GreenChemistryTeacher Spack

A Teachers Pack providing background knowledge for teachers, lesson plans and resources for use in class
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack
Introduction
The purpose of this Teachers Pack is to provide teachers with a full resource on Green Chemistry, covering all the specifications requirements for A-Level chemistry. Green Chemistry is a new and/or enlarged topic in all the new specifications for teaching in September 2008, following the new QCA GCE Chemistry Criteria. I reasoned that many teachers themselves may not have had the opportunity to study environmental chemistry as it is a relatively modern and current topic; and even if it was studied at university, there may be some gaps in their knowledge, such as recycling and how it is done; or they may not be up to date on the chemistry and issues as they stand today. This resource would therefore allow them to fully understand the subject so they can be very comfortable teaching it by knowing the background material, beyond what it expressly required from the specifications. This would allow them, for example, to be able to explain or answer pupils Green Chemistry-based questions on issues beyond the syllabus. Furthermore, this pack would provide teachers with lesson plans and resources, which would be useful when teaching a new and relatively unfamiliar topic. This resource therefore comes in two main sections: Firstly, a text-book allowing teachers to become up-to-date on Green Chemistry today. This is based on the required knowledge in all the A-Level Chemistry specifications (i.e. AQA, Edexcel and OCR A and B), for both AS and A2, however in much more detail than the pupils are required to know, in order to provide teachers with the confidence and background knowledge required to teach these new topics well. The second main section is a collection of lesson plans and resources on Green Chemistry-based topics. These lesson plans can be used as just that, a plan for an entire lesson; or ideas and activities can be used from them and attached to your other lessons where the chemistry might link together with Green Chemistry. The plans also suggest resources to use, such as animations, video clips, worksheets, links and PowerPoint presentations; all of which I have attached to this resource. The topics I have covered are, Atmospheric Chemistry, including the Ozone Hole; Air Pollution, including smog, catalytic converters and acid rain; Global Warming, including the notions of carbon neutral, carbon footprint, biofuels and examples of
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them; and Recycling, including recycling, amongst other methods of disposal of aluminium, iron, steel and polymers and issues associated with their disposal. I hope you find this pack useful and practical; and that your pupils enjoyment and understanding of Green Chemistry is increased.
February 2008
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What is Green Chemistry? Green Chemistry is based on and ties together a variety of strings of chemistry: Organic, Inorganic, Physical, Environmental, Biochemistry and Analytical Chemistry. Green Chemistry and Environmental Chemistry, while often confused are two separate fields. Green Chemistry encourages environmentally conscious behaviour, such as reducing and preventing pollution and the destruction of the planet. On the other hand, Environmental Chemistry is simply the study of chemistry occurring in the environment. i The following page lists the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry, reproduced from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Green Chemistry, Wikipedia, site accessed March 2008 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_chemistry
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The twelve principles of green chemistry

It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function while reducing toxicity. The use of auxiliary substances (solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary whenever possible and innocuous when used. Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. Unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection / deprotection, temporary modification of physical / chemical processes) should be avoided whenever possible. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment, and break down into innocuous degradation products. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
These principles have been reprinted with permission from Paul T. Anstas and John C. Warner Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998
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Table of Contents
1. Atmospheric Chemistry 1.1 Planetary Atmospheres 1.2 The Earths Atmosphere 1.3 Explanation for the Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere 1.4 Natural Catalytic Cycles: Problem with the Chapman mechanism 1.5 The Ozone Hole 1.5.1 Ozone Depletion 1.5.2 Why the Depletion is Dangerous 1.5.3 Explanation for the depletion 1.5.3.1 Polar Stratospheric Clouds 1.5.3.2 CFCs converting to Active Forms of Chlorine and Bromine 1.5.3.3 The Return of Sunlight: Ozone Destruction 1.5.3.4 Summary of Ozone Destruction 1.5.4 Current and Future Ozone Levels 1.5.5 CFC Substitutes 2. Air Pollution 2.1 Emitted Pollutants 2.2 Removal Processes of Compounds 2.3 Smog Formation 2.4 UK Emissions Today 2.5 Catalytic Converters 2.6 Acid Rain 3. Global Warming 3.1 Greenhouse Effect 3.2 Climate Change 3.3 Global Warming 3.3.1 Greenhouse Gases and How They Work 3.3.2 Evidence for Global Warming 3.3.3 Global Warming Potential 3.3.4 Carbon Neutral, Biofuels and Carbon Footprint 3.3.5 Controlling Global Warming and the Kyoto Protocol 1 1 2 3 6 8 8 10 11 11 13 13 14 15 15 19 20 21 22 25 26 27 30 30 30 31 31 31 35 35 37
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4. Recycling 4.1 Why Recycle 4.1.1 Household Waste 4.1.2 Aluminium and Steel 4.1.3 Plastics and Polymers 5. Lesson Plans and Resources Lesson Plan: AS Module 1 Combustion of Alkanes: Air Pollution Lesson Plan: AS Module 2 Extraction of Metals, Acid Rain and Recycling Lesson Plan: AS Module 2 Ozone Destruction Lesson Plan: AS Module 2 Global Warming Lesson Plan: A2 Module 4 Disposal and Recycling of Polymers Additional Green Chemistry Resources References
40 40 42 43 48 55 56 58 59 60 61 62 63
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1. Atmospheric Chemistry
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1. Atmospheric Chemistry 1.1. Planetary Atmospheres The Earths atmosphere is the only planet within the solar system which contains such a large percentage of oxygen; it is an oxidising atmosphere; as can be seen in the table below.
Table 1: Major atmospheric constituents of the Sun and the Planets within the Solar System and their Surface Temperature 1 Planet/Star Most Abundant 2nd Most 3rd Most Abundant Surface Gas Abundant Gas Gas Temperature (K)
Sun Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Titan
H2 CO2 N2 CO2 H2 H2 H2 H2 N2
89% 96.5% 78.1% 95.3% 90% 96% 82% 85% 82%
He N2 O2 N2 He He He He Ar
11% 3.5% 20.9% 2.7% 10% 4% 15% 15% 12%
H2O SO2 Ar Ar CH4 CH4 CH4 CH4 CH4
0.1% 0.015% 0.93% 1.6% 0.24% 0.2% 2.3% 1-2% 3%
-732 288 223 170 130 59.4 59.3 95
Planet /Star
Table 2: Mass of the Sun and the planets within the Solar System 2 Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus 1.99 x1030 3.30x1023 4.87x10
24
Neptune 1.02 x1026
Mass (kg)
5.97x1 024
6.42 x1023
1.90 x1027
5.68 x1026
8.68 x1025
Mercury has a relatively low mass (see Table 2 above) hence a smaller gravitational force, and therefore has almost no atmosphere. Its thin atmosphere is comprised of 98% He and 2% H2.1
Venus has largely CO2, which causes a runaway greenhouse effect and hence its high surface temperature.1 Mars atmosphere also consists chiefly of CO2 but as it is of a lower mass than Venus, its atmosphere is thinner as it has a weaker gravitational force. Thus, there is not a very strong greenhouse effect.1
The Outer Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) have a much lower surface temperature due to their distance from the Sun. Their atmospheres are predominately c. 90% H2 and c. 10% He, and are reducing in nature as they do not contain oxygen. There are low levels of a range of hydrocarbons in the atmospheres, most likely to be caused by the photochemistry of CH4.1
Titan is a satellite of Saturn and the only satellite to posses a massive atmosphere; which here is of N2 and some CH4. Titans atmosphere contains
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photochemical smog: most likely to be due to the oxidation of hydrocarbons. These aerosols cause the smog to appear as coloured clouds.1 1.2. The Earths Atmosphere The moon has c. 1/6 of the gravitational force than the Earth has, so it has virtually no atmosphere. If the Earths atmosphere did not attenuate incoming solar radiation, the temperature variation of the atmosphere would look like that of the moons 3 :
Figure 1: The temperature structure of the moons atmosphere and that of the Earths, if the Earths atmosphere did not attenuate incoming solar radiation3
The light from the sun heats up the Moons surface, which radiates heat upwards, so the surface heats the atmospheric layers directly above it. Therefore, there is a high temperature at the surface, which falls away rapidly as the distance from the surface increases, as heat transfer is less effective.1 However, the temperature structure of the Earth has an S shape:
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack Figure 2: Temperature variation with altitude of Earth's atmosphere 4
1.3. Explanation of the Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere Troposphere decrease in temperature From the surface to the Tropopause, the temperature decreases, this is due to the same reason for the temperature structure of the moon (the Sun heats the Earths surface, which re-radiates heat back up, heating the layers above it, with decreasing intensity as the altitude increases). Stratosphere increase in temperature At 10-15 km the temperature begins to increase throughout the stratosphere.1 This can be explained by the absorption of solar radiation:
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack Figure 3: The solar flux at various altitudes in the Earth's atmosphere 5
As can be seen from Figure 3, the dangerous high energy radiation (wavelengths less than 200 nm, i.e. the lower UVC region) is removed at the top of the atmosphere. This is done through photochemistry with O2, O2+, N+, N2+, O, O+, and NO+.1 The (also harmful and it is vital for life that it is removed) UVB region, between ~200-300 nm, begins to be absorbed at about 50km, and is removed by the time the solar radiation impinges on the Earths surface1. This is due to O2 and especially O3 (ozone) being the species that absorb UVB radiation1, acting as a UV filter. Therefore it is clear that ozone is vital to protect humans and the ecosystem from harmful UVB radiation. Ozone is generated via the Chapman Mechanism (discovered in the 1930s by Sidney Chapman)3:
O 2 + h O + O O 2 + O + M O3 + M O3 + h O 2 + O O3 + O 2O 2
Where M is a non-reactive body which can absorb excess energy
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The most interesting step is the 3rd one. It is extremely exothermic (90 kJ mol-1)1 so ozone is liberating a lot of heat in photolysis, causing the temperature to increase in
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the stratosphere. Ozones generation reaches a maximum in the Stratosphere because it is a balance between number of photons and the concentration of O2 molecules1: At higher altitudes: There is a high number of photons (fewer have been absorbed by the atmosphere), but the atmosphere is thinner, so the pressure low, therefore there is a low concentration of O2 molecules too low to create high enough levels of O3. At lower altitudes: Despite the fact there is a higher pressure, hence higher concentration of O2, the number of photons is too low as the layers of atmosphere above it have attenuated the incoming radiation this slows the rate of the first step in the Chapman mechanism. In the stratosphere, there is warm air sitting on top of cold air, so it is hard for the cold air to move through it: the air remains stuck in these distinct layers, which is termed zonally symmetric1. Mesosphere decrease in temperature Again, the air begins to cool here as the altitude increases, as the pressure decreases and hence the concentration of M and O2 molecules decrease, so there is very little to kick-start1 the Chapman cycle, and generation of ozone is extremely low. Thermosphere increase in temperature This begins at about 90 km, at this point the atmosphere is so thin and collisions between particles are extremely infrequent. This means that most of the particles dont get the chance to equilibrate once they have absorbed the high energy incoming solar radiation, and therefore their translational temperatures become very high1.
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1.4. Natural Catalytic Cycles: Problem with the Chapman mechanism The Chapman mechanism predicted the right ozone generation mechanism but overpredicted the production of O3 by a factor of about 5.1 This is because the last step in the cycle:
O 3 + O 2O 2
is slow and there exist catalysts, X, which are species in parts of the atmosphere which participate in the following cycle to speed up the destruction of ozone. This is called natural catalytic cycles1:
X + O 3 XO + O 2 XO + O X + O 2
Species of X are: NO 30-40km Cl and Br maximum at 45km HO above 45 km H above 60 km Sources of catalysts: The catalysts are formed via the reactions outlined below. They involve a natural source gas1 reacting with another molecule or undergoing photolysis (i.e. the compound is broken down by sunlight photons). Despite the fact that these species catalyse the destruction of ozone, these reactions dont go on indefinitely, which would destroy the ozone layer. Fortunately, termination reactions occur and this produces stable (inactive) reservoir compounds1 from the active radicals. These reservoir compounds are often the source gases themselves1. Source of NOX:
3
Net : O + O 3 O 2 + O 2
e.g.
NO + O3 NO 2 + O 2 NO 2 + O NO + O 2 Net : O + O3 O 2 + O 2
Firstly, ozone undergoes photolysis to form oxygen and an excited oxygen radical1:
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O3 + h O(1 D) + O 2 (1 g )
The source gas, N2O is produced by soil, which goes on to react with the oxygen radical to form NO1:
O(1 D) + N 2O 2NO Terminatio n Step: NO 2 + HO + M HNO 3 + M
Source of Cl: 1
CH 3Cl + h CH 3 + Cl Termination Step: Cl + CH 4 HCl + CH 3 Fortunately, the amount of CH3Cl emitted into the atmosphere is very low. However if this amount increases, it would present a problem as this is a very efficient process (see Table 3).
Source of HOX: 1
O(1 D) + H 2O OH + OH O(1 D) + CH 4 OH +CH 3 Termination Step: HO + HO 2 H 2O + O 2 HO 2 + HO 2 H 2O 2 + O 2

Table 3: Rates of catalytic cycles
K220 / cm3 molecule-1 s-1
kb/ka
H HO NO Cl O
1.7 x10
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25000 32 5 12794 1
NB: kb/ka O + O3 O 2 + O 2
ka
2.2 x10-14 3.5 x10-15 8.7 x10-12 6.8 x10-16
X + O3 XO + O 2 kb Rate loss of ozone: d[O3]/dt=- ka[O][O3]-kb[X][O3] The rates are equal when: ka[O][O3]/kb[X][O3]=1 [O]/[X] = kb / ka
Natural Chapman cycle
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It can be seen from the above table that one only needs to add c.1 millionth of the amount of H into the system compared to O for it to have the same effect as the natural Chapman cycle.
1.5. The Ozone Hole 1.5.1. Ozone Depletion
In the 1970s, the British Antarctic Survey recorded an enormous decrease in ozone in the Stratosphere over the Antarctic 6 . At first they believed their equipment to be faulty as they were astonished by this finding 7 .This continued to decrease year on year 8 , as shown by Figure 4.
Figure 4: Average Ozone Depletion for October over the Antarctic6 Figure 5: Average Area of the Ozone Hole 1980-20068
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Figure 6: Graph to show the changes in Ozone Partial Pressure over the South Pole from 196720013
As can be seen from Figure 6, since about the mid-1970s there has been a remarkable decrease in ozone partial pressures. There has also been an observed diminution over mid-latitudes and in the Arctic3. Every spring in the Antarctic (i.e. October), the average ozone levels drop and ozone depletion reaches a maximum at the end of November. The ozone hole develops seasonally over 6-8 weeks in the stratosphere, completely destroying ozone in some places. This seasonal change can be seen from the figure overleaf:
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Figure 7: Graph showing the variation in Ozone Partial Pressure at various altitudes in the summer (October) and winter (July) of 2001 over the Antarctic 9
As can be seen from the July bulge around 15km, this is where the ozone is usually at its maximum in the stratosphere. In the winter, the ozone level is almost 0 at this altitude, showing severe depletion.
1.5.2. Why the depletion is dangerous
Low levels or lack of ozone in the stratosphere causes detrimental impacts of humans, the ecosystem, and the economy at large. This is primarily due to the fact that reduced levels of ozone means that less of the dangerous, high energy UV-B radiation will be absorbed (see Figure 3), and so more will impinge upon the earths surface. Approximately, a 1% decrease of ozone leads to a 2% increase of UV radiation reaching the earths surface3.
Humans: Increased levels of dangerous high-energy UVB radiation17 impinging
upon the earths surface can cause melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer17, eye disorders and cataracts and suppression of the immune system in people of all races possibly leading to an increase in diseases and infections. According to Tolba et al: The percentage increases [of skin cancer] will not be one-to-one: a sustained ten per cent reduction in ozone would result in a 26 per cent increase in non-
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melanoma skin cancer. All other things remaining constant, this would mean an increase in excess of 300,000 cases a year, world-wide.17
Plants: Roughly half of the worlds plants are sensitive to UV-B light, and their
leaves shrink and the plant grows less when there is an increase in UV-B light impinging on the earths surface. Economically, this is also problematic as it can cause reduce food yields and plants also can change their chemical composition with increased UV-B exposure, which can affect their quality and nutrient levels.17
Aquatic ecosystems: Phytoplankton experience a similar detrimental impact of
excess UV-B radiation that terrestrial plants do. This could affect species further up the food chain and have a detrimental impact on the productivity of fisheries17, amongst others. In addition, there could be nitrogen deficiency in rice paddies as:
Increased exposure to UV-B radiation could lead to decreased nitrogen
assimilation by prokaryotic micro-organisms 17

Air quality: Increased levels of surface UV radiation can change the levels of
reactive compounds in the troposphere, such as acids, hydrogen peroxide and ozone where levels of NOx are high.17
Materials damage: Photo-oxidation3 can occur to many materials (wood, plastics
and rubber17), which is when the materials become oxidized through the action of UV light. Thus, increased UV light can cause increased damage to these materials.
1.5.3. Explanation for the depletion 1.5.3.1. Polar Stratospheric Clouds
In the Polar Regions in the winter, the temperatures drop so low that a polar vortex forms. This is when sunlight does not shine upon the region, and it is so dark and cold that air descends and creates a strong downwards vortex motion1, or circumpolar winds in the mid to low stratosphere6. This isolates the air within the vortex from the rest of the globe, and no material can get out and material can only enter at 40 km:
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Figure 8: Depiction of the Polar Vortex during the winter over the South Pole 10
In these conditions: no sunlight, and very cold temperatures below -800C polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) can form, these clouds remain there as the vortex isolates the air so it remains cold. These contain high levels of nitric acid (HNO3) and icewater. 11
Figure 9: Depiction of how CFCs enter the atmosphere6
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1.5.3.2. CFCs converting to Active Forms of Chlorine and Bromine
CFCs were first created in 1928 as a non-toxic, non-flammable refrigerant, and then many other uses for them were discovered7, due to their low reactivity and volatility. As can be seen from the figure above, CFCs are emitted into the atmosphere by factories and homes (such as through the use of CFCs in aerosols, refrigerants, in airconditioning and as solvents). The UV light in the upper atmosphere can easily break the C-Cl bonds in CFCs and converts the compounds into the main reservoir species of chlorine HCl and ClONO2, as they have a long lifetime, and move down into the polar vortex. The PSCs provide a surface on which heterogeneous reactions can occur to convert these two species, and their bromine equivalents, into active forms of chlorine11: HCl + ClONO2 HNO3 + Cl 2 ClONO2 + H 2 O HNO3 + HOCl HCl + HOCl H 2 O + Cl 2 N 2O5 + HCl HNO3 + ClONO N 2O5 + H 2 O 2HNO3 These heterogeneous reactions allow for the reservoir compounds of catalysts for ozone destruction to rapidly convert chlorine and bromine to their active forms.
1.5.3.3. The Return of Sunlight: Ozone Destruction
Remembering this occurs in the winter, as the cold temperatures that occur allow the formation of the PSCs; when the sunlight returns in the spring (October for the South Pole), the molecular chlorine readily undergoes photolysis:
Cl 2 + h Cl + Cl
This could now go on to catalyse the destruction of ozone through the cycle:
Cl + O3 ClO + O 2 However there are not enough O atoms in the vortex to do the final step in the cycle : ClO + O Cl + O 2 - it is too slow at this altitude (c. 20km)
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Instead, the cold temperatures encourage the formation of dimers of ClO, which drives the following cycle:
ClO + ClO + M ClOOCl + M ClOOCl + h Cl + Cl + O 2 2(Cl + O3 ) 2(ClO + O 2 ) Net : 2O3 2O 2 - Ozone Destruction This cycle is thought to be the predominant cycle for ozone destruction, accounting for 70% of destruction in the South Pole.
1.5.3.4. Summary of Ozone Destruction
The greater the amount of CFCs released into the atmosphere, the greater the amount of chlorine available as CFCs break with a high energy source: i.e. light at 200 nm: CFCl3 + hv CFCl2. + Cl. This free chlorine then goes on to catalytically destroy ozone. The following figure depicts how ClO is rapidly created from CFCs in the polar vortex in the winter (i.e. in the absence of sunlight), and how this destroys ozone in the presence of sunlight (i.e. in the spring), and ClO levels continue to increase.
Figure 10: Graphs to show a comparison in the variations of ClO and Ozone in the Antarctic vortex in the winter (28/08/87) and the spring (16/09/87) of 1987 12
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These same factors also cause destruction over the arctic, although because of warmer temperatures, the loss isnt as great. In addition, the PSCs dont occur as strongly in the northern hemisphere because the land-ocean distribution is different (the mountain ranges stir the atmosphere up11) and more favourable for their formation in the southern hemisphere, and in the Arctic the polar vortex disperses earlier in the spring11.
1.5.4. Current and Future Ozone Levels
Currently, the ozone hole is one and a half times the size of the United Sates (see Figure 11), and is still getting larger. However, levels of CFCs are decreasing. This is due to legislations controlling the use of CFCs: the Vienna Convention17 which did not prevent the use of bromofluoroalkanes 13 , and therefore the Montreal Protocol 14 that were implemented in 198517 and 198914 respectively. These legislations were supported by chemists. The Montreal Protocol aimed to reduce stratospheric halon levels to the levels they were at before the ozone hole by 206011. The Montreal Protocol was written so that schedules for the phasing out of halofluorocarbons could be revised depending on the current scientific and technological advances 15 . Thus, most recently, in September 2007 a Montreal Summit was held whereby c.200 countries (including the US and China which had previously been opposed to the protocol) signed a treaty to accelerate the complete ban of the use of hydrocarbons by 2020, and developing countries were given until 2030. China currently has CFC levels equivalent to those that were present in the 60s and 70s in the UK3. With the use of halofluorocarbons being phased out, all CFCs are currently banned except for medicinal use only13. In the US, the use of CFC, HCFC or HFC gases requires the technician to pass licensing examinations set by the Environment Protection Agency.13
1.5.5. CFC Substitutes
Scientists have developed and are currently developing alternatives to CFCs, to meet the legislations requirement. CFCs have a variety of uses, primarily as cleaning agents, fire extinguishing agents, foam, and refrigerants15.
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The CFC substitutes developed include: HFC-134a, a chlorine free compound used as a refrigerant with an Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP see overleaf) of zero 16 . PhostrEx, the fire suppression agent used in light jets, was developed to be free of CFCs and is now being sold to other airplane manufacturers13. HCFC: the H atom increases the reactivity of the compound, so less is required for its use. In addition, 95% of the compound is destroyed the troposphere and never reaches the stratosphere11, for example CF3CH2F. Other chlorine-free compounds have been developed as well, and their use is in rapid growth, especially fluorinated and partially fluorinated hydrocarbons15, such as CF2C12. This requires replacing the chlorine with fluorine. These compounds do not destroy the ozone layer (doesnt react with O3) but unfortunately have a high Global Warming Potential (GWP) and so contribute to climate change. Therefore, compounds that are developed today not only have to be chlorine-free but also have to abide by the Kyoto protocol by having a low GWP15. Using models, we are able to estimate this future decrease of atmospheric chlorine level (see Figure 12) and a complete drop by about 20701. The ozone hole itself is hoped to level off by 2019 and eventually start to decrease by 20503.
Figure 11: The ozone hole with the area of the United States superimposed3
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack Figure 12: Past and predicted levels of atmospheric chlorine3
Although this legislation appears to be taking effect, the lifetime of CFCs is very long and particularly CF3Br is very potent at destroying ozone (see Table 4: bromine has 10 times the ODP of chlorine). In addition, unlike Cl, Br wont react with methane1: Cl + CH 4 HCl + CH 3 Br + CH 4 no reaction Therefore it is unable to form a reservoir compound and difficult to get rid of bromine once it has entered the atmosphere1. Therefore it could take quite some time before the anthropogenic sources (i.e. derived from human activity) of Cl and Br are removed from the atmosphere.
Table 4: Halocarbon abundances, lifetimes and Ozone Depletion Potentials
Halocarbon
CFCl3 CF2Cl2 CF3Br CH3CCl3
Abundance 17 Lifetime1
(pptv) (years)
Ozone Depletion Potential1

(=Ozone destroyed by unit mass halocarbon/Ozone destroyed by unit mass of CFCl3)
280 484 2 158
55 100 65 50
1.0 0.8 10.0 0.1
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Finally, it can be seen that global warming did not cause the ozone hole; however there are links between the two processes11: CFCs are greenhouse gases The stratosphere is actually cooling due to global warming, so more PSCs can be formed, increasing the amount of reactions for ozone depletion.
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2. Air Pollution
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2. Air Pollution
Figure 13: Diagram to show the range of chemicals emitted by natural and anthropogenic activity, as well as depositions, transport and photochemistry 18
Stratosphere
Troposphere Flow of ozone from Wet deposition stratosphere NOx & VOCs
VOCs - Natural emissions
NOx & VOCs CH4 Dry Deposition
DMS & CH3X
Industrial Activity Termites, cows, domestic emissions & domestic ruminants Sea
The industrial revolution in the 17th century instigated the development of urban conurbations and also caused a rapid increase in anthropogenic emissions causing air pollution 19 . This lead to heavy, stagnant combustion smog19 (so named as it is a portmanteau of smoke and fog 20 ) over cities such as London and caused a variety of serious heath problems including pulmonary disease and heart failure19. The smog contained a mixture of Primary Pollutants emitted directly from the combustion source, especially soot particles and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Reductions in these emissions were made leading to a reduction in combustion smog occurances19. In the last century, increasing emissions of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur due to industrial and domestic combustion have lead to acid rain19.
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Since the post-war era of the 1950s, both the population and use of motorized vehicles has rapidly increased. These emissions caused a hazy photochemical smog19. This also causes adverse health problems, such as eye irritations, sore throats, asthma and respiratory diseases19. It was found that the component of photochemical smog (and cause of these ailments) were Secondary Pollutants, made from Primary Pollutants. The main components are ozone and PAN (peroxyacetylnitrate - CH3C(O)O2NO2) and are formed from the action of primary pollutants (from car exhausts etc) such as reactive VOCs and nitrogen oxides, with sunshine19. Every major city in the world now experiences photochemical smog19. From the figure above, it can be seen that the troposphere today has a complex array of emissions and processes.
2.1. Emitted Pollutants1
VOCs are volatile organic compounds; these contain a large variety of different
organic compounds both emitted from anthropogenic and natural sources. They absorb IR radiation, as does methane (CH4), and so contribute to global warming and they are therefore greenhouse gases.
o VOCs from anthropogenic sources are mainly from the burning of fuels (such
as in industry, for energy supplies and through the usage of cars). Alkanes are used as fuels and their combustion can be complete or incomplete, so some light, unburned hydrocarbons are emitted during combustion, such as through car exhausts. Incomplete combustion causes emission of CO and complete combustion emits CO2. Additionally, the light hydrocarbons in fuel evaporate when refuelling or storing, and others during combustion. A source of light alkanes is due natural gas leakage and a source of alkenes is biomass burning.
o Natural sources of VOCs are from vegetation (plants, trees, fungi and algae),
which they emit as pheromones (to ward off predators, to attract insects), to regulate their temperature or even as antifreeze. The VOCs include hydrocarbons, CO2 from respiration and CO.
NOx includes NO and NO2, this is formed due to high temperatures in combustion
(especially in the combustion of fossil fuels) where nitrogen and oxygen react: N2 + O2 + heat NOx. In addition, there are some natural sources of nitrogen, such as ammonia from fertiliser and manure23. This causes the formation of smog and acid rain.
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SO2 and particulates are also released through anthropogenic processes, as
combustion of hydrocarbons releases soot and ash and combustion of hydrocarbons containing sulphur releases sulphur dioxide. These are emitted through car exhausts, and as pollution from industry. In addition sulphur can be emitted from natural sources, such as volcanoes, the action of bacteria in soils and lightning23. These can both contribute to smog and SO2 contributes to acid rain.
2.2. Removal Processes of Compounds1
Wet deposition involves the incorporation of species into aqueous media such as
mist, rain, sea, and snow. This therefore has to involve soluble species such as the following inorganic compounds: HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HONO and SO2. VOCs usually are hydrophobic and therefore insoluble and rarely are lost through wet deposition.
Dry deposition is removal of species through their adsorption onto air mass.
When air mass comes into contact with water, earth or vegetation the emitted species can either physisorp (through Van der Waals forces) or chemisorp (through a chemical reaction). The rate of this determined by the flux through the atmospheric boundary layer (1 km form the Earths surface3) the rate of adsorptions. Generally the species are polar and therefore inorganic such as HNO3, NO2, HCl, HONO, O3 and SO2. Only very polar VOCs are lost through this process.
Chemical removal is the removal of VOCs through oxidation. This is mainly
done by the OH radical, but also ozone, NO3 radicals and even direct photolysis. This is why the troposphere is said to be oxidising. Through oxidation, it reacts with the species and eventually H2O and CO2 get out water is then rained out (a subcategory of wet deposition) and CO2 is a greenhouse gas.
o The OH radical is created via the mechanism:
O3 + h O(1 D) + O 2 O(1 D) + M O(3 P) + M O(1 D) + H 2O OH + OH
h at < ~ 330nm where M is an O 2 or N 2 molecule
This occurs in the troposphere: a small amount of ozone is found in the troposphere and therefore only a small amount of excited atomic oxygen
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1
(O( D)) is created by photolysis. However, as the troposphere sits below the stratosphere, the air in it is at a higher pressure. This leads to a balance between concentrations of water vapour and M. At these high pressures the excited O(1D) is rapidly quenched by M, however the troposphere also has 1050,000 times higher water vapour concentrations than in the stratosphere so a small amount of O(1D) reacts with water to form OH radicals.
o The OH radical reacts with VOCs (RH) via the reaction:
OH + RH R + H 2O The rates of reaction (and hence lifetime of RH) increases with increasing number of Hs as there is a greater chance of collision with OH . However, with a polar atom in the molecule, such as Cl in CH3Cl, the reaction is a lot faster as the Cl is electronegative, inducing a dipole in the molecule and leaving the Hs a lot more positive so they are more reactive. With alkenes, an addition reaction occurs: OH + CH 2 = CH 2 + M CH 2 (OH) CH 2
2.3. Smog Formation1
The main ingredient of smog is O31 which is caused by the action of sunlight on NOx and VOCs. As discussed earlier, VOCs can react very quickly with the OH radical and in heavily polluted areas, VOCs are often very prevalent especially aromatic compounds, alkenes and aldehydes as these react very quickly to form smog1. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) create ozone in the troposphere. This is unwanted and harmful to plants and humans respiratory systems, as well as being a major component of smog. This occurs due to the following mechanisms1:
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Without NOx: CO + OH H + CO 2 H + O 2 + M HO 2 + M HO 2 + O 3 OH + 2O 2 Net : CO + O 3 CO 2 + O 2 O 3 is destroyed

With NOx: CO + OH H + CO 2 H + O 2 + M HO 2 +M HO 2 + NO NO 2 + OH NO 2 + h NO + O(3 P) + O 2 O(3 P) + O 2 + M O3 + M Net : CO + 2O 2 CO 2 + O3 O3 is produced
Figure 143 overleaf shows the complete cycle of how ozone is formed and destroyed via the action of NOx and sunlight. In urban areas the concentration of NOx and VOCs are always high, however one doesnt see smog on a daily basis as intense sunlight is required to create the OH radicals and photolyse NO2 (therefore producing O3), so clear, still, hot days are ideal for smog formation1.
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Figure 14: Diagram to depict the cycle of formation and destruction of ozone, determined by NOx
Image courtesy of: T. G. Harrison and D. E. Shallcross, Teacher Update 1 Atmospheric Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, 21st June 2006.
The graph below (Figure 15) shows how production of ozone - hence smog - varies with NOx concentration. As NOxs are produced from anthropogenic sources (car exhausts and industry), their concentration is higher in urban areas than rural:
Figure 15: Graph to show the variation of ozone production (hence photochemical smog) with NOx concentration1
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At low NOx concentrations, there is more ozone than NOx, so ozone is destroyed by CO. This typically occurs in a marine environment1. At zero net production of ozone (the compensation point1), the amount of destruction equals the amount of ozone production. Above the compensation point there is a linear increase in the production of ozone with increasing NOx concentrations (as explained by the mechanism above). This reaches a maximum, and at very high NOx concentrations, there is retardation of ozone production as radical termination reactions occur1:
NO 2 + OH + M HNO3 + M (M is an unreactive species in the air which can absorb excess energy from the reactants) So we see lower levels of smog with extremely high concentrations of NOx.
Ozone only lasts on the surface for a few hours, so one can monitor the changes in ozone levels throughout the day. For example, on a sunny day when NOx levels peak early in the early morning rush hour, ozone levels increase for a few hours afterwards and then drop in the evening. However, ozone rises slightly into the troposphere and remains there for a few months which is an unwanted effect as ozone is a greenhouse gas3.
2.4. UK Emissions Today
CO and SO2 levels have decreased since the 1970s3

o This is because society has made an effort in cleaning up these pollutants,
through legislations such as the Clean Air Act (introduced in 1956). This act created zones where smokeless fuels had to be burnt, moved power stations to rural areas (to reduce urban smog), and required industries and factories to have tall chimneys to disperse air pollution 21 . Since then, power stations and factories are required to have filters and catalytic converters in their chimneys. NOx and VOC levels have stayed almost constant, as although cars emissions have been cleaned up (through the use and improvement of catalytic converters), the volume of cars has increased3
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Society has increased their awareness of pollution and its causes since the industrial revolution. There are continuing efforts to find greener fuels to reduce these emissions.
Infrared spectroscopy can be used to monitor air pollution through the use of mobile Fourier transform spectrometers as the major components (CO, CO2, SO2, NO2 and VOCs) can be detected.
2.5. Catalytic Converters
A catalytic converter treats the exhaust of a car before it enters the atmosphere to remove sources of air pollution. The main components of car emissions are N2 gas (due to the fact that the majority of air in N2 gas, so this passes through the cars engine), CO2 and H2O (both products of combustion). As combustion is not always complete, trace amounts of CO, VOCs (unburned fuel that has evaporated), and NOxs. Besides carbon dioxides Global Warming Potential, the trace gases are most harmful and causes of air pollution. A catalytic converter is usually 3-way: it has a reduction catalyst, an oxidation catalyst and a control system (which monitors the exhaust and feeds back information to fuel injection system) 22 . The reduction catalyst is the first stage and uses a ceramic (usually) honeycomb structure coated with platinum and rhodium22. It reduces NOx emissions by22:
o Adsorbing NO and NO2 at the catalyst surface o The NOx then undergoes a chemical reaction whereby it bonds with the
nitrogen, hence breaking the N-O bond so oxygen is free and bonds with other oxygen atoms to form O2. The N then reacts with other N atoms on the catalysts surface and so forms N2. This is then desorbed from the catalysts surface as free N2 gas. The oxidation catalyst is the second stage and uses a platinum and palladium catalyst coated again onto a ceramic honeycomb structure22. It oxidises unburned hydrocarbons (VOCs) and CO22 by lowering the activation energy for combustion of these reactants with the remaining oxygen supply in the exhaust.
o The catalyst adsorbs CO and the VOCs onto the catalyst surface
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o Free O2 in the exhaust gas passes over the catalyst and the catalyst
therefore aids the oxidation of the CO and VOCs causing a chemical reaction to form CO2.
o This CO2 doesnt adsorb as well onto the catalyst so is released into the
exhaust.
2.6. Acid Rain
Acid rain is caused by NOx and SO2 converting to nitric acid and sulphuric acid 23 . Rain is normally slightly acidic anyway, having a pH of 5.523 due to the fact that some acids are dissolved in it from natural sources of nitrogen and sulphur as well as carbon dioxide. However precipitation in polluted areas or downwind from polluted air is more acidic than usual due to increased levels of NOx and SO2. These pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere through combustion of hydrocarbons or hydrocarbons containing sulphur (the released H2S reacts with oxygen during the combustion process: 2H 2S + 3O 2 2H 2 O + 2SO 2 ) 24 . Sulphuric Acid Formation - Gas Phase Chemistry : SO 2 + OH HOSO2

HOSO2 + O 2 HO 2 + SO3 SO3 + H 2O H 2SO 4 (Sulphuric Acid)
Sulphuric Acid Formation - Aqueous Phase Chemistry : 25 SO 2 (g) + H 2O(l) SO 2 H 2O Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water SO 2 H 2O H + + HSO3 HSO3 H + + SO3
Hydrolysis
Nitric Acid Formation : NO 2 + OH HNO3 (Nitric Acid)
Thus, both are oxidised by the reactive hydroxyl radical (see Section 2.2 for how
OH is created). In the presence of water vapour, the sulphur trioxide (SO3) is rapidly converted to sulphuric acid25. In clouds, liquid droplets of water react much more rapidly with sulphur dioxide25. These acids are both dissolved into water, precipitated down to earth, and the pollutants may be deposited through dry deposition closer to their source onto
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vegetation and soils, where the above reactions occur to create acids23. If it is dissolved into clouds, the acids may travel a long way, even hundreds of kilometres before it falls23 therefore pollution recognises no boundaries and acid rain caused by UK emissions are known to have fallen in Norway and devastated the forests. In fact, the UK accounts for at least 16% of Norways acid rain 26 .
Effects of Acid Rain
The increased acidity of rivers and lakes and so can destroy the ecosystems, vegetation and organisms within them. pHs below 5 will stop fish eggs from hatching and below that can kills even adult fish 27 . So as acidity increases, the biodiversity of lakes decreases27. Acid rain has made certain fish and species of insects extinct27.
Changes to the soil pH can harm plants and denature enzymes and bacteria in the soil27. Acid rain can slow the growth of vegetation and forests27. There is an increase in the rate of people obtaining lung diseases such as cancer, bronchitis, emphysema and asthma23. This is thought to be caused by the inhalation of small particulate matter with an effective diameter of
Image taken from: European Environment Agency Website http://reports.eea.europa.eu/2599 XXX/en/page009.html
10m or less (PM10s); including sulphur23 so acid rain

may be a contributing factor to these human health problems.
Limestone is easily dissolved by acids: CaCO 3 + H 2SO 4 CaSO 4 + CO 2 + H 2 O So buildings and monuments have become easily eroded26.
Image taken from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/t humb/5/54/-_Acid_rain_damaged_gargoyle_.jpg/800px--_Acid_rain_damaged_gargoyle_-.jpg
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Reducing Acid Rain
Efforts are being made to reduce acid rain by removal of these nitrogen and sulphur based pollutants at their source. Sulphur dioxide can be removed from flue gases using calcium oxide: CaO + SO 2 CaSO3 This is then easily converted to CaSO4, known as gypsum24. Gypsum is a mineral with many uses: it is an ingredient in plaster (of dry walls) and fertilisers 28 . Most of the gypsum in the EU market is made from flue gas desulphurisation24. Through the enforcement of this process, the United States (for example) has seen a 33% decrease in SO2 emissions between 1983 and 200224.
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3. Global Warming
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3. Global Warming 3.1. Greenhouse Effect
This is a process whereby the whereby the reflection of infrared (IR) radiation by the Earths surface and incoming IR radiation from the sun is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the troposphere. Solar radiation reaching the Earths surface is mainly visible and UV light. The earths surface (vegetation, land and oceans) absorbs incoming visible and UV light, which heats it up. It then re-radiates 4% of this as heat in the form of IR radiation 29 . The reason why the earth doesnt rapidly drop in temperature at night is because greenhouse gases in the troposphere (i.e. the part of the atmosphere closest to the Earths surface) absorb the radiated IR radiation in the IR window (the IR region of the spectrum where these gases show strong absorptions) and re-emit it in all directions as heat, so some of this heat is transferred to the Earth and heats it up. In addition, when the gases absorb IR radiation, their vibrational modes are excited, so they vibrate more vigorously and are more likely to collide with other molecules, transferring their energy. This increases the kinetic energy of other molecules and raises the average temperature of the troposphere.60
Figure 16: Figure to show the proportions of radiation emitted, transmitted and reflected by the atmosphere and Earth's surface29
3.2. Climate Change
Climate is the characteristic weather of a region averaged over some period of
time1. So a change in climate is not the same as a change in weather (which can vary
on a daily basis). Climate change today is referred to as the change in climate that has been closely observed since the early 1990s and is thought to be caused by global warming 30 .
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3.3. Global Warming
Global warming is a controversial topic that has caused intense and often emotional
debate since the mid 1980s 31 . It refers to the recorded increase of the mean surface
temperature of the Earth, which is thought to be due to an increase in the concentration greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activity31. There has almost definitely been a 1 degree temperature rise in the Earths surface temperature over the past 100 years1.
3.3.1. Greenhouse Gases and How They Work
These greenhouse gases include H2O, CO2, CH4 and NOx molecules, and are sonamed because they absorb IR radiation and re-emit the heat in all directions thereby increasing the temperature of the atmosphere. NB, O2 and N2 are not greenhouse gases since in order to absorb IR radiation there must be a change in the dipole moment, and O2 and N2 are symmetric and so not stretch or bend would cause a change in dipole moment. The IR radiation is of the correct frequency to be absorbed by the electrons in the C=O bonds in carbon dioxide, O-H bonds in water and C-H bonds in methane, causing them to vibrate, bend, rock, scissor and twist (for example). The electrons have become excited, hence promoting the electrons to higher vibrational energy levels. When the electrons return to their ground state, they re-emit the energy with a frequency equal to the frequency of energy gap between the two levels. 32 The Greenhouse Effect of a given gas how much it heats up the Earths atmosphere - is dependent upon: 48

Its atmospheric concentration: the greater the concentration of the gas, the more molecules there are to absorb IR radiation. Its ability to absorb IR radiation: some gases absorb and re-emit IR radiation more strongly than others.
3.3.2. Evidence for Global Warming
The carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere are increasing and they have been increasing rapidly since the 1800s.
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Figure 17: Graph to show the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the troposphere from 1967-19971
Methane (CH4) levels have been increasing exponentially from the 1800s onwards. This is probably due to thawing of permafrost which contains trapped methane, increased rice cultivation (methanogenic bacteria live in rice paddies), leaking of natural gases from pipelines and during transport, and increasing ruminants1. However, some of this may be offset by the destruction of wetlands (hence methanogenic bacteria1 so it is a balance of the two and the former must be dominating.
Figure 18: Graph to show the variation in methane concentrations since 1000 A.D.1
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The concentration of CO2 was constant until the industrial revolution, when a sudden increase was observed. This shows it has increased due to the combustion of fossil fuels1 as CO2 is produced in combustion and the industrial revolution saw a rapid increase1 in the use and combustion of fossil fuels for power.
Figure 19: Graph to show the change in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations 1006-2002 A.D. measured from Ice Core Data and from 1950s as a Direct Measurement1
Direct Measurement
Ice Core Data
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Our global consumption of fossil fuels is still increasing today, as are the CO2 and CH4 concentrations. This coincides with the 3 hottest years on record have occurred since 1998, and 19 of the 20 hottest years on record have occurred since 1980. In summary, the carbon dioxide and methane levels are higher than anytime in the past 1 million years and potentially the past 30 million years1. Although the levels are probably in no way close to the highest levels in Earth history, the difference here is that we know the rate of change of these levels is faster than it ever has been by a large difference (millions of years versus 200 years). In addition, there has been an (almost) certain global temperature rise of 1 degree over the past century, despite of the high heat capacity of the oceans.
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Figure 20: The Combined Global Land and Ocean Surface Temperature Record from 1850 to
This graph further depicts the marked increase in temperature over time: 2007 was the 8th hottest year on record, 1998, 2005, 2003, 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2001 respectively were the top 733. What is clear is the difference between anthropogenic and natural climate change. There are variations in the climate, and CO2 and CH4 levels over hundreds of thousands of years. However we have never before seen fast a change over such a short period of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to evaluate the risk of climate change and make suggestions to attenuate those risks. The panel concluded: "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th
century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations." 34
"From new estimates of the combined anthropogenic forcing due to greenhouse gases,
aerosols, and land surface changes, it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750."34
However, some scientists, such as the European Science and Environment Forum, disagree that the observed climate change is caused by human activity as the climate historically has been shown to fluctuate, prior to the onset of industry in modern times. In addition, the models (and assumptions within them) used has caused disagreement.30
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3.3.3. Global Warming Potential
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a greenhouse gas is the ratio of global warming per unit mass of the greenhouse gas to the global warming of CO2 per unit mass 35 . It is therefore a measure of the relative strength of the greenhouse gas in causing global warming.
Table 5: Table to show the GWP and lifetime in the atmosphere of selected greenhouse gases
Greenhouse Gas
Lifetime (years)35
Global Warming Potential 36 20 Years 100 Years 500 Years
Carbon Dioxide Methane Nitrous Oxide CFC-1135 CFC-12 12 114 55 116
1 62 275 4500 7900
1 23 296 3400 8500
1 7 156 1400 4200
3.3.4. Carbon Neutral, Biofuels and Carbon Footprint
Carbon neutral refers to an activity that has no net annual carbon (greenhouse gas) emissions to the atmosphere. For example:
Bio-ethanol is in theory carbon neutral, as it is made from growing crops, mainly corn and sugar cane, which takes its carbon from eh carbon dioxide in the air. This carbon then is used to from the ethanol. When combusted the ethanol forms carbon dioxide again so there are no net emissions. It produces the same amount of CO2 as it takes in from photosynthesis when growing. However, energy is required to grow the crops (plant and harvest) and then to convert them to ethanol. Fertiliser and pesticides are also required to grow the crops, however, they are pollutants. In addition, the crops required for bio-ethanol could compete for land with other food crops and grazing land for animals, as well as destroying natural habitats and reducing biodiversity. It could even encourage deforestation. 37 It remains unclear if the total carbon footprint of bioethanol is actually less
than that of fossil fuels
The same principles above can be applied for carbon-neutral petrol and bio-diesel, which is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain carboxylic acids.
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Bio-diesel (again, carbon neutral) is made through a transesterification reaction of vegetable oils with methanol and a catalyst, such as potassium hydroxide 38 . The source of the oil is usually rapeseed, palm or soybean. In the U.K. rapeseed is by far the largest source of oil for producing biodiesel. 39 The three main methods of producing biodiesel are39:
Base-catalysed transesterification of the oil Most common as most costefficient, requires the lowest temperatures and has 98% conversion Acid-catalysed transesterification of the oil Reaction of the oil to from its fatty acids, and then reacting on to form biodiesel
The reaction is as follows39, with the esters formed being the biodiesel itself.
Hydrogen is also a carbon neutral fuel it can be used in hydrogen fuel cells, which uses oxygen as the oxidant. Methanol can be made by reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen. CO and H2 are collectively called syngas and commercially produced by reacting methane with water or a limited supply of oxygen.
CO + 2H 2
Cu, ZnO, Al2O3
CH 3OH
The modern-day catalyst for this reaction produces high selectivity and is a mixture of copper, zinc oxide and aluminium oxide, at 50-100 atm of pressure at 2500C. 40 This is a carbon neutral process as any CO produced when combusting natural gas can be reclaimed to produce methanol so there are no net carbon emissions into the atmosphere.
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Biofuels
A biofuel is a fuel made from a living things or the waste produced by them, and so is renewable and potentially carbon neutral 41 . However this is debatable for the reasons given in the argument for bio-ethanol. A second-generation of biofuels is begin developed, which will use the cellulose found in plants and will potentially be more efficient, requiring fewer plants and fuels can be created from a greater range of plants and plant waste41, reducing the loss if biodiversity that production of biofuels causes. The living things that can produce biofuels include41:

Wood Biogas (methane) from animal excrements Ethanol and diesel made form plants and plant waste
Carbon Footprint
A Carbon Footprint is a measure of the impact our activities have on the
environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases we produce. It is measured in units of carbon dioxide. 42
3.3.5. Controlling Global Warming and the Kyoto Protocol
As can be seen from the above discussion, the emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants from anthropogenic sources leads to increased atmospheric concentrations of these gases and hence causing ozone destruction, air pollution, acid rain, and almost certainly global warming. Therefore, it is important that we as a society control these emissions to minimise climate change resulting from global warming. Possible solutions to reduce the CO2 levels and emissions are:
Carbon capture and storage: this involves the removal of waste carbon dioxide. The CO2 can either be captured post-combustion of fossil fuels from power stations by removal from the flue gases. The technology required for this is already in place for other applications. It can also be removed pre-combustion by separating natural gas (CH4) into H2 and CO (collectively called syngas) through
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partial oxidation. Then the CO is further oxidised through the water-gas shift reaction ( CO + H 2O CO 2 + H 2 ) into CO2, which is then captured. The H2 then goes on to be used as a fuel in combustion and is cleaned of carbon. The CO2 can be transported through corrosion resistant pipelines which are already in place for the transport of oil and natural gas. It can then either be converted into a liquid to be injected deep into the oceans; or stored as a gas in empty oil and gas fields and saline formations; or by reacting it with metal oxides; it will form stable solid carbonate minerals. 43
Encouraging the more economical use of fuels; such as turning off lights when not in the room and turning off computers and TVs when not in use, reducing the amount of vehicles on roads by promoting public transport and by posing green taxes companies might be encouraged to combine lorry loads.
Through the use of alternative fuels, such as hydrogen, wind power, solar power, wave power, HEP and tidal power; we would be burning fewer fossil fuels and therefore reducing the amount of CO2, VOCs and NOxs emitted into the atmosphere.
By planting more vegetation there would be increased photosynthesis which would remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Kyoto Protocol
Our progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions can be enforced and monitored through initiatives such as the Kyoto protocol.
The Kyoto protocol is an agreement signed in 1997 by at least 55 developed countries pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions to 5% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012. 44
The greenhouse gases they aim to reduce are: CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (perfluorocarbons) and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride).44
Each country had its own specific target, for example EU countries pledged to cut emissions by 8% and Japan by 5%.44 It does not require developing countries to cut emissions.44 The US has currently not agreed to the protocol, claiming it will significantly affect their economy.44
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However many sceptics say the agreement is almost futile without US support as they are the worlds largest emitter of greenhouse gases, in addition to the fact developing countries (increasing polluters as they are currently going through their own industrial revolution) do not have to cut emissions. Additionally, the aim to reduce greenhouse gases by 5% is claimed to be no way near enough according to many climate scientists, and about 60% cuts are required to avoid the risks global warming presents.44
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4. Recycling
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4. Recycling 4.1. Why Recycle
The worlds resources, such as metals and oil, are running out and finite (nonrenewable), so in order to continue to make use of these valuable substances waste prevention has to be considered. There are also other social, economical and environmental problems posed by waste such as where it is stored, inefficient use of resources, the expense of disposal and creating new products from raw materials, health risks and risks to the environment61. For example, landfill sites release greenhouse gases (especially methane) and other toxic gases, waste can turn toxic and local habitats are destroyed. By not recycling wood-based products deforestation increases49, this leads to an acceleration of global warming and destruction of ecosystems. To help deal with these issues, society, industry and governments encourage people and companies to reduce, reuse and recycle their waste and products they no longer need. There is an ongoing effort to change to renewable resources and to reduce waste. Recycling is defined as 45 : A resource recovery method involving the collection, separation, and
processing to specification of scrap materials and their use as raw materials for manufacture into new products.
Image taken from: http://www.unpluggedliving.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/recycling-image-small.jpg
There is a widely-accepted hierarchy for waste disposal61 as depicted in Figure 21. As can be seen the most preferred solution is prevention so not to use that material, or reduction of its use. Disposal is the least favoured option as it doesnt make use of any of the materials properties.
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack Figure 21: Waste Disposal and Prevention Hierarchy
Image reproduced Courtesy of Sligo County Council
The use of renewable resources, energy recovery and recycling can contribute to the more sustainable use of materials:
Renewable resources can be replenished by natural processes and the rate of replenishment is equal or greater than the rate of consumption 46 . They often do not contribute to global warming or are far more environmentally friendly. For example, in using plant-based substances such as wood to make wood based products, the trees can be replanted which is essentially a carbon neutral exercise. In terms of energy, solar energy, tidal energy, biomass, HEP and wind power are all examples of renewable energy. The use of renewable resources leads to the more sustainable use of materials as the resources can be used indefinitely.
Energy recovery also leads to the more sustainable use of materials, as it ensures the usefulness of even waste products is exploited. For example, if waste polymers are incinerated, the energy released can be used to drive a turbine and contribute to the national grid.
Recycling allows for materials to be made into new products, therefore making use of the substance the product is made from. There is increasingly greater use of recycling of manufactured materials such as plastics, glass and metals.
In addition, the chemical industry should endeavour to use industrial processes that reduce waste products, hazardous chemicals (especially pollutants or greenhouse gases) and maximise atom economy. If any waste
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products are produced, they should be able to be degraded into safe substances in the environment, or recycled.
Atom economy is also important in waste prevention. Atom economy is how many
reactant atoms end up in the desired product as compared to waste products and other by-products 47 . Percentage atom economy is defined as: % Atom Economy = Molecular Weight of Desired Product 100 Molecular Weight of all the Reactants Used
This is a more useful parameter than yields when considering green chemistry. Although it is important to maximise the yield, atom economy is a better way of measuring efficiencies between different reactions that have the aim of forming the same product61. It can provide an extra diagnostic tool in measuring reaction efficiencies and can sometimes compensate for low yields or poor selectivity. The chemical industry is encouraged to use this concept when deciding on reaction type for the production of polymers and medicines. For example, if a lot of CO2 is produced as a by-product with a low atom economy then this is a disfavoured reaction. Catalysts can be used to lower the energy demand of a reaction, and reduce CO2 emissions from burning of fossil fuels. 48 Catalysts can be used to make a reaction have a better atom economy or allow a different reaction to be used with fewer waste products and better atom economy.
4.1.1. Household Waste
In 2003/04, UK households produced 30.5 million tonnes of rubbish, and only 17% of that was recycled. This is low compared to some other EU countries: some recycle 50% of their household waste. 60% of rubbish that goes into household bins could be recycled and up to 50% of waste in household bins could be composted. 49
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Figure 22: Pie Chart to Show the Average Constituents of Household Waste 50
Miscellaneous Metal Packaging Non3% Combustibles 5% Scrap Nappies 2% Wood 5% Glass 7% Textiles 3% Plastic Film 3% Dense Plastic 4% Paper and Board 18% Fines 3% Metal/White Goods 5% Garden Waste 21% Other Combustibles 1% Kitchen Waste 17% Soil and Other Organics 3%
4.1.2. Aluminium and Steel
In the UK, aluminium and steel are amongst the most common metal used. Despite the fact that per capita consumption of steel has dropped since the 1970s, the consumption of aluminium is still growing 51 . Global production of aluminium averages to about 24 million tonnes per year and for steel 1.05 billion tonnes in 2004, an increase on 2003 of 8.8% (and excluding china an increase of 4.5%)51. This enormous production volume and requirement for aluminium and steel clearly causes waste disposal issues when the metal products are no longer needed. Waste metal makes up 8% of household waste, yet only roughly a third of metal waste is currently recycled51. An advantage of recycling metals is that they never loose their properties no matter how many times they are recycled.
Table 6: Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling versus Extracting Metals
Pro-Recycling Scrap Metal

Metal ores are non-renewable and therefore will eventually run out recycling will prevent this Less disruption to the landscape as not quarrying. When quarrying for metals it makes large unsightly scars on the landscape. In addition, it can pollute rivers, and produces a lot of dust which can pollute the air; contributing to global dimming and respiratory diseases 52
Pro-Extraction of Metals
Sometimes through the extraction of metals one can obtain a much purer metal than one could through recycling When considering the energy required to recycle the metal, one is not considering the energy required to collect all the scrap metal from different recycling points (e.g. recycling banks and kerb-side)
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L. H. Vote Extracting metals can also damage the habitats and local ecosystem of where the extraction is taking place Ores are often located in remote mountainous regions52, so it is expensive to: Transport the machinery to the region Transport the ore to the extraction plant Hire workers and house them, as not many people would live in the area and potentially there is no housing/infrastructure It would also be difficult to find workers to extract the metals Reduces the waste entering landfill sites: fewer/smaller landfill sites are required as metals are not going into it. This also reduces disposal costs 53 . It also reduces the number of dumped cars53 Not using up valuable resources: saving the metal ores and saving resources and chemicals required in the manufacturing process53 In extraction, in order to obtain the pure metal from its ore it needs to be reduced. By recycling, one it not using up expensive reducing agents, such as titanium metal. If carbon (as coke or charcoal) is used, this is using up another finite resource which also is polluting. If reducing the metal through electrolysis this is also expensive The recycling process creates jobs53 One of the major deciding factors is how much energy is required to recycle compared to how much energy is used in extracting the metal: in almost all cases, it requires much less energy to recycle the material as can be seen from the examples of steel and aluminium below All steel cans are 100% recyclable51 All steel products can be recycled indefinitely (apart from aerosol cans) so waste disposal problems are reduced Recycling 1 tonne steel has the following environmental benefits51: Saves 1.5 kg of iron ore Saves 0.5 kg of coal Saves 40% of water usage Carbon dioxide is emitted when making steel from iron ore. As this is a greenhouse gas, this contributes to global warming and climate change. Recycling 1 tonne of steel scrap saves 80% of the CO2 emissions produced Saves 1.28 tonnes of solid waste Reduces air emissions by 86% (as not processing steel from iron ore) Reduces water pollution by 76% Saves 75% of the energy needed to make steel from iron
GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack Therefore, the energy required to transport all the scrap metal to the recycling plant, and to sort the metals may require more than extraction of metals It is difficult to organise and implement an efficient recycling scheme as it requires households, industry and companies to all contribute to the UKs new metal supply. Different councils organise this in different ways, operating recycling banks or kerb-side pick up. However, this can be inefficient with not all the households metal being recycled and difficult to separate the waste
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L. H. Vote ore Recycling 1 tonne aluminium environmental benefits51: has the following
Saves 6 tonnes of bauxite (aluminiums ore)51 Saves 4kg of chemical products, as they are not required to extract aluminium from its ore Produces only 5% of the CO2 emissions compared with extracting the metal Aluminium can be recycled indefinitely, as reprocessing does not damage its structure. Aluminium is the most cost effective material to recycle Saves 95% of the energy required to extract aluminium
In the extraction of copper the following damaging environmental effects occur:
The waste from crushing has to be removed The land where the open mine is becomes devastated The waste from froth flotation, called tailings, has to be removed Sulfur dioxide from smelting can cause acid rain52 Electrolysis is required to extract the copper which is an expensive process52
Scrap iron can also be used in a displacement reaction to extract aqueous solutions of copper 54 . This is advantageous as:
A lot less energy is required than the traditional method of high-temperature reduction of copper oxide with carbon saving money and fossil fuels. CO2 is not being formed - which would be released into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming - from the reduction and from using fossil fuels for energy to heat up the reaction mixture for the reduction Scrap iron is reused and so isnt immediately taking up space in a landfill site
Issues Involved in the Recycling of Iron and Steel
The following steps are taken when recycling scrap metals:
Collection of scrap metals: Metals are either collected kerbside from
household waste or at recycling collection points56. Here, people are asked to separate their waste into types (paper, metal and glass). All the waste metal is then transported to a central recycling plant.
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Images taken from: http://www.highpeak.gov.uk/environment/recycle/locator.asp and http://www.recycling-guide.org.uk/
Cleaning by incineration: The scrap metal has to be cleaned as it will often
contain dirt, dyes, inks, coatings and other impurities on its surface. For example in metal packaging, the label is often printed onto the metal. This is done through incineration: where the scrap metals are heated to very high temperatures (850-11000C) as this is when the hydrocarbons and organic impurities on the metal is destroyed as well as odorous gases and dioxins 55 . Aluminium foil will oxidise in the incinerator releasing energy51. This energy drives a turbine to produce electricity, and in Ireland for example the hot water from the heat exchanger is used for district heating55. Aluminium cans will melt and fall to the bottom with the ash. This is easily separated once it has cooled and resolidified51. The ash can then be used as part of the materials required for road construction55.
Figure 23: How Incineration Works55
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Sorting the metal by magnetic properties: Scrap metal is either ferrous or
non-ferrous. Ferrous means it contains iron (and so is magnetic) so this includes iron and steel. Non-ferrous scrap metal is everything else; for example, aluminium, nickel, copper, lead, and precious metals.51 This magnetic property (they are ferromagnetic or permanent magnets) of ferrous metal allows the two groups two be easily separated and sorted: giant magnets are used to attract ferrous scrap metal 56 (iron and steel) and the non-ferrous metal (and other waste) is left behind for further separation. This allows the iron and steel to go on and be easily cleaned by the incinerator (if it hasnt already) and re-melted to turn it into ingots (large blocks) of iron or steel49.
Images taken from: http://www.wasterec.co.uk/metals.html
Adjusting the composition of new steel: the molten iron is analysed just
before being re-added to the furnace. If the composition of the steel has to be changed, the oxygen supply (how long and how much) is altered, and sometimes some pure metal is added in small amounts to alter the composition 57 , as it can oxidise the different components in steel.
Scrap is used to adjust the temperature of the furnace: To decrease the
temperature of the molten metal in the furnace, more scrap iron is added, which cools it down. To increase the temperature maybe increased by increasing the oxygen supply passing over the burners, or adjust the hydrocarbon fuel supply to the burners or adjusting the temperature of the regenerated heat from the checkers. 58
Thereafter, the molten
iron or steel is allowed to cool into ingots and sent to mills where the ingots
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are rolled out into large sheets of steel or iron. This gives the metal greater flexibility and strength 49. From this, it can be remoulded into its required shape to make new metal products.
Images taken from: http://img.alibaba.com/photo/50386658/Stainless_Steel_Ingots.jpg and http://www.turkeyfryerexpress.com/images/BC1102.jpg
4.1.3. Plastics and Polymers
Plastic is in prevalent use globally; in the UK alone 275,000 tonnes of plastic49 are consumed annually (this is about 15 million bottles per day49). In addition, global use of plastic is increasing year on year: in Europe for example the annual increase is 4%49. There is a severe need to recycle plastics:
Plastics
are
made
from
hydrocarbon
polymers, which are made from crude oil. Crude oil is a finite and increasingly expensive resource, so it will eventually run out. It is therefore essential to recycle plastics instead of disposing of them in a landfill site as it will allow us to use crude oil more sparingly now; in addition it allows us to make use of plastics even when the crude oil supplies are exhausted.
Plastics can take 500 years to decompose49, so it uses up space in a landfill site and is unsightly. Recycling plastics is the obvious solution to this.
Image taken from: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=190
Disposal of Polymers
Polymers (including polyalkanes) have many advantages, they are chemically inert, non toxic as solids, impenetrable to bacteria, waterproof (such as plastics), easy to mould and process, economical, non-biodegradable so can last a long time, thermal insulators, electrical insulators, have high strength, can be flexibility, have low friction, rigid and are of low weights (which is useful for example in car manufacturing as plastics are lighter than steel and other metals so the car has a lower weight which causes a large reduction in fuel consumption i.e. an environmental advantage) 59 . - 48 -
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However, a drawback of polymers is that as they are chemically inert, they are therefore non-biodegradable, so disposal of waste polymers becomes a problem. They cant be left to degrade over time as they would just pollute the landscape, visually and through leeching it can pollute the environment and the air. In addition, they are made from crude oil which is a non-renewable fossil fuel. Obviously this will eventually run out so as a society we have to ensure to recycling the raw material to make the most use out of it as possible. Today, there is an increased political and social desire to:

Reduce waste plastic Recycle waste plastic to produce lower grade products or chemical feed stocks Or to use waste plastic for energy production (via incineration see Table 7
below)
In the lifecycle of a polymer (manufacture use recycle/dispose) two things important when applying green chemistry 60 :
Minimising the hazardous waste during production of raw materials and their resulting polymers to reduce any negative impact on the environment60 this is done through careful selection of raw materials, the synthetic route and ensuring any hazardous or environmentally unfriendly by-products are safely removed.
Reducing carbon emissions resulting from the life cycle of a polymer60 this is done by recycling and avoiding landfilling (which releases methane), degradation to CO2 and H2O, or incineration (both of which release CO2).
Table 7: Table to illustrate different Methods of Disposal of Polymers and their respective Advantages and Disadvantages
Method of Disposal
Advantages
This is the best method as it doesnt require any extra energy to change it into a different polymeric product, and no resources are used up The lifetime of the product is
Disadvantages
Once the product has served its purpose or is no longer usable, it needs to be disposed of somehow Usually indefinitely cannot reuse
Reuse
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack The product does not fill up a landfill site or pollute the air through incineration
Mechanical Recycling to Lower Grade Products & Chemical Recycling to Monomers 61
Doesnt use up more crude oil and our natural resources Reducing oil Saves energy as not required to separate crude oil into fractions and make polymers from the fractions Not using up landfill sites reduces the amount of waste requiring disposal Lower manufacturing costs for products made from recycled rather than raw materials Creates jobs Chemical recycling involves breaking the polymer down to its original monomers again. So there is a change in the chemical structure of the material, but the new substance the original hence material again, the environmental impact through not drilling for
Collection, transportation and processing recycling

63
costs
of
Not all polymers can be recycled. The main types which can are: - PTFE - Polythene (PE) both high density and low density - Poly(propene) (PP) - Polystyrene (PS) - Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) These different types (which are collected altogether) have to be separated. This is to ensure they remain pure and the resulting material is the best possible quality material with the required properties is produced 64 . This separation into types is very challenging Finding uses for mixed plastics is another difficulty64 Separation of plastics is even more complicated today as multi-layer packaging (where different types of plastic are fused into one product) is become more common64. In addition another substance is often fused into the material (a composite) to ensure it has
maintaining the quality e.g. nylon carpet recycling 62 . There is the advantage that the new virgin polymer has a higher value than their mechanically recycled equivalents . Chemical recycling produces chemical feed stocks which can be used for cracking in the production of plastics and other
61
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack a certain property, e.g. Increased public awareness and consumer participation strength 65 The markets for recycled materials can be unstable63 Recycling plants can have negative environmental impacts as they are unsightly, provide noise pollution and air pollution due to transportation to and from the facilities63 Energy option polymeric removed stream
63
recovery as
through
incineration is a less viable combustible materials) from the the are waste raw materials (such as paper and
Degradation
By
creating
biodegradable
Not
recovering
polymers, which can decompose by microbes or light; they can be composted and degrade over a relatively short period of time They are produced resources by i.e.
material so can not recycle it back into a new product The aim is that the polymer biodegrades into CO2 and H2O, but this would contribute to global warming Most biodegradable polymers currently break into smaller chains, fragments Degraded
64
renewable
isoprene, maize and starch so in essence the process is carbon Figure 24: Biodegradable Plant Pots made from Corn Starch 66 neutral Condensation polymers may be photodegradable due to the carbonyl can break Condensation (polyesters or polymers polyamides) C=O bond which absorbs radiation, and therefore
monomers polymer
and could
harm the local ecosystem and environment, and is unknown as yet whether it does or is toxic64, e.g. it could leech into the soil and be poisonous to certain organisms Currently the Food and Drug Administration prohibit the use of as biodegradable they could polymers
may be hydrolysed at the ester or amide group as part of the degradation process, therefore they are biodegradable Biodegradable polymers do not give off toxic fumes
contaminate food (due to
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack visually them decomposing due to light or the microbes in food)64 Destroying valuable organic resource Contributes released Toxic fumes are given off and have to be cleaned to prevent polluting the atmosphere Ash must be sent to a landfill and may be toxic. Although it can be
55
polluting Not using up landfill sites Can use the energy evolved to drive a turbine and create electricity Reliable, safe and efficient Destroys potentially unsafe material and bacteria
Incineration
to
global
warming and CO2 and CO is
used
in
road
surfacing costs
High operating and set-up Waste water is created
Landfill
Inexpensive compared to other waste disposal options landfill Offers once

67 67
Wastes resources Causes visual pollution, noise pollution, air pollution and takes up land space Releases unpleasant and
Almost all waste is suitable for sometimes all other

67
the routes
only are
possible method of disposal exhausted: such as ash from incinerators Nowadays sites are developed to cover the landfill so pollution is minimised and landfill gas can be trapped which is a useful low-level polluting fuel
67
potentially harmful odours Is a breeding ground for pathogens The sites use up valuable space Sites in an increasingly before populated world developed legislation on covering and preventing pollution are a huge source of pollution with unrestrained leakages
67
Therefore new, well-designed landfills do not cause visual pollution

67
of
landfill gas and leaching

67
Old landfills allow wildlife to repopulate on the restored land relatively empty landfill sites
67
Open landfill sites which are currently being filled are a source of air pollution Due to overpopulation in areas (e.g. urban), there is no
There are still many large and
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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack space majority for of landfill waste sites. is However this is where a large generated. So there are high transport costs (and hence pollution) afield67 Despite collecting landfill gas, a landfill site is the least energy efficient method of waste disposal. It requires a lot of energy and the energy stored in waste products is not released to its full extent67 Despite old landfills providing areas of open space, they often leach toxins hence providing uninhabitable and potentially dangerous land. use is to grow crops Currently the appeal of landfill sites is its versatility, low cost and ease of use. This deters advances innovative Landfill Landfill further in waste Directive Tax will use other, and more
67
to
transfer
the
waste to landfill sites further
Farmers can also therefore not
disposal and shortly
methods. However the EU
make landfilling a much more expensive option67, hopefully leading to an increase in recycling
Environmental damage is also minimised by removal of toxic waste products: such as when incinerating halogenated polymers (such as PVC polyvinyl chloride) as waste products, HCl is formed which has to be removed (by neutralisation) otherwise it
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would contribute to acid rain and the Cl radical is a natural catalyst for ozone destruction (see Section 1.5).
Poly(propene)
Poly(propene) is one of the most commonly used and recycled polymers. It is a thermoplastic polymer 68 , made from the monomer propene.
Figure 25: Conversion of Propene (monomer) to Poly(propene) (polymer) via Addition Polymerisation 69
The uses of poly(propene) are as follows: 69

Isotactic Poly(propene) very strong material
Packaging e.g. crates Textiles e.g. ropes Stationery68 Plastic parts and reusable containers68 Laboratory equipment68 Loudspeakers68 Car parts68
Syndiotactic Poly(propene) intermediate in softness and meting point
Packaging e.g. cling film Medical appliances e.g. medical tubing, bags and pouches
Atactic Poly(propene) much softer and has a lower melting point
Textiles e.g. roofing felt, thermal underwear and carpets Road paint Sealant Adhesives
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5. Lesson Plans and Resources
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5. Lesson Plans and Resources Based upon the AQA AS and A Level Specification for teaching in 2008
These lesson plans have been created with the AQA GCE specification in mind. However, the activities and resources suggested can be used for any of the specifications and a lesson plan can be chopped and mixed with the others depending on how you as a teacher see fit, and how it fits in with your teaching methods and timetabling. Especially as the AQA specification attaches the green chemistry topic to where it is relevant, instead of grouping it altogether as one; you may want to do the same with the lesson plans on the following pages attach certain activities, resources and ideas to where it links in with other chemistry in the course.
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Lesson Plan 1 and Resources: AS Module 1 Combustion of Alkanes: Air Pollution
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AS Module 1 Combustion of Alkanes: Air Pollution

Aim
To know that alkanes as well as fossil fuels, when combusted can release a number of pollutants (NOx, CO2, CO and VOCs) into the atmosphere To understand that these pollutants can be removed using catalytic converters To understand that CO2, CH4 and H2O are greenhouse gases and may contribute to global warming To know that combustion of sulphur containing hydrocarbons produces SO2 which causes air pollution and can be removed from flue gases using calcium oxide
Objective
Be able to state which pollutants are formed during combustion in an internal combustion engine To be able to say NOx and SO2 cause acid rain To able to state how a catalytic converter removes these pollutants To be able to write the equation of the removal of SO2 using calcium oxide and explain why this is done. To able to state which gases are greenhouse gases and that they therefore contribute to global warming
Links to AQA specification Health and Safety Risk Assessment

Care must be taken when using a computer. Avoid straining eyes and low light. AS Module 1: 3.1.6. Combustion of Alkanes
Overall Picture
To explain the pollutants emitted from combustion of alkanes and fossil fuels To explain which ones contribute to air pollution, which one contribute to acid rain and which ones contribute to global warming (i.e. they are greenhouse gases) using video Do a worksheet on air pollution To explain how these pollutants are removed through catalytic converters and calcium oxide. To explain the CO2 produced during combustion is released into the atmosphere To plot graphs of pollutant levels against time
Resources to be used Worksheets (attached) on air pollution. From: D. Warren, Green chemistry: a resource outlining areas for the teaching of green and environmental chemistry and sustainable development for 11-19 year old students, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001 Video explaining photochemical smog: http://video.aol.com/video/researchlearnglobal-warming-and-air-pollution/1399478 www.airquality.co.uk a website that monitors hourly a number of pollutants in many localities across the U.K.
Starter Activity
Have the pupils each answer the true/false quiz (attached please feel free to photocopy) on the combustion of alkanes and go through the answers together as a class Explain that when fossil fuels and alkanes are combusted the internal combustion engine can produce a large number of pollutants: NOx (N2 + O2 + heat NOx - i.e. NO and NO2), CO, CO2 and unburned hydrocarbons (i.e. VOCs). If the hydrocarbon contains sulphur, combustion of it leads to SO2 which causes air pollution and can cause acid rain (as well as NOx). Can use video link above to explain NOx forms ozone in the lower atmosphere, a secondary pollutant which is the main component of smog. Ask the students to complete one/more of the attached worksheets on air pollution. Removal processes: o Explain how a catalytic converter removes NOxs and oxidises unburned hydrocarbons and CO to CO2 o Explain how calcium oxide can remove sulphur dioxide from flue gases using the equation: CaO + SO 2 CaSO 3
Main Activity Refer to Section 2, page 19, for notes.
Explain, (ensuring the pupils make notes) that CO2, CH4 and H2O are greenhouse gases. They can all be released from combustion, and methane also from gas pipe leakage, ruminants, cows and methanogenic bacteria (see Section 2 for more details). Explain that greenhouse gases may contribute to global warming (no detail on global warming required). Other possible activities (if time or for homework): Go to the www.airquality.co.uk website, or more specifically use http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/data_selector.php, and have in pupils, individually or in small groups, to select a type of pollutant, and an area where you are interested in and plot graphs of how the pollutant levels change over the course of a day or week.
Plenary
Ask the pupils to name the pollutants formed when combusting alkanes Ask which ones cause acid rain and which ones are greenhouse gases Ask how they can be removed
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True/False Quiz: Properties of Alkenes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon Alkanes cannot be used as fuels Combustion of alkanes can be complete or incomplete Incomplete combustion is when there is a large supply of oxygen Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO) True/False True/False True/False True/False True/False
______________________________________________________ True/False Quiz: Properties of Alkenes

6. 7. 8. 9. Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon Alkanes cannot be used as fuels Combustion of alkanes can be complete or incomplete Incomplete combustion is when there is a large supply of oxygen True/False True/False True/False True/False True/False
10. Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO)

11. Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon 12. Alkanes cannot be used as fuels 13. Combustion of alkanes can be complete or incomplete 14. Incomplete combustion is when there is a large supply of oxygen 15. Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO) True/False True/False True/False True/False True/False

16. Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon 17. Alkanes cannot be used as fuels 18. Combustion of alkanes can be complete or incomplete 19. Incomplete combustion is when there is a large supply of oxygen 20. Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO) True/False True/False True/False True/False True/False
______________________________________________________
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Pollutants and their effects on living things

Air is a mixture of gases. Some of the gases are pollutants which are harmful to living things. Many of the pollutants are by-products from industrial processes and car engines. Over the past 150 years the amount of pollutants has varied. However, since about 1970 the levels have fallen as governments have enforced tighter pollution controls. Some pollutants are more harmful than others. Match the pollutant with the effect they have on living things.
Carbon monoxide (CO) This is produced when fuel such as petrol does not burn completely. Road vehicles account for 90% of emissions. CO can survive for a month in the atmosphere. Particulates (PM10) These are very tiny particles (diameters <10 m) of soot and other solids that do not settle but remain in the air. Incomplete combustion, especially from diesel engines, accounts for about 40% of UK emissions. Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons in the air result from unburnt engine fuel, escaping through the exhaust and evaporating before the fuel reaches the engine. Road traffic accounts for about 35% of UK emissions. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) In the high temperatures of an engine, nitrogen and oxygen from the air combine to make a mixture of NO and NO2 gas. NOx levels are greater in urban areas. After a day, NOx are converted to nitric acid, which falls as acid rain.
This may be linked to respiratory problems such as chronic bronchitis and asthma.
Some of these pollutants are linked with cancer.
It interferes with the way that red blood cells carry oxygen. Once the cell is damaged it cannot be repaired. In a confined space it can be lethal. These pose serious health risks as they are small enough to penetrate into the lungs, causing an increased risk of heart and lung disease.
Ozone A secondary pollutant produced by the reaction of NO2, hydrocarbons and sunlight. Ozone levels are lower in urban areas than rural areas because NO destroys ozone as it is formed. It tends to form downwind from urban centres. Lead Most airborne emissions of lead are a result of burning leaded petrol. Levels of lead in the air have declined with the use of unleaded petrol. Today, the battery industry is the biggest user of lead. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) The main source of SO2 is from coal-fired power stations and other industry. It is a corrosive gas that combines with water vapour to form acid rain.
This has been linked with asthma and chronic bronchitis. Acid rain damages vegetation, building materials and pond life. This can irritate the eyes and air passages causing breathing difficulties.
A cumulative poison to the central nervous system. It affects the mental development of children.
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Pollutants and their effects on living things page 1 of 2
Polluting gases
Complete and balance the following equations to determine which pollutants are formed in the atmosphere. A. N2(g)+ O2(g) _________ (g) B. 4CH +5O2(g) _________ (g) +2H2O(g) where 4CH is the hydrocarbon fuel C. 4CH + 3O2(g) D. 4CH + O2(g) E. N2(g) + 2O2(g) F. S(s) + O2(g) _________ (g) + 2H2O(g) _________(s) + 2H2O(g) _________(g) _________(g) _________(g)
G. 2NO(g) + O2(g)
1. Give the letters of the reactions which have enough oxygen for complete combustion to occur. 2. Give the letters of the reactions which have a limited supply of oxygen. 3. Name the gases which contribute to the formation of acid rain. 4. How could you check your answer to question 3 experimentally? 5. Do you think it is important to monitor air pollution? Give two reasons to support your answer.
Pollutants and their effects on living things page 2 of 2
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Monitoring air pollution

Air pollution monitoring sites are used to collect data at regular intervals. When evaluating the data, it is important to know where the sites are, because pollution levels are different in cities and the countryside. Urban Centre sites are located in town or city centre areas eg pedestrian precincts or shopping areas. Sampling heights are typically within 23 m. Rural sites are in open country locations distanced from population centres, roads and industrial areas. 1. Predict which air pollution monitoring site, urban or rural, will record the highest levels of the following pollutants.
Pollutant NOx Ozone O3 Fine Particles PM10*
Monitoring site
Reason
*PM10s are particulates which have a diameter less than 10m in diameter. 2. Carefully study the real data taken at the start of 1999 from the Leeds Urban Centre site and Narberth Rural site in Pembrokeshire.
160 140 Leeds NOx 120 NOx level /ppb 100 80 60 40 20 Narberth NOx
7 Day
11
13
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Monitoring air pollution page 1 of 3
40 35 30 Narberth O3 25 20 15 10 5 Leeds O3
Ozone level /ppb
7 Day
11
13
40 35 Leeds PM10 PM10 level g/m3 30 25 20 15 10 5 Narberth PM10
7 Day
11
13
Was your answer to question 1 correct? Say yes or no and explain why. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
The average level of pollution recorded each day is shown in the above graphs. These levels are compared to a standard to see if they pose a threat to our health or the environment. The public are alerted, and advised to take precautions, if the pollutant level is very high.
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Air quality bands for three pollutants

Air Pollution NOx / ppb, hourly average Ozone / ppb hourly average PM10 / g/m3 Low Less than 150 Less than 50 Less than 50 Moderate 150299 5989 5074 High 300399 90179 7599 Very High 400+ 180 100+
3. At the start of 1999, how would you describe the levels of a) NOx, b) Ozone, c) PM10 recorded in Leeds and Narberth? a) ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
c) ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
4. Do you find any of these results surprising? Explain your answer. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
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Lesson Plan 2 and Resources: AS Module 2 Extraction of Metals, Acid Rain and Recycling
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AS Module 2 Extraction of Metals, Acid Rain and Recycling

Aim
To discuss the environmental and economic advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals compared to extraction of metals, and why using scrap iron to extract copper is advantageous. To explain how sulphides are converted to oxides and how this can contribute to acid rain To understand the environmental problems of acid rain To explain the uses of polypropene and that it is recycled. To hold a brainstorming session on the pros and cons of recycling metals vs. extraction of metals. To remind them of sulphur dioxide causing acid rain, showing them the animation and PowerPoint presentation. To do a practical demonstrating the effects of acid on limestone To do a worksheet on Acid Rain To explain the uses of polypropene, a recyclable polymer.
Objective
To be able to state some advantages and disadvantages of recycling scrap metals vs. extraction of metals To be able to explain why it is more environmentally friendly to use scrap iron to extract copper from aqueous solutions vs. carbon reduction of copper oxide To be able to describe which pollutants + hence acids cause acid rain To be able to describe the environmental effects of acid rain To be able to list the uses of polypropene and know that it is recycled.
Links to AQA specification

AS Module 2: AS Module 2: 3.2.7. Extraction of Metals 3.2.9. Polymerisation of Alkenes
Overall Picture

Health and Safety Risk Assessment Wear protective lab coats and goggles Take car when pouring the acid, using latex gloves
if possible Place the chalk into the beaker using tongs
Resources to be used Animation on acid rain: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/psp/resources/Secondary/Science/ Year_9/Acid_rain/Acid_rain_animation.swf PowerPoint Presentation on Acid Rain: cause and effects Worksheet on acid rain: http://chemistry.slss.ie/downloads/ch_ol_clozeacidrain.pd f Britannica Online video on Acid Rain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPsU8i2edo&feature=related
Starter Activity
Hold a class brainstorming session, writing responses on a table on the board, on the environmental and economic advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals compared to extraction of metals, and why using scrap iron to extract copper is advantageous. Refer to Table 6 in Section 4.1.2 for a comprehensive table.
Main Activity
Remind the class of SO2 and NOx being pollutants that cause acid rain, asking how they are formed (the combustion of hydrocarbons). Explain that metals are usually found in ores as oxides or sulphides and when they are extracted SO2 is released, another anthropogenic way of contributing to acid rain. Show the animation on acid rain and the PowerPoint presentation, having the students make notes. If time, watch the Britannica Online video 2 minutes. Optional Practical activity in small groups or individually : From: http://www.reachoutmichigan.org/funexperiments/agesubject/lessons/tnrcc/acidrainlesson.html 1. Explain that acids react chemically with limestone and that chalk is limestone 2. Fill a beaker 1/3 full with vinegar or H2SO4 3. Add a piece of chalk to the glass 4. Have the students write what they see happening 5. Discuss their observations and inferences. Discuss the slow deterioration of statues and buildings due to the weak acid rain that falls on some statues and buildings. If the stone is limestone or has limestone in it, the deterioration is more rapid. Ask the students to do the worksheet on acid rain, where the students can fill in the gaps. To list the uses of polypropene (refer to the end of 4.1.3), and that it is a recyclable polymer.
Plenary
Ask the students to name one advantage and one disadvantage on the recycling of scrap iron Ask the students which pollutants contribute to acid rain, which acids they form and how they are formed Ask the class to list 3 problems caused by acid rain Ask the class to name 3 uses of polypropene
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Acid Rain
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Acid rain is caused by NOx and SO2 converting to nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Sulphuric SO
2
Acid Formation
- Gas Phase Chemistry
+ OH
2
HOSO
2 2 4
HOSO
+ O 2 HO
+ SO 3 (Sulphuric Acid)
SO 3 + H 2 O H 2 SO
Sulphuric Acid Formation - Aqueous Phase Chemistry : SO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) SO 2 H 2 O Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water SO 2 H 2 O H + + HSO HSO
3 3
Hydrolysis
H + + SO 3
Nitric Acid Formation NO

2
:
3
+ OH
HNO
(Nitric Acid)
Rain is normally slightly acidic anyway, having a pH of 5.5, due to:

Natural sources of sulphur: from volcanoes, bacteria in soils and lightning
Natural sources of nitrogen: ammonia from fertilisers and manure
Butprecipitation in polluted areas or downwind from polluted air is more acidic than usual due to increased levels of NOx and SO2 These pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere through:
Combustion of hydrocarbons Combustion of hydrocarbons containing sulphur Extraction of metals from their metal sulphide form
O 2 + N 2 + heat (from combustion ) NOx (i.e. NO 2 and NO)

2H 2 S + 3O 2 2H 2 O + 2SO 2
2PbS + 3 O 2 PbO + PbS + SO 2 2 PbS + 2PbO 3Pb + SO 2
These acids are both:

Dissolved into water in clouds & precipitated down to earth
This means the clouds could travel a long way (100s of km!) before it falls UK emissions are known to have fallen in Norway and devastated the forests. In fact, the UK accounts for at least 16% of Norways acid rain
The pollutants may be deposited through dry deposition onto vegetation and soils, where they create acids directly
Problems of Acid Rain

The increased acidity of rivers and lakes and so can destroy the ecosystems, vegetation and organisms within them. pHs below 5 will stop fish eggs from hatching and below that can kills even adult fish.
So as acidity increases, the biodiversity of lakes decreases. Acid rain has made certain fish and species of insects extinct.
Acid rain can slow the growth of vegetation and forests. Changes to the soil pH can harm plants and denature enzymes and bacteria in the soil.
There is an increase in the rate of people obtaining lung diseases such as: Cancer Bronchitis Emphysema Asthma This is thought to be caused by the inhalation of small particulate matter (PM10s); including sulphur so acid rain may be a contributing factor to these human health problems.
Limestone is easily dissolved by acids:
CaCO 3 + H 2SO 4 CaSO 4 + CO 2 + H 2 O

So buildings and monuments have become easily eroded
Acid Rain
The following words are omitted from the passage below: sulfur dioxide, volcanoes, limestone, power plants, fossil fuels, acid rain, pH, oxidized, rain Write down in the spaces given below the appropriate missing word corresponding to each of the numbers 1 to 9. of approximately 5.5 due to Unpolluted rainwater is slightly acidic. It has a (1) carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Emissions of acidic gases lead to a lowering of pH, with the formation of acid rain. The main causes of acid rain are the oxides of (2) damages soil, causes the poisoning of nitrogen and the oxides of sulfur. fish, attacks trees and erodes buildings. Oxides of nitrogen Oxides of nitrogen are released from car exhausts and _____ (3) ___where the high temperatures bring about the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen. They are also formed in some biological processes and by lightning discharges. Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is quickly (4) in air to nitrogen dioxide, NO2. Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water and reacts to form a mixture of HNO2 and HNO3. When this occurs in the atmosphere the result is acid rain. Oxides of sulfur Oxides of sulfur are mainly formed by the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal. They can also be released by (5) and by the decay of organic matter. When (6) are burned the sulfur in them forms sulfur dioxide, SO2, which is a dangerous pollutant. Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid, H2SO3. In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide is oxidised to sulfur trioxide, SO3. Sulfur trioxide dissolves in rainwater to form sulfuric acid, H2SO4. Thus the release of SO2 containing H2SO3 and H2SO4. into the atmosphere is likely to result in (7) Scrubbing waste gases Limestone is used to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power stations. Coal is mixed with finely ground (8) . The high temperatures in the furnace cause the limestone to decompose: CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (9) , preventing its release: The calcium oxide reacts with much of the CaO + SO2 CaSO3 1________________ 4________________ 7________________ 2________________ 5________________ 8________________ 3 ________________ 6________________ 9________________
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Lesson Plan 3 and Resources: AS Module 2 Ozone Destruction
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AS Module 2 Ozone Destruction

Aim
To understand the benefit of ozone in the stratosphere To understand why CFCs form Cl atoms in the stratosphere and how it causes the destruction of ozone To know of the legislation banning the use of CFCs and of an example of one of the chlorine-free alternatives developed by chemists
Objective
To be able explain why ozone is beneficial in the stratosphere, listing some adverse effects of increased UVB exposure To be able to provide the mechanism of Cl catalysed ozone destruction To be able to explain why CFCs are a source of this Cl atom To be able to state that CFCs are now banned by the Montreal Protocol and Chlorine-free alternatives have been developed by chemists
Overall Picture
Discussion of what ozone is and why it is beneficial, making use of the PowerPoint presentation. An explanation of how Cl radicals catalyse the destruction of ozone. The notes in this resource and the Ozone Hole Tour website are useful resources An explanation of how CFCs are a source of the Cl radicals using the animation. Worksheet on atmospheric chemistry An explanation of the solution: legislation banning CFCs and alternatives developed. Care must be taken when using a computer. Avoid straining eyes and low light.

AS Module 2: 3.2.8. Synthesis of chloroalkanes
Health and Safety Risk Assessment
Resources to be used PowerPoint Presentation: The Effects of Ozone Depletion Useful website that can be used to help explain ozone destruction: The Ozone Hole Tour6 http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/ Cl. Generation animation: http://aes.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a001600/a001603/mo leculeA.mov Worksheet on Atmospheric Chemistry
Starter Activity Idea taken from: http://www.floridatechnet.org/GED/LessonPlans/Science/ScienceLesson5.pdf

Ask what is the ozone? Discussion should centre on how the ozone is a layer around the earth and is important in keeping out the harmful, high energy UVB radiation from the sun. Ask what is meant by damage to the ozone? Answers should include such things as holes in the layer itself or the thinning of the layer, by CFCs. You may wish to bring in a product to demonstrate the types of materials that are viewed as damaging to the ozone such as an aerosol can or a product that contains/formerly contained chlorofluorocarbons. Explain the benefit of ozone in the upper atmosphere in that it attenuates harmful UVB radiation, briefly list some of the effects of ozone depletion (see PowerPoint presentation). Explain why chlorine atoms catalyse the decomposition of ozone: Use the Ozone Hole Tour resource to help explain.
Main Activity Please refer to sections 1.2 and 1.5 for notes.
Cl + O 3 ClO + O 2
ClO + ClO + M ClOOCl + M ClOOCl + h Cl + Cl + O 2 2(Cl + O 3 ) 2(ClO + O 2 )

Net : 2O 3 2O 2 - Ozone Destruction Explain that these chlorine atoms are formed in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) when energy from UV radiation causes C-Cl bond to break in CFCs: light at 200 nm: CFCl3 + hv CFCl2. + Cl. Use the above animation (and, if you wish, the Ozone Hole Tour resource to help explain). Ask the students to complete the attached worksheet on Atmospheric Chemistry Explain the aims of the Montreal protocol and Vienna Convention (see section 1.5.4) to ban the use of CFCs, and that this was supported by chemists. We have now developed alternative-chlorine free compounds, examples of which are in section 1.5.5.
Plenary
Ask the students to explain why ozone is beneficial Ask the students to state which substance catalyses the destruction of ozone and each student to come to the board to write a line for the mechanism of its destruction Ask the student to state what the Montreal protocol does and to provide the name of an alternative to CFCs.
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Ozone Depletion: Why it is Dangerous
Lisette Vote
Humans
Increased levels of dangerous high-energy UVB radiation impinging upon the earths surface can cause:
Melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer

A 10% reduction in ozone results in a 26% increase in non-melanoma skin cancer
Eye disorders and Cataracts Suppression of the immune system in people of all races
possibly leading to an increase in diseases and infections
Plants
Roughly half of the worlds plants are sensitive to UV-B light
Their leaves shrink and the plant grows less when exposed to an increase in UV-B light
Economically, this is also problematic as:

It can cause reduce food yields Plants also can change their chemical composition with increased UV-B exposure, which can affect their quality and nutrient levels
Aquatic Ecosystems
Phytoplankton experience a similar detrimental impact of excess UV-B radiation that terrestrial plants do. This could: Affect species further up the food chain Have a detrimental impact on the productivity of fisheries, amongst others
Air Quality
Increased levels of surface UV radiation can increase the levels of reactive compounds in the troposphere (lower atmosphere), such as:
hydrogen peroxide acids ozone where levels of NOx are high causing smog
Materials Damage
Photo-oxidation can occur to many materials, e.g.: Wood Plastics Rubber This is which is when the materials become oxidized & damaged through the action of UV light
Atmospheric Chemistry
The following words are omitted from the passage below: oxides, increase, nitrogen, oxygen, ultraviolet, ozone, reactive, chlorofluorocarbons, chlorine Write down in the spaces given below the appropriate missing word corresponding to each of the numbers 1 to 9. The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas extending about 100 km above the earths surface. It becomes less dense the higher you go. The main gases in the atmosphere are (1) (78% by volume), oxygen (21% by volume) and argon 1%. The remainder of the gases are present in much smaller concentrations and include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour and the (2) of nitrogen. All these gases are present in an unpolluted environment. Human activities however (3)________ the concentrations of some gases and add other gases including chlorofluorocarbons to the atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere oxygen molecules break down into oxygen atoms. These oxygen atoms react with (4) molecules to form ozone. Certain atmospheric gases absorb ultraviolet radiation strongly. One of the most important of these is (5)_____, O3. Ozone is broken down on reaction with (6)_____ radiation to form an oxygen molecule and an oxygen atom. Ozone is a very (7) gas. It reacts very quickly with other substances and gets destroyed in the process. Chlorofluorocarbons are believed to be the main cause of damage to the ozone layer.(8) break down in the atmosphere releasing chlorine atoms. These (9)____ atoms react with and break down ozone, thus reducing the amount of ozone in the atmosphere. There has been an increase in skin cancer and eye cataracts as a result of the damage to the ozone layer.
1________________
2________________
3 ________________
4________________
5________________
6________________
7________________
8________________
9________________
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Lesson Plan 4 and Resources: AS Module 2 Global Warming
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AS Module 2 Global Warming

Aim
Explain the terms carbon neutral and biofuel Understand how methanol and ethanol can produced as carbon neutral biofuels To discuss to what extent bioethanol is carbon neutral To explain the link between IR radiation absorption by the bonds in greenhouse gases and global warming
Objective
To understand the terms carbon neutral and biofuels and how it is applied to methanol and bioethanol. To understand how methanol and bioethanol are produces Understand to what extent bioethanol is carbon neutral To be able to explain the link between IR radiation absorption by the bonds in greenhouse gases and global warming
Overall Picture
To discuss what carbon natural means To use a PowerPoint presentation to explain the production of methanol for use as a carbon-neutral fuel Explain what a bio-fuel is and how bioethanol is made Show the video documentary about biodiesel to lead into a discussion why bioethanol might not be completely carbon neutral Explain the link between IR radiation absorption by the bonds in greenhouse gases and global warming The students complete the global warming worksheet

AS Module 2: AS Module 2: AS Module 2: 3.2.3. Importance of equilibria in industrial processes 3.2.10. Ethanol production 3.2.11. Infra-red spectroscopy
Health and Safety Risk Assessment

Care must be taken when using a computer. Avoid straining eyes and low light.
Resources to be used PowerPoint presentation: Carbon Neutral Methanol Production Video Documentary about biodiesel: http://www.soton.ac.uk/chemistry/IDECAT/ Courtesy of: Dr. David Read, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K. Worksheet on Global Warming: http://chemistry.slss.ie/downloads/ch_ol_clozegreenhouse .pdf
Starter Activity Please refer to section 3.3.4 for notes

Ask the class to name 3 greenhouse gases. Ask what it means to be a greenhouse gas (contributes to global warming). Explain what is meant by carbon neutral to the class. Then ask them to come up with ideas in groups or as a class processes that could be considered carbon neutral. Explain (can be done using PowerPoint presentation) how methanol can be a carbon neutral fuel by being made by reaction of CO with H2, explain how use of carbon neutral alcohols as fuels is an important and essential application. Use this to lead on to explain what a biofuel is (see section 3.3.4) and how ethanol, produced by fermentation of growing crops is a carbon-neutral biofuel Show the video about biodiesel (analogous process to bioethanol) Set up a class discussion as to why, through this process, it is debatable whether it is carbon neutral. (see section 3.3.4) Explain how IR radiation excites the bonds C=O, C-H and O-H in CO2, methane and water vapour respectively causing them to vibrate more vigorously and then re-emit the energy in all directions as heat, thereby heating up the atmosphere (see section 3.3.1). This is why they are considered to be greenhouse gases and why they contribute to global warming; which refers to the recorded increase of the mean surface temperature of the Earth, which is thought to be due to an increase in the concentration greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activity31. Ask the students to complete the worksheet on Global Warming.
Main Activity

Plenary
Ask the students what carbon neutral means Ask them to name one carbon neutral fuel and why Ask the students why bioethanol might not be perfectly carbon neutral Ask the students why CO2, H21O, and CH4 are greenhouse gases in term of IR radiation.
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Carbon Neutral Methanol Production
Lisette Vote
Production of Methanol (CH3OH)

Natural gas (methane) is combusted as a fuel to produce energy, if it combusts incompletely with a limited supply of oxygen it forms carbon monoxide, CO. This can then react with hydrogen using a catalyst to form methanol
2CH 4 + O2 2CO + 4 H 2 CO + 2H 2
Cu, ZnO, Al 2 O 3 50 100 atm, 250 C
0
CH 3OH
Carbon Neutral
This is a carbon neutral process because any CO produced when combusting natural gas can be reclaimed to produce methanol When the methanol is combusted as a fuel, the CO2 released has the same amount of carbon that was reclaimed from CO. So there are no net carbon emissions into the atmosphere
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

The following words are omitted from the passage below: greenhouse, rubbish dumps, global warming, water vapour, combustion, warmer, forests, CFCs Write down in the spaces given below the appropriate missing word corresponding to each of the numbers 1 to 8. Some gases found in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation, thus preventing it from escaping into space. The effect of this is to make the earth (1) . This greenhouse effect keeps the earth at a comfortable temperature. Problems arise when growing amounts of certain gases in the lower atmosphere increase the greenhouse effect. There is evidence that the earth is getting hotter, i.e. that (2)____ _ ____ is taking place. The effects of global warming on climate have been predicted. These include warmer weather, changes in rainfall distribution, rising sea levels, increased flooding and loss of land. The most important (3)____ gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons. Water vapour makes the largest contribution to the greenhouse in effect because of its abundance. Global warming causes the amount of (4) the lower atmosphere to increase. The amount of carbon dioxide in the lower atmosphere has been increasing for the past 150 years. The (5)_____ of fossil fuels such as coal and oil is regarded as being the principal factor leading to this increase. makes the problem worse because it reduces The destruction of the worlds (6) the amount of photosynthesis taking place. The concentration of methane in the lower atmosphere is rising. It is produced in (7)____ ___ compost heaps, marshes , slurry pits, coal mines, and in the digestive tracts of animals. Bacteria operating in anaerobic conditions on materials such as carbohydrates are responsible. Chlorofluorocarbons, (8) , also absorb infrared radiation. The fact that they have a large greenhouse factor makes their release into the lower atmosphere undesirable.
1________________
2________________
3 ________________
4________________
5________________
6________________
7________________
8________________
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Lesson Plan 5 and Resources: A2 Module 4 Disposal and Recycling of Polymers
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A2 Module 4 Disposal and Recycling of Polymers

Aim
To understand that polyalkenes are chemically inert and therefore non-biodegradable To understand that polyesters and polyamides can be broken down by hydrolysis and are therefore biodegradable To appreciate the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of disposal of polymers including recycling
Objective
To be able to state why polyalkenes cannot biodegrade To be able to state which polymers can biodegrade and how this is done To be able to state at least 2 advantages and disadvantages for each method of disposal of polymers, including recycling
Resources to be used
Video of polyester hydrolysis: http://www.coolschool.ca/lor/BI12/unit2/U02L01/Hydrolysis-maltosemovie.htm Video of polyamide hydrolysis: http://www.coolschool.ca/lor/BI12/unit2/U02L01/Hydrolysis-depeptidemovie.htm Worksheet: Pros and Cons of Disposal of Polymers Slide show of the process of recycling polymers: http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/hands_on_plastics/activities/hdpe_slideshow/slide1.html
Health and Safety Risk Assessment If doing the practical, wear lab coat and goggles Take care when handling HCl and K2HPO4, use
Overall Picture
To come up with the different methods of disposal of polymers To explain that polyalkenes are non-biodegradable, but polyesters and polyamides are degradable: show the hydrolysis videos. To discuss the pros and cons of the different methods of polymer disposal, creating a table (see worksheet) as a class (possible for this to be a homework assignment) Optional: Practical on the hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose over time.
latex protective gloves Keep test tubes in a test tube rack Have excess acid/base at hand to neutralise any spillages If heating with a Bunsen burner, place away from overhead shelving and cluttered equipment and combustible materials, do not leave open flame unattended and shut off gas when not in use. Use tongs to hold the test tube to the flame.

A2 Module 4: 3.4.9. Biodegradability and disposal of polymers
Starter Activity Please refer to section 4.1.3 for notes

To brainstorm as a class, writing on the board their answers different methods of disposal of polymers Explain that due to the unreactive alkane backbone of polyalkenes (e.g. polyethene), polyalkenes are chemically inert. This causes them to be non-biodegradable, and can take up to 500 years to start to degrade. Explain polyesters and polyamides can be broken down by hydrolysis and are therefore biodegradable, showing the videos Discuss as a class the advantages and disadvantages as a class for the different methods of disposal of polymers, including recycling, writing answers on the board and in the matrix on the attached worksheet (Pros and Cons of Disposal of Polymers). Alternatively, it can be written on an A3 sheet which can be photocopied and distributed to the students as it is being discussed. Table 7 is a comprehensive table of this. You can show the slide show of the process of recycling polymers (see link above). Optional Practical Activity: Hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose monomers (Adapted From: http://staff.science.nus.edu.sg/~dbsyhh/lab3.htm) 1. Prepare a series of seven test tubes, labeled 0 through 30 minutes in 5-minute intervals. 2. Pipette 2.5 ml of 1.0 M K2HPO4 into each tube (quenches the reaction) 3. In a separate tube, add 2.5 ml of glycogen (8 mg/ml) to 2.5 ml of 4.0 M hydrochloric acid and mix. 4. Immediately withdraw 0.5 ml of the glycogen-acid mixture and transfer it to the tube marked 0 minutes. 5. Place the remainder of the glycogen-acid solution in a vigorously boiling water bath, using a foil cap to cover the top of the tube. 6. Remove 0.5 ml samples of 5-minute intervals for 30 minutes and transfer them to the appropriately labeled tubes containing 1.0 M K2HPO4 7. Test each of the samples for increasing levels of glucose with Benedicts Test (a solution of copper sulphate, sodium hydroxide, and tartaric acid) and heat. 8. Write down observations of how the colour increases in depth/intensity as more glucose is formed Ask the students to name the different methods of disposal of polymers Ask the students to name 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of recycling polymers Say which type of polymers can be biodegraded and what is the name of the reaction type for this reaction (i.e. hydrolysis) Ask why polyalkenes cannot biodegrade
Main Activity

Plenary
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Environmental Reuse Advantages
Economic
Social
Disadvantages
Mechanical Recycling to Lower Grade Products & Chemical Recycling to Monomers Advantages Disadvantages
Degradation Advantages
Environmental Disadvantages
Economic
Social
Incineration Advantages
Disadvantages
Landfill Advantages
Disadvantages
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Additional Green Chemistry Resources
L. H. Vote
Additional Green Chemistry Resources
The following pages contain extra resources on Green Chemistry, reproduced from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Contents:
1. The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry 2. Plastics from renewable raw materials and bio-degradable plastics a. Rubber & Experiment: Vulcanisation of natural rubber b. Lactic Acid - Production of a plastic from 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid)
c. Experiment: production of a film using starch
Video Documentary about biodiesel can be found at:
http://www.soton.ac.uk/chemistry/IDECAT/ AQA specification link: A2 Module 4: 3.4.5. Carboxylic acids and esters and Acylation Courtesy of: Dr. David Read, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
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The twelve principles of green chemistry

It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function while reducing toxicity. The use of auxiliary substances (solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary whenever possible and innocuous when used. Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. Unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection / deprotection, temporary modification of physical / chemical processes) should be avoided whenever possible. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment, and break down into innocuous degradation products. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
These principles have been reprinted with permission from Paul T. Anstas and John C. Warner Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998
Plastics from renewable raw materials and biodegradable plastics

Adapted from RSC material by Horn, Bader and Buchholz Plastics are an indispensable part of modern society. They are used in many different areas, in daily use, in technical applications and even in medicine. It is often forgotten that many modern developments would have been impossible without the use of plastics. Plastics may have many advantages, but they are also the subject of environmental and political debate. The use of fossil raw materials, such as oil, and the dangers which can occur as a result of its extraction and transport have been criticized, as well as the disposal and recycling of plastics. The fact that some of the problems could be reduced by using renewable raw materials for the production of plastics has been overlooked. Particularly in recent times the interest generated by such products has increased, or rather, increased again. They are the subject of this section.
What are renewable raw materials?

Renewable raw materials are natural substances 1 which are used by mankind for purposes other than nutrition or foodstuffs. [i]. They can be agricultural, forestry, animal or microbial products. Examples of renewable raw materials which are used industrially are cellulose, starch, sugar, oils and fats. The philosophy of the renewable management of raw materials is that only amounts which do not upset the natural biological equilibrium are extracted, and thus no disruption of the biosphere results. The variety of renewable raw materials and their different chemical structures leads to a wide range of applications. Table 1 shows some examples. Renewable raw material Cellulose Origin Wood, cotton Chemical / technical Application (example) product Cellulose ethanoate (acetate), cellulose ether Sheets, films, filtration condensate, construction materials
Vegetable oils
eg rape
Lubricant Rape seed oil Rape seed oil methyl Fuel ester Saccharose derivates Plastics Physically or chemically modified starch (eg hydroxypropylstarch) alkylpolyglycoside Flax fibre Rubber Pregelatinized starch, binders, adhesives, finishing agents, plastics Surfactants, detergents Fibre-reinforced materials Car tyres Clothes, insulating materials
Sugar (saccharose) Starch
Sugar cane, sugar beet Wheat, potatoes, corn, starch
Flax Latex Wool
Fibre flax (Flax) Rubber tree Sheep, goats etc
Table 1 Examples of the application of renewable raw materials
These do not include mineral oil, natural gas and coal, which are natural substances, but which were formed a long time ago.
The use of renewable raw materials to satisfy human needs has been happening for thousands of years. The technique of boiling soap from plant oils and wood ash was used by the Sumerians (2500 BC). The Egyptians had already discovered the method of dyeing using henna, a powder from the leaves of the henna shrub, in the 14th century BC, as had the people of Asia Minor in the 13th century BC, using alizarin from the madder plant. The accumulation and decomposition of biomass are in equilibrium: 120 thousand million tonnes of carbon a year are bound by photosynthesis, while 60 thousand million tonnes are respired by plants in the dark and only 60 thousand million tonnes are converted to biomass in plants. These in turn are released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide in winter as a result of decay processes. This is how the annual balance is worked out. This balance can be disrupted by natural disasters and by mankind. Around 2 thousand million tonnes of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere by deforestation and soil destruction, and five thousand million tonnes by the combustion of fossil fuels. The total biomass of the earth amounts to 1841 thousand million tonnes, or 3.6 kg m -2 of surface area, according to estimates. Phototrophic plants, which use photosynthesis to produce energy, make up 99% of this figure. However, mankind uses only 3% of the biomass produced naturally (170 thousand million tonnes), by cultivation, harvesting and processing. This amounts to 2 thousand million tonnes of wood, 1.8 thousand million tonnes of grain and 2 thousand million tonnes of other natural substances (eg sugar cane, turnips, oily fruits). This can be compared with a worldwide consumption of 7 thousand million tonnes of oil equivalent (mineral oil, natural gas, coal) for the production of energy. Only 7% is reprocessed by the chemical industry. In 1991, the German chemical industry covered 1.8% (10%) of its raw materials demand with renewable raw materials, and the trend is rising [ii]. In the meantime, 10% of packaging chips are made from starch, and the proportion of biodegradable lubricants is over 30%. Renewable raw materials have the big advantage over fossil raw materials that the sunlight required for their growth is available in unlimited amounts, and that the carbon dioxide released by their combustion corresponds to the amount bound by the plant during its growth. The chemical industry makes use of this advantage, as well as the ability of nature to synthesize new products. Thus, for example, soap can be made from vegetable oils in one step by an alkali ester cleavage. The basic molecular structure of the surfactant is already present and does not need to be developed via several reactions, as for example in the oxidation of alkanes to fatty acids. However, even the cultivation and processing of renewable raw materials can cause environmental pollution, for example through the over-use of fertilizers and pesticides. Furthermore, the energy expenditure required for cultivation, harvesting and processing should not be forgotten. There are also products which are based on renewable raw materials which are not easily degradable or even toxic. As with any chemical product, this has to be carefully examined and taken into account.
[i]
S. Mann, Nachwachsende Rohstoffe, Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart 1998
[ii] M. Eggersdorfer, Perspektiven nachwachsender Rohstoffe in Energiewirtschaft und Chemie, Spektrum der Wissenschaft 1994 Nr. 6 S. 96-102
Plastics from renewable raw materials

Plastics based on renewable raw materials are not a novelty. The first plastics which were used in large amounts were modified natural products. Examples include rubber based on natural rubber (1839), celluloid from cellulose (1865) and galalith which comes from casein in milk. (1897). Natural rubber is still an important product today. In the first third of the 20th century, polymers based on renewable raw materials were dominant. Then gradually plastics based on fossil raw materials began to take over, due to their ready availability and the fact that they created completely new possibilities in the world of chemistry. Today the interest in plastics based on renewable raw materials has increased considerably. The aim here is to move away from petroleum-based plastics towards renewable raw materials, whilst at the same time trying to synthesize new products with special, desirable properties. For example, sugars are used as the alcohol components in the production of polyurethanes, and scientists are trying to better exploit raw materials, such as cellulose, which are available in large amounts. Products which are biologically degradable, ie which can easily be disposed of after use, are also gaining considerable interest. Only a few examples of the many possibilities will be illustrated here. We will start with the classic example, rubber, and extend the range from plastics based on cellulose, starch and 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid) to polyurethanes made using castor oil.
Rubber
Rubber can be produced either synthetically, or from natural latex (or from mixtures of the two). Natural rubber is, today, an alternative to synthetic products, a fact which is highlighted by its proportion of only 30% of global rubber production. Natural rubber is extracted from latex, the sap from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), which oozes out of the bark when the tree is damaged. Coagulation then produces solid natural rubber which is elastic and can be stretched considerably. If natural rubber is kneaded with sulphur and heated to around 400 K, rubber is then formed (vulcanisation) (Figure 2). These properties depend on the one hand on the sulfur content as well as on other additives, eg fillers such as soot and zinc oxide in the production of tyres.
Sx + S8 Sx n
Sx
Sx
Sx Natural rubber (polyisoprene) Rubber
Figure 2 Vulcanisation of natural rubber (poly(isoprene)) with sulfur to rubber
Experiment: vulcanisation of natural rubber

In the following experiment we will be working with the natural latex concentrate Kagetex FA [i]. The rubber dispersion is stabilized with ammonia (0.7 %) and has a dryness ratio of 61.5 %. Three types of rubber with different sulfur contents are produced [ii]. Each group of students will need Eye protection Three aluminium dishes A glass rod A mortar and pestle Access to an oven or drying cabinet Natural latex concentrate liquid (eg Kagetex FA) Sulfur (flammable) Wear eye protection Sulfur is flammable and its dust may be irritating to the eyes and respiratory system.
Safety
Method
Different mixtures with varying amounts of sulfur are set up as shown in Table 2. Mixture Mass of latex / Mass of sulfur / g g 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.1 0.5 1.0 Relative concentration of sulfur 5 25 50
1 2 3
Table 2 Mixtures for the experiment on vulcanisation of rubber The sulfur is ground in the mortar and mixed with the latex in an aluminium dish. The different mixtures are then left in the drying cabinet at 140 0C.
Disposal
The rubber waste can be disposed of with the household waste.
Observation
Elastic products are formed. The lower the sulfur content, the more elastic and soft the rubber is.
Evaluation
The degree of hardness of the rubber depends on the sulfur content. The sulfur reacts with the double bonds in the poly(isoprene) strands. Loose bonds are formed between the chains (vulcanisation). The more sulfur is added to the natural rubber, the higher the degree of intermolecular cross-linking and thus the hardness of the rubber produced.
[i]
Kautschuk-Gesellschaft mbH, Frankfurt: http://www.kautschukgesellschaft.de
[ii] H. J. Bader (Hrsg.), Kunststoffe, Recycling, Alltagschemie, Band 12 der Reihe: W. Glckner, W. Jansen, R. G. Weienhorn (Hrsg.), Handbuch der experimentellen Chemie Sekundarbereich II, Aulis-Verlag, Kln 1997
Production of a plastic from 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid)

Each group of students will need
Eye protection Test tubes Test tube rack Bunsen burner Acrylic glass plate (approximately 15 cm 15 cm) Boiling stone Microspatula Tin(II) chloride (irritant) 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid) Cobalt chloride paper (dried)
Safety Wear eye protection Tin(II) chloride is irritating to eyes and skin, and is dangerous with oxidising agents such as nitrates and peroxides
Method
5 cm3 of 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid) are added to a microspatula load of tin(II) chloride crystals and a boiling chip in a test tube and heated for 10 minutes whilst stirring vigorously. The vapours emitted are tested with cobalt chloride paper. If an orange-brown colour occurs in the test tube, the hot solution is poured onto the acrylic glass plate.
Disposal
Plastic waste can be disposed of with other household waste.
Observation
The solution applied to the acrylic glass plate solidifies and forms a yellow-brown slightly sticky mass. The cobalt chloride paper changes colour from blue to pink.
Evaluation
Cobalt chloride paper is used to test for water which, as a result of the temperature, escapes as steam from the test tube. The blue dry cobalt(II) chloride forms a pink-coloured hexahydrate when combined with water. The reaction is an esterification in which the 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid) is converted to oligomers with loss of water. In general one molecule of alcohol reacts with one molecule of acid with loss of water to form an ester. The 2-hydroxypropanoic acid used is bifunctional. It consists of one hydroxyl and one carboxyl group which form an intermolecular bond.
-nH2O n
2-hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid)
nH2O Poly(lactic acid)
The esterification is catalyzed by acid. The proton required for the first step of the esterification (protonation of the carboxyl group) is formed by the hydrolysis of tin(II) chloride with precipitation of a basic salt. SnCl2 + H2O Sn(OH)Cl + Cl- + H+
Experiment: production of a film using starch

Part a: extraction of starch Each group of students will need
Eye protection Grater Tea strainer Mortar and pestle Two 400 cm3 beakers Potatoes Distilled or deionized water
Safety
Wear eye protection
Method
100 g of peeled and washed potatoes are ground with a grater. The mush is slurried with 100 cm3 of water and poured through a tea strainer. This process is repeated twice. The beaker is left for five minutes until the starch is precipitated on the bottom of the beaker. The remaining water is decanted off. Another 150 cm3 of water are added, stirred briefly and decanted again. This process is repeated again with 100 cm3 of water.
Disposal
The potato and starch waste can be added to compost or disposed of with other household waste.
Observation
A white powder can be extracted from the potatoes. Evaluation The starch in potatoes can be extracted via a number of separation and purification steps. It is known as natural starch and is treated with cold water during the extraction process because starch does not dissolve in cold water.
Part b: production of a film Each group of students will need

Eye protection One 50 cm3 round flask One reflux condenser One 25 cm3 measuring cylinder Three 3 cm3pipettes Magnetic stirrer with hot plate Oil bath Acrylic glass plate Drying cabinet
Thermometer Spatula Natural potato starch (from Part (a) or a chemicals supplier) Propane-1, 2, 3-triol (glycerol) solution 50 % Hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 Sodium hydroxide 0.1 mol dm-3 (irritant) Food dye (liquid)
Safety
Wear eye protection
Method
Add 25 cm3 of water to 2.5 g of potato starch, 3 cm3 hydrochloric acid and 2 cm3 proppane1, 2, 3-triol (glycerol) solution. If you use the moist starch from Part (a), 4 g of potato starch are required. Heat for 15 minutes under reflux. The reaction is stopped by adding sodium hydroxide. The mixture can be dyed by adding 1 to 2 cm3 of food dye. The hot, viscous mass is poured uniformly onto the acrylic glass plate and dried for two days at room temperature or for approximately 90 minutes at 100 C in a drying cabinet. If the moist starch from Part (a) is used, the amounts should be adjusted to 4 g of starch.
Disposal
Waste can be added to compost or disposed of with other household waste. Neutralized liquid waste can be poured down the drain.
Observation
The initially highly viscous but later thin solution can be cast into a film. The clear film can then be removed form the glass plate.
Evaluation
Starch forms a film when it is dried from an aqueous solution. The reason for this is the intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, in particular those between the long chains of the amylose molecules. However, the branched amylopectin, which makes up the larger part of the starch molecule, inhibits film formation. The reaction with diluted hydrochloric acid partially breaks down the amylopectin. This leads to improved film formation, but the product is brittle. For this reason propane-1, 2, 3-triol (glycerol) is added. Propane-1, 2, 3-triol retains water as a result of its hygroscopic properties. The bound water inhibits the formation of crystalline and brittle areas within the molecule. Thus water acts as a softener here as does propane-1, 2, 3-triol. The later is capable of slipping between the starch molecules and thus making the plastic softer.
L. H. Vote
References
L. H. Vote
References
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A Teachers Pack providing background knowledge for teachers, lesson plans and resources for use in class

GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

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Green Chemistry, Wikipedia, site accessed March 2008 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_chemistry

The twelve principles of green chemistry

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Sun Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Titan

89% 96.5% 78.1% 95.3% 90% 96% 82% 85% 82%

11% 3.5% 20.9% 2.7% 10% 4% 15% 15% 12%

H2O SO2 Ar Ar CH4 CH4 CH4 CH4 CH4

0.1% 0.015% 0.93% 1.6% 0.24% 0.2% 2.3% 1-2% 3%

-732 288 223 170 130 59.4 59.3 95

Neptune 1.02 x1026

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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

O(1 D) + H 2O OH + OH O(1 D) + CH 4 OH +CH 3 Termination Step: HO + HO 2 H 2O + O 2 HO 2 + HO 2 H 2O 2 + O 2

K220 / cm3 molecule-1 s-1

2.2 x10-14 3.5 x10-15 8.7 x10-12 6.8 x10-16

Natural Chapman cycle

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assimilation by prokaryotic micro-organisms 17

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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

1.5.3.2. CFCs converting to Active Forms of Chlorine and Bromine

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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

Ozone Depletion Potential1

280 484 2 158

1.0 0.8 10.0 0.1

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VOCs - Natural emissions

NOx & VOCs CH4 Dry Deposition

DMS & CH3X

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SO2 and particulates are also released through anthropogenic processes, as

O3 + h O(1 D) + O 2 O(1 D) + M O(3 P) + M O(1 D) + H 2O OH + OH

h at < ~ 330nm where M is an O 2 or N 2 molecule

GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

Without NOx: CO + OH H + CO 2 H + O 2 + M HO 2 + M HO 2 + O 3 OH + 2O 2 Net : CO + O 3 CO 2 + O 2 O 3 is destroyed

With NOx: CO + OH H + CO 2 H + O 2 + M HO 2 +M HO 2 + NO NO 2 + OH NO 2 + h NO + O(3 P) + O 2 O(3 P) + O 2 + M O3 + M Net : CO + 2O 2 CO 2 + O3 O3 is produced

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GCE Green Chemistry Teachers Pack

CO and SO2 levels have decreased since the 1970s3

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HOSO2 + O 2 HO 2 + SO3 SO3 + H 2O H 2SO 4 (Sulphuric Acid)

Nitric Acid Formation : NO 2 + OH HNO3 (Nitric Acid)

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10m or less (PM10s); including sulphur23 so acid rain