Environment

al Chemistry

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Course Teacher
Dr. Md. Maniruzzaman
Dept. of Chemistry
KUET

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

References:

1. Environmental Chemistry- A. K. DE
2. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, S.E.Manahan

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3. SlideShare
4. Internet

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

What is Environmental Science?
Environmental Science provides an integrated, quantitative, and
interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. The
magnitude and complexity of environmental problems are creating a growing
need for scientists with rigorous, interdisciplinary training in environmental

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science. The Environmental Science curriculum is designed to prepare
students for positions of leadership in this rapidly changing discipline.
Environmental Science graduates have a solid foundation in biological and
physical natural sciences and the specialized training necessary for integrated
analysis of environmental systems.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

Environmental segment
Environment is divided in following segments:
1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Atmosphere
4. Biosphere

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 Atmosphere:

The following points highlight the vital role played by atmosphere in the

survival of life in this planet.

 The atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases which is surrounding the earth. It

protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer space.

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 It absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth and thus

controls the temperature of the earth.

It allows transmission of significant amounts of radiation only in the regions of 300 – 2500 nm
(near UV, Visible, and near IR) and 0.01 – 40 meters (radio waves). i.e it filters tissue damaging
UV radiation below 300 nm.

 It acts as a source for CO2 for plant photosynthesis and O2 for respiration
 It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia producing
plants.
 The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land.
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Hydrosphere:

The hydrosphere is a collective term given to all different forms of water. It

includes all types of water resources such as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,

streams, reservoirs, glaciers and ground waters. The distribution of earth's

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water supply is shown in fig 1.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

As can be seen, only 1% of the total water supply is available as fresh water

in the form of rivers, lakes, streams and ground water for human

consumption and other uses. The extent of the use of available fresh water

for various purposes is shown in the following figure 2.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Lithosphere:

 The earth is divided in to layers as shown in fig: 3

 The lithosphere consists of upper mantle and the crust
 The crust is the earth’s outer skin that is accessible to human.
 The crust consists of rocks and soil of which the latter is the important part of lithosphere.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Biosphere:
• The biosphere refers to the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment (VIZ: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere)
• The biosphere is very large and complex and is divided into smaller units called
ecosystems.

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• Plants, animals and microorganisms which live in a definite zone along with physical
factors such as soil, water and air constitute an ecosystem.
• Within each ecosystems there are dynamic inter relationships between living forms and
their physical environment
• The natural cycles operate in a balanced manner providing a continuous circulation of
essential constituents necessary for life and this stabilizes and sustains the life
processes on earth.
• These inter relationships manifest as natural cycles.(hydrologic cycle,
oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle and sulphur cycle),

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

 The Atmosphere And atmospheric chemistry
Importance of the Atmosphere:

• The atmosphere plays a vital role in the survival of life in this planet by absorbing most
of the harmful cosmic rays from outer space and most of the electromagnetic radiation
from the sun.

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• By reabsorbing much of the infrared radiations re emitted by the earth to space, the
atmosphere stabilises the earth’s temperature, preventing temperature extremes.
• The atmosphere is a source of carbon dioxide for plant photosynthesis and of oxygen for
respiration. It provides nitrogen for nitrogen -fixing bacteria and ammonia-manufacturing
plants to produce chemically bound nitrogen, which is an essential component of life
molecules.
• The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land, thus acting as the condenser in a
vast solar powered still.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere:
 Nitrogen, 78.08% (by volume)
Major Constituents:

 Oxygen, 20.95%

Minor Constituents:  Argon, 0.934%

 carbondioxide, 0.035%

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Trace constituents:  Neon, 1.818 x 10-3 %

 Helium, 5.24 x 10-4 %

 Krypton, 1.14 x 10-4 %

 Xenon, 8.7 x 10-6%

 Methane, 2 x 10-4 %

 Nitrous oxide , 2.5 x 10-5%

 Hydrogen 5 x 10-5 %

 Sulphur dioxide 2 x 10-8 %

 Ozone (trace)

 Ammonia 1 x 10-6 %

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

Major Regions Of The Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is broadly divided in to four regions as shown in fig.1 above and

table 1 below . It extends upto 500km and the temperature may vary from as low as -

92oC to over 1200oC .

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Altitude Temperature Significant
Region chemical
range Km range o C
species
Troposphere 0 – 11 15 to -56 N2, O2, CO2, H2O
Stratosphere 11 – 50 -56 to –2 O3
Mesosphere 50 -85 -2 to –92 O2+, NO+
Thermosphere 85 -500 -92 to 1200 O2+, O+, NO+

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

 Major regions of the atmosphere

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Earth’s Radiation Balance

Out of a very large amount of radiation energy received from the sun, the earth absorbs radiation mainly

in the visible region but emits radiation at the same rate in the infrared region.(2 - 40µm with maximum

at 10µm). The average surface temperature of the earth is maintained at relatively comfortable 15oC due

to the atmospheric green house effect, in which water vapors and to a lesser extent carbon dioxide,

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reabsorb much of the outgoing radiation and reradiate about half of it back to the surface. If this were not

to be the case the surface temperature of the earth would have been averaged around –18oC. Most of the

absorption of the infrared radiation is done by water molecules in the atmosphere.Carbon dioxide though

present at a much lower concentration than water vapor, absorbs strongly between 12µm and 16.3µm

contributing in a major way in maintaining the heat balance. There is concern that an increase in the

carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere would prevent sufficient energy loss from the earth’s surface. This

would cause a perceptible and damaging increase in the earth’s temperature, which is known as green

house effect.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

•Environment Pollution
“Environment pollution” is the effect of undesirable changes in
our surroundings that have harmful effects on the plants, animals
and human beings. A substance, which causes pollution , is known

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as “pollutant”. Pollutants can be solid, liquid or gaseous substances
present in the greater concentration than in natural abundance and
are produced due to human activities or due to natural happenings.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

ATMOSPHRIC POLLUTION

Air pollution is defined as the addition of undesirable materials into the

atmosphere either due to natural phenomena or due to human activity

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on the earth which adversely affect the quality of the air and hence
affects the life on the earth. It is also known as “Atmospheric
Pollution”
Atmospheric pollution is generally studied as Tropospheric and
Statospheric pollution.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

 Tropospheric Pollution

•Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid

or gaseous particles in the air. The following are the major gaseous and

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particulate pollutants present in the troposphere:
1.Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides of sulphide, hydrocarbons,
ozone and other oxidants.
2.Particulate pollutants: These are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.

Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET

1.Gaseous Air Pollutants
(a) Oxides of Sulphur
Oxides of sulphur are produced when sulphur
containing fossil fuel is burnt. The most common
species, sulphur dioxide, is a gas that is poisonous

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to both animals and plants. It has been reported that
even a low concentration of sulphur dioxide causes
respiratory diseases. However, the presence of
particulate matter in polluted air catalysts the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → SO3 (g)
SO2 (g) + O3 (g) → SO3 (g) + O2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O2 (l) → H2SO4 (as)
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
(b) Oxides of Nitrogen
Dinitrogen and dioxygen are the main constituents of
air. These gases don’t react with each other at a
normal temperature. At high altitudes when lightning

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strikes, they combine to form oxides of nitrogen. NO2
is oxidized to nitrate ion. When fossil fuel is burnt,
dinitrogen and dioxygen combine to yield significant
quantities of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2).
N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g) [at 1483K]
2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
(c) Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are composed of hydrogen and carbon
only and are formed by incomplete combustion of fuel
used in automobiles. Hydrocarbons are carcinogenic,
i.e., they cause cancer. They harm plants by causing
ageing, breakdown of tissues and shedding of leaves,
flowers and twigs.

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(d) Oxides of Carbon
(i) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is one of the
most serious air pollutants. It is a colorless and
odorless gas, highly poisonous to living beings because
of its ability to block the delivery of oxygen to the organs
and tissues. It is mainly released by automobiles. It
binds to haemoglobin to form carbonhaemoglobin,
which is about 300 times more stable than the
oxygen-haemoglobin complex. This results in headache, 20
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 weak eyesight, nervousness and cardiovascular
disorder.
(ii) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere by respiration, burning of fossil fuels for

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energy, and by decomposition of limestone during the
manufacture of cement. Normally it is about 0.03% by
volume of the atmosphere. Green plants need carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis and they, in turn, emit
oxygen, thus maintaining the delicate balance. The
increase in mount of carbon dioxide in the air is mainly
responsible for global warming.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 •Global Warming&
Greenhouse Effect
• About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is
absorbed by the earth’s surface, which increases its
temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to

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the atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water
vapour in the atmosphere. Thus, they add to the
heating of the atmosphere. This causes “Global
Warming”.
• Just as the glass in a greenhouse holds the sun’s
heat near the earth’s surface and keeps it warm.
This is called natural greenhouse effect. 22
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 •Global Warming&
Greenhouse Effect
• About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is
absorbed by the earth’s surface, which increases its
temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to

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the atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water
vapour in the atmosphere. Thus, they add to the
heating of the atmosphere. This causes “Global
Warming”.
• Just as the glass in a greenhouse holds the sun’s
heat near the earth’s surface and keeps it warm.
This is called natural greenhouse effect. 23
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Causes of Global Warming
•Increase in concentration of carbon dioxide which is
emitted by automobiles, industries, etc,.
•Increase in concentration of methane which is emitted

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when vegetation is burnt, paddy fields, coal mines etc,.
•Increase in concentrations of CFCs which is commonly
produced or emitted by refrigerators, A.C.s, etc,.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
ACID RAIN
• We are aware that normally rain water has a pH of 5.6
due to presence of Hydrogen ions formed by reaction
of rain water with carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere.
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ↔ H2CO3 (aq)

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H2CO3 (aq) ↔ H+ (aq) + HCO3− (aq)
• When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is
called acid rain. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the
atmosphere produces acid rain. Burning of fossil fuels
such as coal and oil in power stations or petrol and
diesel in motor engines produce SO2 and NO2 after
oxidation and reaction with water are major
contributors to acid rain.
• 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
• 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
• Results of Acid Rain
• Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants
as it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for
their growth. It causes respiratory ailments in
human beings and animals.

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• When acid rain falls and flows as ground water to
reach rivers, lakes etc. it affects plants and animal
life in aquatic ecosystem. It corrodes water pipes
resulting in the leaching of heavy metals such as
iron, lead and copper into drinking water.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
2.PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
• Particulates pollutants are the minute solid particles
or liquid droplets in air. These are present in vehicle
emissions, smoke particles from fires, dust particles
and ash from industries. Particulates in the

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atmosphere may be viable or non-viable. The viable
particulates e.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc.,
are minute living organisms that are dispersed in the
atmosphere. They cause plant diseases.
• Non-viable particulates can be classified according to
their size and nature as follows:
(a) Smoke particulate consist of solid and liquid
particles formed during combustion of organic
matter. Ex. Cigarette and oil smoke. 27
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
(b) Dust is composed of fine solid particles, produced
during crushing, grinding and attribution of solid
materials. Sand from sand blasting, saw dust from
wood works, cement and fly ash from factories etc.

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(c) Mists are produced by particles of spray liquids and
by condensation of vapours in air.
(d) Fumes are generally obtained by the condensation of
vapours during sublimation, distillation, boiling and
several other chemical reactions.
• The effect of particulate pollutants are largely
dependent on the particle size. Air borne particles
are dangerous for human health.
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•SMOG
•The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. This is
the most common example of air pollution that occurs
in many cities throughout the world. There are two types
of smog:

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(a) Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is the
mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide.
Chemically it is a reducing mixture and so it is also
called as reducing smog.
(b) Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny
climate. The main components result from the action
of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides produced by automobiles and
factories. 29
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Photochemical smog has high concentration of oxidizing
agents and is, therefore, called as oxidizing smog.
•FORMATION OF PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG
•When fossil fuels are burnt, a variety of pollutants are
emitted into the earth’s troposphere. A chain reaction

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takes place between hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide in
interaction with sunlight and forms nitrogen dioxide.
This nitrogen dioxide absorbs energy and breaks up into
nitric oxide and free oxygen atom.
(i)
Oxygen atoms are very reactive and
Combines with dioxygen to form ozone

(ii) 30
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•The ozone formed in the above equation (ii) reacts
rapidly with NO (g) formed in equation (i) to regenerate
nitrogen dioxide.
(iii)
•Ozone is a toxic gas and both nitrogen dioxide and

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ozone are strong oxidizing agents and can react with
unburnt hydrocarbons in the polluted air to produce
chemical such as formaldehyde, acrolein and
peroxidyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
•EFFECTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG
•They damage metals, stones,
buildings materials.
•Produce irritation in the eyes and respiratory system.
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•THE OZONE HOLE
• In 1980s atmospheric scientists in Antarctica
reported about the depletion of ozone layer. In
summer season, NO2 and methane react with
chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms forming

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chlorine sinks, preventing much ozone depletion. In
winter season a stratospheric cloud formed
providing surface on which chlorine nitrate and gets
hydrolyzed to form hypochlorous acid which reacts
with hydrogen chloride to form molecular chlorine.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
EFFECTS OF DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER
• With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV radiation
filters into the troposphere. UV radiations lead to
ageing of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer,
killing of many phytoplanktons, damage to fish
productivity etc.

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• The plant protein gets easily affected which leads to
the harmful mutation of cells. Increase in UV
radiations damage paints and fibres, causing them
to fade faster.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•Water Pollution
•Water is essential for our life. Without water there

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would be no life. Pollution of water originates from
human activities. Through different paths, pollution
reaches surface or ground water. Easily identified
source of pollution is called as point source. e.g..,
municipal and industrial discharge pipes where
pollutants enter the water-source.

34
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•Causes of Water Pollution
(1)Pathogens: The most serious water pollutants are the
disease causing agents called pathogens include
bacteria and other organisms that enter water from
domestic sewage and animal excreta.

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(2)Organic wastes: The other major water pollutant is
organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash etc.
Excessive phytoplankton's growth within water is also
a cause of water pollution.
• A large population of bacteria decomposes organic
matter present in water. They consume oxygen
dissolved in water. The amount of oxygen that water
can hold in the solution is limited. The concentration
of dissolved oxygen is very important for aquatic life.
35
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
•If too much organic matter is added to water, all the
available oxygen is used up. This causes oxygen
dependent aquatic life to die. Thus amount of oxygen
required by the bacteria to break down organic matter
present in a certain volume of a sample of water is
called BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD).

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(3) Chemical pollutants: As we know that water is an
excellent solvent, water soluble heavy metals such as
cadmium, mercury, nickel etc. constitute an
important class of pollutants. All these metals are
dangerous to humans because our body can’t
excrete them.
• The organic chemicals are another group of
substances that are found in polluted water.
Petroleum products pollute many sources of water.
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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 •International Standards for Drinking
Water
•Fluoride: For drinking purpose, water should be tested
for fluoride ion concentration. Its deficiency in drinking
water is harmful to man and causes diseases such as
tooth decay etc.

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•Lead: Drinking water gets contaminated with lead when
lead pipes are used for transportation of water. Lead
can damage kidney, liver, reproductive system etc.
•Sulphate: Excessive sulphate in drinking water causes
laxative effect, otherwise at moderate levels it is
harmless.
•Nitrate: The max. limit of nitrate in water is 50ppm.
Excess nitrate can cause methmoglobinemia (‘blue baby’
syndrome) Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology,
37
KUET
Soil pollution or soil contamination is
caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human

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made) chemicals or other alterations in the
natural soil and environment..

Causes :

 Waste Dumping Pesticides and Insecticides

 Mining Urbanization

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
WASTE DUMPING :
 Industrial solid wastes and sludge
are the major sources of soil
pollution
 Industrial emissions such as fly ash
from thermal power plants can
contaminate the surrounding soil.

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 Nuclear testing laboratories and the
increased number of radioactive
nuclear reactions can contaminate
the soil. Radioactive materials are
thriving in the soil for long periods
of time, since they often have a long
half-life. Strontium-90, for example,
a half life of 28 years, and half-life
of cesium-137 is 30 years.
39
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
MINING :
 Modern mining projects leave behind disrupted communities,
damaged landscapes, and polluted water.
 Mining also affects ground and surface waters, the aquatic
life, vegetation, soils, animals, and the human health.
 Acid mine drainage can cause damage to streams which in
return can kill aquatic life.

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 The vast variety of toxic chemicals released by mining
activities can harm animals and aquatic life as well as their
habitat.
 Mining gas and petroleum also pollutes the land. Petroleum
extraction and manufacturing contaminates the soil with
bitumen, gasoline, kerosene and mining brine solutions.
 Opencast mining, which is a process where the surface of the
earth is dug open to bring out the underground mineral
deposits, destroys the topsoil and contaminates the area with
toxic metals and chemicals. 40
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
  Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are
persistent soil contaminants, which adversely
affect soil conservation.
 The use of pesticides decreases the
general biodiversity in the soil.
 The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion and
especially pentachlorophenol have been
shown to interfere with legume-
rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of

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this symbiotic chemical signaling results in
Pesticides : reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced
crop yields.
 Animals may be poisoned by pesticide
residues that remain on food after spraying,
for example when wild animals enter sprayed
fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying
 Widespread application of pesticides can
eliminate food sources that certain types of
animals need, causing the animals to
relocate, change their diet, or starve.
Poisoning from pesticides can travel up
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Department
the food chain and bioacculmulate.
of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
STRATEGIES TO CONTROL
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE :
The public is becoming increasingly aware
that the natural environment is fragile.
The recent reports by media have focused
on –

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 Deaths and population declines of birds
and fish because of the large oil spills
 Deaths of porpoises and whales along
the coasts as a result of pollutants and
disease;
 Fish contaminated with polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)
 Contamination of rivers and lakes by
dioxin and other pollutants that may
cause cancer and reproductive
disorders. 42
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
 These events may be omens that other forms of
life, including people, could become threatened
if environmental conditions continue to worsen.
But how much worse must conditions be before
wildlife and human life are in danger? Or are
they in danger already? Clearly, better methods

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are needed to predict the probability of future
environmental and health problems based on
present evidence. Such information could guide
environmental regulators and decision makers in
taking actions in time to minimize damage to the
environment and human health.
And an important strategy to control such
environmental damage is :
Waste Management

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
WASTE MANAGEMENT :
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or
disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The
term usually relates to materials produced by human activity,
and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health,
the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct
practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the

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rate of consumption of natural resources. The management of
wastes treats all materials as a single class whether solid,
liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, and tried to reduce
the harmful environmental impacts of each through different
methods.

The two major concepts which are widely used for waste
management are :
 Waste Hierarchy
 Polluter Pays Principle 44
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
Methods Of Waste Management :
 LANDFILL

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common
practice in most countries. Landfills are often established in abandoned or
unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed
landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste
materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of
adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and

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generation of liquid leachate.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as
clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its
density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin. Many landfills also have
landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of
the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate
electricity.

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Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET
AVOIDANCE & REDUCTION METHODS :

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste

material being created, also known as waste reduction.

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Methods of avoidance include :
-Reuse of second-hand products
-Repairing broken items instead of buying new
-Designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of
plastic shopping bags)
-Encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as
disposable cutlery)
-Removing any food/liquid remains from cans
-Designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose
(for example, light weighting of beverage cans)

Jute bags
46
Department of Chemistry, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET