Social Research, Vol. 63, No. 3, 801-817 (Fall 1996) Paul Ek a!"s research is su##or$e% &' a Research Scie!

$is$ ()ar% *ro $he Na$io!al +!s$i$u$e o* ,e!$al -eal$h (,-0609.). Why Dont We Catch Liars? Paul Ekman /ur research (Ek a! a!% /"Sulli0a!, 19901 Fra!k a!% Ek a!, *or$hco i!21 Ek a!, Fra!k, a!% /"Sulli0a!, *or$hco i!2) su22es$s $ha$ os$ #eo#le ca!!o$ $ell *ro %e ea!or )he$her so eo!e is l'i!2 or $elli!2 $he $ru$h. Such #oor #er*or a!ce is !o$ &ecause lies are $ol% *la)lessl'. ,os$ liars ake is$akes )hich coul% &e %e$ec$e% &u$ usuall' are isse%. 3o$h #er#e$ra$i!2 a lie a!% %e$ec$i!2 a lie, i! os$ #eo#le, see $o &e #oorl' %e0elo#e% skills. +! $his ar$icle, + co!si%er si4 e4#la!a$io!s *or )h' os$ o* us %o !o$ ca$ch liars *ro %e ea!or. + )ill *irs$ e4#lai! ho) + %is$i!2uish l'i!2 *ro o$her *or s o* %ecei$, a!% $he! %iscuss $he e0i%e!ce )hich su22es$s $ha$ #eo#le are such #oor lie ca$chers. 5he i!$e!$ o* $he liar is o!e o* $he $)o cri$eria + (Ek a!, 619878 199.) use $o %is$i!2uish lies *ro o$her ki!%s o* %ece#$io!. 5he liar deliberately chooses $o islea% $he $ar2e$. 9iars a' ac$uall' $ell $he $ru$h, &u$ $ha$ is !o$ $heir i!$e!$. (!% $ru$h*ul #eo#le a' #ro0i%e *alse i!*or a$io!:&a% a%0ice *ro a s$ock &roker:&u$ $ha$ is !o$ $heir i!$e!$. 5he; liar has a choice1 $he liar coul% chose !o$ $o lie. <e are all $e #$e% $o lie, &u$ )e %o !o$ al)a's %o so. 9'i!2 is !o$ irresis$i&le1 i$ is, &' ' %e*i!i$io!, a co!scious, co!si%ere% choice. + %o reco2!i=e $ha$ l'i!2 ca! &eco e a ha&i$ a!% $he! #er*or e% )i$h li$$le co!si%era$io!, &u$, a$ leas$ i!i$iall', all such ha&i$s &e2a! as co!si%ere% choices a&ou$ )he$her or !o$ $o %o so. Presu a&l', a #a$holo2ical liar is co #elle% $o lie a!% &' ' %e*i!i$io!, $here*ore, is !o$ a liar. 5he seco!% cri$erio! *or %is$i!2uishi!2 lies *ro o$her %ece#$io!s is $ha$ $he $ar2e$ is !o$ !o$i*ie% a&ou$ $he liar"s i!$e!$io! $o islea%. ( a2icia! is !o$ a liar &' $his cri$erio!, &u$ >ri ?eller is a liar, si!ce ?eller clai e% his $ricks )ere !o$ a2ic. (! ac$or is !o$ a liar, &u$ a! i #os$or is. 9e$ $he &u'er &e)are is o!e e4a #le o* a! e4#lici$ )ar!i!2 $ha$ #ro%uc$s or ser0ices a' !o$ &e )ha$ $he' are #rese!$e% $o &e. (/* course, $ha$ )ar!i!2 %oes !o$ a##ear i! a%0er$ise e!$s, !earl' all o* )hich are %esi2!e% $o co!0e' $he o##osi$e essa2e.) Poker is s$ill a!o$her si$ua$io! i! )hich $he rules o* $he 2a e sa!c$io! a!% !o$i*' $he #la'ers $ha$ %ece#$io! )ill occur, a!%, $here*ore, o!e ca!!o$ co!si%er &lu**i!2 $o &e a lie. So e$i es !o$i*ica$io! o* a! i!$e!$io! $o islea% is i #lici$ i! $he *ra i!2, $o use ?o** a!"s (197@) $er , o* $he si$ua$io!. +! real es$a$e $ra!sac$io!s, $he #o$e!$ial &u'er is i #lici$l' !o$i*ie% $ha$ $he seller"s aski!2 #rice is !o$ $he ac$ual #rice $he seller )oul% acce#$. Various *or s o* #oli$e!ess are o$her i!s$a!ces i! )hich $he !a$ure o* $he si$ua$io! !o$i*ies $he $ar2e$ $ha$ $he $ru$h a' !o$ &e s#oke!. 5he hos$ )oul% !o$ #ro#erl'" scru$i!i=e $he %i!!er 2ues$ $o %e$er i!e i* $he 2ues$"s clai $o ha0e e!Ao'e% $he e0e!i!2 is $rue a!' ore $ha! $he au!$ shoul% )orr' )he$her $he !e#he) is l'i!2 )he! he sa's $ha$ he a##recia$e% &ei!2 2i0e! a $ie *or Bhris$ as. Cece#$io! is e4#ec$e%1 e0e! i* $he $ar2e$ i2h$ sus#ec$ $ha$ $he $ru$h is !o$ &ei!2 $ol%, i$ is i #ro#er $o Dues$io! i$. /!l' cer$ai! $'#es o* %ece#$io! a' &e allo)a&leE $he #oker #la'er ca!!o$ use arke% car%s1 $he ho e seller ca!!o$ co!ceal a k!o)! %e*ec$.

+! cour$shi#, i$ is a &i2uous )he$her $he #ar$ies shoul% e4#ec$ $ru$h*ul!ess. 5he sa'i!2 Fall"s *air i! lo0e a!% )arG )oul% see $o )ar! lo0ers !o$ $o &elie0e all $he' are $ol%. Rece!$ #u&lic o#i!io! #olls su22es$ $ha$ lies $ha$ %o)!#la' $he !u &er o* #re0ious se4ual #ar$!ers are co o! a o!2 colle2e-a2e% a%ul$s. He$ + e4#ec$ $ha$ lo0ers )a!$ $o &elie0e i! $he $ru$h*ul!ess o* $heir lo0er. ,a!' #o#ular so!2s $es$i*' $o $he &e$ra'al *el$ )he! lies are %isco0ere% (al$hou2h so e %o )ar! $ha$ lies a' &e e4#ec$e%). Ro a!$ic lo0e reDuires collusi0e e**or$s $o %e0elo# a!% ai!$ai! '$hs a&ou$ each o$her a!% $he !a$ure o* $he rela$io!shi#. + %i**er *ro 3ok (198.), )ho o!l' co!si%ers *alse s$a$e e!$s $o &e lies. + (Ek a!, 619878 199.) ar2ue% $ha$ o!e ca! *alsi*' )i$hou$ )or%s, a!% o!e !ee% !o$ *alsi*', 0er&all' or !o!0er&all', $o lie. Bo!ceal e!$ is Aus$ as uch a lie as *alsi*ica$io!, i* $here is a! e4#ec$a$io! $ha$ i!*or a$io! )ill &e re0eale%. <he! *illi!2 ou$ a Ao& a##lica$io! $ha$ asks *or a lis$i!2 o* all #re0ious e #lo' e!$, o i$$i!2 $he o!e *ro )hich o!e )as *ire% )oul% &e a co!ceal e!$ lie, *or $here is a! o&li2a$io! $o re0eal. +! #erso!al rela$io!shi#s i$ is !o$ al)a's so clear cu$, a!% $he liar, o!ce %isco0ere%, a!% $he $ar2e$ o* $he lie a' %isa2ree a&ou$ )he$her or !o$ a! o&li2a$io! $o re0eal $he co!ceale% i!*or a$io! )as i! *orce. Bo!ceal e!$ a!% *alsi*ica$io! are %i**ere!$ $ech!iDues *or acco #lishi!2 $he sa e o&Aec$i0e. 5he issue is $he o$i0e, !o$ $he $ech!iDue e #lo'e% $o acco #lish i$. +* $he o$i0e is $o islea%, $he! $he choice &e$)ee! *alsi*'i!2 or co!ceali!2 is si #l' a a$$er o* )hich $ech!iDue )ill )ork &e$$er i! a 2i0e! i!s$a!ce. Else)here (Ek a!, 619873199.) + ha0e e4#lai!e% )h' os$ liars )oul% #re*er $o co!ceal ra$her $ha! *alsi*' i* $he si$ua$io! )ill allo) i$ a!% also %escri&e% so e o$her $ech!iDues *or i #le e!$i!2 a lie. No) le$ us co!si%er )ha$ )e k!o) a&ou$ ho) )ell #eo#le ca! %e$ec$ lies *ro %e ea!or. 5he e0i%e!ce $ha$ os$ #eo#le %o #oorl' i! ca$chi!2 lies co es *ro $he *ollo)i!2 $'#e o* e4#eri e!$. S$u%e!$s are recrui$e% $o lie or $ell $he $ru$h a&ou$ so e$hi!2 )hich usuall' %oes !o$ a$$er uch $o $he . +$ has !o rele0a!ce $o $heir #as$ or $heir e4#ec$e% *u$ure li*e. So e$i es i! a )eak (i! ' Au%2 e!$) a$$e #$ $o o$i0a$e $he , $he' are $ol% i$ is i #or$a!$ $o &e a&le $o lie, or $ha$ s ar$ or success*ul #eo#le succee% i! $his $ask. Vi%eo$a#es o* $heir &eha0ior are sho)! $o o$her s$u%e!$s )ho are aske% $o i%e!$i*' )ho is l'i!2 a!% )ho is $elli!2 $he $ru$h. 5'#icall', os$ o* $hose $r'i!2 $o ca$ch $he liars #er*or a$ cha!ce or Aus$ sli2h$l' &e$$er $ha! cha!ce. /ur (Ek a! a!% Friese!, 197@1 Ek a!, Fra!k, a!% /"Sulli0a!, *or$hco i!2) research has %i**ere% i! a !u &er o* )a's. <e ha0e $rie% $o ake $he lies rele0a!$ $o $heir li0es a!% $o se$ $he s$akes *or success or *ailure as hi2h as )e coul%. <e a$$e #$e% $his *or $)o reaso!s. +$ is o!l' i! hi2h s$ake lies $ha$ e o$io!s a&ou$ l'i!2 (*ear, 2uil$, e4ci$e e!$, or )ha$ + ha0e calle% %u#i!2 %eli2h$) are likel' $o &e arouse% a!% &e$ra' $he lie. +$ is !o$ Aus$ $he leaka2e o* $hese s$ro!2 e o$io!s )hich #ro0i%e &eha0ioral clues $o %ecei$, &u$ $hese s$ro!2 e o$io!s also a4" %isruP$ $he liar"s co2!i$i0e #rocessi!2 a!% resul$ i! e0asi0e, i #lausi&le, a!% s$u &li!2 accou!$s. ( seco!% reaso! *or s$u%'i!2 hi2h s$ake lies is $ha$ $hese are $he lies )i$h )hich socie$' is os$ co!cer!e%. +! o!e o* our e4#eri e!$al sce!arios, )e e4a i!e% ho) )ell !urses coul% co!ceal $he !e2a$i0e emotions $he' *el$ )he! )i$!essi!2 *il s sho)i!2 a #u$a$io!s a!% &ur!s. 5he' )ere

hi2hl' o$i0a$e% $o succee% i! $his lie, &ecause $he' $hou2h$ our e4#eri e!$ o**ere% $he $he o##or$u!i$' $o %e0elo# a skill $he' )oul% !ee% $o use )he! co!*ro!$i!2 Aus$ such u#se$$i!2 sce!es i! $heir *u$ure )ork. +! a!o$her o* our sce!arios, $he su&Aec$s ha% a cha!ce $o $ake a!% kee# I70 i* $he' coul% co!0i!ce $he i!$erro2a$or $he'" ha% !o$ $ake! $he money. 5hose su&Aec$s )ho %i% !o$ $ake $he o!e' coul% ear! I10 i* $he i!$erro2a$or &elie0e% $he )he! $he'" sai% $he' ha% !o$ $ake! $he I70. +! our las$ sce!ario, )e *irs$ i%e!$i*ie% $he social issues $he su&Aec$s *el$ os$ s$ro!2l' a&ou$, a!% $he! aske% $he $o %escri&e $ha$ opinion ho!es$l' (a!% ear! I10 i* &elie0e%) or clai $o ha0e $he o##osi$e o* $heir $rue o#i!io! (a!% ear! I70 i* &elie0e%). +! our os$ rece!$ )ork )e 2a0e so e o* our su&Aec$s $he choice as $o )he$her $o lie or $ell $he $ru$h, as #eo#le ha0e i! real li*e. 5here are a!' reaso!s )h' so e #eo#le choose !o$ $o lie, o!e o* )hich is $heir o)! k!o)le%2e, &ase% o! #as$ e4#erie!ce, $ha$ $he' are al os$ al)a's cau2h$. +!clu%i!2 i! $he sa #le o* liars such $erri&le liars, #eo#le )ho )oul% !o$ choose $o lie u!less *orce% $o %o so &' $he e4#eri e!$er, coul% i!*la$e $he %e$ec$io! ra$e. +! 0ir$uall' all #re0ious research, o! ei$her i!$er#erso!al %ece#$io! or #ol'2ra#h lie %e$ec$io!, su&Aec$s )ere !o$ 2i0e! $he choice as $o )he$her $o lie or &e $ru$h*ul. /!e e4ce#$io! is $he s$u%' o* $he #ol'2ra#h &' ?i!$o!, Caie, Elaa%, a!% 3e!-Shakhar (198.), i! )hich $he' )ere a&le $o k!o) )hich #olice e! ha% chea$e% o! a $es$ *or eli2i&ili$' *or #ro o$io!1 S$i**, Bor a!, J!i=ek, a!% S!i%er (199@) i! a si ilar *ashio! k!e) )hich s$u%e!$s chea$e% o! a Dui=. 3ra%le' (1988) also allo)e% su&Aec$s $o choose )he$her $o lie or $ell $he $ru$h i! a #ol'2ra#h s$u%'. (!o$her u!iDue *ea$ure o* our rece!$ e4#eri e!$s is $ha$ )e $ol% $he su&Aec$s $ha$ $he' )oul% &e #u!ishe%, a!% i$ )as a co!si%era&le #u!ish e!$, i* $he i!$erro2a$or Au%2e% $he $o &e l'i!2. 3o$h $he $ru$h*ul #erso! is$ake!l' Au%2e% $o &e l'i!2 a!% $he liar )ho )as %e$ec$e% )oul% recei0e $he sa e #u!ish e!$. 5hus, *or $he *irs$ $i e i! research o! l'i!2, &o$h $he $ru$h*ul #erso! a!% $he liar i2h$ &e a*rai%:o* &ei!2 %is&elie0e% i* $elli!2 $he $ru$h, o* &ei!2 cau2h$ i* l'i!2. +* i$ is o!l' $he liar )ho i2h$ &e a*rai% o* &ei!2 accuse% o* l'i!2, i$ is $oo eas'" *or $he lie ca$cher a!% !o$ rele0a!$ $o os$ o* real li*e. (!% i* !ei$her liar !or $he $ru$h*ul #erso! *ear #u!ish e!$, i$ shoul% ha0e li$$le rele0a!ce $o $he lies $ha$ occur i! $he cri i!al Aus$ice )orl% or i! !a$io!al securi$', le$ alo!e i! ari$al %is#u$es, #are!$-chil% co!*lic$s, a!% so o!. (l$hou2h our rece!$ e4#eri e!$s ca! clai $o ha0e ore ecolo2ical 0ali%i$' $ha! our ol%er s$u%ies, or $ha! os$ o* $he li$era$ure o! ei$her i!$er#erso!al %ecei$ or #ol'2ra#h lie %e$ec$io!, $he *i!%i!2s a&ou$ %e$ec$a&ili$' )ere !o$ uch %i**ere!$. ,os$ o* $hose )ho sa) $he 0i%eo$a#es a!% a%e $heir Au%2 e!$s o#era$e% a$ a cha!ce le0el or o!l' sli2h$l' &e$$er $ha! cha!ce. 3e*ore #rocee%i!2 $o co!si%er )h' #eo#le %o so #oorl' as lie-ca$chers, le$ us co!si%er so e li i$a$io!s o* our research )hich coul% ha0e le% us $o u!%eres$i a$e $he a&ili$' $o %e$ec$ lies *ro %e ea!or. For $he os$ #ar$, $he o&ser0ers )ho Au%2e% )ho )as l'i!2 a!% )ho )as $elli!2 $he $ru$h ha% !o 0i$al i!$eres$ a$ s$ake i! achie0i!2 accurac'. 5he' )ere !o$ o**ere% hi2her #a' i* $he' )ere ore accura$e. (!% ca$chi!2 liars )as !o$ i!$ri!sicall' re)ar%i!2, *or os$ o* $hese #eo#le %i% !o$ ake a li0i!2 ca$chi!2 liars. 5his li i$a$io! )as a%%resse% i! our (Ek a! a!% /"Sulli0a!, 1991) s$u%' a!% )ork &' o$her research 2rou#s (Jrau$ a!% Poe, 19801 CePaulo a!% P*ei*er, 1986) )hich %i% s$u%' #ro*essio!als co!cer!e% )i$h ca$chi!2 liars. <e *ou!% $ha$ cus$o s o**icials, #olice e!, $rial cour$ Au%2es, F.3.+., B.+.(., 3.(.5.F., C.E.(., *ore!sic

#s'chia$ris$s, a!% $rial la)'ers )ere !o$

uch &e$$er $ha! cha!ce.

Perha#s accurac' )oul% &e hi2her i* $hose aki!2 $he Au%2 e!$s ha% &ee! a&le $o ask $he Dues$io!s, ra$her $ha! &ei!2 #assi0e o&ser0ers. + ca!!o$ rule $his ou$, al$hou2h + %ou&$ i$ )oul% &e so. 5he reDuire e!$ $o *or ula$e Dues$io!s i2h$ )ell %e$rac$ *ro $he a&ili$' $o #rocess $he i!*or a$io! #ro0i%e% &' $he #erso! &ei!2 Au%2e%. +$ is *or $his reaso! $ha$ i! a!' i!$erro2a$io!s o!e #erso! asks $he Dues$io!s )hile a!o$her si$s #assi0el' co!si%eri!2 $he sus#ec$s res#o!ses. +$ )oul% &e i!$eres$i!2 $o ha0e #ro*essio!al i!$erro2a$ors ask $he Dues$io!s i! our e4#eri e!$s a!% $he! %e$er i!e i* $hose )ho see $he 0i%eo$a#es 2e!era$e% )ere ore accura$e $ha! has &ee! so *ar *ou!%. /ur o&ser0ers )ere !o$ *a iliar )i$h $hose )ho $he' Au%2e%, a!% i$ i2h$ &e ar2ue% $ha$ such *a iliari$' )oul% &e!e*i$ accurac'. 5here are, o* course, a!' si$ua$io!s i! )hich Au%2 e!$s a&ou$ l'i!2 are a%e )i$hou$ a!' #rior *a iliari$' )i$h $he #erso! &ei!2 e0alua$e%, a!% our e4#eri e!$s a$ leas$ are rele0a!$ $o $hose i!s$a!ces. 3u$ + %ou&$ $ha$ *a iliari$' al)a's &e!e*i$s lie %e$ec$io!. <hile i$ shoul% #ro0i%e $he &asis *or %iscou!$i!2 i%ios'!cra$ic &eha0iors, i$ a' %o so a$ a cos$. <e $e!% $o &eco e i!0es$e% i! our *rie!%shi#s a!% )ork rela$io!shi#s, a!% $he )ish $o #reser0e $he a' lea% us $o %e0elo# &li!%!ess $o &eha0iors )hich coul% %isru#$ $he . 5rus$ akes o!e 0ul!era&le $o &ei!2 isle%, as usual le0els o* )ari!ess are re%uce% a!% $he &e!e*i$ o* $he %ou&$ is rou$i!el' 2i0e!. +!0ol0e e!$ i! a rela$io!shi# ca! lea% also $o co!*i%e!ce i! o!e"s a&ili$' $o %e$ec$ %ece#$io! (Sillars a!% Sco$$, 1983), a!% such co!*i%e!ce a' i$sel* ake o!e ore 0ul!era&le (9e0i!e a!% ,cBor!ack, 199.). Fa iliari$' shoul% &e a! u! i$i2a$e% &e!e*i$ o!l' )he! i$ is )i$h a #erso! o!e has ha% reaso! $o %is$rus$, a!% a&ou$ )ho o!e has acDuire% k!o)le%2e o* ho) a!% )he! $he' &e$ra' $he rela$io!shi#. +! our e4#eri e!$s, $he o&ser0ers )ere o!l' sho)! a *e) i!u$es o* each i!$er0ie) &e*ore &ei!2 reDuire% $o ake $heir Au%2 e!$. 3u$ lo!2er sa #les a' !o$ !ecessaril' &e!e*i$ lie %e$ec$io!. <e %i% %o o!e s$u%' i! )hich $he sa #les sho)! )ere $)ice as lo!2, a!% accurac' %i% !o$ i #ro0e. Fur$her ore, )e k!o) *ro $he &eha0ioral easure e!$s )e ha0e %o!e $ha$ $here are clues $o %ecei$ i! $hese shor$er sa #les. Ne0er$heless, )e ca!!o$ rule ou$ $his li i$a$io!. +* #eo#le )ere 2i0e! uch lo!2er sa #les $o Au%2e, o* a! hour or $)o, accurac' i2h$ i #ro0e. ( cri$ic i2h$ also ha0e )o!%ere% i* accurac' )as so #oor &ecause $here )ere *e) &eha0ioral clues $o %ecei$, &u$, as + ha0e Aus$ e!$io!e%, $ha$ is !o$ $he case i! our e4#eri e!$s. ,easure e!$s )e a!% our colla&ora$ors ha0e %o!e o* $he *acial o0e e!$s, 0oice, a!% s#eech sho) $ha$ hi2h le0els o* accurac' are #ossi&le:o0er 80 #erce!$ correc$ classi*ica$io!s o* )ho is l'i!2 a!% )ho is $elli!2 $he $ru$h. <hile $hose easure e!$s reDuire% slo)e% o$io! re#la's, )e also k!o) $ha$ accura$e Au%2 e!$s are #ossi&le Aus$ &' 0ie)i!2 $he 0i%eo$a#es a$ real $i e. ( s all #erce!$ o* $hose )e ha0e s$u%ie% ha0e reache% 80 #erce!$ or &e$$er accurac', a!% $he' ha0e %o!e so i! Au%2i!2 ore $ha! o!e sce!ario, so i$ is u!likel' $heir accurac' )as a *luke. (!% )e ha0e *ou!% a *e) occu#a$io!al 2rou#s )hich as a 2rou# )ere hi2hl' accura$e. 5he >!i$e% S$a$es Secre$ Ser0ice )ere hi2hl' accura$e o! $he e o$io! lie1 !o!e o* $he score% a$ or &elo) cha!ce, a!% a $hir% )ere a&o0e 80 #erce!$ accura$e. +!$erro2a$ors s#eciall' selec$e% *or $heir k!o)! skills a!% 2i0e! a )eek o* $rai!i!2 sho)e% si ilar accurac' o! $he o#i!io! lie. (l$hou2h $he s$akes i! $he lies )e s$u%ie% )ere uch hi2her $ha! i! o$her research o! l'i!2,

cer$ai!l' $he' )ere !o$ as hi2h as $he' are i! a!' cri i!al or !a$io!al securi$' cases. Perha#s i* $he s$akes )ere uch hi2her, $he 0i%eo$a#es )oul% ha0e co!$ai!e% a!' o&0ious si2!s o* %ecei$, resul$i!2 i! uch hi2her accurac'. + ca!!o$ ar2ue a2ai!s$ $ha$ #ossi&ili$' &u$, as + Aus$ %escri&e%, $here )ere so e occu#a$io!al 2rou#s )ho )ere accura$e )he! Au%2i!2 our 0i%eo$a#es. 5he Dues$io! re ai!s )h' )ere all $hese o$her 2rou#s !o$ accura$e. 5he i!*or a$io! is $here, a!% i$ ca! &e %e$ec$e% &' so e &u$ !o$ &' os$. 3e*ore co!si%eri!2 )h' $he o0er)hel i!2 aAori$' o* #eo#le %o #oorl', co!si%er o!e ore *ea$ure o* our e4#eri e!$s )hich #ro&a&l' &e!e*i$e% accurac' a!% a' ha0e le% us $o o0er- ra$her $ha! u!%eres$i a$e accurac'. +! all o* our rece!$ s$u%ies )e ha0e $ol% our o&ser0ers $ha$ &e$)ee! @0 a!% 60 #erce!$ o* $he #eo#le $he' )ill see are l'i!2. +!i$iall' )e %i% !o$ 2i0e $his i!s$ruc$io!, a!% *ou!% $ha$ a 2rou# o* #olice e! Au%2e% e0er'o!e $he' sa) o! $he 0i%eo$a#e as l'i!2, la$er e4#lai!i!2 $ha$ e0er'o!e lies, es#eciall' $o $he #olice. J!o)i!2 $he &ase ra$e o* lies is a! a%0a!$a2e #eo#le %o !o$ al)a's ha0e, a!% shoul% e!ha!ce lie %e$ec$io!. + ha0e ore $o sa' a&ou$ $his la$er. ?ra!$i!2 $ha$ our e0i%e!ce is !o$ co!clusi0e, !e0er$heless, our 0i%eo$a#es %o co!$ai! &eha0ioral clues $o %ecei$, )hich so e #eo#le ca! reco2!i=e accura$el' &u$ os$ %o !o$. For $he #ur#ose o* $his %iscussio!, le$ us co!si%er $his e0i%e!ce as su22es$i!2 $ha$ i! ac$ual li*e os$ #eo#le, $he o0er)hel i!2 aAori$' o* #eo#le, %o !o$ %e$ec$ hi2h s$ake lies *ro %e ea!or. 5he Dues$io! + #ose is )h' !o$, )h' ca! )e !o$ all %o &e$$er a$ $hisK +$ is !o$ $ha$ )e %o !o$ care. Pu&lic o#i!io! #olls $i e a!% a2ai! sho) $ha$ ho!es$' is a o!2 $he $o# *i0e charac$eris$ics #eo#le )a!$ i! a lea%er, *rie!%, or lo0er. (!% $he )orl% o* e!$er$ai! e!$ is *ull o* s$ories, *il s, a!% so!2s )hich %escri&e $he $ra2ic co!seDue!ces o* &e$ra'al. ,' *irs$ e4#la!a$io! o* )h' )e a' &e such #oor lie ca$chers is $ha$ )e are !o$ #re#are% &' our e0olu$io!ar' his$or' $o &e ei$her 0er' 2oo% lie ca$chers or lie #er#e$ra$ors.1 + sus#ec$ $ha$ our a!ces$ral e!0iro! e!$ )as !o$ o!e i! )hich $here )ere a!' o##or$u!i$ies $o lie a!% 2e$ a)a' )i$h i$, a!% $he cos$s *or &ei!2 cau2h$ i! a lie i2h$ ha0e &ee! se0ere. +* $his s#ecula$io! is correc$, $here )oul% !o$ ha0e &ee! a!' selec$io! *or $hose #eo#le )ho )ere u!usuall' a%e#$ i! ca$chi!2 or #er#e$ra$i!2 lies. 5he *ossil recor% %oes !o$ $ell us uch a&ou$ social li*e, so o!e us$ s#ecula$e a&ou$ )ha$ li*e as hu!$er-2a$herers i2h$ ha0e &ee! like. + a%% $o $ha$ ' e4#erie!ce $hir$' 'ears a2o )orki!2 i! )ha$ )as $he! a s$o!e-a2e #reli$era$e cul$ure i! )ha$ is !o) calle% Pa#ua Ne) ?ui!ea. 5here )ere !o roo s )i$h %oors, li$$le #ri0ac' i! $his 2rou# li0i!2, s all 0illa2e, i! )hich e0er'o!e k!e) a!% sa) e0er'o!e else e0er' %a'. 9ies )oul% os$ o*$e! &e &e$ra'e% &' $he $ar2e$ or so eo!e else o&ser0i!2 ac$io!s )hich co!$ra%ic$e% $he lie or &' o$her #h'sical e0i%e!ce. (%ul$er' )as a! ac$i0i$' )hich l'i!2 o*$e! a$$e #$e% $o co!ceal i! $he 0illa2e )here + li0e%. Such lies )ere u!co0ere% !o$ &' rea%i!2 $he &e$ra'er"s %e ea!or )he! #roclai i!2 *i%eli$', &u$ &' s$u &li!2 o0er hi or her i! $he &ush. Perha#s lies a&ou$ &elie*s, e o$io!s, a!% #la!s coul% ha0e &e$$er a0oi%e% %e$ec$io! i! such a! e!0iro! e!$.. 3u$ so e o* $hose lies )oul% e0e!$uall' lea% $o o!e or a!o$her ac$io!, a!% $he! ' ar2u e!$ a&ou$ ho) har% i$ is $o co!ceal or *alsi*' ac$io!s i! a se$$i!2 i! )hich $here is !o #ri0ac' )oul% a##l'. +! a socie$' i! )hich a! i!%i0i%ual"s sur0i0al %e#e!%e% o! coo#era$i0e e**or$s )i$h o$her

e &ers o* $heir 0illa2e, $he re#u$a$io!al loss *or &ei!2 cau2h$ i! a hi2h s$ake lie i2h$ )ell &e %ea%l'. No o!e i2h$ coo#era$e )i$h so eo!e k!o)! $o ha0e e!2a2e% i! serious lies. /!e coul% !o$ cha!2e s#ouses, Ao&s, or 0illa2es )i$h a!' ease. Bhe!e' a!% Se'*ar$h (1990), i! $heir cha#$er o! a!i al %ece#$io!, (! i #or$a!$ co!s$rai!$ a2ai!s$ l'i!2 ake 0er' si ilar #oi!$s.

. . . arises *ro a s#ecies social s$ruc$ure. (!i als $ha$ li0e i! s$a&le social 2rou#s *ace s#ecial #ro&le s i! a!' a$$e #$ a$ %ece#$i0e co u!ica$io!. . . . ( o!2 sociall' li0i!2 a!i als %ece#$i0e si2!als )ill #ro&a&l' ha0e $o &e ore su&$le a!% occur a$ lo)er *reDue!cies i* $he' are $o 2o u!%e$ec$e%. EDuall' i #or$a!$, i* a!i als li0e i! social 2rou#s i! )hich so e %e2ree o* coo#era$io! is esse!$ial *or sur0i0al, $he !ee% *or coo#era$io! ca! re%uce $he ra$e a$ )hich u!relia&le si2!als are 2i0e! (1990, #. 189).

5o ha0e ha% so e s#ecial skill i! %e$ec$i!2 (or #er#e$ra$i!2 *or $ha$ a$$er) lies )oul% !o$ ha0e ha% uch a%a#$i0e 0alue i! such circu s$a!ces. Serious, hi2h s$ake lies #ro&a&l' %i% !o$ occur $ha$ o*$e! &ecause o* li i$e% o##or$u!i$' a!% hi2h cos$s. <he! lies )ere sus#ec$e% or u!co0ere%, i$ )as #ro&a&l' !o$ &' Au%2 e!$s o* %e ea!or. (No$e + ha0e *ocuse% Aus$ o! i!$ra2rou# lies1 cer$ai!l' lies i2h$ &e$)ee! 2rou#s, a!% $heir cos$s a!% %e$ec$io! coul% &e Dui$e %i**ere!$).3 <hile $here are al$ruis$ic lies, ' %iscussio! has %eal$ )i$h less *rie!%l' lies, lies $ha$ occur )he! o!e #erso! 2ai!s a! a%0a!$a2e, o*$e! a$ $he cos$ o* $he $ar2e$ o* $he lie. <he! $he a%0a!$a2e is 2ai!e% &' 0iola$i!2 a rule or e4#ec$a$io!, )e call $ha$ chea$i!2. 9ies so e$i es a' &e reDuire% $o acco #lish $he chea$i!2 ac$i0i$', a!% lies are al)a's reDuire% $o co!ceal ha0i!2 chea$e%. 5hose chea$e% %o !o$ $'#icall' a##recia$e &ei!2 chea$e% a!% are o$i0a$e% $o u!co0er a!' lies i!0ol0e%. 3u$ chea$i!2 is !o$ likel' $o ha0e occurre% o*$e! e!ou2h i! our a!ces$ral e!0iro! e!$ $o co!*er so e a%0a!$a2e o! $hose )ho i2h$ ha0e &ee! u!usuall' a%e#$ a$ s#o$$i!2 )he! i$ %i% occur. (!% as + ar2ue% earlier, $here )as #ro&a&l' so li$$le #ri0ac' $ha$ chea$s )oul% &e cau2h$ &' ea!s o$her $ha! %iscer!i!2 $heir is%ee%s *ro $heir %e ea!or. 5he &iolo2is$ (la! ?ra*e! )ro$eE
5he i!ci%e!ce o* chea$i!2 us$ &e lo) e!ou2h $ha$ si2!ali!2 re ai!s o! a0era2e ho!es$. (s si2!alers a4i i=e $heir *i$!ess, $his i #lies $ha$ $he occasio!s o! )hich chea$i!2 is a%0a!$a2eous us$ &e li i$e%. Perha#s $he si2!alers *or )ho chea$i!2 is a%0a!$a2eous are i! a i!ori$', or $ha$ o!l' o! a i!ori$' o* occasio!s %oes i$ #a' a si2!aler $o chea$. . . . Bhea$i!2 is e4#ec$e% i! e0olu$io!aril' s$a&le si2!al s's$e s, &u$ $he s's$e ca! &e s$a&le o!l' i* $here is so e reaso! )h' o! os$ occasio!s chea$i!2 %oes !o$ #a'. Bhea$s i #ose a ki!% o* $a4 o! $he ea!i!2 o* $he si2!al. 5he ce!$ral *ac$ a&ou$ s$a&le si2!ali!2 s's$e s is ho!es$', a!% $he %e&ase e!$ o* $he ea!i!2 o* $he si2!al &' chea$s us$ &e li i$e% i* s$a&ili$' is $o &e ai!$ai!e% (1990, #. 733).

3' $his reaso!i!2, si2!als $ha$ chea$, )hich + )oul% call lies, shoul% ha0e a lo) i!ci%e!ce. Bos i%es a!% 5oo&'"s (199.) *i!%i!2s su22es$ $ha$ )e ha0e e0ol0e% a se!si$i0i$' $o rule i!*rac$io!s a!% %o !o$ re)ar% chea$ers, a!% $his a' e4#lai! )h' chea$i!2 %oes !o$ occur o*$e!. -o)e0er, our *i!%i!2s su22es$ $ha$ )e are !o$ likel' $o ca$ch chea$ers &ase% o! our a&ili$' $o s#o$ $heir lies *ro $heir %e ea!or &u$ &' o$her ea!s.

5o su ari=e ' ar2u e!$, our a!ces$ral e!0iro! e!$ %i% !o$ #re#are us $o &e as$u$e lie ca$chers. 5hose )ho i2h$ ha0e &ee! os$ a%e#$ i! i%e!$i*'i!2 a liar *ro %e ea!or )oul% ha0e ha% i!i al a%0a!$a2e i! $he circu s$a!ces i! )hich our a!ces$ors #ro&a&l' li0e%. Serious lies #ro&a&l' %i% !o$ occur o*$e!, &ecause a lack o* #ri0ac' )oul% ha0e a%e $he cha!ces o* &ei!2 cau2h$ hi2h. Such a lack o* #ri0ac' )oul% also ea! $ha$ lies )oul% $'#icall' &e %isco0ere% &' %irec$ o&ser0a$io! or o$her #h'sical e0i%e!ce, ra$her $ha! ha0i!2 $o rel' u#o! Au%2 e!$s o* %e ea!or. Fi!all', i! a coo#era$i0e, close%, s all socie$', )he! lies are u!co0ere% $he re#u$a$io!al cos$s $o $he i!%i0i%ual )oul% &e hi2h a!% i!esca#a&le. +! o%er! i!%us$rial socie$ies, $he si$ua$io! is !earl' $he re0erse. 5he o##or$u!i$ies *or l'i!2 are #le!$i*ul1 #ri0ac' is eas' $o achie0e, $here are a!' close% %oors. <he! cau2h$, $he social co!seDue!ces !ee% !o$ &e %isas$rous, *or o!e ca! cha!2e Ao&s, cha!2e s#ouses, cha!2e 0illa2es. ( %a a2e% re#u$a$io! !ee% !o$ *ollo) 'ou. 3' $his reaso!i!2 )e li0e !o) i! circu s$a!ces )hich e!coura2e ra$her $ha! %iscoura2e l'i!2, )he! e0i%e!ce a!% ac$i0i$' are ore easil' co!ceale% a!% $he !ee% $o rel' u#o! %e ea!or $o ake our Au%2 e!$s )oul% &e 2rea$er. (!% )e ha0e !o$ &ee! #re#are% &' our e0olu$io!ar' his$or' $o &e 0er' se!si$i0e $o $he &eha0ioral clues rele0a!$ $o l'i!2. +* )e 2ra!$ $ha$ our e0olu$io!ar' his$or' %i% !o$ #re#are us $o %e$ec$ lies *ro %e ea!or, )h' %o )e !o$ lear! ho) $o %o so i! $he course o* 2ro)i!2 u#K /!e #ossi&ili$' is $ha$ our #are!$s $each us not $o i%e!$i*' $heir lies. 5heir #ri0ac' a' o*$e! reDuire $ha$ $he' islea% $heir chil%re! a&ou$ Aus$ )ha$ $he' are %oi!2, )he! $he' are %oi!2 i$, a!% )h' $he' are %oi!2 i$. <hile se4ual ac$i0i$' is o!e o&0ious *ocus o* such lies, $here i2h$ )ell &e o$her ac$i0i$ies )hich #are!$s )a!$ $o co!ceal *ro $heir chil%re!.@ ( $hir% e4#la!a$io! is $ha$ )e 2e!erall' #re*er !o$ $o ca$ch liars, &ecause a $rus$i!2 ra$her $ha! a sus#icious s$a!ce e!riches li*e, %es#i$e $he #ossi&le cos$s. 5o al)a's %ou&$, $o ake *alse accusa$io!s, is !o$ o!l' u!#leasa!$ *or $he %ou&$er, &u$ u!%er i!es uch cha!ce o* es$a&lishi!2 i!$i ac' i! a$i!2, *rie!%shi#s, or o!-2oi!2 )ork rela$io!shi#s. <e ca!!o$ a**or% $o %is&elie0e a *rie!%, our chil%, or our s#ouse )he! $he' are ac$uall' $elli!2 $he $ru$h, a!% so )e err o! $he si%e o* &elie0i!2 $he liar. 5rus$i!2 o$hers is !o$ o!l' reDuire%, &u$ i$ akes li*e easier $o li0e. <ha$ a$$er i* $he cos$ is !o$ %e$ec$i!2 so e )ho $ake a%0a!$a2e o* $ha$ $rus$, *or o!e i2h$ !e0er k!o) a&ou$ i$. +$ is o!l' $he #ara!oi% )ho *ore2oes such #eace o* i!%, a!% $hose )hose li0es are ac$uall' a$ so e risk i* $he' are !o$ co!s$a!$l' aler$ $o &e$ra'al. Bo!sis$e!$ )i$h $his *or ula$io! )e (Ek a!, 3u2e!$al, a!% Fra!k, u!#u&lishe% %a$a) o&$ai!e% #reli i!ar' e0i%e!ce $ha$ a&use% chil%re! li0i!2 i! a! i!s$i$u$io!al se$$i!2 )ere ore accura$e $ha! o$her chil%re! i! %e$ec$i!2 lies *ro %e ea!or. ,' *our$h e4#la!a$io! is $ha$ )e o*$e! )a!$ $o &e isle%, )e collu%e i! $he lie u!)i$$i!2l' &ecause )e ha0e a s$ake i! !o$ k!o)i!2 $he $ru$h. 7 Bo!si%er $)o e4a #les *ro s#ousal rela$io!shi#s. +$ a' !o$ &e i! $he i!$eres$ o* a o$her )i$h a !u &er o* 0er' 'ou!2 chil%re! $o ca$ch her a$e"s lie )hich co!ceals his i!*i%eli$', #ar$icularl' i* he is ha0i!2 a *li!2 i! )hich he is !o$ %i0er$i!2 resources )hich )oul% o$her)ise 2o $o her a!% her chil%re!. 5he #hila!%erer %oes !o$ )a!$ $o &e cau2h$, so $he' &o$h ha0e a! i!$eres$ i! $he lie !o$ &ei!2 u!co0ere%. ( si ilar lo2ic is a$ )ork i! $his !e4$, ore al$ruis$ic lie a!% collusi0e &elie*. ( )i*e asks her hus&a!%, F<as $here a!' o$her )o a! a$ $he #ar$' )ho 'ou $hou2h$ )as ore a$$rac$i0e $ha!

eKG -e lies &' clai i!2 she )as $he os$ a$$rac$i0e )he! she )as !o$. -e %oes !o$ )a!$ $o ake her Aealous, a!% he %oes !o$ )a!$ $o %eal )i$h her ha0i!2 such *eeli!2s, a!% she a' )a!$ $o &elie0e she )as $he os$ a$$rac$i0e. +! so e collusio!s $he $ar2e$ )ho )a!$s $o &elie0e $he liar a' !o$ &e!e*i$ *ro $he lie or &e!e*i$ o!l' i! $he shor$ ru!. Bo!si%er )ha$ )as #erha#s $he os$ i!*a ous e4a #le i! $his ce!$ur' o* a $ar2e$ &elie0i!2 a liar )ho ea!$ hi har . + re*er $o $he ee$i!2 &e$)ee! $he 3ri$ish Pri e ,i!is$er, Ne0elle Bha &erlai!, a!% (%ol#h -i$ler, $he Bha!cellor o* ?er a!', o! Se#$e &er 17, 1938.
5he )orl% )a$ches, a)are $ha$ $his a' &e $he las$ ho#e o* a0oi%i!2 a!o$her )orl% )ar. (Lus$ si4 o!$hs earlier -i$ler"s $roo#s ha% arche% i!$o (us$ria, a!!e4i!2 i$ $o ?er a!'. E!2la!% a!% Fra!ce ha% #ro$es$e% &u$ %o!e !o$hi!2 *ur$her.) /! Se#$e &er 1., $hree %a's &e*ore he is $o ee$ Bha &erlai!, -i$ler %e a!%s $o ha0e #ar$ o* B=echoslo0akia a!!e4e% $o ?er a!s" a!% i!ci$es rio$i!2 i! $ha$ cou!$r'. -i$ler has alrea%' secre$l' o&ili=e% $he ?er a! (r ' $o a$$ack B=echoslo0akia, &u$ his ar ' )o!"$ &e rea%' u!$il $he e!% o* Se#$e &er. +* he ca! kee# $he B=echs *ro o&ili=i!2 $heir ar ' *or a *e) ore )eeks, -i$ler )ill ha0e $he a%0a!$a2e o* a sur#rise a$$ack. S$alli!2 *or $i e, -i$ler co!ceals his )ar #la!s *ro Bha &erlai!, 2i0i!2 his )or% $ha$ #eace ca! &e #reser0e% i* $he B=echs )ill ee$ his %e a!%s. Bha &erlai! is *oole%1 he $ries $o #ersua%e $he B=echs !o$ $o o&ili=e $heir ar ' )hile $here is s$ill a cha!ce $o !e2o$ia$e )i$h -i$ler. (*$er his ee$i!2 )i$h -i$ler, Bha &erlai! )ri$es $o his sis$er, M. . . i! s#i$e o* $he har%!ess a!% ru$hless!ess + $hou2h$ 1 sa) i! his *ace, + 2o$ $he i #ressio! $ha$ here )as a a! )ho coul% &e relie% u#o! )he! he ha% 2i0e! his )or% . . . Ce*e!%i!2 his #olicies a2ai!s$ $hose )ho %ou&$ -i$ler"s )or%, Bha &erlai! *i0e %a's la$er i! a s#eech $o Parlia e!$ e4#lai!s $ha$ his #erso!al co!$ac$ )i$h -i$ler allo)s hi $o sa' $ha$ -i$ler M ea!s )ha$ he sa's" (Ek a!, 619878 199., ##. 17, 16).

-i$ler re#or$e%l' )ro$e, F5he 0ic$or )ill !o$ &e aske% a*$er)ar% )he$her he $ol% $he $ru$h. +! s$ar$i!2 a!% )a2i!2 )ar i$ is !o$ Aus$ice $ha$ a$$ers &u$ 0ic$or'.G <h' %i% Bha &erlai! &elie0e -i$lerK No$ e0er'o!e %i%, $here )ere a!' i! $he o##osi$io! #ar$' i! 3ri$ai! a!% else)here )ho reco2!i=e% $ha$ -i$ler )as !o$ a a! o* his )or%. Bha &erlai! u!)i$$i!2l', + &elie0e, collu%e% i! -i$ler"s lie &ecause he ha% $o &elie0e -i$ler. +* Bha &erlai! )ere $o ha0e reco2!i=e% -i$ler"s lie, he )oul% ha0e $o co!*ro!$ $he *ac$ $ha$ his #olic' o* a##ease e!$ ha% #u$ his cou!$r' a$ 2ra0e risk. Si!ce he ha% $o *ace $ha$ *ac$ Aus$ a *e) )eeks la$er, o!e i2h$ ask )h' %i% he !o$ reco2!i=e i$ %uri!2 $his ee$i!2 )i$h -i$lerK 5ha$ )oul% &e ra$io!al &u$ !o$ #s'cholo2ical. ,os$ o* us o#era$e o! $he u!)ri$$e! #ri!ci#le o* #os$#o!i!2 ha0i!2 $o co!*ro!$ a!'$hi!2 )hich is 0er' u!#leasa!$. a!% )e a' %o so &' collusi0el' o0erlooki!2 a liar"s is$akes. Bha &erlai! )as !o$ u!iDue. 5he $ar2e$s o* lies, o*$e! u!)i$$i!2l', collusi0el' )a!$ $o &elie0e $he liar. 5he sa e o$i0e:!o$ )a!$i!2 $o reco2!i=e i #e!%i!2 %isas$er:e4#lai!s )h' $he &usi!ess a! )ho is$ake!l' hire% a! e &e==ler co!$i!ues $o iss $he si2!s o* $he e &e==le e!$. Ra$io!all' s#eaki!2, $he soo!er he %isco0ers $he e &e==le e!$ $he &e$$er, &u$ #s'cholo2icall' $ha$ %isco0er' )ill ea! he us$ *ace !o$ o!l' his co #a!'"s losses, &u$ his o)! is$ake i! ha0i!2 hire% such a rascal. +! a si ilar *ashio!, e0er'o!e &u$ $he cuckol%e% s#ouse a' k!o) )ha$ is ha##e!i!2. /r $he #re-a%olesce!$ usi!2 har% %ru2s a' &e co!0i!ce% $ha$ her #are!$s surel' us$ k!o) )ha$ she is %oi!2, )hile $he' u!)i$$i!2l' s$ri0e $o a0oi% s#o$$i!2 $he lies )hich )oul% *orce $he $o %eal )i$h $he #ossi&ili$' $ha$ $he' ha0e *aile% as

#are!$s a!% !o) ha0e a $erri&le s$ru22le o! $heir ha!%s. /!e is !earl' al)a's &e$$er o** i! $he shor$ ru! $o coo#era$e )i$h $he lie, e0e! i* $ha$ ea!s $ha$ $he co!seDue!ces $o orro) )ill &e e0e! )orse. ( *i*$h e4#la!a$io! is &ase% o! Er0i!2 ?o** a!"s )ri$i!2s (197@). <e are &rou2h$ u# $o &e #oli$e i! our i!$erac$io!s, !o$ $o s$eal i!*or a$io! )hich is !o$ 2i0e! $o us. ( ra$her re arka&le e4a #le o* $his is ho) )e u!)i$$i!2l' a0er$ our 2a=e )he! so eo!e )e are $alki!2 $o clea!s $heir ears or #icks $heir !ose. ?o** a! )oul% also ar2ue $ha$ $he *alse essa2e so e$i es a' &e $he ore sociall' i #or$a!$ essa2e $ha! $he $ru$h. +$ is $he ack!o)le%2e% i!*or a$io!, $he i!*or a$io! *or )hich $he #erso! )ho s$a$es i$ is )illi!2 $o $ake res#o!si&ili$'. <he! $he secre$ar' )ho is isera&le a&ou$ a *i2h$ )i$h her hus&a!% $he #re0ious !i2h$ a!s)ers, FLus$ *i!e,G )he! her &oss asks, F-o) are 'ou $his or!i!2KG $ha$ *alse essa2e a' &e $he o!e rele0a!$ $o $he &oss" i!$erac$io!s )i$h her. +$ $ells hi $ha$ she is 2oi!2 $o %o her Ao&. 5he $rue essa2e:$ha$ she is isera&le:he a' !o$ care $o k!o) a&ou$ a$ all as lo!2 as she %oes !o$ i!$e!% $o le$ i$ i #air her Ao& #er*or a!ce. No!e o* $he e4#la!a$io!s + ha0e o**ere% so *ar ca! e4#lai! )h' os$ e &ers o* $he cri i!al Aus$ice a!% i!$elli2e!ce co u!i$ies %o so #oorl' i! i%e!$i*'i!2 liars *ro %e ea!or. Police a!% cou!$er-i!$elli2e!ce i!$erro2a$ors are !o$ $aki!2 a $rus$i!2 s$a!ce )i$h $heir sus#ec$s, $he' are !o$ collu%i!2 i! &ei!2 isle%, a!% $he' are )illi!2 $o s$eal i!*or a$io! !o$ 2i0e! $o $he . <h' %o $he'" !o$ %o &e$$er i! i%e!$i*'i!2 liars *ro %e ea!orK + &elie0e $he' are ha!%ica##e% &' a hi2h &ase-ra$e a!% i!a%eDua$e *ee%&ack. ,os$ o* $he #eo#le $he' %eal )i$h #ro&a&l' are l'i!2 $o $he . 5hose )i$h )ho + ha0e s#oke! es$i a$e $he &ase ra$e o* l'i!2 as ore $ha! $hree-*our$hs. Such a hi2h &ase ra$e is !o$ o#$i al *or lear!i!2 $o &e aler$ $o $he su&$le &eha0ioral clues $o %ecei$. 5heir orie!$a$io! all $oo o*$e! is !o$ ho) $o s#o$ $he liar, &u$ ho) $o 2e$ $he e0i%e!ce $o !ail $he liar. (!% )he! $he' ake a is$ake a!% lear! $ha$ so eo!e )as )ro!2*ull' #u!ishe%, $ha$ *ee%&ack co es $oo la$e, $oo *ar re o0e% *ro $he is$ake! Au%2 e!$ $o &e correc$i0e. 5his su22es$s $ha$ i* 'ou e4#ose #eo#le $o a lo)er &ase-ra$e o* l'i!2, arou!% 70 #erce!$, a!% 2i0e $he correc$i0e *ee%&ack a*$er each Au%2 e!$ $he' ake, $he' i2h$ )ell lear! ho) $o accura$el' i%e!$i*' lies *ro %e ea!or. 5his is a! e4#eri e!$ )e are !o) #la!!i!2. + %o !o$ e4#ec$ $ha$ accurac' )ill reach o!e hu!%re% #erce!$, a!% *or $ha$ reaso! + %o !o$ &elie0e $ha$ Au%2 e!$s a&ou$ )ho is l'i!2 shoul% &e allo)a&le e0i%e!ce i! cour$. Such Au%2 e!$s, ho)e0er, a' #ro0i%e a sou!%er &asis *or %eci%i!2, a$ leas$ i!i$iall', )ho $o i!0es$i2a$e *ur$her, a!% )he! $o ask ore Dues$io!s $o clari*' )h' so e$hi!2 u!usual has &ee! !o$ice%. No$es + a 2ra$e*ul $o -ele!a Bro!i!, 9o!%o! School o* Eco!o ics, *or aski!2 e )h' e0olu$io! ha% !o$ #re#are% us $o &e &e$$er lie ca$chers, also $o ,ark Fra!k. Ru$2ers >!i0ersi$', a!% Richar% Schus$er, >!i0ersi$' o* -ai*a, *or $heir a!' hel#*ul co e!$s o! $his a!uscri#$.
. 1

-ele!a Bro!i! raise% $his #ossi&ili$'.

+ a 2ra$e*ul $o 9e%a Bos i%es a!% Loh! 5oo&', >!i0ersi$' o* Bali*or!ia, 3erkele', a!% $o Richar% Schus$er, >!i0ersi$' o* -ai*a, *or #oi!$i!2 $his ou$.

+ a 2ra$e*ul $o (liso! ?o#!ik, >!i0ersi$' o* Bali*or!ia, 3erkele', *or su22es$i!2 $his e4#la!a$io!. 7 For e0i%e!ce co!sis$e!$ )i$h ' reaso!i!2 see 5oo&' a!% Bos i%es, 1989. Re*ere!ces 3ok, B., Secrets (Ne) HorkE Pa!$heo!, 198.). 3ra%le', ,.5., FBhoice a!% $he Ce$ec$io! o* Cece#$io!,G Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66 (1988)E @3-8. Bhe!e', C.9. a!% Se'*ar$h, How Monkeys See the World (Bhica2oE >!i0ersi$' o* Bhica2o Press, 1990). Bos i%es, 9. a!% 5oo&', L., FBo2!i$i0e (%a#$a$io!s *or Social E4cha!2e,G i! L. 3arko), 9. Bos i%es, a!% L. 5oo&', e%s., The Adapted Mind (Ne) HorkE /4*or% >!i0ersi$' Press, 199.). CePaulo, 3.,. a!% P*ei*er, R.9., F/!-$he-Ao& E4#erie!ce a!% Skill a$ Ce$ec$i!2 Cece#$io!G Journal of Applied Social Psycholo !, 16 (1986)E .@9-67. Ek a!, P., Tellin "ies# $lues to deceit in the marketplace marria e and politics, %&e (6l9878 Ne) HorkE <.<. Nor$o!. 199.). Ek a!, P., Fra!k, ,., a!% /"Sulli0a!, ,., FCe$ec$i!2 Cecei$ *ro Ek a!, P. a!% Friese!, <.V., FCe$ec$i!2 Cece#$io! Fro and Social Ps!cholo y, .9 (197@)E .88-98. Ce ea!or,G *or$hco i!2.

3o%' or Face,G Journal of Personality

Ek a!, P. a!% /"Sul8i0a!, N+., F<ho Ba! Ba$ch a 9iar,G American Psycholo ist, @6 (1991)E 913-9.0. Fra!k ,. a!% Ek a!, P., F5he (&ili$' $o Ce$ec$ Cecei$ ?e!erali=es (cross Cece#$io! Si$ua$io!s,G Journal of Personality and Social Psycholo y, *or$hco i!2. ?i!$o!, (., Caie, N., Elaa%, E., a!% 3e!-Shakhar. ?., F( ,e$ho% *or E0alua$i!2 $he >se o* $he Pol'2ra#h i! a Real-9i*e Si$ua$io!G Journal of Applied Psycholo y, 67 (198.)E 13 1-37. ?o** a!, E., 'rame Analysis (Ne) HorkE -ar#er a!% Ro). 197@). ?ra*e!, (., F3iolo2ical Si2!als as -a!%ica#s,G Journal of Theoretical (iolo y, 1@@ (1990)E 717@6. Jrau$, R.E. a!% Poe, C., F/! $he 9i!eE 5he Cece#$io! Lu%2 e!$s o* Bus$o s +!s#ec$ors a!% 9a0 e!,G Journal of Personality and Social Psycholo y. 39 (1980)E 78@-98. 9e0i!e, 5.R. a!% ,cBor!ack, S.(., F9i!ki!2 9o0e a!% 9iesE ( For al 5es$ o* $he ,cBor!ack

a!% Parks ,o%el o* Cece#$io! Ce$ec$io!,G Journal of Social and Personal )elationships, 9 (199.)E 1@3-7@. Sillars, (.9. a!% Sco$$, ,.C., F+!$er#erso!al Perce#$io! 3e$)ee! +!$i a$esE (! +!$e2ra$i0e Re0ie),G Human $ommunication )esearch, 10 (1983)E 173-76. S$i**, L., Bor a!, S., Jri=ek, 3., a!% S!i%er, E., F+!%i0i%ual Ci**ere!ces a!% Bha!2es i! No!0er&al 3eha0ior,G $ommunication )esearch, .1(199@)E 777-781. 5oo&0, L. a!% Bos i%es, 9., F5he lo2ic o* $hrea$,G (!!ual E0olu$io! Socie$', E0a!s$o!, +lli!ois. 1989. ee$i!2 o* $he -u a! 3eha0ior a!%