1.

2 Environmental Science and Engineering

1.2 DEFINITIONS
U. Environment
Environment is defined as, "the sum of total of all the
living and non living things around us influencing one
another."

2, Environmental Science
Environmental science is the study of the
iis biotic (ie., biological) and abiotic (ie., environment,
non biological)
components and their interrelationship.
3. Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is the application of
engineering
the
principles to the protection and enhancement of
quality of the environment and to the
protection of public health and welfare. enhancement and
4. Environmental Studies (or)
Environmental Education
Environmental studies are the process of educating the
people for preserving quality environment.
13 TYPES OF
ENVIRONMENT
Environment can be divided into two categories
1. Natural environment,
2. Man - made
environment
1. Natural environment
Natural environment is
components. All biotic (living) characterized
and
by natural
(non-living) are created through a natural abiotic
process.
components
Creation of
these biotic and abiotic components do not
support.
require any human
 1.3
Studios
Introduction to Environmental
odgeomtA
Examples Soil, water, air, trees, raliati ns, noise, etc.,

2. Man - made environment

Man is the most powerful environmetal agent. He
modifies the environment using modern technologies, according
to his needs to a great extent. Thus the man-made environment
is created by man.
Examples House, road, schools, railway lines, parks, etc.,

I4 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment consists of the following three
important components.
1. Abiotic or Non-living components.
2. Biotic or Living components.
3. Energy components.

1.4.1 Abiotic (or) NOn

Non LIVing Components
(or) Physical Components
The non- living components of the environment are
called abiotic components.
Air, water, soil and minerals.
These abiotic components enter the body of living
organisms directly or indirectly, take part in metabolic activities
and then return to the environment.

Abiotic components are sub divided into three categories

1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere
3. Hydrosphere
 Environmental Science and Engin09ring
1. Atmosphere
The cover of air. that envelopes the earth is
the atmosphere. The atmosphere extends upto known a,
the carth surface. 5(00 kms frorm
The atmosphere is essential for all living
comprises 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and organisms. It
gases. 1% of other
Structure of atmosphere
Atmosphere consists of following five concentric
(a) Troposphere
(0-18 kms): It is the lower portion layers
atmosphere and extends from 0- 18 kms. It
the cor
of the
atmospheric air mass. The contains 75% of
changes from temperature of troposphere
15°C to 56°C and the
0,, CO,, N, and water chemical constituents are
(clouds).
(b) Stratosphere (18 - 50
and extends fromn 18 - kms): It lies above the
changes from -2°C to -kms.
50 The temperaturetroposphere
of which
constituent is ozone. 56°C and the main chemical
(c)
Mesosphere (50 - 85 kms): It lies above the
and extends from 50- 85 kms. The stratosphere
to about -95°C. temperature
The main chemical of which drops
Ng, O,. 0; and constituents are
NO*.
(4)
Thermosphere (or) lonosphere: It lies
mesosphere extends upto 500 kms above
and above the
The temperature of which the earth
raises upto 1200°C. It surface.
charged particles like 0;, o*, NO*, etc., contains the
(e)
Exosphere:
and extends
It is the upper
upto 1600 km. The most layer of the atmosphere
high due to direct solar temperature
radiation. The
of which is very
are only H, and He. chemical constituents
ntrocuction o Envoenta! Stucles 1.5

Table 1.1 Regions with temperature change and ehemical

species of atmosphere
Atitude Temperature Chemical
Region in km change in C species
1. Troposphere 0-11 15 to -56 N2. H;0,

2. Stratosphere l1-50 -S6 to -2 Ozone

50-85 -2 to -92
3. Mesosphere NO*, o}
4. Thermosphere85-500-92 to 1200 NO*, o*, o

600

400 Bxosphere
Ionosphero
200 0 9C

100 THERMOSPHERR
Mosopauso
80 ---+ -"Meteros burns
MBSOSPHRRE)
50
- Ozone layer Stratopaua0
STRATOSPHERB
20 Tropopause
10 Clouds TROPOSPHERE
-100 -50 50 100 S00 1000 1500 2000

Temperature
(in °C)

Fig. 1.1 Structure of almosphere with temperature

 Environmental Science and
1.6 Engineering
Functions of atmosphere
earth h.
It maintains the heat balance on the
absorbing the IR radiations.
2. The gaseous constituents play an important role in
sustaining life on earth.

Gaseous Functions
Constituent
Oxygen |supports life of living organisms.
Carbon-dioxide essential for photosynthetic activity of plants.
Nitrogen essential nutrient for plant growth.

2. Lithosphere
The soil and rock components of the earth is called
lithosphere.
Functions of lithosphere
1. It is a home for human beings and
wildlife.
2. It is a storehouse of
minerals and organic matters.
3. Hydrosphere
The aqueous envelope of the earth (ie., 75% of
surface) is called hydrosphere. Oceans, lakes, the earth
and water vapour constitute streams, rivers
water is in oceans, which ishydrosphere.
too
About 97% of earth's
Only 3% is available as fresh salty and not fit for drinking.
water.
Functions of hydrosphere
1. It is used for
aquatic life.
drinking purpose and also supports the
2. It is also used for
industries and transport.irrigation, power production,
 Introduction to Environmental Studies
1.7

1.4.2 Biotic (or) Living Components

The living components of the environment are called
biotic components.
Examples Animals, plants and micro organisms.
Biosphere: The biological environment, where the living
organisms live and interact with physical environment (soil.
water and air) is called biospher.
Functions of biosphere: Plants through photosynthesis
produce Oxygen in the atmosphere. Animals inhale oxygen
during respiration and give out carbondioxide, which is again
utilised by plants during photosynthesis.
1.4.3 Energy Components
The components of energy flows across bËotic and abiotic
Components, which play an important role to maintain the life
of living organisms.
Examples Solar energy, nuclear energy, geochemical
ergy, thermo electrical energy.

1.53 scOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental study is an important tool toeducate the
people for preserving quality environment. The main scope of
environmental studies include
1. To get an awareness and sensitivity to the total
environment and its related problems.
2. Tomotivate the active participation in environmental
protection and improvement.
3. To develop skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems.
4. To know the necessity of conservation of natural
resources.
 1.8 Environmental Scionco and Engineering
5. To evaluate environmental programmes interms of
social, economic, ecological, and aesthetic factors.

.65 IMPORTANCE (or) SIGNIFICANCE OF

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we
consume and the land we live on are all contaminated by the
industrial activities. There is no zero pollution industry.
Because of the lack of self discipline and not worrying about
our future generation, the valuable resources are polluted.
To solve the above problems, the knowledge of
environmental studies is very important.
1. By environmental studies, people will understand the
concept of need of development without destruction
of environment".
2. Through environmental studies, people can gain the
knowledge of different types of environment and the
effects of different environmental hazards.
3. Environmental studies inform the people about their
effective role in protecting theenvironment by
demanding changes in laws and enforcement
systems.
4. Environmental studies have a direct relation to the
quality of life we live.
5.
Environmental studies develop a concern and respect
for the environment.

Z1.73 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Increasing population, urbanisation and poverty have
generated pressure on the natural esources and lead to a
degradation of the environment. To protect or prevent the
environment from the pollution, Supreme Court has ordered
 Introduction to Environmental Studios
1.9

and initited the

overnment and environmental-awareness
to the public
Non - government agencies to take through
part to
protect our environment.

1.7.1 Importance of Public (or)

participation Community
Environmental pollution cannot be removed by the laws
alone. The proper implementation and especially public
participation are the important aspects, which should be given
importance and stress. The public participation is useful in law
making process and controlling the pollution activities. Thus
the public participation plays a major role in the effective
environmental management.
1.7.2 Types of Public Participation
Public participation in the decision making process can
be at any stage and of various forms.
i) Pressure Group: The public Pressure group may be
formed to influence the government on one hand and the
industries on the other hand.

() Watch dog: The public can act as "watch dog" to

protect the interests of public against environmental hazardous
activities.

(ifi) Advisory council: The public can also act as advisory

council and agencies, which is constituted to keep the
environment suitable for living.
(iv) Enforcing the environmental laws: The services of
public can be utilized to enforce the environmental laws. If
necessary the member of public should conduct public interest
litigations.
Thus many countries have accepted the concept of public
participation in environmental management.
Chapter 3

Ecosystem
cONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOsYSTEM
31.1 Ecology
Alliving organisms, whether plant or animal or hurman
being is surrounded by the environment, from which it derive
its
its needs for its survival. Each living component interacts with
non-living components for their basic requirements form
different ecosystem.
Definition
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms
or group of organisms with their environment. The
environment consists of both biotic components (living
organisms) and abiotic components (non-living organisms).
(or)
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
3.1.2 Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. The
lern ecosystem is coined from a Greek word meaning study
of home.

Definition
group of organisns interacting among themselves
und with environment is known as ecosystem. Thus, an
ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with
one another and with their non-living environment

exchanging energy and matter.

 Environmental Scionc9 and
3.2

Examples Animals cannot synthesis their food

Endirgectinelyring
depend on the plants either direcily b
indirectly.

3.1.3 Biome (Small Ecosystem)

The kind of organisms which can live in a
ecosystem depends on their physical and metabolic particular
to the environment of that place. On earth there are
many
adopuons
sets of ecosystems which are exposed to same climoti.
conditions and having dominant species with similar Bt,
cycle, climatic adoptions and physical structure. This set of
ecosystem is called a biome.

Thus the biome is a small ecosystem with in an

ecosystem.

3.23 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Rongvstem
*W************

Natural engneered
e.g: croplands, dams, etc.,
Terrestial Aquatic

Marine Eresh water

Lotic (running water)| Lentic (standing water)

e.g: spring, stream, e.g: lake, pond, pools, etc.,
rivers, ete,
Ecosystem
3.3

3.2.1 Natural ecosystem

Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural
conditions. Based on habitat types, it can be further classifu
into three types.

1 Terrestrial ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land and types of vegetation.
Examples Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert
ecosystem, etc.,

2. Aquatic ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub
classified into two types based on salt content.

(i) Fresh water ecosystem.

(a) Runing water ecosystems.
Examples Rivers, streams.

(b) Standing water ecosystems.

Pond, lake.

(ii) Marine ecosystem

Examples Seas and sea shores.

3.2.2 Man-made (or) Artificial ecosystems

Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by man
himself.
Croplands, gardens.
 Environmental Science and
3.4
Engineering
3.3 STRUCTURE (oR) COMPONENTS OF
AN ECOSYSTEM

The term structure refers to the various components. Sn

the structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between
the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
An ecosystem has two major components
1. Abiotic (non-living) components.
2. Biotic (living) components.
Abiotic
Component

ECOSYSTEM

Biotic
Component

Fig. 3.1 Components of an ecosystems and their relationship

3.3.1 Abiotic (non-living)
components
The non-living components (physical and
an chemical)
ecosystem collectively form a community called abiot1co1
components (or) abiotic community.
Examples Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc.
Eoosystem 3.5

Physical components: They include the energy. climate.

raw materials and living space that the biological community
needs. They are useful for the growth and maintenance of its
member.

Examples Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,

2. Chemnical Components: They are the sources of essential
nutrients.

Examples

() Organic substances: Protein, lipids, carboBydrates, etc.,

(ü) Inorganic substances: All micro (AI, Co, Zn, Cu) and
macro elements (C, H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other
elements.

3.3.2 Biotic components

The living organisms (or) living members in an
ecosystem collectively form its community called biotic
components (or) biotic community.
The living components are made of many different
their
species. These species are distinguished on the basis of
nutritional (feeding) relationship. It includes
1. Autotrophic components: The members of autotrophie
components are producers, which are autotrops
(self-nourishing organisms). They derive energy from sunlight
and make organic compounds from inorganic substances.
Examples Green plants, algae, bacteria, etc.,
2. Heterotrophic components: The membersof
heterotrophic components are consumers and decomposers,
Which are heterotrophs (dependent on others for food). They
cOnsume the autotrophs (producers). The heterotrophs are
3.6 Environmental Science and Engineerin
(a) Macro consumers: They are herbivores, omnivores (or
carnivores.
(b) Saprotrophs (micro consumers): They are decomposers
(bacteria. fungi, etc)

Members of biotis components of an ecosystem

(or)
Clossification of biotic components
The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are
grouped into three groups based on how do they get their food
1. Producers (Plants).
2. Consumer (Animals).
3. Decomposers (Micro-organisms).
1. Producers (Autotrophs): Producers synthesize their food
themselves through photosynthesis.
amples All green plants, trees.

Photosynthesis
The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the
leaves of plants, converts CO, and H,0 in the presence of
sunlight into carbohydrates.
hy
6C0, + 12H,0 CçH,06 +60, +6H,0
Chlorophyl!
This process is called photosynthesis.
2. Consumers (heterotrophs): Consumers are organisms,
which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly or
indirectly on the producers.
They cannot make organic compounds, but can
one form of organic compounds into other transform
compounds.
form of organ1c
EOSYsterm
3.7
Examples

à Plant eating species

Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.,
(ü) Animals eating species
Fish, lions, tiger, etc.,
Types of consumers

Consumers are of the

following types.
) Primary consumers
(Herbivores) (plant eaters)
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they
directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are
plant eaters. called

Insects, rat, goat, deer, cOw, horse, etc.,

(ü) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eaters)
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they feed
primary consumers. They directly depend on the herbivores
for their food.

xame
Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc.,

(üi) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat

eaters)
Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they feed
on secondary consumers. They directly depend on the primary
carnivores for their food.

ples
Tigers, lions, etc.,
3.8 Environmental Science and

Engine ring
Grass Rat Cat
Tiger
Producers) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary
(Primary carnivores)
producers (Herbivores)
(Secondary carnivor
3. Decomposers: Decomposers are thóse organisms
feed on dead organisms plants and animals and which
them into simpler compounds. During the
inorganic nutrients are released. These inorganic
decompos e
decomposnutriiteiontns
together with other organic substances are then utilized by th
producers for the synthesis of their own food.
Examples Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.
Meanings
(i) Herbivores: Animals that eat only plants are called
herbivores. (vegetarian)
(ü) Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals are called
carnivores. (non-vegetarian)
(üi) Omnivores: Animals that eat
both animals and plants.
(Vegetarian and non-vegetarian)
3.4 FUNCTION OF AN
ECOSYSTEM
To understand clearly the
funclioning nature of ecosystem.
shouid be thoroughly understood. The function o
an ecosystem is to
allow flow of energy and of
nutients. cycl1ng
3.4.1 Types of
Functions
Functions of an ecosystenn are of three
types.
Ecosystem 3.9

1. Primary function (or) prinmary production: The

primary function of all ecosysterms is manufacture of starch
(photosynthesis).
, Secondary function (or) secondary production: The
secondary function of all ecosystem is distributing energy in
the form of food to all consumers (or) the energy stored by
the consumer.

1 Tertiary Function: All living systems die at aparticular

stage.
These dead systems are decomposed to initiate the third
function of ecosystems namely "cycling".
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by
studying the following terms.
(a) Energy and material flow.
(b) Food chains.
(c) Food webs.
(d) Food pyramids.

3.5 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS

living
Energy is the most essential requirement for all
planet earth.
organisms. Solar energy is the only 'source to our
is transformed to cheical energy in
Solar energy
photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary producers).
Though a lot of sunlight falls on the green plants, only 1%
is the most essential
of it is utilized for photosynthesis. This
living organisms in the
step to provide energy for all other
ecosystenm.
the plants
Sorme amount of chemical energy is used by cousumrs
transferred to
ior their growih and the remaining is
by the process of eating.
ecosystferi gh
Thu the energy enters the
phoiosynt hesis and passes through the differen tropic levels
(feeding ievels).
3.10 Environmental Science and

3.5.1 Energy flow through atmosphere to ax

ecosystem
Engine ring
Sun is the ultimate source of energy, its
radiations
through the space in the form of waves and reaches trave
atmosphere. The atmosphere absorbs 50% of the the earh
allow the remainings to reach the earth surface. radiOfations an
radiations, reached the earth's surface, some of the solar
absorbed by organisms (primary producers) to produce which
matter through photosynthesis. organic
Photosynthetic equation
CO) + 2H,0 > CH,0 +0,+ H,0
sunlight carbohydrate oxygen water
carbon dioxide water

The plants (producers) are used by herbivores and

herbivores are used by carmivores as their food. In this wau
energy is transfered from one organism to another and so on
The conversion of solar energy is
governed by law of
thermodynamics.
1. Ist law of thermodynamics
It states that, energy can neüher be
created nor
destroyed, but it can be converted from one form toanother."
Illustration: Energy for an ecosystem comes frOm the sun. I
is absorbed byplants, wherein it is conveted into stored chemical
energy.
i.e., Solar energy in converted into chemical
energy.
Solar energy ’ Chemical energy (plants)
2. lInd law of thermodynamics
It states that, "whenever energy is transformed, there
is a loss of energy through the release of heat."
Illustration: This occurs when energy is transferred between
tropic levels. There will be a loss of energy (about 80-90%)
EOOSYsterm

intheform of
heat as it 3.11
tropic level. The loss moves
of energy from one tropic level to
unning. hunting etc. takes another
place through
Respiration equátion respiration,
CH0 + O
carbohydrate oxygen CO, + H,0
The net carbondioxide water
the total production of biomass is only about
incident radiation (3000 0.5% of
energy absorbed and the k.cal/n lday) and 1.0% of
remaining gets wasted.
3.5.2
functionRelationship
(flow model)between structure and
From the above it is clear
and abiotic that, the biotic
and nutrientcomponents are linked
cycling as shown in together through components
energy
the following figure 3.2.flow
NUTRIENTCYCLING
ABIOTIC
COMPONENT

ENERGY FLOW hat

SUN BIOTIC
PLANTS ANIMALS BACTERIA COMPONENT
heat
Note: heat
heat hèat
Stored Energy
Energy Flow ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
WUTRENTTCYCLING
Fig.3.2 Flow of energy and nutrient cycling from abiotic to
biotic and vice versa.
 Environmental Science and
3.12 Engineering
NUTRIENT CYCLING
3.63 NUTRIENT FLOW (OR) CYCLE IN
(OR) BIOGEOCHEMICAL
THE ECOSYSTEM

3.6.1 Nutrients
The elements, which are essential for the survival of botk
plants and animals are called nutrients.
1. Macronutrients: The elements needed in large amounte
are called macronutrients.

Examples Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium

and phosphorus.
2. Micronutrients: The elements, needed in small amounts
are called micronutrients.

Examples Boron, cobalt, strontiun, zinc, copper.

3.6.2 Nutrient cycles

The cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and
abiotic components is known as nutrient cycle (or)
biogeochemical cycles.
The nutrients enter into producers and move through the
food chain and ultimately reach the consumer. The bound
nutrients of the consumers, after death, are decomposed and
converted into inorganic substances, which are readily used up
by the plants (producers) and again the cycle starts.
The major nutrients like C, H, Oand N are cycled again
and again between biotic and abiotic component of the
ecosystem.

Hydrological Cycie
Movement of water in a cyclic manner is known as
hydrological cycle.
Foasystem
3.13

Carbon cycle
Carbon is the basic
component in all the
conpounds. The carbon is present in all organic
biotic components in
different forms as food.
Examples
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and aminoacids.
Carbon is present in the atmosphere as C,. The CO,
t 1aken up by the green plants as a raw
material for
photosynthesis of different food. This food moves
hain, finally the through food
carbon present in the dead matter is returned
o the atmosphere as CO, by microorganisms.

Sources of CO, in atmosphere

1. During respiration, plants and animals liberates
CO, in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric
Carbondioxide
A n irm
esap
l iras.

(CO,)
spiration

Plarn
estp i r a t i o n

CO
fixati
b on
y

terrestr
p il
a a
lnts

Fossil fuel
CO, burning
fixation (by
aquatic plants)
Direct
absorption

Dead organic
matter (Organic Carbonates, CO,1
carbon)

Microbial
action

Fig. 3.3 Carbon cycle

 3.14 Environmental Science and
2 Combustion of fuels also release
Co Engine ring
3. Volcanic eruptions also release CO,.

3.6.4 Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as Ng in
amounts (78%). The nitrogen is present in all la rge
components in different forms as food. bioic
Bxamples Proteins, vitamins, aminoacids, etc.,
The N, from the atmosphere is taken up by the
plants as a raw material for biosynthesis of different green
fode
(amino acids, proteins, vitamins) and used in
metabolisn.
These food move through the food chain. After death of the
plants and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead
tissues is
decomposed by several micro organisms
(ammonifying and
nitrifying bacteria) into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which
are again used by the plants. Some
bacteria convert nitrates
Atmosphere

Volcanic -NO Acid rain Nitrogen

eruptions
Biological Electrification Acid
N, fixation rain
Fertilizer
Runoff
(Eutrophication) Hydrosphere
Animal
Litho
sphere
aprotoplasmAnirnals,
(Soil), m T (Nitrate_. Shallow maring
Industrial sediments :
activities Plant, (Nitrites)
protopl[m Loss to deep
sediments
Death INitrification
and Decay Ammonia
Excretion 1Ammonification Denitrification
(Urea, uric acid) Organic
Nitogen
(Proteins,amino acids)
Fig. 3.4 Nitrogen cycle
 EcOSystem
3.15
/nto
molecular
atmosphere and nitrogen (N). which is again released back into
the cycle goes on.
Nitrification
The
conversion of ammonia into nitrates is
aitrification. This is brought about by nitrifying termed as
Examples bacteria.
Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas.
Denitrification
The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N) is termed
as denirification. This
process is brought about by
denitrifying bacteria.
Bxamples Pseudomonas, fluorescence.

3.6.5 Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus is mainly present in the rocks and fossils.
The phosphorus is present in all biotic components in different
forms.

Bones, teeths, guano deposits.

P. reserves
Excreta Death and
Guano (P-rich) decay
Sea birds deposits
Phosphate Bones and teeth Animal
protoplasm
Runoff rocks, fossil,
Eutrophication bones, teeth Plant
protoplasm
Phosphatizing
bactena

Fertilizers
Marine
fish etc (PO Mining Erosion
Loss to deep
marine
sediments Plant
uptake Dissolved phosphate

Fig 3.5 Phosphorus cycle