluntary, people withdraw from society 4religious hermits5 or in!oluntary, people are shunned 4leper colonies5 @eing able to mo!e up and down the social class system. Beitgeist N people tend to feel the same way at the same time %heory of con1ugal roles associated with Eli8abeth @ott whereby shared networ7 of friends led to )1oint) con1ugal roles and separate networ7s to segregated con1ugal roles. %he normal and expected way to beha!e within a cultural setting. %he degree to which people include themsel!es in social acti!ities. An undesirable or threatening outcome, such as crime, that may be !iewed as a sic7ness of society. 3ollecti!e term for social occurrences. #tudy of 7nowledge, thoughts and meanings with a social context. %he systematic attempt to order and structure peopleEs li!es by central and local go!ernment Actions by public bodies such as go!ernment, councils, etc. in response to social issues and problems. %he ability and authority to control others. Dndesirable problems that are faced within society re6uiring remedial action. %he means by which something is achie!ed. Giew of society underta7ing positi!e change and de!elopment o!er time. @ranch of psychology that focuses upon the meanings and moti!ations behind social beha!iour. A !iew of society that see those at the top, occupying the most demanding roles, as made up of decreasingly few people.

social interaction social isolation

social mobility social mo!ement social networ7 theory

social norm

social participation

social pathology

social phenomena social philosophy

social planning

social policy

social power social problem

social process social progress

social psychology

social pyramid

social reaction theory

Another name for labelling theory, so-called because of its emphasis upon society)s reactions to the de!iant actIactor. %he connection and bind between indi!iduals. <our position or actions in terms of other people. An expected way of acting for a specific social situation. 3onformity must be followed N norms, !alues and mores. A way of screening people so that only certain ones ha!e opportunities and that others are not accepted. %he academic study of society and social phenomena in a systematic way. A desirable form of social cohesion that exists in a stable society. t is associated with ;ur7heim. ,hen society, or one of its component parts, is in e6uilibrium and unli7ely to change. Elements of society that are fixed, not changing or in a state of e6uilibrium. 'umerical data about indi!iduals, groups and societal trends. %he imposition of social disgrace onto indi!iduals such as de!iants and criminals. %he layering of society into social classesA upper, middle and wor7ing. %he organisations that ma7e up society. A study techni6ue in!ol!ing research of a large number of people. Another term for society or social structure. Profession care wor7 underta7en to support those in society who experience social problems or are seen as !ulnerable and in need of inter!entionist treatment. %he process of learning how to beha!e in a way that is appropriate for your culture. %he primary agent of socialisation is the family. #econdary agencies includeA education, mass media, peer group, religion, wor7place, etc.

social relation social relationships social role social rules social selection

social science

social solidarity

social stability

social statics

social statistics social stigma

social stratification social structure social sur!ey social system

social wor7

socialisation

sociali8ing agents

societal

=elating to the groups of people who li!e and wor7 together and who generally share social mores and !alues. %here is no fully agreed definition of society? howe!er, it usually refers to groups of people who li!e and wor7 together or who share social mores and !alues. A layer within the social and economic system that ma7es up societyA upper, middle or wor7ing class. %he social position within the class structure reflecting, income and wealth, mar7et position and social prestige. %he systematic study of society. %he social study of meaning, what constitutes 7nowledge and how it is socially constructed. %he social study of religious structures, organisations, functions and practice. %he idea that peopleEs li!es are shaped by structures external to them and beyond their control. %he ability to Fthin7 yourself awayE and apply sociological ideas to any social situation. t is associated with 3. ,right $ills. %heoretical approaches of functionalism, $arxism, #ymbolic nteractionism, etc. #hared agreement and interests within a group or society. %he strong agreement on norms and !alues that stems from the greater uniformity and clear-cut roles in simplistic preindustrial society. %he agreement that binds complex industrial societies together from a sense of interrelationship and interdependence between indi!iduals and component parts. ,hen indi!iduals or bodies focus on certain criteria, such as #pecialist #chools. #chools which specialise in sub1ects such as science, technology, languages, the arts, or sport. %he go!ernment allows 1+ per cent of inta7e to be selected. -a!ing precise or exact meaning. 412(+-19+*5 English sociologist whose model of society adopted an )organic analogy) comparing it to the complexities of the human body. mpulsi!e, unplanned beha!iour.

society

socio-economic class socio-economic status sociology sociology of 7nowledge

sociology of religion

sociological determinism

sociological imagination

sociological perspecti!e

solidarity solidarity, mechanical

solidarity, organic

specialisation

specialist schools

specific #pencer, -erbert

spontaneous

s6uare of crime

$odel of crime de!eloped by 9ea and <oung to pro!ide an accurate and realistic explanation of crime that embraces offenders, !ictims, the #tate and informal controls. A period of limited or no change. Hualitati!e measurement of relations between wor7ers and employers. $arxist idea of historical materialism that sees human history as progressing through different stages or FepochsE. An accepted measurement of something. $easurement of material li!ing conditions of indi!iduals, groups or society. %he process of regulari8ing things into fixed criteria. ,hen things are regularised into fixed criteria. ,hen a social phenomenon is neither growing nor contracting. A piece of numerical data. #implified deconstruction of real life in order to test hypotheses and theories. =epresentation of data, grouped in rows and columns. Dsing numbers to test a hypothesis or theoretical idea. ;ata gathered in number form. 'umerical data that is informati!e. Dsing statistics to draw conclusions. ;ur7heim used statistics on suicide in an inducti!e manner to ma7e sense of this beha!iour from a social point of !iew. 'umbers that refer to the si8e and hence the representati!eness of samples. %he standing or respect a person or a group has in society. ,hen social standing is earned through personal effort, such as examination performance, promotion at wor7, etc. ,hen social standing is gi!en due to characteristics beyond an indi!idualEs control such as gender, FraceE, age, etc.

stability staff relations

stages of de!elopment

standard standard of li!ing

standardi8ation standardi8e static statistic statistical model

statistical table statistical test statistics statistics, descripti!e statistics, inducti!e

statistics, sampling

status status, achie!ed

status, ascribed

status, formal

,hen social standing is e6uated with ob1ecti!e criteria, such as reaching 12 years of age, or ha!ing a criminal record. ,hen social standing stems from sub1ecti!e or inconsistent criteria, such as friendship, being a good listener, etc. ,hen the social worth of an indi!idual or group is fairly uniform and fixed. ,hen the social worth of an indi!idual or group !aries according to sub1ecti!e 1udgement. ,hen status is denied through legitimate means, it is often sought through de!iant beha!iour. t is associated with Albert 3ohen. ,hen the social worth of an indi!idual or group is !ariable and not fixed. A body of indi!iduals who ha!e an accepted social position within society or a component part of society. %he status of a subgroup. An ob1ect or possession that is seen as a mar7 of social position or wealth. An ordering of society, or a component part, centred around an accepted and clearly defined hierarchy. 'arrow nuclear family, descended o!er generations. #imilar to Fbeanpole familyE. People de!elop a generalised and simplistic image of members of other social groups and then beha!e as though these images were true. #omething which mar7s a person out as different from others in society %his theory argues that on-screen !iolence actually stimulates aggression in people. #omething that brings a response. #omething that acts as a catalyst to bring a response from indi!iduals or create a momentum for social change. Practice of the police to stop and search anyone suspected of being in!ol!ed in crime. %he 9eft =ealists, 9ea and <oung, referred to this practice as )military policing). Another name for =obert $erton)s Fanomic paradigmE which shows that crime stems from a strain between sharing the

status, informal

status consistency

status discrepancy

status frustration

status inconsistency

status group

status set status symbol

status system

stem family

stereotypes

stigma stimulation effect

stimulus stimulus, social

stop and search

strain theory

goals of society and not ha!ing the means of achie!ing them. stratification stratification, economic ;i!ision into layers. $arxist idea that society is di!ided in economic terms, based on relationship to the means of production. ,hen samples are designed to contain percentages of social locations such as class, gender, ethnicity, etc. %he layering of society into social classesA upper, middle and wor7ing. A single layer ,hen emphasis is gi!en to a social phenomenon. Presents an image of society made up of different groups in conflict with each other and !ying for power. E.g. $arxism or :eminism. Presents an image of society bound tightly together through socialisation into shared norms, !alues and cultural rules. E.g. functionalism. Approach of the functionalist perspecti!e to see component structural components of society integrating together for the successful ordering and sur!i!al of society. :unctionalist term for institutions, such as the family, seen as essential for the successful sur!i!al of society. Perspecti!e that sees indi!idual beha!iour shaped by external factors that impact upon people in a deterministic manner. %heoretical approach that sees indi!iduals shaped by factors external to them, that impact in a way they ha!e little control o!er. A synthesis of structure and agency. t is associated with Anthony "iddens. External factors which impact upon indi!iduals in a deterministic manner. #tructures can be either positi!e or negati!e. External influences that ha!e established rules and policies, such as go!ernment, legal system, etc. External influences that are fluid and flexible in their impact, such as peer group, subcultures, etc.

stratification, sampling

stratification, social

stratum stress structural-conflict theory

structural-consensus theory

structural functional analysis

structural imperati!e

structural theory

structuralism

structuration

structure

structure, formal

structure, informal

subculture

A small group of people with different norms and !alues from mainstream society. A component group within a wider social group. @ased on an indi!idualEs emotions or interpretations. An inferior class. $arxist term for the class that does not own the means of production. %he social class location a person thin7s they are and identifies with. A personalised interpretation that may be at odds with ob1ecti!ity. %he power of the people define themsel!es as )normal) in relation to a number of clear-cut factors such as sex, health, ethnicity, etc. t is associated with $ichel :oucault. An emotional way of loo7ing at things. %erm referring to wea7er manifestations of masculinity. t is associated with @ob 3onnell. ,hen someone has less ran7 or social status than someone else. A form of li!ing in po!erty where only basic necessities are consumed. ,hen something ta7es the place of or replaces something else. A component part of the social structure. ;e!iant !alues which e!eryone holds but adults generally learn to suppress. t is associated with ;a!id $at8a. =esidential district on the outs7irts of a town or city. =eferring to a residential district on the outs7irts of a town or city. ;erogati!e term meaning dull, boring, unexciting. ,hen a line of people or things that follow one another. %he following of others without interruption. #ituation where there is enough of something to meet a need or purpose. %erm the ,omen)s #ocial and Political Dnion 4,#PD5 ga!e

subgroup sub1ecti!e sub1ecti!e class

sub1ecti!e classification of class

sub1ecti!e meaning

sub1ectification

sub1ecti!ity subordinate masculinity

subordination

subsistence

substitutes

substructure subterranean !alues

suburb suburban

succession successi!e sufficient condition

suffragettes

themsel!es in their campaign for women)s !otes. suffragists :emale campaigners for the !ote who differed from the more middle-class #uffragettes in that they ad!ocated the !ote for all people o!er (1, including wor7ing-class males. %hose with exceptionally high incomes. t is associated with Adonis and Pollard. =eference to things that cannot be explained by science, e.g. ghosts, clair!oyance, etc. rrational belief in mystical powers which help bring about e!ents, e.g. crossing fingers, not wal7ing under ladders, etc. $arxist term for the social, cultural and political ideas and exist abo!e 4and deri!e from5 the economic infrastructure. A 'ew 9abour initiati!e to help families with children under the age of four, targeted on the most economically depri!ed communities lin7ing health, social and educational ser!ices. %he trend of monitoring of people in society, operating as a 7ey form of social control. t is associated particularly with $ichel :oucault. A study techni6ue in!ol!ing research of a large number of people. %he methodological construction used in underta7ing a sur!ey. %he proportion of people who successfully endure an e!ent. A philosophical approach to reasoning based on drawing a conclusion from two premises. An ob1ect that has cultural meaning. ,e use symbols such as badges, styles of clothes, hairstyles, maga8ines, music, etc. to express parts of our identity that are important. ,hen portrayal of groups such as women is so negati!e they become totally dismissed. @eha!iour noted for its meaning rather than its action. $icro-sociological theory named by -erbert @lumer 419++19205, but de!eloped from the earlier wor7 of "eorge -erbert $ead 412/*-19*15. t explains human beha!iour by understanding the meanings that lie behind actions. %erm used by "eorge -erbert $ead to refer to our capacity to imagine how others see us.

super class

supernatural

superstition

superstructure

sure start initiati!e

sur!eillance

sur!ey

sur!ey design sur!i!al rates syllogism

symbol

symbolic annihilation

symbolic gesture symbolic interactionism

symbolisation

symmetrical family

%erm gi!en by ,illmott and <oung to their #tage * of the family. Essentially it implies a sense of balance in terms of the di!ision of labour between couples. Agreement with, or loyalty to, an idea or !alue. Dsing one medium by its owner to promote another medium owned. :or example, =upert $urdoch used %he #un to hea!ily promote #7y %G in its early days. %he process of combining ideas to bring about better understanding or a higher le!el of 7nowledge. Another term for society or the social structure. t is particularly associated with %alcott Parsons. ;econstruction of how social systems wor7. ,hen sample members are chosen according to a formula, such as e!ery fifth name on a register.

sympathy synergy

synthesis

system

systems analysis systematic sample

% taboo or tabu #omething holy or sacred that is ritually forbidden, e.g. incest. #omething that is a!oided from con!ersation, e.g. death. %he period of de!elopment of a country when rapid transformation follows. Pre-empti!e identification and targeting of li7ely poc7ets of crime or de!iantIcriminal groups. %he whole group to be researched. Explanations that merely repeat something already stated. @iological approach of classifying animals into groups on the basis of similarity or difference. $ethod or s7ill used in underta7ing tas7s. -ow de!iants 1ustify their beha!iour to themsel!es and others. t is associated with ;a!id $at8a. #cientific and mechanical de!ices, increasingly important following modernity. Philosophical idea that the uni!erse was designed in a purposeful way. ,hen there is an inclination for actions to occur in a certain

ta7e off stage

target hardening

target population tautological explanations taxonomy

techni6ue techni6ues of neutrali8ation

technology

teleology

tendency

way. tension ,hen a situation of unease or conflict exists between indi!iduals, groups or societies. ,hen data or ideas can be examined and measured in order to confirm or refute an idea. Associated with $argaret %hatcher, members of the new right belie!e in indi!idualism or the rights of the indi!idual o!er those of society. A community go!erned by a god or priests, or go!erned in the name of gods. A set of ideas, offering an explanation, usually based upon reasoned e!idence. A theory carrying significant support or reflecting consensus. =eferring to one of the sociological perspecti!es, such as functionalism, $arxism, #ymbolic nteractionism, etc. A theory ha!ing importance or significance. Another name for functionalist !iew suggesting institutions li7e the family change to fit the needs of changing society. An opinion supported by reasoned argument. An extended piece of written wor7 that deri!es from the research process. %erm that reflects the experience of many artisans around %uscany region. t is associated with Piore and #abel. :eminist approach which emphasises how women)s experiences are !ariable according to social class, ethnicity, age, etc. Political approach fa!oured by 'ew 9abour whereby a compromise is struc7 between the free-mar7et position and the state inter!ention. American sociologist, associated with the interactionist perspecti!e. %erm used by A. -. @ottoms to refer to the process whereby a predominantly law-abiding housing estate become characterised by anti-social beha!iour. Places where people li!e, wor7 and sleep such as prisons, mental hospitals, boarding schools or ships.

testable

the new right

theocracy

theory

theory, broad theory, sociological

theory, substanti!e theory of fit

thesis

third taly

third ,a!e :eminism

third ,ay

%homas, ,illiam saac 412/*-19405

tipping

total institution

totalitarianism totem

.ne person rules all of society. .b1ects that are gi!en sacred status, especially to tribes or clans, e.g. totem pole. %he gi!ing of sacred !alues to ob1ects. #ocial beha!iour that celebrates certain norms and !alues associated with the past. A society constrained by rules, norms and !alues that are resistant to change. ,hen control o!er others is through position, culturally reinforced by historical precedent, e.g. head of household. -eterosexual couple, married, li!ing with their children in a cohesi!e and stable family unit. #upport for established customs and beliefs. Personal characteristic. ,hen something goes beyond what is expected or normal. ,here the findings of one piece of research can be transferred to other social contexts. %o change or con!ert into a new form. A temporary state, not lasting for a long time. %he process of changing from one stage to another. ,hen something in society undergoes a significant change. ,hen the gender identity of a person does not correspond to the sex indicated by their genitalia. .bser!able pattern occurring within a social context. =elationship between three people. Dsing more than one social research method so that there is some form of chec7 of one against the other. "roup of people or clan, typically in pre-literate societies, often with shared family descendancy. %heory of gender stratification associated with #yl!ia ,alby highlighting three elements of patriarchyA subordination?

totemism tradition

tradition-directed society

traditional authority

traditional family

traditionalism trait transcendental transferability

transformation transient transition transmutation, cultural transsexuals

trend, social triadic relationships triangulation

tribe

triple systems theory

oppression and exploitation. two-step flow model $edia effects theory which suggests that there are powerful opinion ma7ers in communities who influence other people. ;i!ision into three types, e.g. the %ripartite system of schooling following the 1944 Education Act. A classification. A form of social classification. 3lassification into types.

tripartite

type type, social typology D underclass

"roup of highly depri!ed people, at bottom of society, who constitute a class in their own right. %hose with limited social position and status. t is associated with -oward @ec7er. Another name for the )blac7 economy). 9ocation of criminal gangs and their associates. ,hen things are similar. #imilar form of dress. ,hen e!erything is the same. ,hen people are all descended from the same ancestral line. %he process by which something becomes present e!erywhere. %he assumption that something 4e.g. family5 exists in e!ery society. 'orms or !alues that are shared by e!eryone. A study techni6ue in!ol!ing an informal inter!iew. ,here there are no external influences. Exclusi!e group 4around 1R of population5 made up of the aristocracy, entrepreneurs and so-called F1et-setE of !ery rich media, music and sport icons. An area with a cohesi!e identity within a town or city. %he social study of towns and cities.

underdogs

underground economy underworld uniform uniformity unilineal descent uni!ersalism

uni!ersality

uni!ersals, cultural unstructured inter!iew unstructured situation upper-class

urban community urban sociology

urbanism urbanisation urbani8e uses and gratifications theory

%he process of de!eloping towns and cities. "rowth of towns and cities. %o transform a rural area into towns and cities. %he idea that people choose media products to fulfil certain of their own personal needs. 12th century philosophical idea whereby indi!iduals assess the costs and benefits of e!ery action. t is associated with >eremy @entham. An ideal or perfect society.

utilitarianism

utopia G !alid

=esearch is said to be )!alid) when findings are true to life.

!alidity

%he extent to which a study is truthful and reflects the reality of e!eryday life %he guiding principles or beliefs which affect how people act. A sub1ecti!e opinion on something. ,hen things are loo7ed at ob1ecti!ely and !alue 1udgement is a!oided. A broad collection of sub1ecti!e ideas, such as support for the free-enterprise mar7et system. #omething in research that is sub1ect to change. #omething, sub1ect to change, that is not directly measurable but still significant in shaping outcomes. #omething, sub1ect to change, that is measurable numerically. ,hen there is difference between things. #omething that is different from the standard form. #omething that differs from the standard type. #po7en rather than written. Process of testing e!idence. 9iterally means understand. t is associated with ,eber who

!alue !alue 1udgement !alue neutrality

!alue system

!ariable !ariable, 6ualitati!e

!ariable, 6uantitati!e !ariance !ariation !ariant !erbal test !erification !erstehen, method of

argued we should try and put oursel!es in the shoes of the people being researched. !ertical mobility !ertical segregation $o!ement up or down the social scale. %he di!ision of the wor7place into top and bottom 1obs di!ided by a )glass ceiling). ,hen an indi!idual or group gains from certain acti!ities or e!ents occurring. People are as7ed if they ha!e had a crime committed against them %he extent to which people are the !ictims of criminal actions $edia )watchdog) that sees sex and !iolence as a threat to the nation)s morals and !alues. Education designed simply to prepare students for a life in wor7. %he way that people choose to !ote. %he !iew that the actions of people stem from free-will. .rganisation, such as a charity, that is funded by donations and goodwill rather than publicly funded. ,hen a group or indi!idual is sub1ect to external influence.

!ested interest

!ictim sur!eys

!ictimisation !iewersE and listenersE association

!ocational education

!oting beha!iour !oluntarism !oluntary organisation

!ulnerable , we-feeling wealth welfare to wor7

3ollecti!e feeling of a group or society. "oods and in!estments which can be bought or sold. #ocial policy initiati!es, such as the 'ew ;eal, designed to get people off welfare and into paid employment. 3rime is committed by middle-class professional people. %he term was coined by #utherland. ,or7ers in the tertiary sectorA clerical, professional and managerial. @eha!iour sub1ect to persecution by the 3hurch. =emo!al. $anual wor7ers or low-s7illed ser!ice sector wor7ers.

white-collar crime

white collar wor7er

witchcraft withdrawal wor7ing class

wor7ing families tax credit S xenophobia < youth culture

,elfare payment that supplements low wages to families.

-atred or irrational fear of foreigners.

<oung people express themsel!es in a way that is different from the traditions of mainstream culture.

B 8one 8one of transition Area or location. %he inner-city area defined by the 3hicago #chool where crime is highest.

"lossary of sociological terms authored by ;a!id @own with help from >anis "riffiths