Norwegian Grammar.

1 THE SENTENCE
As in all the other Germanic languages, sentences in Norwegian can be described schematically containing three fields: a refield, midfield and bac!field" The refield contains only one element" #ore often than not it is the sub$ect" %f the sentence is a &uestion the refield is em ty" The midfield and bac!field can be subdi'ided in three fields each" The word order and content of the subfields is different for the different sentence ty es"

1"1 ()*+ )*+E*

The basic word order in main clauses in Norwegian is as follows: Prefield Han he har has Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial kanskje maybe Backfield Verb lest read Object denne boka Adverbial i forrige uke.

this book.the in last week

I forrige uke har In last week has Har

han he du

kanskje maybe kanskje maybe

lest read lest read

denne boka. this book.the denne boka? this book.the

Have you

%mmediately following the refield in the midfield is the subfield ,inite which contains the tensed main 'erb and the au-iliary 'erb" Then there is a osition for the sub$ect, if it is not laced in the refield" The final element in the midfield is an o tional ad'erbial" %n the first osition in the bac!field we find the 'erb" Ne-t follows the ob$ect, and finally an o tional additional ad'erbial"

1". THE /*E,%E0+

%n Norwegian almost all sentence elements can be in the refield" Ty ically one will find the sub$ect here, but ad'erbs also fre&uently occu y this osition, and more rarely the ob$ect or a article" Prefield Han He fant found han han han faktisk ballen. ball.the Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial faktisk actually faktisk Backfield Verb Object pengene Adverbial under senga.

money.the under bed.the pengene. pengene under senga. under senga.

Under senga fant Faktisk Pengene Ut out fant fant

kastet han threw he

%f an element occurs in the refield its osition in the mid1 or bac!field remains em ty" A art from the ,inite1subfield, all fields can be em ty" Prefield Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Backfield Verb Object Adverbial

Vent! wait! Hun she sover. sleeps

The cleft1sentence offers the same freedom of choice with res ect to what has to be said first in the sentence, with the e-ce tion of the sentence ad'erbial in 21d3, where 456 indicates ungrammaticality" Note that the sub$unction is o tional 2indicated by the arentheses3 when something other than the sub$ect comes first" (1) a. Det var ham som faktisk fant pengene under senga. it was him that actually found monye.the under bed.the It was him that actually found the money under the bed. b. Det var under senga som! han faktisk fant pengene. c. Det var pengene som! han faktisk fant under senga. d. Det var faktisk som! han fant pengene under senga.

1"7 THE ,%N%TE ,%E0+

The 'erb in the finite field is always con$ugated 2tem us3, generally by adding an ending to the stem, e"g" les-er 4reads"6 %n this way an utterance is anchored in a communicati'e conte-t, i"e" before, simultaneously, or after it" (ithout this conte-t it is im ossible to ascertain whether an utterance is true or false" The sentence Per leser denne boka 4/er is reading this boo!6 can only be true, if /er is actually reading the boo! at the time of s eech" %n contrast to English, the tensed 'erb is always the second element in the Norwegian main clauses" This means that only one element can recede the tensed 'erb in the refield" %f there is an au-iliary in the clause, this is laced in the second osition of the refield, and the main 'erb is laced in the bac!field" Prefield "ohan !ohn har has Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial faktisk actually Backfield Verb funnet found Object pengene Adverbial under senga.

money.the under bed.the

Han

fant

faktisk

pengene

under senga.

The order of the fields in the finite field is different in main clauses and in other ty es of sentences" see 1"811"1."

1"9 THE S:;<ECT

All sim le sentences contain two main elements: a sub$ect and a finite 'erb" The sub$ect is often a ronoun or noun hrase" The sub$ect and the 'erb constitute the core of the sentence" %f there is only a ronoun or a noun hrase together with the 'erb, this ronoun or noun hrase is generally the sub$ect" %f there are more ronouns or noun hrases in the sentence, the sub$ect is the agent" %f there is no action in the sentence, the sub$ect often undergoes an e- erience" (1) a. John kastet ballen bort. !ohn threw ball.the away !ohn threw away the ball. b. Han h#rte bilen. he heard car.the He heard the car. The sub$ect can also be an antici atory element: det 4it, there6 that refers to the real sub$ect which follows later on in the clause: (") a. Det er vanskelig $ forst$. it is difficult to understand b. Det var tre menn i hagen. there were three men in #arden.the $here were three men in the #arden. Normally, the sub$ect occurs either in the refield or in the sub$ect field of the midfield immediately following the finite field" Prefield %nneli %nneli elsker loves Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Backfield Verb Object Adverbial meg. me meg.

&anskje elsker %nneli

maybe

loves %nneli

me

(hen the sub$ect is either a noun hrase or a stressed ronoun, it may occur between the sentence ad'erbials: (&) a. Guttene hadde jo formodentlig nok ikke lest b#kene. boys.the had after'all presumably probably not read books.the $he boys had after all presumably most likely not read the books. b. '$ hadde guttene jo formodentlig nok ikke lest b#kene. then had boys.the after'all presumably probably not read books.the $hen the boys after all had presumably most likely not read the books. c. '$ hadde jo guttene formodentlig nok ikke lest b#kene. d. '$ hadde jo formodentlig guttene nok ikke lest b#kene. Some ronouns ha'e a se arate sub$ect case form: nominative" (() a. Han elsker henne. he loves her b. Hun elsker ham. she loves him

1"= SENTENCE A+>E*;%A0S

Sentential adverbials contribute something to the content of the clause. They can combine clauses, highlight parts of a clause, or deny or reveal the speakers attitude to what he or she is saying. (1) a. Han har alts en sjanse. he has thus a chance )o he had a chance. b. Du skal fremfor alt komme i tide. you shall in'front'of all come in time.* +ou must above all be there in time. c. %nna kan ikke bli med p$ festen %nna can not become with on party.the %nna cannot come alon# to the party.

d. Hun vant dessverre. she won unfortunately +ifferent !inds of words and hrases can function as sentential ad'erbials" ,or e-am le single ad'erbs: kanskje 4maybe,6 artici ial hrases: rlig talt 4honestly s ea!ing,6 re osition hrases: i hvert fall 4in any case,6 and subordinate clauses: s vidt jeg vet 4as far as % !now"6 Sentential ad'erbials most often a may also occur in the ;ac!field" Prefield , "ens !ens ear in the /refield or in the #idfield, but they

Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Verb har sikkert m#tt has surely met "ens !ens

Backfield Object Adverbial %nna. %nna

Sannsynligvis har probably has

m#tt %nna. met %nna

%f there are more than one sentential ad'erbials in the #idfield, the ad'erbial combining clauses comes first" Ne-t follow ad'erbials that e- ress the s ea!er6s attitude, and in the final osition is the negation" (") a. Han vil vel sannsynligvis ikke hjelpe. he will well probably not help He will most likely probably not help. b. %nna har n heldigvis ikke kj#pt kjolen. %nna has now fortunately not bou#ht dress.the %nna has fortunately not bou#ht the dress. The most common sentence adverbs in written Norwegian are ikke 4not,6 ogs 4also,6 s 4so,6 n 4now,6 bare 4$ust, only,6 da 4then,6 selv 4e'en,6 sammen 4together,6 hvor 4where,6 slik 4such"6

1"? NEGAT%)N
When the speaker wants to deny that something is true, a negative clause is used, often with negative adverbials such as ikke not, knapt hardly, or aldri never.

If there are several sentential adverbials in the clause, the negation always come in the final position. (1) a. Du kommer jo allikevel aldri i tide. you come after'all anyway never in time.* %fter all you never arrive in time anyway. b. Han kunne sannsynligvis nok heller ikke n$ det. he could probably surely either not reach it He probably couldn-t reach it either. The negations ikke 4not6 and knapt 4hardly6 can only occur in the beginning of the clause if the clause modifies another hrase" Aldri 4ne'er6 can stand alone in the /refield" (") a. kke et !ye var t#rt. not an eye was dry b. kke under noen omstendigheter vil jeg akseptere denne dommen. not under any circumstances will I accept this sentence.the c. Aldri har jeg sett noe s$ vakkert. never have I seen anythin# so beautiful

1"@ THE >E*; /H*ASE

As in English, the 'erb in Norwegian generally stands in the beginning of the 'erb hrase in the bac!field" Howe'er, if the main 'erb is tensed, it occu ies the finite osition in the #idfield, and its osition in the ;ac!field is em ty" %f there is an au-iliary in the clause, this is laced in the #idfield, and the main 'erb, which is untensed, stands in the 'erb osition in the ;ac!field" Prefield Midfield , Finite Subject Adverbial Verb "ens har ( m#tt !ens has met "ens !ens m#ter meets Backfield Object Adverbial %nna. %nna %nna. %nna

The ob$ect always follows the 'erb, and after that comes the ad'erbials" Some 'erbs are closely connected to ad'erbial articles and re ositions, such as: opp 4u 6 and ut 4out"6 ;ut they still always a ear in the ad'erbial field: (1) a. )$ kaster hun ballen ut igjen. now throws she ball.the out a#ain .ow she throws the ball out a#ain. b. Hun har skrevet adressen o"" i boka. she has written address.the up in book.the )he has written down the address in the book. c. Han legger alltid to meter til. he lays always two meters to He always adds two meters. There can be many different !inds of ad'erbials in the ;ac!field" As in English, the most im ortant rule for the order of these is that the ad'erbials of lace generally recedes the ad'erbials of time: (") a. Du skal legge boka " bordet " mandag. you shall lay book.the on table.the on /onday 0+ou must lay the book on the table on /onday. b. "eg kommer ikke til #!benhavn " s!ndag. I come not to 1openha#en on )unday Im not comin# to 1openha#en on )unday.

1"A A:B%0%A*C >E*;S

Au-iliary 'erbs co1occur with the main 'erb and ro'ide se'eral ways of e- ressing time relations in the clause" There are se'eral grou s of au-iliaries: modal au-iliaries 2mtte 4must,6 skulle 4should,6 kunne 4could63, tense au-iliaries 2ha 4ha'e,6 vre 4be63, assi'e au-iliaries 2bli 4become,6 vre 4be63, and co ula 'erbs 2vre 4be,6 bli 4become63"

1"A"1 #odal au-iliaries

Modal auxiliaries express the speakers attitude to what he/she is saying. Modals generally co-occur with the infinitive form of the main verb: (1) a. "eg skal stoppe. I shall stop

I will stop. b. "eg vil be deg om en tjeneste. I will ask you about a favour Im #oin# to ask you a favour. #odal au-iliaries can e- ress: (i) Something the speaker thinks is possible: (") a. "eg er sikker p$ at han kan v*re her. I am sure on that he can be here Im sure that he can be here. b. Han kan v*re g$tt hjem+ men det er ogs$ mulig at han er p$ loftet. ha can be #one home but it is also possible that he is on attic.the He may have #one home but it is also possible that he is in the attic. 2ii3 Something that the s ea!er thin!s is necessary: (&) a. )oen b!r hjelpe henne. someone should help her b. Hun m ikke g$ ut i dag. she must not #o out today 2iii3 Ca ability or 'olition: (() a. %nna kan sv#mme ,--- meter. %nna can swim 1222 meters b. "eg vil ikke spise flere bananer. I want not eat more bananas I dont want to eat more bananas. Infinitive skulle kunne m$tte burde ville Present skal kan m$ b#r vil Past skulle kunne m$tte burde ville Perfect skullet kunnet m$ttet . villet Meaning shall3 will3 is said to3 necessity (&) can3 may3 be able to3 possibility (")3 capability (() must3 have to3 necessity (&) should3 ou#th to3 necessity (&) will3 want to3 volition (()

The modal au-iliaries are generally ositioned initially in the 'erb hrase" Se'eral modal au-iliaries can co1occur: (4) a. Han m kunne l5pe fortere. he must can run faster He must be able to run faster. b. Det burde kunne la seg gj#re. it ou#ht can let itself do It should be possible.

1"A". )ther au-iliaries

In addition to the modal auxiliaries, Norwegian like the other Germanic languages has auxiliaries that express time and the passive. Time is expressed by the auxiliaries ha have and vre be which denote that something is completed, and ville would and skulle should which denote that something will happen in the future. (1) a. Han har kj#pt en n/ bil. he has bou#ht a new car b. Han er allerede ankommet. he is already arrived He has already arrived. c. Det vil v*re et stort problem for oss i fremtiden. it will be a bi# problem for us in future.the It will be a bi# problem for us in the future. d. "eg skal reise til Paris i morgen. I shall travel to 6aris tomorrow Im #oin# to 6aris tomorrow. A 'erb in sim le resent tense may also e- ress future: (") "eg reiser til Paris i morgen. I travel to 6aris tomorrow Im #oin# to 6aris tomorrow. Passive is e- ressed by the au-iliaries bli 4become6 and vre 4be,6 followed by the ast artici le form of the main 'erb"

(&) a. Han ble kj#rt over av en bil i g$r. he became driven over by a car yesterday He was hit by a car yesterday. b. Han er plaget av m/gg. he is tormented by mos7uitoes Infinitive v*re ha ville bli Present er har vil blir Past var hadde ville ble Perfect v*rt hatt villet blitt Meaning $ense 8 active3 passive $ense 8 active $ense 8 active ' future $ense 8 passive

As in the other Germanic languages, different au-iliaries can be combined to e- ress different as ects of the action6s rocess: (() a. Han kan v$re blitt sendt hjem av sjefen sin. he can be become sent home by boss.the his He may have been sent home by his boss. b. Hun burde ha kunnet forutse problemet. she ou#ht have could foresee problem.the )he should have been able to foresee the problem.

1"8 THE #A%N C0A:SE

The main clause is the most basic kind of utterance. There are three types of main clauses: 1. The proper main clause, which has a tensed verb and functions as an assertion or a question: (1) a. Forrige uke var jeg i 0ork. last week was I in +ork 9ast week I was in +ork. b. Han har ikke lest boka enn$. he has not read book.the yet He has not read the book yet. c. Var du i 0ork i forrige uke?

were you in +ork in last week :ere you in +ork last week; d. Har han ikke lest boka enn$? has he not read book.the yet Hasnt he read the book yet; ." The imperative main clause, which has an imperative verb and functions as a demand: (") a. 1pn vinduet! open window.the <pen the window! b. V*r s$ snill! be so kind 6lease! 7" The exclamative main clause, which typically has the form of an embedded clause, and e- resses a sur rise or astonishment: (&) a. For en flott kjole! for a nice dress :hat a nice dress! b. Din store idiot! your bi# idiot +ou bi# idiot!

1"8"1 +eclarati'e main clauses

There are two types of declarative main clauses: positive (affirmative) and negative. /ositi'e: (1) a. Han har kj#pt boka. he has bou#ht book.the He has bou#ht the book. b. Han hjelper sin kone. he helps his wife Negati'e:

(") a. Han har ikke kj#pt boka. he has not bou#ht book.the He has not bou#ht the book. b. Han hjelper aldri sin kone. he helps never his wife He never helps his wife. 1"8"1"1 Affirmati'e main clauses As described in section 1.1. and 1.3., affirmative main clauses have the tensed verb in the Finite field as the second element of the clause.This verb can only be preceded by one word or one phrase. If any other element than the subject precedes the verb, the subject generally follows immediately after the verb. Only a few adverbs may occur in front of the finite verb in addition to the subject, which is then no longer the second element in the clause: (1) a. Han bare gikk sin vei. he =ust walked his way He =ust walked away.

b. Han n$rmest kastet seg ut fra balkongen. he closest threw himself out from balcony.the He almost threw himself out from the balcony. %n declarati'e main clauses almost any element can occur in front of the tensed 'erb in the ,inite field: Prefield , Han he fant found han han han faktisk Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Verb faktisk actually faktisk Backfield Object pengene Adverbial under senga.

money.the under bed.the pengene. pengene under senga. under senga.

Under senga fant Faktisk Pengene fant fant

Ut out

kastet han threw he

ballen. ball.the

In most cases we find the subject in the prefield (in 60-70% of the cases). It is a little less common to find an adverbial in here (20-30% of the cases) or the object (5-10% of the cases). Even less common is a predicative complement or a particle in this position. Light pronominal objects, generally personal pronouns such as meg me, deg you, seg himself/herselft/itself, henne her, ham him, and den it can be placed in front of the adverbial in the Midfield, even though they should be placed in the object position in the Backfield. But this is only possible if the verb position in the Backfield is empty. If these light pronouns occur in their regular object position, they get specific emphatic stress. Prefield Midfield %ight&"ronoun& , Han he Han he Han Han he Han he Finite hjelper helps hjelper helps hjelper har has har has henne her Subject field aldri never aldri. never aldri aldri never aldri never henne. hjulpet sin kone. helped his wife hjulpet henne. helped her sin kone. his wife Adverbial Verb Object Adverbial Backfield

#ain clauses can be combined with con$unctions such as e"g" og 4and6 and men 4but"6 %f the sub$ect is the same in both clauses, it may be deleted in the second clause: (") a. Han s$ henne og han hjalp henne. he saw her and he helped her

b. Han s$ henne og 2222 hjalp henne. he saw her and helped her 1"8"1". Negati'e main clauses Negative main clauses have the same word order as affirmative (positive) main clauses. The negation ikke not is positioned in the adverbial field in the Midfield and is generally the last of the adverbials in this position. Words expressing something absolutive, such as noensinne ever normally cannot occur in positive clauses. They must always co-occur with the negation or in an interrogative clause: (1) Han har aldri noensinne sett henne. 8 he has never ever seen her Han har noensinne sett henne. he has ever seen her

1"8". +irect &uestions

Like English, Norwegian has two types of questions: 1. Yes/no-questions: (1) 3r Peter her? "a. 4 )ei. is 6eter here yes no ." Duestions that are introduces by a wh1word such as hvem 4who,6 hva 4what,6 nr 4when,6 hvor 4where,6 hvordan 4how,6 etc" (") Hvem banker p$ d#ra? %nne 4 3spen 4 ... who knocks on door.the %nne *spen ... :ho is knockin# on the door; %nne>*spen>... 1"8"."1 Yes/no1&uestions Direct questions that can be answered by yes or no are always introduced by a finite verb. The word order is the same as for main clauses, only without the prefield: Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Fant han found he Verb Backfield Object pengene? money.the Adverbial

'kal shall 3r is

jeg I hun she

kanskje maybe ikke not

hente fetch kommet come

boka book.the

til deg? to you enn$? yet

When several yes/no-questions are coordinated by the conjunction eller or, one can often leave something out in the second question. There are two typical cases: 1. If the second clause is a negation of the first one the negation ei not is used: (1) 3r han glad eller ei? is he happy or not 5 3r han glad eller er han ikke glad?! is he happy or is he not happy

." %f only one constituent distinguishes the second clause from the first one, and the rest of the sentence can be reconstructed from the first sentence: (") 'kal jeg gj#re det eller 'tina? 5'kal jeg gj#re det eller skal 'tina gj#re det?! shall I do it or )tina (? )hould I do it or should )tina do it;) 1"8"."1 Wh1&uestions Norwegian direct wh-questions are always introduced by a wh-word (hvem who, hva what, nr when, hvor where, hvordan how, etc.) or a phrase that contains a whword (hvilke bker which books, hva for ei bok which book, etc.). The word order is the same as for topicalised main clauses. (1) a. Hva har du kj#pt? what have you bou#ht :hat did you buy; b. Hvilken bok har du kj#pt? which book have you bou#ht c. Hva for ei bok har du kj#pt? what for a book have you bou#ht :hat kind of book did you buy;

1"8"7 %m erati'es

An imperative main clause generally expresses a demand or an order. (1) a. 1pn d#ra! open door.the <pen the door! b. Ikke v*r s$ dum! not be so stupid @ont be so stupid! The clause starts with the 'erb in its basic form" The rest of the clause has the same word order as main clauses" Howe'er, if the im erati'e is negated, the negation is generally in the initial osition, as in English" The sub$ect or the recei'er of the order is normally left out" >erbs ending in a 'owel ha'e the same form in infiniti'e and im erati'e, e"g" g 4go,6 se 4see,6 st 4stand,6 etc" >erbs ending in a consonant form the im erati'e by deleting the ending -e from the infiniti'e, e"g" kjp-e 4!$E e,6 sov-e 4slee ,6 spis-e 4eat"6

1"1F THE S:;)*+%NATE C0A:SE

The subordinate clause is a art of a main clause" %t can ha'e the function of sub$ect, ob$ect, ad'erbial, redicati'e, and it can also be the modifier of a noun" (1) a. 6 %t han var s/k 7 var $penbart. Subject that he was ill was obvious $hat he was ill was obvious. (1) b. Han visste ikke 6 hvem hun hadde bedt7. Object he knew not who she had invited He didnt know who she had invited. (1) c. Han kom fram 6 da hun allerede hadde dratt 7. Adverbial he came forward when she already had left He arrived when she had already left. (1) d. Planen min er 6 at vi m#ter henne p$ stasjonen 7. Predicative plan.the my is that we meet her on station.the /y plan is that we meet her at the station. (1) e. "eg kj#pte et hus 6 som var r#dt 7. Modifier of noun I bou#ht a house that was red

I bou#ht a house that was red. Norwegian subordinate clauses normally ha'e an introducing element 2often a sub$unction3 and a s ecial word order 2unli!e English3" The first osition is often em ty" The second osition 2where the finite 'erb is found in main clauses3 is the lace for the introducing element, and the finite 'erb as well as other 'erbs are ositioned in the >erb field" Com are the word order in main clauses to that of subordinate clauses" (") a. Main clause: Prefield 3va *va a. Subordinate clause: Midfield Finite Subject Adverbial Verb har ikke lest has not read har lest has read lest read har lest has read lest read har lest has read Backfield Object Adverbial boka mi enn$. book.the yet my boka mi book.the my boka mi book.the my boka mi book.the my enn$ yet enn$? yet

*va hasnt read my book yet. at that b. Main clause: 3va *va ikke not

that *va hasnt read my book yet Har 3va ikke has *va not

Hasnt *va read my book yet; b. Subordinate clause: om if c. Main clause: 3va *va ikke not enn$ yet enn$. yet enn$ yet

if *va hasnt read my book yet 8oka mi har 3va ikke book.the my has *va not /y book3 *va hasnt read yet. boka mi! som 3va ikke

c. Subordinate clause:

(book'the which *va not my) (my book) which *va hasnt read yet

Note that the sub$ect is always in the osition after the introducing element" Note also that the finite 'erb is laced after negation 2and other sentence ad'erbials3"

1"1F"1 Nominal clauses

Nominal clauses ha'e the same functions as noun hrases" Nominal clauses are rimarily at1clauses and interrogati'e clauses" 0i!e noun hrases they occur rimarily as sub$ects, ob$ects, or com lements of re ositions" (1) a. 6 %t &arl kom p$ festen7 var h/ggelig. Subject that Aarl came on party.the was nice It was nice that Aarl came to the party. (1) b. "eg lurer p$ 6 hvem som kom p$ festen7. Object I wonder on who that came on party.the I wonder who came to the party. (1) c. "eg stolte p$ 6 at hun skulle komme p$ festen7. Prepositional complement I counted on that she should come on party.the I counted on that she would come to the party. 1"1F"1"1 At1 lauses %n at1clauses the introducing element is sometimes missing" (1) "eg tror 6 at! hun kan det7. I think (that) she knows it I think (that) she knows it. The word order in at1clauses is normally the same as in other subordinate clauses, but it may sometimes also show the same order as in main clauses" (") a. Han meddelte at hun ikke kan komme. he announced that she not can come He announced that she cant come. (") b. Hun meddelte at hun kan ikke komme. she announced that she can not come )he announced that she cant come. 1"1F"1". !ndire t wh1"uestions %ndirect wh1&uestions corres ond to ordinary main clause &uestions, where you as! for something with words li!e who, what, when, where, how, wh# 2in Norwegian hvem, hva, nr, hvor, hvordan, hvorfor$" (1) a. Han visste ikke 6 hva han skulle gj#re7. cf. main Hva skulle han gj#re?

clause: he knew not what he should do He didnt know what to do. what should he do :hat should he do;

(1) b. "eg lurer p$ 6 n$r du er f#dt7. cf. main clause: )$r er du f#dt? I wonder on when you are born :hen are you born I wonder when you were born. :hen were you born; %f the &uestioned element is the sub$ect, som 4that6 is obligatorily inserted after the &uestion word" (") "eg lurer p$ hvem som har stj$let s/kkelen min. I wonder on who that has stolen bike.the my I wonder who stole my bike. 1"1F"1"7 !ndire t CesGno1"uestions %ndirect #es/no1&uestions corres ond to ordinary main clause #es/no1&uestions" The introducing element is om 4if,6 or sometimes hvorvidt 4whether6 or i tilfelle 4in case"6 (1) "eg lurer I p$ 6 om du har dusjet7. cf. main clause: Har du dusjet?

wonder on whether you have showered

I wonder whether you have taken a shower.

have you showered Have you taken a shower;

1"1F". *elati'e clauses

*elati'e clauses are ty ically found inside noun hrases, following a noun, a ro er name, or a ronoun" %n Norwegian they are normally introduced by som 4that,6 but in formal written language a wh1 hrase, 2li!e hvilket 4which6 and hvis 4whose63 also occur" (1) a. Huset 6 som st$r der borte 7 tilh#rer biskopen. house.the that stands there away belon#s'to bishop.the $he house over there belon#s to the bishop. (1) b. 9annen 6 som st$r der 7 er min bror. man.the who stands there is my brother $he man standin# over there is my brother. (1) c. Vi snakket med ham som politiet jagde. we talked with him that police.the chased

:e talked to the #uy that the police chased. %f the noun e- resses time or location, the relati'e clause may also be introduced with nr, da 4when, then,6 hvor% der 4where, there,6 dit 4there1to"6 (") a. sommeren 6 da allting hendte7 summer.the when everythin# happened the summer that everythin# happened (") b. huset 6 der 4 hvor jeg bor7 house.the there > where I live the house where I live *elati'e clauses with som are also found in the so1called cleft construction" (&) a. Det var 3va 6 som f#rst kom p$ id:en7. it was *va who first came on idea.the It was *va who first came up with the idea. (&) b. Det var den id:en 6 som 3va kom p$7. it was that idea that *va came on $hat was the idea that *va came up with. *elati'e clauses can also be used to modify the whole clause 2instead of a noun hrase3" %n such cases the relati'e ronoun hvilket 4which6 can be used, as well as noe som 4something which"6 (() a. Han spiller piano om morgenen+ hvilket irriterer meg. he plays piano in mornin#.the which irritates me He plays the piano in the mornin#3 which irritates me. (() b. )aboen har f$tt n/ bil+ noe som gj#r meg misunnelig. nei#hbour.the has #ot new car somethin# which makes me envious /y nei#hbour has #ot a new car3 and that makes me envious.

1"1F"7 Ad'erbial subordinate clauses

Ad'erbial subordinate clauses e- ress time, location, condition, cause, intention, com arison, and other similar relations" They function as ad'erbials, and they are introduced by ad'erbs or sub$unctions li!e nr/da 4when,6 der 4there,6 hvis 4if,6 fordi 4because,6 ettersom 4because, since,6 for 4in order to,6 enn 4than,6 som 4as"6 Com are H 7"@" (1) a. 6 )$r du kommer fram7+ har du kirken til h#/re.

when you come forward have you church.the to ri#ht :hen you #et there3 you have the church to your ri#ht. (1) b. 6 Hvis du vil7+ kan du hjelpe henne. if you want can you help her If you want to3 you can help her. (1) c. Vi ble slitne 6 ettersom det var veldig varmt7. we became tired as it was very hot :e #ot tired as it was very hot. (1) d. Han er eldre 6 enn jeg er7. he is older than I am He is older than I am. (1) e. Han er like gammel 6 som jeg er7. he is as old as I am He is as old as I am. Conditional clauses are normally introduced by the sub$unction hvis 4if,6 but they may also lac! it" %n such cases they are formed li!e &uestions" (") Har du kj#pt de betal d m$ du n e en. h yo bou#h m yo it pay it ave u t ust u If you have bou#ht it3 you must pay for it. ? H de betal d du har kj#pt m$ du vis n e en. yo h bou#h m yo if it pay it u ave t ust u If you have bou#ht it3 you must pay for it.

Ad'erbial clauses that are laced in the first osition of their main clause, are often followed by the word s 4so6 in front of the finite 'erb" The use of s contrasts with English" (&) a. )$r dere kommer+ s kan vi beg/nne spise. when you arrive so can we be#in eat :hen you arrive3 we can be#in eatin#. (&) b. Hvis du vil+ s kan du bade. if you want so can you bathe If you want to3 you may bathe.

1"11 N)N1,%N%TE C0A:SES

Non1finite clauses are clauses without a finite 'erb" The 'erb is either an infiniti'e or a artici le" (1) a. Det er h/ggelig 6 $ spille bridge7. it is nice to play brid#e It is nice to play brid#e. (1) b. en 6 d$rlig skrevet 7 artikkel a badly written article a badly written article

1"11"1 %nfiniti'al clauses

%n infiniti'al clauses the 'erb is in the infiniti'e form" Such clauses are normally introduced by the infiniti'al mar!er 4to"6 They ne'er contain a sub$ect, but are otherwise 'ery similar to subordinate clauses introduced by at 4that"6 (1) a. Vi beg/nte 6 $ forst$ hans problem 7. we be#an to understand his problem :e be#an to understand his problem. (1) b. De lengtet etter 6 $ reise til k/sten7. they lon#ed after to travel to coast.the $hey lon#ed for travellin# to the coast. (1) c. 6 1 bli ranet7 er en f*l opplevelse. to #et mu##ed is a terrible e,perience $o be mu##ed is a terrible e,perience. The infiniti'al mar!er is sometimes missing, for instance in the beginning of a clause and after negation" (") a. 6 1! 7 studere latin har jeg alltid dr#mt om. to study 9atin have I always dreamt about I have always dreamt of studyin# 9atin. (") b. Du trenger ikke $! lese boka. you need not to read book.the +ou dont have to read the book. The infiniti'al mar!er is always missing in the so1called 4ob$ect with infiniti'e6 construction" (&) Vi h#rte jentene 6 s/nge bak l$ven7.

we heard #irls.the sin# behind barn.the :e heard the #irls sin#in# behind the barn.

1"11". /artici ial clauses

%n artici ial clauses the 'erb is either a resent or a ast artici le" These clauses are normally used attributi'ely 2in front of a noun3" They may contain ad'erbials, and also other elements that are not allowed in English" (1) a. en 6 d$rlig skrevet 7 artikkel a badly written article a badly written article (1) b. en 6 for meg sv*rt opprivende 7 hendelse a for me very a#oniBin# event an event that was very a#oniBin# for me

1"1. S/EC%A0 C)NST*:CT%)NS

Ieine +aten gefundenJ

1"1."1 To icalisation
To icalisation is the traditional term for constructions where sub$ects occur in the first osition of the clause" %t does howe'er not a ly to wh1elements of any !ind" Normally, an ad'erbial or an ob$ect is laced in the first osition" (1) a. morgen skal vi g$ p$ kino. in mornin# shall we #o on cinema $omorrow we will #o to the cinema.

(1) b. 'ak bilen fant jeg en b#tte. behind car.the found I a bucket Cehind the car I found a bucket. (1) c. Denne boka har hun ikke lest. this book.the has she not read $his book she hasnt read. (1) d. Glad ble hun ikke. happy became she not )he did not #et happy.

(1) e. At vi& kommer vet &arl allerede. that we come knows Aarl already Aarl already knows that we are comin#. Note that the sub$ect occurs directly after the 'erb when something is to icalised" )ne reason for to icalising an element is that this element is already !nown by the hearer and the s ea!er" Another reason is to em hasiKe the element"

1"1.". E-istential sentences

%f the sub$ect contains new information it may immediately follow the non1finite 'erb and the word det, 4there6 is laced in the sub$ect osition or in the first osition" (1) a. Det kan ha v*rt ei flue i suppa. it may have been a fly in soup.the $here may have been a fly in the soup. (1) b. Det hadde oppst$tt en krangel mellom br#drene. it had occurred a fi#ht between brothers.the $here occurred a fi#ht between the brothers. The word det 4it6 beha'es as an ordinary sub$ect" ,or instance it is laced directly after the 'erb if something is to icalised" (") a. I suppa kan det ha v*rt ei flue. in soup.the may it have been a fly In the soup3 there may have been a fly. (") b. 9ellom br#drene hadde det oppst$tt en krangel. between brothers.the had it occurred a fi#ht Cetween the brothers there had occurred a fi#ht.

1"1."7 /assi'es
A sentence may often ha'e both an acti'e and a assi'e 'oice" ;oth 'oices e- ress the same e'ent, but the element that is the sub$ect in the acti'e 'oice is su ressed in the assi'e 'oice" %t may be missing or it may be e- ressed in an av1 hrase 2a b#1 hrase3" (1) a. Active: 9annen $pnet vinduet. man.the opened window.the $he man opened the window.

(1) b. Passive: Vinduet ble $pnet av mannen !. window.the became opened by man.the $he window was opened by the man. There are three sorts of assi'es in Norwegian" Either one of the au-iliaries bli 4become6 or vre 4be6 is used, or the 'erb ta!es on the s1ending" The most common assi'e is the one with the au-iliary bli 4become,6 which has a wide range of uses, and can be used freely in all tenses" (") a. 8#kene blir solgt p$ auksjon. books.the become sold on auction $he books are sold on aution. (") b. 8#kene ble solgt p$ auksjon. books.the became sold on auction $he books were sold on aution. (") c. 8#kene har blitt solgt p$ auksjon. books.the have become sold on auction $he books are bein# sold on aution. /assi'es with the au-iliary vre 4be6 are less common" The meaning of the vre1 assi'e often de ends on the meaning of the main 'erb" Consider the following e-am le, where the meaning corres onds to that of the e-am le in the erfect abo'e: (&) 8#kene er solgt p$ auksjon. books.the are sold on auction $he books have been sold on aution. The s1 assi'e is normally only used in the infiniti'e or the resent tense" (() a. 8#kene selges p$ auksjon. books.the sell.6%)) on auction $he books are sold on auction. (() b. 8#kene sendes for $ selges p$ auksjon. books.the send.6%)) for to sell.6%)) on auction $he books are sent to be sold on auction.

1"1."9 #iddles

Norwegian does not ha'e middles of the sort found in English" Sentences li!e &his book reads easil# are translated with an ad$ecti'al construction: (1) a. Denne boka er lett $ lese. this book.the is easy to read $his book reads easily. (1) b. Denne boka g$r det lett ! $ lese. this book.the #oes it ( easy ) to read $his book reads easily.

1"1."= ,ree word order 2Scrambling3

Norwegian, $ust li!e English, lac!s the !ind of free word order often called scrambling, which is ty ical of German and +utch"

1"1."? (ea! ronouns, clitics, and ob$ect shift

Norwegian ossesses a s ecific construction named ob$ect shift, which mo'es unstressed ob$ect ronouns to a osition in front of the negation 2or other sentence ad'erbials3" This is not ossible with ordinary noun hrases, but only with ronouns" (1) a. "eg s$ ikke #arl. Ordinar object: no object s!ift I saw not Aarl I didnt see Aarl. (1) b. "eg s$ ham ikke. Pronominal object: object s!ift occurs I saw him not I didnt see him. This mo'ement is only found if there is nothing 2or only a 'erb article3 in between the negation 2sentence ad'erbial3 and the ob$ect" %f there is a 'erb, a re osition or the li!e in between, the ob$ect stays in its normal osition" (") a. "eg tok den ikke opp. Particle does not intervene: object s!ift I took it not up I didnt take it up. (") b. "eg har ikke sett ham. "erb intervenes: no object s!ift I have not seen him I havent see him. (") c. "eg s$ ikke p$ henne. Preposition intervenes: no object s!ift

I saw not on her I didnt look at her.

1"17 C))*+%NAT%)N AT THE C0A:SE 0E>E0

Norwegian uses og 4and,6 eller 4or,6 and men 4but6 in the same way as English to coordinate main clauses" (1) a. "eg g$r og ;ise s/kler. I walk and 9ise bikes Im walkin# and 9ise is runnin# a bike. (") b. <le er sjelden glad+ men &ari ler av alt. <le is seldom happy but Aari lau#hs of everythin# <le is seldom happy but Aari lau#hs at everythin#.

. THE /H*ASES
(ords belonging to different word classes function syntactically as heads in hrases" A hrase consists of a head 2a 'erb, a noun, an ad$ecti'e, an ad'erb, or a re osition3 which alone or together with o tional modifiers constitute a 'erb hrase 2run% wash the ar3, a noun hrase 2'ohn% (ar#)s sister from *tah% pea e in our time3, an ad$ecti'e hrase 2red% like his father3, an ad'erb hrase 2alwa#s% almost never3, or a re ositional hrase 2at m# door% with (ar#3" The modifying hrases may occur before andGor after the head word, de ending on language and hrasal ty e" %n many res ects, the hrases in the Germanic languages ha'e 'ery similar ro erties" The o'erall structure of hrases is the same in Norwegian and in English"

."1 THE >E*; /H*ASE

The 'erb hrase has a 'erb as its head: +e bought a book #esterda#" This hrase constitutes the last art of the sentence, following the sentential ad'erbials" %n German and +utch 'erb hrases the 'erb is in the final osition 2a3, whereas the 'erb hrase in Norwegian 2b3 and the other Germanic languages is 'erb initial: (1) a. I=h muss morgens im >arenhaus einen 9antel gekaufen. b. "eg m$ kj#pe ei k$pe p$ kj#pesenteret i morgen. I must buy a coat on department.store.the in mornin# I must buy a coat at the department store tomorrow.

%n main clauses, howe'er, the tensed 'erb 2au-iliary or main 'erb3 a ears in the finite 2second3 osition 2H 1"73 rather than in the 'erb hrase in all the Germanic languages 2e-ce t English3 2c1d3: c. )$ har han nok g$tt p$ toget. now has he probably #one on train.the He has probably #ot on the train now. d. )$ gikk han p$ toget. now went he on train.the He #ot on the train now. Norwegian differs from English in being a 'erb1second language" %n Norwegian, the tensed 'erb 2au-iliary or main 'erb3 always a ears in the finite 2second3 osition in main clauses" This means that the tensed 'erb recedes sentence ad'erbials and negation" E-am les 2c1d3 also illustrate the fact that the tensed 'erb recedes the sub$ect 2han3 in to icalised sentences"

."1"1 The order of elements in the 'erb hrase

The order of elements in the Norwegian 'erb hrase is gi'en in the scheme below" %f there is an indirect object, this follows ne-t, receding a osition where we find the subject predicative complement, the direct object or the associate subjectL see the last e-am le below for a case with both an indirect ob$ect and an associate sub$ect" The object predicative complement and the infinitive of the object with infinitive constructions share a osition, followed by a field for bound content adverbials 2+an bor i ,und 4he li'es in 0und63 and prepositional objects 2+an ser p henne 4he is loo!ing at her63" ,inally there is a field for free content adverbials and postponed phrases" Obj #irect obj$ predicative$ Associate subj$ Infinitive Subj predicative clause ei bok a book Bound adverbials$ Prep. objects %ree adverbials$ Postponed p!rases p$ f#dselsdagen at birthday.the

"erb b#r gi should #ive male paint se

Ind. obj. ham him

huset house.the ham

r#dt red komme

see g$ #o

him

come til b/en to town.the snarest immediately av kongen by kin#.the

overrekkes henne nobelprisen is.#iven her .obel 6riBe.the

Particles (see 2.1.4) allow two different locations, one immediately before the verb and one immediately after. #irect object$ Obj Associate predicative$ "erb Particle subject$ Particle Infinitive Subj clause predicative hogge av cut hogge cut hoppe opp =ump up hoppe =ump ta take off hodet head.the hodet head.the ei katt a cat ei katt a cat fra ham boka from him book.the opp up av off p$ bordet on table.the p$ bordet on table.the %ree Bound adverbials$ adverbials$ Postponed Prep. objects p!rases med kniv with knife med kniv with knife framfor meg in'front'of me framfor meg in'front'of me snarest immediately

ta take

boka book.the

fra ham from him

snarest immediately

."1". -e and +ave

All the Germanic languages ma!e e-tensi'e use of 'erbs corres onding closely to the English be 2Norwegian vre3 and have 2Norwegian ha3" Com are English &he book is on the table with Norwegian -oka er p bordet" As a main 'erb, 4be6 is also used as a co ula 2+e is si k% +an er s#k3" As au-iliaries, be and have are used to e- ress 'oice, tense, and as ect .+e was killed% +e has read the book% +e is reading the book3" %n Norwegian, have is generally used to e- ress the erfect tense and the lu erfect tense with all !inds of 'erbs 2a1b3, but in some dialects, be may be used with intransiti'e 'erbs indicating a change of state 2c3: (1) a. 9arie ?urie har f$tt nobelprisen to ganger. /arie 1urie has received .obel priBe.the two times /arie 1urie has received the .obel 6riBe twice. b. ;eiv 3riksson har dratt til %merika. 9eiv *riksson has #one to %merica 9eiv *riksson has #one to %merica. c. ;eiv 3riksson er dratt til %merika. 9eiv *riksson is #one to %merica 9eiv *riksson has #one to %merica. -e may also be used with a ast artici le as a assi'e au-iliary when the assi'e e- resses the result of an action or a com leted transition 2d3 d. "omsvikingene var tatt til fange av nordmennene. !omsvikin#s.the were taken to capture by .orwe#ians.the $he !omsvikin#s were captured by the .orwe#ians. Howe'er, bli 4become6 is more common as a assi'e au-iliaryL see H 1"1."9" In addition, vre is used as the copula; when the predicative is an adjective or a past participle, it agrees with the subject in gender and number: (") a. Han var s/k ig$r. he was ill yesterday b. De var s/ke ig$r. they were ill yesterday

(hereas Norwegian sometimes allows the used of the au-iliary be in forming the erfect tense and the lu erfect tense with intransiti'e 'erbs 2as in 2c3 abo'e3, English always uses the au-iliary have , irres ecti'ely of whether the 'erb is transiti'e or intransiti'e"

."1"7 *efle-i'e 'erbs

A refle-i'e ronoun may be the ob$ect of a transiti'e 'erb, as in +e killed himself" %n this case, the refle-i'e ronoun may be re laced by another ronoun or a full noun hrase" Howe'er, all the Germanic languages 2e-ce t English3 ha'e refle-i'e 'erbs, a combination of an intransiti'e 'erb M a refle-i'e" They ha'e a meaning of their own, and often corres ond to one 'erb in English: consider the Norwegian 'eg vegrer meg for hjelpe ham, where meg is the refle-i'e, which corres onds to the English ! refuse to help him without a refle-i'e" Some 'erbs are only used together with a refle-i'e 2oppfre seg 4beha'e,6 innfinne seg 4a ear63L others are either intransiti'e or refle-i'e 2angre .seg$ 4regret63" A third grou of refle-i'e 'erbs can occur with an ordinary ob$ect instead of the refle-i'e, but with a different meaning 2a 1b3: (1) a. Han vendte seg til henne. he turned D*E9 to her He turned towards her. b. Han vendte bladet. he turned pa#e.the He turned the pa#e. (ith res ect to word order, the refle-i'e beha'es li!e a ronoun" Thus it must recede a article or articles 2see H ."1"9"3: +an slet seg ut 4he wore himself out"6 As English does not ha'e refle-i'e 'erbs, the intransiti'e 'erb M refle-i'e combination in Norwegian generally corres onds to one 'erb in English"

."1"9 >erb articles

Norwegian article constructions corres ond closely in almost all ways to English ones" This is illustrated in 2a1c3: (1) a. kaste opp maten! throw up (food.the) throw up the food b. gi opp kampen!

#ive up (fi#ht.the) capitulate c. kle p$ seg ei k$pe! dress on D*E9 (a coat) put on a coat <ust as in English, the osition of the article within the 'erb hrase de ends on the form of the ob$ect" %f there is a nominal ob$ect, the article may either come before or after it 2d1e3" Howe'er, if the ob$ect is a ronoun, the article must come beforethe ob$ect 2f1g3: d. kaste opp maten e. kaste maten opp throw up food.the up throw up the food f. kaste opp den #. kaste den opp throw up it up throw it up Howe'er, there are many constructions whose meanings are not matched in English and which must be learned li!e words: h. dele ut nobelprisen share out .obel 6riBe.the award the .obel 6riBe i. '#knaden gikk igjennom. application.the went throu#h $he application #ot throu#h. )ften the combination 'erb M article corres onds to a refi-ed 'erb with the same 2$1!3 or a related 2l1m3 meaning: =. 'jefen m$tte legge ned bedriften. k. 'jefen m$tte nedlegge bedriften boss.the had'to lay down down'lay company.the $he boss had to shut down the company. l. Han streket under ordet. he lined under word.the He underlined the word.

m. Han understreket ordets bet/dning. he underlined word.thes meanin# He emphasiBed the meanin# of the word. (ith res ect to the osition of the article in relation to nominal and ronominal ob$ects, English and Norwegian are the same"

."1"= The ob$ect

%n Norwegian as in English, the ob$ect is an obligatory nominal or sentential com lement of certain 'erbs" %t may be a noun hrase, &he vikings were / andinavian seafarers% a ronoun, (an# nations feared them, an infiniti'al clause, 0hildren like to hear fair# tales, or an embedded clause, &he 'omsvikings said that the# were ontent to die" Some 'erbs ta!e two ob$ects, one indirect and one direct ob$ect: &he king gave her the pri1e" %n this case, the first ob$ect 2her3 e- resses the one who gets what is e- ressed by the second ob$ect 2the pri1e3" %n Norwegian, the ob$ect either follows the main 'erb, or it a osition 2a1b3: (1) a. &lostrene br/gget #l i middelalderen. monasteries.the brewed beer in /iddle %#es.the $he monasteries brewed beer in the /iddle %#es. b. @udene ofret vikingene til ved blot. #ods.the sacrificed vikin#s.the to at blot $he vikin#s made offerin#s to the #ods at the blot. %n main clauses, nominal ob$ects follow sentence ad'erbials, including negation 2c3, whereas ronominal ob$ects come before such ad'erbials 2d3" Howe'er, all !inds of ob$ects come before content ad'erbials such as ad'erbials of time, lace, and manner 2e3: c. Han holdt ikke kniven i h$nda. he held not knife.the in hand.the He didnFt hold the knife in his hand. d. Han holdt den ikke i h$nda. he held it not in hand.the He didnFt hold it in his hand. e. Vikingene ofret gaver til gudene hvert $r. ears in the first

vikin#s.the sacrificed #ifts to #ods.the every year $he vikin#s sacrificed #ifts to the #ods every year. (hen the ob$ect is &uestioned, it a ears in the first osition 2f3:

f. Hva s/ntes jomsvikingene om $ d#? what thou#ht !omsvikin#s.the about to die :hat did the !omsvikin#s think about dyin#; )b$ect ronouns bear the s ecific 4obli&ue6 case in Norwegian, cf" ham 4him,6 henne 4her6 2ham is mostly used in writingL in s eech most eo le would use han3" The corres onding sub$ect forms are han 4he,6 hun 4she"6 ,or den 4it6 there is only one form" To icalised constructions with non1sub$eccts in the initial osition 2such as 2b33, are much more common in Norwegian than in English"

."1"? /redicati'e com lements

A redicati'e com lement often e- resse a &uality or attribute of the sub$ect or the ob$ect, or it tells us the identity of the sub$ect or the ob$ect" %t may be a noun hrase 2a3, an ad$ecti'e hrase 2b3, a re ositional hrase 2c3, or a subordinate clause 2d3: (1) a. %lfred )obel var kjemiker. %lfred .obel was chemist %lfred .obel was a chemist. b. 9arie ?urie er sv*rt ber#mt. /arie 1urie is very famous /arie 1urie is very famous. c. De valgte 8ush til president. they elected Cush to president $hey elected Cush as president. d. 3tt resultat er at prisene vil stige. one result is that prices.the will raise <ne result is that the prices will raise. (hen the redicati'e com lement is an ad$ecti'e 2or a ast artici le3, it agrees with the word it is a com lement to 2sub$ect or ob$ect3 in number and gender 2e1 f3:

e. 3vent/ret var nifst. fairy tale.the was scary's#.neut. $he fairy tale was scary. f. "omsvikingene var fr/ktl#se. !omsvikin#s.the were fearless'pl. $he !omsvikin#s were fearless. The redicati'e com lement of the sub$ect follows all 'erbs, but recedes content ad'erbials 2g3" (hen combined with article 'erbs, the redicati'e comes between the 'erb and the article 2h3: #. Han hadde v*rt s/k ig$r. he had been ill yesterday He had been ill yesterday. h. Den ser fin ut. it looks nice 6%D$ It looks nice. English and Norwegian are 'ery similar at this oint" Howe'er, in English, there is no 'isible agreement in number and gender between the redicati'e com lement and the sub$ect or the ob$ect"

."1"@ Content ad'erbials

%n general, Norwegian is li!e English with res ect to its use of ad'erbials in the sentence" Content ad'erbials modify the e'ent e- ressed in the sentence with res ect to manner, lace, time, condition, etc" They may modify the 'erb 2a3, an ad$ecti'e 2b3, or another ad'erbial 2c3: (1) a. Han kj#rer alltid forsiktig. he drives always carefully He always drives carefully. b. Hun er sv*rt tjukk. she is very fat )he is very fat. c. Han r#/ker ganske m/e. he smokes 7uite a lot He smokes 7uite a lot.

Norwegian has two ty es of content ad'erbials, de ending on how closely bound the ad'erbial is to the 'erb: bound content ad'erbials 2d3, and free content ad'erbials 2e3" %n sentences that include both, the bound content ad'erbial recedes the free content ad'erbial, as illustrated in 2d3, where the underlined elements are bound content ad'erbials, and imorgen is a free content ad'erbial: d. "eg vil snakke med deg om dette imorgen. I want talk with you about this tomorrow I want to talk to you about this tomorrow. e. Han savnet henne allerede. he missed her already He missed her already. Howe'er, in contrast to English, free content ad'erbials may a the main 'erb in Norwegian: f. Han har i noen situasjoner ikke snakket sant. he has in some situations not spoken truly He has in some situations not told the truth. (hen there are se'eral free content ad'erbials in the 'erb hrase, their order de ends on the function of the ad'erbial in the communicati'e structure of the clause" (hen the ad'erbial is a subordinate clause, it is laced after other ad'erbials 2g3" %n addition, ad'erbials denoting time or cause usually follow other free ad'erbials 2h3" ,inally, whereas free ad'erbials that refer to time, location, or cause usually are found after the bound ad'erbials, free ad'erbials denoting manner, duration, and iteration often come before bound ad'erbials 2i3: #. "on arbeidet p$ kvelden uten at sjefen viste om det. !on worked at ni#ht.the without that boss.the knew about it !on worked in the evenin# without his boss knowin# it. h. Han hadde v*rt her da. he had been here then He had been here then. i. De hadde sett surt p$ ham. they had looked an#rily at him $hey had looked an#rily at him. ear to the left of

.". THE N):N /H*ASE

The noun hrase has a noun or a ronoun as its head: the man" %n addition, the hrase may include other elements, such as determiners, ad$ecti'es, and re ositional hrases: the #oung man from Paris" The noun hrase rototy ically functions as the sub$ect or the ob$ect of the clause, or as the ob$ect of a re osition" %t may also function as a ossessor: (1) a. Subject: Vikingene levde p$ A--B C--B og beg/nnelsen av ,---Btallet. vikin#s.the lived on G22 H22 and be#innin#.the of 1222 century.the $he vikin#s lived in the Gth3 Hth3 and the be#innin# of the the 12th century.

b. Object: Dorkjel dreper mannen. $ork=el kills man.the $horkell kills the man.

c. Object of preposition: Han klarte ikke $ l#fte kniven med h$nda. he mana#ed not to lift knife.the with hand.the He couldnt mana#e to lift the knife with his hand.

d. Possessor: mannens oppfinnelse man.thes discovery the mans discovery Note that when a ronoun is the head of a noun hrase, its form 'aries according to whether it is the sub$ect, a ossessor, or has some other function: e. Subject: De levde p$ A--B C--B og beg/nnelsen av ,---Btallet. they lived on G22 H22 and be#innin#.the of 1222 century.the $hey lived in the Gth3 Hth3 and the be#innin# of the the 12th century.

f. Object: Dorkjel dreper ham. $ork=el kills him $horkell kills him.

#. Object of preposition: Han klarte ikke $ l#fte kniven med den. he mana#ed not to lift knife.the with it He couldnt mana#e to lift the knife with it.

h. Possessor: hans oppfinnelse his discovery his discovery These different forms are referred to as different cases"

."."1 Noun hrase word order

The o'erall order of elements in the Norwegian noun hrase is the same as in English" There may be elements in front of or after the head noun" +eterminers, li!e den% det% denne% dette% disse% etc" as well as &uantifiers and ad$ecti'es come before the noun, while re ositional hrases and relati'e clauses come after it:

Determiner& (uantifier& Adjective& Head& disse these to two gamle old.@*E b#kene

)ostnominal&modifier& om Droms#

books.the about $roms5

these two old books about $roms5 %n Norwegian, determiners, &uantifiers, and ad$ecti'es all agree with the head of the noun hrase in number and gender" %n addition, the ad$ecti'es also agree in definiteness with the head" The word order of Norwegian noun hrases is usually 'ery much li!e that of English 2des ite the definite suffi-3, but there is one stri!ing difference" /ossessi'e hrases come after a definite noun: Indefinite: possessor precedes head noun: "ons bok+ mi bok my book

!ohns book

!ohns book my book

Definite: possessor follows head noun:

boka

til "on+

boka

mi

book.the to !ohn !ohns book

book.the my my book

.".". %ndefinite noun hrases

The indefinite noun hrase lac!s any mar!er of definiteness" Com are the definites the milk and the dog with the indefinites milk and a dog" Here are some e-am les of Norwegian indefinite noun hrases: (1) a. mange hunder+ m/e melk many do#s much milk (1) b. noen hunder+ noe melk some do#s some milk (1) c. tre hunder+ melk three do#s milk As in English, Norwegian indefinite noun hrases may ha'e a nominal head 2d3, or an indefinite ronoun 2e1f3 as head: (1) d. %lfred )obel ville bli forfatter. %lfred .obel would become author %lfred .obel wanted to become an author. (1) e. )oen liker m#rkt #l bedre enn l/st. some like dark beer better than li#ht )ome people like dark beer better than li#ht. (1) f. Han har gjort noe dumt. he has done somethin# stupid He has done somethin# stupid. ;ut in addition, Norwegian noun hrases may lac! a head 2g3: (1) #. @amle ser ofte nobelprisseremonien p$ DV. old watch often .obel 6riBe ceremony.the on $I <ld people often watch the .obel 6riBe ceremony on $I. All these three ty es of hrases may ha'e an ad$ecti'e in front of the head, and a re ositional hrase or a clause following the head: (1) h. Produksjon av #l er ofte regulert av streng lovgivning. production of beer is often re#ulated by stron# le#islation

$he production of beer is often re#ulated by strict le#islations. (1) =. Han har gjort noe veldig dumt. he has done somethin# very stupid He has done somethin# very stupid. (1) i. )oen av "omsvikingene ble tatt til fange av den norske h*ren. some of !omsvikin#s.the became taken to captive by the .orwe#ian force.the )ome of the !omsvikin#s where captured by the .orwe#ian force. The most stri!ing difference between English and Norwegian indefinite noun hrases is that Norwegian more fre&uently allows the omission of the indefinite article: (1) k. )orge og 'verige var i union med hverandre til ,C-E. .orway and )weden were in union with eachother till 1H24 .orway and )weden were in a union to#ether until 1H24.

(1) l. )obel var kjemiker og oppfinner. .obel was chemist and inventor .obel was a chemist and an inventor. ."."."1 %ndefinite noun hrases with a nominal head An indefinite noun hrase may or may not include a &uantifier such as en% to% ingen% alle: (1) a. en medalje+ to isbj#rner a medal two polarbears

(1) b. ingen kake+ alle hus no cake all houses The Norwegian indefinite article comes in three different genders: en% ei% et 2masculine, feminine, and neuter, res ecti'ely: sometimes the masculine can be substituted for the feminine, and some writers do not use the feminine form at all3" This indefinite article is only used in the singular" %t beha'es 'ery much li!e a &uantifier, and it does not co1occur with other &uantifiers: (1) c. en gutt+ ei kake+ et hus a boy a cake a house

(1) d.

ei ingen kake+ a no cake

et alle hus a all houses

The number one is written li!e this: 2n 2masculine3, ei 2feminine3, ett 2neuter3" Note that the feminine form is written the same as the indefinite article, but it is ronounced with more stress" (1) e. :n gutt+ ei kake+ ett hus one boy one cake one house Note that whereas the indefinite article is more or less always included in English indefinite noun hrases, it is fre&uently left out in Norwegian 2cf"H ."."= ;are Noun /hrases3: 'enta hadde kjole p seg3 vs3 &he girl had a dress on3 #ora mi er lege" 's" #y mother is a doctor" %n Norwegian, there is also a three1way gender distinction on nouns, which is also e- ressed on the articles" English does not ha'e such a gender distinction" .".".". %ndefinite noun hrases with a ronominal head %ndefinite ronouns 2noe% noen3may be the head of indefinite noun hrases" These ronouns may stand on their own, or ha'e an ad$ecti'e following them: (1) a. Har det hendt noe? Has it happened anythin# Has anythin# happened;

(1) b. )oe merkelig hendte i g$r. )omethin# stran#e happened yesterday )omethin# stran#e happened yesterday. 4oe is singular and neuter, while noen can be lural or masculineGfeminine or both" %n either form, it can be used both in ositi'e and negati'e conte-ts, and thus corres onds both to English some and an#" (1) c. Har noen. "a+ jeg har noen. 4 )ei+ jeg har ikke (s#sken is plural) Have you any siblin#s yes I have some no I have not any @o you have any sisters or +es3 I have .o3 I dont have any. brothers; some. du noen s#sken?

(1) d. 3r det noen bank her? "eg ser ikke noen. (bank is masculine) Is it any bank here I see not any Is there a bank here; I cant see one.

(1) e. Vi har kj#pt noe kj#tt. 4 Vi har ikke kj#pt noe kj#tt. (kj#tt is neuter) we have bou#ht some meat we have not bou#ht any meat :e have bou#ht some meat. :e have not bou#ht any meat. ."."."7 Headless indefinite noun hrases A headless indefinite noun hrase loo!s li!e an ordinary headed indefinite noun hrase that lac!s the head 2 ro3noun" %n these hrases, some other element, li!e an ad$ecti'e 2gamle3 or a &uantifier 2femti3 is the most im ortant art of the hrase: (1) a. Unge leser ikke vikingesagaer lenger. youn# read not Iikin#.sa#as lon#er +oun# people dont read the Iikin# sa#as anymore.

(1) b. Han f/lte femti i g$r. he turned fifty yesterday He turned fifty yesterday. Such headless indefinite noun hrases are rare but are still much more common in Norwegian than in English" This is es ecially true of those noun hrases where an ad$ecti'e is the most im ortant element"

."."7 +efinite noun hrases

The definite noun hrase is generally headed by a noun with the definite ending, and it may also contain an ad$ecti'e inflected for definiteness" These noun hrases e- ress definite meaning 2so do names and ronouns, $ust li!e in English3" A definite noun hrase with an ad$ecti'e has a definite article li!e in English, but also has a definite suffi- on the noun" +efinite noun hrases with no ad$ecti'es usually do not ha'e any article, $ust the definite suffi-: (1) a. Isbj#rnen var vennlig. Den lille isbj#rnen var vennlig. polarbear.the was friendly the little polarbear was friendly $he polarbear was friendly. $he little polarbear was friendly.

(1) b. Vi l$ p$ stranda. Vi l$ p$ den hvite stranda. we lay on beach.the we lay on the white beach.the :e lay on the beach. :e lay on the white beach.

(1) c. Vi har kj#pt huset. Vi har kj#pt det r#de huset. we have bou#ht house.the we have bou#ht the red house.the :e have bou#ht the house. :e have bou#ht the red house. The main difference between English and Norwegian concerning definite noun hrases is that whereas English e- resses definiteness with a renominal definite article, Norwegian e- resses definiteness with a definiteness suffiattached to the noun" Howe'er, when the definite suffi- a ears in addition to a se arate determiner, the suffi- may a ear to be redundant" ."."7"1 +efinite noun hrases with a definite nominal head A definite noun may stand alone in a definite noun hrase, or it may ha'e elements in front of it or after it" ;efore the noun, there may be definite determiners, &uantifiers, and ad$ecti'es, while after the noun we may find re ositional hrases or clauses: (1) a. denne kniven+ alle landene+ vinneren av prisen this knife.the all countries.the winner.the of priBe.the this knife all the countries the winner of the priBe

(1) b. den smarte mannen som oppdaget r#ntgenstr$ler the smart man.the who discovered J'rays the smart man who discovered J'rays %n Norwegian, ad$ecti'es are inflected for definiteness in front of definite nouns 2this inflection only consists of an -e suffi-, in most cases3" %n such hrases, a free definite article is included in front of the ad$ecti'e in addition to the definiteness ending on the noun: (") a. den lille s/kkelen+ den gode boka+ det h#/e treet the little bicycle.the the #ood book.the the hi#h tree.the the little bicycle the #ood book the hi#h tree (1) b. de hvite hestene the white horses.the the white horses

This is sometimes called +ouble +efiniteness" %n contrast to what we find in English, ad$ecti'es are inflected for definiteness in Norwegian" (hen there is an ad$ecti'e in the Norwegian definite noun hrase, a renominal article needs to be included" Howe'er, the definite suffi- still cannot be left out" ."."7". +efinite noun hrases with a ro er name as its head A ro er name may function as a noun hrase by itself, but it may also ha'e elements in front of it, such as definite determiners or ad$ecti'es: (1) a. Dorkjel dreper mannen. $ork=el kills man.the $ork=el kills the man.

(1) b. min 9aria+ denne usk/ldige 9aria my /aria this innocent /aria my /aria this innocent /aria Notice that the name does not get a definite suffi-" /re ositional hrases and clauses may follow the ro er name in a definite noun hrase: (1) c. ;orenF som la grunnlaget for etologi. 9orenB who laid foundation.the for etholo#y 9orenB who laid down the foundation of etholo#y ."."7"7 +efinite noun hrases with a definite ronoun as its head A definite ronoun may function as a noun hrase by itself, but other elements, such as &uantifiers and ad$ecti'es may come before or after it" These definite ronouns may be followed by re ositional hrases and clauses" (1) a. Har du sett denne? have you seen this Have you seen this;

(1) b. %lle vi tre er like tapre som "omsvikingene. all we three are as brave as !omsvikin#s.the %ll three of us are as brave as the !omsvikin#s.

(1) c. Han som tok prisen b#r f$ *ren. he who took priBe.the should #et honour.the He who received the priBe should be honoured.

(1) d. Vi fra Droms# drikker ofte ma=kB#l. we from $roms5 drink often /ack' beer :e who are from $roms5 often drink /ack beer. %n Norwegian the so1called ro-imal demonstrati'es 2det/den 4that,6 de 4those63 are identical in form to the read$ecti'al definite article, and are also identical in form to ronouns" Thus, when a noun hrase consists only of a word li!e den, it could be understood to mean 4it6 2 ronoun3 or 4that6 2demonstrati'e3" (hen it is followed by an ad$ecti'e as in den frste, it is more natural to gloss it in English as 4the6 2here, 4the first63, but in English this often re&uires that 4one6 be inserted: den grnne 4the green one"6 Note also that Norwegian uses the definite ronoun den to refer to humans, in e-am les li!e the following: (1) e. Den som kommer f#rst i m$l+ f$r en fin premie. that who comes first in #oal #ets a nice priBe He who wins3 #ets a nice priBe. ."."7"9 +efinite noun hrases with no definite noun or ronoun as its head There are two ty es of definite noun hrases in Norwegian where the definiteness is not indicated on the head noun" ,irst, in definite noun hrases introduced by a ossessor, nouns are not inflected for definiteness 2cf" ."."93: (1) a. min bil+ di bok+ v$rt hus+ deres biler my car your book our house their cars Secondly, there are definite noun hrases which lac! the head 2cf" ."."."73: (1) b. Han f/lte femti i g$r. he turned fifty yesterday He turned fifty yesterday.

."."9 Noun hrases with ossessors

A noun hrase with a ossessor is definite 2cf" ."."7". and ."."7"93" As in English, ossessi'e noun hrases may either contain a noun hrase ending in 5s in front of the head noun 2'ons bil 4<ohn6s car63, or a ossessi'e ronoun 2min bil 4my

car63" %n both cases, the ossessor mar!s the definiteness, and it is followed by an indefinite noun" Howe'er, in Norwegian, the ossessi'e ronoun fre&uently follows the head noun in ossessi'e noun hrases" %n such hrases, the head noun is in the definite form 2bilen min 4my car63" The most commonly used ossessi'e construction in Norwegian is the one with the ossessi'e ronoun following a definite head noun" This construction is not ossible in English" Note that Norwegian ma!es e-tensi'e use of refle-i'e ossessi'es, sin/si/sitt/sine"

."."= ;are noun hrases

A bare noun hrase has a nominal head without a definite or indefinite article, and it also lac!s other &uantifying modifiers" Such noun hrases may ha'e a number of different functions in Norwegian: redicati'e, ob$ect, com lement to a re osition, or sub$ect: (1) a. Predicative: Han er kjemiker. he is chemist He is a chemist.

(1) b. Object: 9in s#nn spiller tennis. my son plays tennis /y son plays tennis.

(1) c. &omplement to a preposition: De h#rte p$ radio. they listened to radio $hey listened to the radio.

(1) d. Subject: @rammatikk er vanskelig. #rammar is difficult Krammar is difficult. ;are noun hrases are much more common in Norwegian than in English"

."."? /ostnominal modifiers

/ostnominal modifiers are elements following the head noun" These elements may be re ositional hrases, clauses, ad$ecti'e hrases, artici ial hrases, or noun hrases: (1) a. en kasse med frukt a bo( Gith fruit a bo, of fruit

(1) b. den bilen du ser der the =ar /ou see there the car you see there

(1) c. en kasse full av kl*r a bo( full of =lothes % bo, full of clothes

(1) d. en kasse f/lt med kl*r a bo( filled Gith =lothes % bo, filled with clothes

(1) e. )orges kronprins Haakon 9agnus )orGa/Hs =roGnBprin=e Haakon 9agnus .orways crown prince3 Haakon /a#nus

."7 A+<ECT%>A0 /H*ASES

The ad$ecti'al hrase is a hrase with an ad$ecti'e as its head" (hen there are no modifiers, the head constitutes the whole hrase, as in 2a3" (hen the ad$ecti'al hrase contains a modifier, this is usually a degree element 2b3, some other ty e of ad'erbial 2c3, a re ositional com lement 2d3, or an ob$ect 2e3: (1) a. Vikingenes langhus var store. vikin#s.thes lon#'houses were bi# $he vikin#s lon#'houses were bi#. (1) b. 3vent/r er veldig spennende.

fairy tales are very e,citin# Eairy tales are very e,citin#. (1) c. Hun var overraskende h#/. she was surprisin#ly tall )he was surprisin#ly tall. (1) d. "omsvikingene var ikke redde for d#den. !omsvikin#s.the were not afraid for death $he !omsvikin#s were not afraid of dyin#. (1) e. Han er ikke verd noe. he is not worth anythin# He is not worth anythin#. Ad$ecti'al hrases are often used in com arati'e constructions, in which case the basis for the com arison usually must be e- ressed in the com lement of the ad$ecti'e 2f1h3: (1) f. 3irik var like rask som ?hristopher. *irik was like fast as 1hristopher *irik was as fast as 1hristopher. (1) #. 3irik var raskere enn ?hristopher. *irik was faster than 1hristopher *rik was faster than 1hristopher. (1) h. 3irik var raskest av europ:erne. *irik was fastest of *uropeans.the *irik was the fastest of the *uropeans. #ost ad$ecti'e hrases can be used as remodifiers of nouns 2attributes3 or as com lements of 'erbs 2 redicati'es3 2i1$3" %n these functions there is concord between the ad$ecti'e and the noun it modifies in number 2SG, /03 and gender 2# for masculine gender3: (1) i. %lfred )obel var en sv*rt gener#s mann. %lfred .obel was a very #enerous./.)K man %lfred .obel was a very #enerous man. (1) =. De var sv*rt gener#se. they were very #enerous.69 $hey were very #enerous.

The ad$ecti'e may also function as an ad'erbial 2!3: (1) k. Vikingene seilte langsomt langs k/sten. vikin#s.the sailed slowly alon# coast.the $he vikin#s sailed slowly alon# the coast. %n Norwegian, the ad$ecti'es agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and definiteness" English does not show such agreement"

."7"1 Ad$ecti'al hrase word order

%n addition to the ad$ecti'al head, a Norwegian ad$ecti'al hrase may contain different !inds of modifiers" The order of the head and the modifiers de ends on the syntactic use of the ad$ecti'al hraseL there is one scheme for ad$ecti'al hrases that function as a redicati'e or an ad'erbial, and another scheme for ad$ecti'al hrases that function as an ad$ecti'e attribute" ."7"1"1 Ad$ecti'al hrases functioning as redicati'es or as ad'erbials The ad$ecti'al hrase can ha'e modifiers both before and after the ad$ecti'e" The following scheme summarises the ossible word orders for ad$ecti'al hrases used redicati'ely or as ad'erbials: (1) Obj. Adverbial Adverbial Adjective '!ead( Object a. hvor how b. juridisk le#ally c. meg n$ me d. now absolutt tung heavy holdbar Adverbial

absolutely tenable mer more helt totally fremmed stran#e overlegen superior uegnet unsuitable sin motstander his opponent for langturer for lon#'distance'trips enn f#r than before

e.

%mmediately in front of the ad$ecti'e we find ad'erbials of degree, +vor tung er den6 4How hea'y is itN62a3 and manner 2+an var skremmende energisk 4He was frighteningly energetic63" >arious !inds of free ad'erbials may be laced in front of these 2b3, as in Avtalen virker juridisk absolutt holdbar 4The agreement seems legally absolutely tenable"6 E-am le 2c3 shows that there is an ob$ect osition in front of the two ad'erbial ositions, +un er meg n mer fremmed enn fr 4She seems more strange to me now than before"6 An ob$ect may also be laced immediately after the ad$ecti'e 2d3, +an var helt overlegen sin motstander 4He was totally su erior to his o onent"6 ,inally, e-am le 2e3 shows that there is an ad'erbial osition to the right of the ostad$ecti'al ob$ect osition, -ilen er uegnet for langturer 4The car is not suitable for long distance tri s"6 ."7"1". Ad$ecti'al hrases functioning as renominal attributes (hen used attributi'ely, the Norwegian ad$ecti'e hrase must end with the head, that is, in this use there are no ostad$ecti'al ositions" %n addition, the ad$ecti'e cannot ha'e an ob$ect in front of it" The following scheme summarises the ossible word orders for ad$ecti'al hrases used redicati'ely or as ad'erbials: (1) Adverbial Adverbial Adjective '!ead( a. veldig very b. juridisk le#ally absolutt rik rich holdbar

absolutely tenable smart clever

c. for alderen sv*rt for a#e.the very

Ad'erbials of degree and manner are laced immediately in front of the ad$ecti'e 2a3, en veldig rik mann 4a 'ery rich man"6 ,ree ad'erbials, including negation and other sentence ad'erbials, are laced to the left of this ad'erbial osition 2b3, en juridisk absolutt holdbar avtale 4a legally absolutely tenable agreement"6 /hrases that can occur in the final ad'erbial osition when the ad$ecti'al hrase is used redicati'ely, may sometimes be laced in front of the ad$ecti'e when the ad$ecti'al hrase is attributi'ely used 2c3 en for alderen svrt smart jente 4a girl who is 'ery cle'er for her age"6 Ad$ecti'al hrases such as the one illustrated in 2c3 are not ossible in English"

."7". Com arison

(hen a com arison is e- ressed, the standard against which the com arison is made is usually added as a ostmodifying hrase" ."7"."1 E&ual com arisons ,or an e&ual com arison, that is when we for e-am le com are two ersons of the same height, Norwegian uses like Adje tive som 4as Ad$ecti'e as6 2a3, or ikke Adje tive-ere enn 4not Ad$ecti'e1er than6 2b3: (1) a. "omsvikingen var like tapper som sin far. !omsvikin#.the was as brave as his father $he !omsvikin# was as brave as his father. (1) b. )ordmennene var ikke taprere enn jomsvikingene. .orwe#ians.the were not braver than !omsvikin#s.the $he .orwe#ians were not braver than the !omsvikin#s. ."7".". :ne&ual com arisons (hen the things com ared are different, the com arati'e form of the ad$ecti'e is used" The ostmodifying hrase indicating the standard against which the com arison is made, is introduced by enn 4than6 2a3: (1) Isbj#rner er farligere enn vaskebj#rner. polar bears are dan#erous'1</6 than raccoons 6olar bears are more dan#erous than raccoons. ."7"."7 Com arati'e and su erlati'e (hen com aring only two ob$ects, we can use either the com arati'e form 2a3, or the su erlati'e form 2b3, whereas when more than two ob$ects are com ared, we ha'e to use the su erlati'e form" The ob$ects that are com ared are introduced in a ostmodifying re ositional hrase beginning with av 4of,6 or blant 4among6: (1) a. 3va er den kortere av de to jentene. *va is the shorter of the two #irls.the *va is the shorter of the two #irls. (1) b. ;isa er den korteste blant dem. 9isa is the shortest amon# them 9isa is the shortest amon# them. The standard with which the com arison is made is indicated by a re ositional hrase with i 4in6 2c3:

(1) c. %nna er den eldste jenta i klassen. %nna is the oldest #irl.the in class.the %nna is the oldest #irl in her class. ."7"."9 Com arison with a definite norm Sometimes a com arison is made between an ob$ect and a definite standard or norm understood in the conte-t" %n such cases, Norwegian often uses som s 4than that6 to refer to the standard: (1) a. "on m$ v*re to meter lang. )ei han er lengre enn som s$. !on must be two meters tall .o he is taller than as so !on must be two meters tall. .o3 he is taller than that. English does not ha'e an e- ressions corres onding to som s in Norwegian" %n English we ha'e to use a referential ronoun that, as illustrated in 2a3 abo'e" This is also ossible in Norwegian, in which case we use the referential ronoun det 4it6: (1) b. "on m$ v*re to meter lang. )ei han er lengre enn det. !on must be two meters tall .o he is taller than it !on must be two meters tall. .o3 he is taller than that. ."7"."= Sufficiency and e-cess The words nok 4enough6 and altfor 4too6 are used to indicate sufficiency and e-cess" The norm to which these words refer can be indicated by an infiniti'e clause introduced by til 4to,6 2a1c3" As illustrated in 2b3, nok may also occur after the ad$ecti'e: (1) a. Han er nok rik til $ reise. b. Han er rik nok til $ reise he is rich enou#h rich to to travel He is rich enou#h to #o travellin#. (1) c. Han er altfor rik til $ reise. he is too rich to to travel He is too rich to #o travellin#. As in Norwegian, too always has to be laced in front of the ad$ecti'e in English" %n contrast to Norwegian, howe'er, enough always has to follow the ad$ecti'e in English"

."9 A+>E*; /H*ASES

The ad'erb hrase is a hrase with an ad'erb as its head" >ery often there is no other element in the hrase 2a3" (hen a modifier a ears, it is usually an ad'erb of degree or manner 2b3: (1) a. Han var alltid tapper. he was always brave He was always brave (1) b. Hun sprang veldig fort. she ran very fast )he ran very fast Some ad'erbs may also ta!e re ositional or clausal com lements: (1) c. De bodde langt borte fra alle. they lived far away from everyone $hey lived far away from everyone The ad'erb hrase usually functions as an ad'erbial, modifying 'erbs 2b3, ad$ecti'es, artici les, and ad'erbs 2a3, but occasionally also a noun 2d3: (1) d. 9aten her er veldig god. food.the here is very #ood $he food here is very #ood

."9"1 Ad'erb hrase word order

(hen modifiers are included in addition to the ad'erb head, the structure of the modifiers generally determines their osition" %n front of the ad'erb head we find modifying artici al hrases 2utskt in 2a33, ad$ecti'e hrases 2langt in 2b33, and ad'erb hrases 2m#e in 2c33" After the ad'erb head, we find re ositional hrases 2i skogen in 2b33, com arati'e hrases 2enn tidligere in 2c33, and modifiers with clauses or infiniti'al hrases 2som han gjr in 2d33: (1) )remodifier&Adverb&head&)ostmodifier& a. uts#kt vakkert e,7uisitely beautiful b. langt borte i skogen far away in forest.the far away in the forest c. m/e mere enn tidligere much more than before d. akkurat s$nn som han gj#r e,actly so as he does

e,actly like he is doin#

."9". Syntactic function

The ad'erb hrase rototy ically functions as an ad'erbial: (1) a. Han har bodd utenlands i flere $r. he has lived abroad in several years He has lived abroad for several years (1) b. )$ har han sanns/nligvis kommet hjem. now has he probably come home .ow he has probably come home %t may also a ear as an attribute:

(1) c. &limaet der var ganske t#ft. climate.the there was 7uite rou#h $he climate there was 7uite rou#h (1) d. Dette landet langt over %tlanteren likte han godt. this land.the far over %tlantic.the liked he well $his land way over the %tlantic pleased him

."= /*E/)S%T%)NA0 /H*ASES

The re ositional hrase is a hrase with a re osition as its head" %t rototy ically consists of the re osition and its com lement" %n Norwegian, the re osition usually ta!es a noun hrase as its com lement 2a3, but it may also ta!e a subordinate clause 2b3, or an infiniti'al 2c3: (1) a. i langskip in lon#ships (1) b. beslutningen om at pengene skulle gis til prominente personer decision.the about that money.the should be'#iven to prominent persons the decision that the money should be #iven to prominent persons (1) c. beslutningen om $ gi pengene til prominente personer decision.the about to #ive money.the to prominent persons the decision to #ive the money to prominent persons

Norwegian allows re osition stranding of all !inds of noun hrase com lements" This means that the re osition may a ear at the end of the clause, lac!ing a com lement" :sually the com lement is found as the first element of the clause: (") Hva fikk %lbert 3instein nobelprisen for? what #ot %lbert *instein .obel 6riBe.the for :hat did %lbert *instein #et the .obel 6riBe for;

."="1 /re ositional hrase word order

As in all the Germanic languages, the Norwegian re osition recedes its com lement: (1) p$ t#nner in barrels )ccasionally, the re osition follows its com lement" Certain re ositions are o tionally laced behind their com lement when they ha'e a articular meaning or in le-icalised constructions: (") a. oss kvinner imellom us women between as one woman to another (1) b. $ret rundt year.the round all year round %n addition to the re osition and its com lement, a re ositional hrase may sometimes contain a modifier" This modifier is laced in front of the re osition: (&) midt framfor meg middle in'front'of me ri#ht in front of me

."=". Com lement ty es

The com lement of a re osition is usually a noun hrase i stolen 4in the chair,6 bak meg 4behind me,6 med hvilken penn 4with which en"6 Norwegian re ositions also ta!e subordinate clauses as their com lements: (1) a. Det var et tegn p$ at jomsvikingene ikke ville gi seg. that was a si#n on that !omsvikin#s.the not would #ive D*E9 $hat was a si#n that the !omsvikin#s would not #ive in.

%n addition, the com lement of a re osition may be an infiniti'al hrase 2b3, a re ositional hrase 2c3, or an ad'erb hrase 2d3: (") a. Han bestemte seg for $ gi pengene til prominente personer. he decided D*E9 for to #ive money.the to prominent persons He decided to #ive the money to prominent persons. (") b. Denne avisen er fra f#r krigen. this newspaper is from before war.the $his newspaper is from before the war. (") c. 'iden n$r beg/nte du $ drikke #l? since when be#an you to drink beer )ince when did you start drinkin# beer;

."="7 Case assignment

%n Norwegian, only ronouns show case, and they a ear in the non1nominati'e form when following a re osition fra meg 4from me,6 til deg 4for you,6av ham 4by him,6 hos henne 4at her lace,6 framfor oss 4in front of us,6 over dem 4o'er them"6 Norwegian used to ha'e a more com le- case system, and we can see traces of that in some more or less le-icalised re ositional hrases" #ost of these hrases consist of the re osition til 4to6 M geniti'e of a bare noun hrase til skogs 4to the forest,6 til sjs 4at sea"6 There are also a few e- ressions where the bare noun hrase has the ending -e: (1) a. komme til rette come to ri#ht.* be found3 turn up (1) b. g$ mann av huse #o man of house.* turn out to a man /ronouns show the non1nominati'e case after re ositions in English, $ust as it does in Norwegian" The other traces of the case system found in some le-icalised e- ressions in Norwegian are not found in English"

."="9 /re osition stranding

Norwegian re ositions may be stranded, which means that the re osition is not immediately to the left of its com lement" :sually, the com lement is in the first osition:

(1) a. 8/gg kan man br/gge #l av. barley can one brew beer of Ceer can be brewed on barley. The re osition may also be stranded when the com lement is clefted 2b3, or in a relati'e clause 2c3: (1) b. Det var 3instein de ga prisen til. it was *instein they #ave priBe.the to It was *instein they #ave the priBe to. (1) c. 9arie ?urie som prisen i f/sikk gikk til d#de av leukemi. /arie 1urie who priBe.the in physics went to died of leukemia /arie 1urie3 who was awarded the priBe in physics3 died of leukemia. A articular case of re osition stranding is found in certain assi'e clauses, where the sub$ect in the assi'e clause corres onds to the com lement of the re osition in the corres onding acti'e clause 2d3 2cf the acti'e clause 7u m fl#tte p bilen din 4Cou need to mo'e your car63: (1) d. 8ilen din m$ fl/ttes p$. car.the your must be'moved on +our car needs to be moved.

."=". ,unction
Norwegian re ositional hrases function as ad'erbials 2a3, attributes 2b3, and redicati'e com lements 2c3: (1) a. Ilet lagres i t#nner. beer.the be'stored in barrels $he beer is stored in barrels. (1) b. J/ktet om deres heltemot var ikke overdrevent. rumour.the about their bravery was not e,a##erated $he rumour of their bravery was not e,a##erated. (1) c. &omit:en utnevnte henne til prisvinner. committee.the appointed her to laureate $he committee appointed her a laureate. %n addition, re ositional hrases may be com lements of re ositions 2d3 and a ositions 2e3:

(1) d. Han blir her til i neste uke. he stays here until i ne,t week He stays here until ne,t week. (1) e. 9ed skjorten oppkneppet gikk han inn i rommet. with shirt.the up'button'ed went he in in room.the :ith his shirt unbuttoned he went into the room.

."? S:;<:NCT%)N /H*ASES

(hereas sub$unctions rototy ically introduce embedded clauses 27"A".3, it is also ossible to find them in front of constructions that lac! a sub$ect and a redicate 2a3" :sually such constructions can be seen as reduced or truncated clauses" There are three main ty es: com arati'e sub$unction hrases 2a3, redicati'e sub$unction hrases 2b3, and concessi'e sub$unction hrases 2c3" The Norwegian comparative subjunction phrase consists of a com arati'e sub$unction 2enn 4than6 or som 4as63 followed by a noun hrase or some other hrase that may function as a rimary art of a clause: (1) a. "omsvikingene var taprere enn nordmennene. !omsvikin#s.the were braver than .orwe#ians.the $he !omsvikin#s were braver than the .orwe#ians. The predicative subjunction phrase consists of som 4as6 followed by a noun hrase, an ad$ecti'e, or a artici al hrase: (1) b. )$ er sommeren som varmest. now is summer.the as warmest .ow the summer is as warm as it #ets. The Norwegian concessive subjunction phrase consists of a concessi'e sub$unction and a com lement" The most common sub$unction in Norwegian is selv om 4e'en though6: (1) c. Han var alltid snill selv om han var streng. he was always kind althou#h he was strict He was always kind althou#h he was strict.

."@ AG*EE#ENT /HEN)#ENA AT THE /H*ASE 0E>E0

%n Norwegian, there is hrase internal agreement 2concord3 within noun hrases: determiners, &uantifiers, and ad$ecti'esG ast artici les agree with the head of the noun hrase in number and gender" %n addition, the ad$ecti'e has different forms for definite and indefinite noun hrases: #asculineG,eminine gender singular: (1) a. en r#d bil+ den r#de bilen3 all suppa a red car the red car.the all soup.the a red car the red car all the soup #asculineG,eminine gender lural: (1) b. r#de biler+ red cars red cars de r#de bilene3 the red cars.the the red cars alle suppene all soups.the all the soups

Neuter gender singular: (1) c. et r#dt hus+ a red house a red house det r#de huset+ the red house.the the red house alt #let all beer.the all the beer

Neuter gender lural: (1) d. r#de hus3 de r#de husene3 red houses the red houses.the red houses the red houses alle #lene all beers.the all the beers

7"F %NT*)+:CT%)N O ()*+ C0ASSES

The words in a language li!e Norwegian are classified into different grou s with something in common" The classification may treat their inflection, their meaning, or their function, e"g" which clausal element they constitute" Nouns are words that refer to ersons, animals, or concrete or abstract things, for e-am le (aria, gutt 4boy,6 hund 4dog,6 hus 4house,6 or lgn 4lie"6 Adjectives are words that denote characteristics, for e-am le rd 4red,6 norsk 4Norwegian,6 lang 4long,6 gift 4married,6 adelig 4noble"6 Pronouns are words that re lace nouns, for e-am le jeg 4%,6 du 4you,6 hun 4she,6 dere 4you,6 or words that s ecify which noun is referred to, for e-am le denne 4this,6 den der 4that,6 alle 4all,6 noe 4some,6 visse 4certain"6

Verbs are words that denote what ha ens, for e-am le springe 4run,6 gi 4gi'e,6 underske 4ins ect,6 kunne 4canG!now,6 ville 4want,6 puste 4breathe"6 Prepositions are small, short words directly in front of a noun" They indicate osition, oint of time, etc", for e-am le p .stolen$ 4on 2the chair3,6 i .huset$ 4in 2the house3"6 They may also occur before nouns with definitions, for e-am le under 4under6 2den n#e stolen 4the new chair63, over 4o'er6 2+ennings gamle hus 4Hennings old house63" Adverbs are words that modify 'erbs, ad$ecti'es, or ad'erbs" They re resent s ace, time, manner, &uantity, etc", for e-am le her 4here,6 dit 4there,6 n 4now,6 ofte 4often,6 sikkert 4certainly,6 ganske 4fairly,6 kanskje 4maybe"6 Numerals are words that state number or order, for e-am le : ett 4one,6 tre 4three,6 s#ttiseks 4se'enty1si-,6 tredje 4third,6 sjuende 4se'enth"6 Subjunctions are words that introduce a subordinate clause, for e-am le at 4that,6 som 4whoGwhich,6 ettersom 4since,6 om 4if,6 til tross for at 4des ite"6 onjunctions are words that con$oin words, hrases, or clauses of the same !ind: +enning og ,ise 4Henning and 0ise,6 s#nge eller spille 4sing or lay,6 ,asse spiser men ,ise sover 40asse is eating but 0ise is slee ing"6

7"1 N):NS O GENE*A0

A ty ical noun is a word that refer to a erson or a thing, which can be receded by an indefinite article: en stol 4a chair,6 ei seng 4a bed,6 et eple 4an a le6L which can be inflected in lural: stoler 4chairs,6 senger 4beds,6 epler 4a les6L and which can ha'e a definiteness ending: stol-en 4the chair,6 seng-a 4the bed,6 epl-et 4the a le"6 %n Norwegian, nouns also are classified in different genders: the word stol is masculine, seng is feminine, and eple is neuter" Though, certain words constitute e-ce tions, mass nouns li!e melk 4mil!6 and vann 4water6 normally lac! the ossibility to follow the indefinite article enGeiGet 4a6 or to ta!e lural ending" The ro er nouns are the ones that di'erge the mostL in rinci le, they lac! all these characteristics" See article 7"1"9" Nouns re resent the main word of the nominal hraseL it is ossible to enlarge them with attributes before or after: (1) e gamm m Polen+ m de ti fra hus der borte+ n/e bidraget konferansen n el ann itt t l f 6oland hous o th ne contribution.t conference.t an old man my there3 to rom 3 e ver e w he he (? the new contribution to the conference)

7"1"1 ,orm
Norwegian nouns are built u around a root" Some of these nouns contains only one root, while others ha'e a certain ending: -e, -en, -el or -er" (1) stol gatBe chair street v$pBen weapon n#kkBel key s#stBer sister

The different ty es are inflected in different ways in the lural" See 7"1"7"1" Norwegian nouns can also contain a root with a s ecial ending, which has its own meaning" Here are some fre&uent endings of this ty e: (") a. fiskBerK fisherman somebody whos fishin# fiskBeriK fishin# the industry of fishin# fiskBingK fishin# the activity of fishin# b. frekkBhetK impudence somethin# impudent frekkBasK bold3 impudent person someone who is bein# impudent The endings abo'e ma!e the words into nouns" They also decide how the words are inflected" Sometimes also refi-es may be used" The most common refi- is the negating u-" )ther common refi-es aremis-, van-, be-, and for-/fore-" (&) uBflaks uBv*r forBsvare beBtale misBtolke vanB*re bad luck bad weather defend pay misinterpret dis#race3 dishonour Norwegian nouns may also contain two roots" %n these cases we are tal!ing about com ounds" %n Norwegian, com ounds are 'ery common" Note that in contrast to English com ounds are generally written as one word in Norwegian" Some e-am les are gi'en below: (() husBb$t b$tBhus skriveBbord r#dBvin house boat boat house writin# desk red wine (() gateBadresse kokeBbok seilingsBul/kke forsvarsBminister street address cook book sailin# accident minister of defence

7"1". Gender
Norwegian nouns ha'e three different genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter" A masculine noun gets the indefinite article en, a feminine noun gets ei, and a neuter noun gets et"

(1) Masc.: viking vikin# (1) %em.: ku cow

en viking a vikin#

ei ku a cow

(1) )eut.: hus et hus house a house The definite article is an ending on the noun in Norwegian" A masculine noun gets the ending -en/-n, a feminine noun gets -a, and a neuter noun gets the -et/-t" (") Masc.: vikingBen vikin#.the the vikin# (") %em.: kuBa cow.the the cow dragBen dra#on.the the dra#on

sengBa bed.the the bed

(") )eut.: husBet epleBt house.the apple.the the house the apple Nouns that denote human beings and animals are normally masculine when referring to males, and feminine when referring to females: (&) Masc.: mann man (&) %em.: kvinne woman (&) Masc.: hest horse 7"1"."1 Concord All the three genders ha'e different indefinite and definite article" Ad$ecti'es and ronouns within a noun hrase also show gender differences" Note that they ha'e the same form in the masculine and the feminine genders" Masculine: (1) a. Indefinite article: en stol a chair %eminine: ei ku a cow )euter: et eple an apple en mann a man ei kvinne a woman en hest a horse

b. #efinite article: stolBen kuBa chair.the cow.the the chair the cow c. Indef. article * adj.: en brun stol a brown chair d. Pronoun: denne stolBen this chair.the this chair e. Pronoun: noen stol some chair

epleBt apple.the the apple et brunBt eple a brown..*L$ apple

ei brun ku a brown cow

denne kuBa this cow.the thie cow

dette epleBt this apple.the this apple

noen ku some cow

noe eple some apple

%n the lural, this gender difference is not 'isible on ad$ecti'es and ronouns: f. Adjective: brune stolBer brown chairs #. Pronoun: disse stolBene these chairs.the these chairs h. Pronoun: noen stolBer some chairs brune k/Br brown cows brune epleBr brown apples disse epleBne these apples.the these apples

disse k/rBene these cows.the these cows

noen k/Br some cows

noen epleBr some apples

This ty e of congruence is also 'isible on ad$ecti'es after the 'erbs 4be6 and 4get"6 (") 'tolen er brun. chair.the is brown $he chair is brown. &ua er brun. cow.the is brown $he cow is brown. 3plet er brunt. apple.the is brown..*L$ $he apple is brown.

(hen a noun is referred to by a ronoun, gender is 'isible in another way" See 7"1".". This !ind of gender concord is absent from English" 7"1".". /ronominal reference %t is 'ery common to refer to a noun with a ersonal ronoun" %n these cases Norwegian uses four different ronouns to refer to the noun" %f it is a neuter noun, the ronoun det 4it6 is used" %f the gender is masculine or feminine, it is ossible to use some of the ronouns han 4he,6 hun 4she,6 or den 4it"6 (hen the noun refer to a mann 4man6 the ronoun han 4he6 is used"

(hen the noun refer to a kvinne 4woman6 the ronoun hun 4she6 is used" (hen the noun refer to a thing or something inanimate, the ronoun den 4it6 is used" %f the noun refers to animals with a certain !ind of ersonality, it is ossible to use han 4he6 or hun 4she,6 otherwise den 4it6 is used also for animals in masculine or feminine" (1) a. Huset ble ikke ferdig innen de solgte det. house.the became not finished until they sold it $he house wasnt finished by the time they sold it. b. Gutten kunne ikke vite hvem som skulle m#te ham. boy.the could not know who that should meet him $he boy couldnt know who would meet him. c. Dronninga ble glad for at avisen skrev om henne. 7ueen.the became happy for that newspaper.the wrote about her $he 7ueen was happy because the news paper wrote about her. d. 'oka m$ skrives innen man kan selge den. book.the must be'written before one can sell it $he book must be written before it can be sold. A common e-ce tion is that Norwegian s ea!ers may use hun when tal!ing about time" (") . Hva er klokka? what is clock.the :hat time is it; . Hun er halv sju. she is half seven Its half past si,.

+an and hun are much more commonly used about things in s o!en and 2 artly also3 in written Norwegian than it is in English"

7"1"7 %nflection
Norwegian nouns can be inflected in number 2singular 1 lural3, definiteness 2definite 1 indefinite3, and case 2nominati'e 1 geniti'e3" All three inflections are 'isible as endings on common, concrete nouns" Singular, indefinite, and nominati'e nouns ha'e no ending at all, but on lural nouns, definite nouns, and nouns in geniti'e, three endings are 'isible" (1) Masc. Singular + indefinite + nominative: stol chair %em. flue fly )eut. eple apple

Singular + indefinite + genitive: stolBs chairs

flueBs flys

epleBs apples epleBt apple.the the apple epleBtBs apple.thes the apples

Singular + definite + nominative: stolBen fluBa chair.the fly.the the chair the fly Singular + definite + genitive: stolBenBs chair.thes the chairs (") Plural + indefinite + nominative: stolBer chairs Plural + indefinite + genitive: stolBerBs chairs fluBaBs fly.thes the flys flueBr flies

epleBr apples epleBrBs apples epleBne apples.the the apples epleBneBs apples.thes the apples

flueBrBs flies

Plural + definite + nominative: stolBene chairs.the the chairs Plural + definite + genitive: stolBeneBs chairs.thes the chairs

flueBne flies.the the flies

flueBneBs flies.thes the flies

Thus the lural endings -er/-r and -ene/-ne come first" They are followed by the ending for geniti'e case -s" 7"1"7"1 Number #ost Norwegian nouns are inflected in number, singular or lural" There are three different ways of forming lural in Norwegian" The ending -er: #ost nouns ending in a consonant belong to this grou : prest prest-er 4clergyman 1 clergymen,6 seng - senger 4bed 1 beds"6 Some words get umlaut in lural, which means a change of the root 'owel: fot - ftter 4foot 1 feet,6 bok - bker 4boo! 1 boo!s,6 hnd - hender 4hand 1 hands"6 The ending -r: )nly a few nouns belong to this grou , abo'e all monosyllabic words that end with a 'owel: klo - klr 4claw 1 claws,6 t - tr 4toe 1 toes,6 linje linjer 4line 1 lines,6 or nouns with the ending -else: fristelse - fristelser 4tem tation 1 tem tations"6

The ending -e: #ost nouns ending in -er in singular belong to this grou : baker bakere 4ba!er 1 ba!ers,6 sster - sstre 4sister 1 sisters,6 mnster - mnstre 4 attern 1 atterns"6 No ending: Almost all neuter nouns that end in a consonant belong to this grou : hus - hus 4house 1 houses,6 smil - smil 4smile 1 smiles,6 forslag - forslag 4suggestion 1 suggestions"6 7"1"7". +efiniteness Norwegian nouns normally ha'e one definite and one indefinite form" /ro er nouns as Peter% (aria, and 8uropa 4Euro e6 ha'e a definite meaning in themsel'es and cannot co1occur with a definite article" %ndefinite nouns ha'e no ending while nouns that are definite ta!e the ending -enG-n in masculine, -a in feminine, and -etG-t in neuter" (1) kjempe kjempeBn #iant #iant.the #iant the #iant bok bokBa book book.the book the book eple epleBt apple apple.the apple the apple 7"1"7"7 Case Norwegian ma!es a distinction between two cases: nominati'e and geniti'e" The geniti'es ha'e one single function, namely to indicate ossession and similar relations between two nouns or between two noun hrases" The geniti'e endings are 'ery easy to learnL the suffi- -s is attached at the end of the word 2after other endings3" (1) mannens hest man.thes horse the mans horse min brors kone my brothers wife my brothers wife Hennings bil Hennin#s car Hennin#s car "upiters m$ner !upiters moons !upiters moons husets rom house.thes room the rooms of the house dagens beslutning day.thes decision todays decision hus husBet house house.the house the house stol stolBen chair chair.the chair the chair

%n ancient Norwegian, geniti'e was used after the re osition til 4to,6 and there are for that reason &uite a few e- ressions with til 4to6 followed by a geniti'e noun

with the -s suffi-" #any of these e- ressions ha'e a s ecial meaning, and therefore they can be used only in s ecial cases: (") til skogs to forest.K*. to the forest til fots to foot.K*. on foot (only when it is referred to the movement) til sj#s to sea.K*. by sea (only about sailors til bords to table.K*. to>at the table (only about meals

7"1"9 /ro er names

/ro er nouns are artly names of ersons, such as Peter and +edda, and artly lace names such as 4orge 4Norway6 and &roms" They are fundamentally de'oid of meaning 2e'en though Peter always must indicate a man and +edda a woman3" %n writing ro er nouns are s elled with an initial ca ital letter" 7"1"9"1 Gender Names of ersons are always masculine or feminine nouns, while lace names are normally neuter" (1) a. Hedda er vakker. Hedda is beautiful Hedda is beautiful. b. 9in Hedda my Hedda my Hedda 7"1"9". Number /ro er nouns are not inflected for number" Names of ersons are always in the singular, while lace names can be either singular or lural" Singular: 9slo, -ergen, (jsa, (ongolia /lural: :r#ene 4the ,aeroe %slands,6 Alpene 4the Al s,6 :ilippinene 4the /hili ines"6 7"1"9"7 Syntactic function /ro er nouns are 'ery often used on their own, without attributes, but they may ha'e attributes both before and after them, in the same way as common nouns" Accordingly, they can constitute the head of a noun hrase" Droms# er vakkert. $roms5 is beautiful..*L$ $roms5 is beautiful.

9itt Droms# my..*L$ $roms5 my $roms5

(1) a. min mann my husband b. den lille jenta the little #irl.the the little #irl

min 3spen my *spen den lille &arin the little Aarin the little Aarin ;ise med flettene 9ise with plaits.the 9ise with the plaits Hedda fra )arvik Hedda from .arvik Hedda from .arvik

c. dama med hatten lady.the with hat.the the lady with the hat d. gutten fra Droms# boy.the from $roms5 the boy from $roms5 7"1"9"9 %nflection

/ro er nouns are normally not inflected for number or definiteness" Howe'er, they can be inflected in the geniti'e, by adding the geniti'e suffi- -s" (1) HenningBs bror Hennin#s brother 3vaBs stil *vas essay ;iseBs id: 9ises idea

7". A+<ECT%>ES
A ty ical ad$ecti'e is a word that denotes a ro erty, such as colour, form, siKe, or nationality" The words rd 4red,6 rund 4round,6 stor 4bigGlarge,6 and norsk 4Norwegian6 are thus ad$ecti'es" So are the more abstract words farlig 4dangerous,6 vidunderlig 4wonderful,6 kritisk 4critical,6 and aktuell 4current, u 1to1 date"6 Ad$ecti'es modify nouns, and they inflect in accordance with this noun 2concord3: (1) en stor hest a bi# horse ei god bok a #ood book et stort hus a bi# house

Ad$ecti'es may also be inflected for com arison: (") stor st#rre st#rst bi# bi##er bi##est svak svakere svakest weak weaker weakest

7"."1 ,orm
Ad$ecti'es often only contain a root, such as bra 4good,6 stor 4bigGlarge,6 liten 4littleGsmall,6 ung 4young,6 and gammel 4old"6 #any ad$ecti'es are also deri'ed by suffi-es"

(1) *bar+ merkbar noticable *ig+ l/dig obedient

b*rbar portable

*lig+ mannlig manly3 masculine *sk+ engelsk *n#lish *isk+ erotisk erotic statistisk statistical

$rlig annually

*som+ hjelpsom helpful *et,e-: klossete clumsy *ende+ levende alive

slitsom tiresome

Norwegian also has many words with the international 2latin3 suffi-es, such as -abel: riskabel 4ris!y,6 diskutabel 4&uestionable,6 and -iv: massiv 4massi'e,6 intensiv 4intensi'e"6

7".". %nflection
Ad$ecti'es are inflected in two ways" They are inflected for com arison ta!ing the ositi'e, the com arati'e, and the su erlati'e forms: (1) stor st#rre st#rst bi# bi##er bi##est They are also inflected for concord with the noun they are modifying in gender, number, and definiteness: (") en stor bil a bi# car et stort hus a bi#..*L$ house den store bilen the bi#.@*E car flere store biler many bi#.69 cars

ontrastive notes: The English grou should note that concord is lac!ing in English

The German and %celandic grou s should add that concord in'ol'es the category case" 7"."."1 Com arison Norwegian ad$ecti'es are inflected for the com arison" They can be in the ositi'e, in the com arati'e, or in the su erlati'e" Com arati'e and su erlati'e forms e- ress a com arison" Com arati'e is formed by adding the suffi- -ereL in the su erlati'e the suffi- -est is added" (1) svak svakere svakest weak weaker weakest sterk sterkere sterkest stron# stron#er stron#est

Some common ad$ecti'es form their com arati'e by adding -re and their su erlati'e by adding -st" %n these cases the stem 'owel is mutated 2i1umlaut3: a becomes e, o becomes , or u becomes #" (") lang lengre lengst lon# lon#er lon#est stor st#rre st#rst bi# bi##er bi##est ung /ngre /ngst youn# youn#er youn#est

Some common ad$ecti'es ha'e one root in its ositi'e form and another root in its com arati'e and su erlati'e forms" (& gamm eldr eldst ) el e olde olde old r st mindr minst e smal small smalle l er st liten bedr e # bette ood r bra b est b est d$rli d$rlige d$rlig g re st bad worse worst

Some ad$ecti'es are inflected for com arison with mer 4more6 and mest 4most"6 See the ad$ecti'e hrase ."7". 7".".". Concord Norwegian ad$ecti'es normally agree with the nounG ronoun they are modifying" They are then inflected for gender, number, and definiteness" +ifferences in gender are only found in singular, and both the definite form and the lural has the ending ;e" Therefore there are only three different ty es: the ad$ecti'e can lac! the ending: stor 4big6L it can ha'e neuter singular -t: stortL or it can ha'e -e: stor-e" (1) a. en stor bil den store bilen a bi# car the bi# car.the a bi# car the bi# car b. et stort hus a bi# house to store biler two bi# cars two bi# cars de store bilene the bi# cars.the the bi# cars de store husene the bi# houses.the

det store huset the bi# house.the

to store hus two bi# houses

a bi# house

the bi# house

two bi# houses

the bi# houses

The agreement that is illustrated in the two first e-am les is found in indefinite noun hrases, but also when the ad$ecti'e is a redicate" (") 8ilen er stor. car.the is bi# $he car is bi#. Huset er stort. 8ilene 4 husene er store. house.the is bi# cars.the > houses.the are bi# $he house is bi#. $he cars>houses are bi#.

7"7 /*)N):NS
/ronouns are used to re lace nouns or to identify them 2to oint them out3" They constitute the nucleus or attribute of a noun hrase" Ty ical ronouns that re lace a noun are the ersonal ronouns, li!e jeg 4%,6 du 4you,6 han 4he,6 hun 4she,6 etc" /ronouns which identify a noun may for instance be demonstrati'es, li!e denne 4this,6 den her 4this,6 interrogati'e, such as hvem 4who,6 hva 4what,6 etc", or ronouns e- ressing amount or number, such as alle 4all,6 noen 4some, any,6 mange 4many,6 f 4few"6 /ronouns can be di'ided into grou s in many different ways" %n this reading grammar, we sort them into the following four main ty es: +efinite ronouns %nterrrogati'e ronouns Duantitati'e ronouns *elational ronouns

7"7"1 +efinite ronouns

(hen the s ea!er uses definite ronouns, it means that heGshe belie'es that the listener !nows which erson or thing is being referred to" (e identify the following ty es: (1) Personal pronouns: jeg meg min du I me my you #efinite articles: den det de the the the #emonstrative pronouns: denne dette den this this that ,efle-ive pronouns: seg sin

himself>herself his>her ,eciprocal pronouns: hverandre each other ,elative pronouns: som hvilken that which 7"7"1"1 /ersonal ronouns Norwegian ersonal ronouns belong to first erson 2the s ea!er3, second erson 2the listener3, or third erson 2the mentioned3" These three ersons can be in the singular or in the lural" Additionally, they can ha'e different cases" The ha'e one sub$ect form, one ob$ect form, and one ossessi'e form" The sub$ect form is used when the ronoun constitutes the sub$ect, the ossessi'e form to denote ossession and the ob$ect form in all other cases" (1) a. Jeg traff Henning. I met Hennin# b. Henning traff meg. Hennin# met me c. Henning spiste opp isen min. Hennin# ate up ice'cream.the my Hennin# ate up my ice cream. Norwegian ersonal ronouns are the following: (1) Singular: .. jeg I /. du you 0. Masc. han he 0. %em. hun she 0. Masc.1%em. den it 0. )eut. det it meg me deg you ham him henne her den it det it min+ mitt+ mine my din+ ditt+ dine your hans his hennes her dens its dets its v$r+ v$rt+ v$re our deres your deres their

Plural: .. vi we /. dere you 0. Masc.1%em.1)eut. de they

oss us dere you dem them

/re'iously a more olite form of du 4you,6 7e , was used" Since the 18@Fs, though, du is used almost e-clusi'ely to e'erybody, irres ecti'e age and status"

The ronouns han 4he6 and hun 4she6 only denote human beings and some animals" Things and abstract henomena are denoted with the ronoun den or detL den 4it6 for masculine and feminine words, det 4it6 for neuter words" Cf" aragra h 7"1".". The ronoun det is used as a sub$ect in clauses li!e the ones below" (") a. Det regner. it rains Its rainin#. b. Det var h/ggelig at du kom. it was nice that you came c. Det sitter ei katt p$ trappa. it sits a cat on stairs.the % cat is sittin# on the stairs. 7"7"1". ,ree definite article %n Norwegian, the definite article is generally a suffi- to the noun: bil"en 4car"the,6 huset 4house"the,6 s!o1ene 4shoes1the"6 %n some cases, howe'er, this suffi- has to be com lemented with an inde endent article, namely when an ad$ecti'e, a ronoun, or a numeral recedes the noun" This article is den in singular masculine and feminine, det in singular neuter, and de in lural" (1) bilen den hvite bilen de mange bilene car.the the white car.the the many cars.the the car the white cars the many cars senga den m/ke senga de m/ke sengene bed.the the soft bed.the the soft beds.the the bed the soft bed the soft beds huset det r#de huset de tre husene house.the the red house.the the three houses.the the house the red house the three houses See also section ."."7"1 7"7"1"7 +emonstrati'e ronouns Norwegian has two demonstrati'e ronouns: denne 4this6 and den 4that"6 (1) a. Singular masc.1fem.: denne Singular neut.: dette Plural: disse

this b. Singular masc.1fem.: den that

this Singular neut.: det that

these Plural: de those

(hen receded by a demonstrati'e ronoun, the Norwegian noun is in the definite form: denne mannen 4this man,6 dette ret 4this year,6 disse rene 4these years,6 den veien 4that way,6 den boka 4this boo!,6 det huset 4that house,6 de husene 4those houses"6 7"7"1"9 *efle-i'e ronouns Norwegian has a 7rd erson refle-i'e, seg 4*E,06 and sin 4*E,0,6 which refer to the sub$ect in a clause" The former is indeclinable, while the latter is inflected according to the number and gender of the nucleus: sin, si, sitt, sine" (1) a. @utten s$ seg i speilet. boy.the saw D*E9 in mirror.the $he boy looked in the mirror. b. "enta s$ armen sin i speilet. #irl.the saw arm.the her in mirror.the $he #irl saw her arm in the mirror. c. @utten s$ klokka si i speilet. boy.the saw watch.the his in mirror.the $he boy saw his watch in the mirror. d. "entene vasket seg. D*E9 #irls.the washed $he #irls washed themselves. e. @utten s$ kneet sitt i speilet. boy.the saw knee.the his in mirror.the $he boy saw his knee in the mirror. f. 8arnet har vasket seg. child.the has washed D*E9 $he child had washed itself. #. @utten s$ f#ttene sine i speilet. boy.the saw feet.the his in mirror.the $he boy saw his feet in the mirror. #any 'erbs demand a refle-i'e seg:

(") a. 3rik blandet seg i andres aff*rer. D*E9 in others business *rik mi,ed *rik interfered with other peoples business. b. Hedda angret seg. Hedda re#reted D*E9 Hedda was sorry. 7"7"1"= *eci rocal ronouns (hen the sub$ect is in the lural, and a reci rocal action or state is described, the ronoun hverandre 4each otherGone another6 or hverandres 4each other6s6 is used: (1) a. 3rik og Hedda elsker hverandre. *rik and Hedda love each other b. Vi diskuterer ofte med hverandre. we discuss often with each other :e often discuss with each other. c. 3va og "an l$ner ofte hverandres s/kler. *va and !an borrow often each others bikes *va and !an often borrow each others bikes. 7"7"1"? *elati'e ronouns Norwegian relati'e clauses are usually initiated with the sub$unction som 4that"6 See sections 7"A".". and 1"1F"." %n addition, Norwegian has the relati'e ronouns hvis 4whose,6 e- ressing ossession, and hva 4what6 may be used when the relati'e clause lac!s a word which can be referred to" Howe'er, this use of these ronouns is rather formal, and is rarely found in s eech and informal writing" (1) a. huset hvis eier nettopp hadde d#dd house.the whose owner recently had died the house whose owner had died recently b. Han har hva vi mangler. he has what we lack He has what we lack.

7"7". %nterrogati'e ronouns

Norwegian interrogati'e ronouns are rimarily hvem 4who,6 hva 4what,6 and hvilken 4which"6 The ronoun hvem 4who6 refers to a erson, while hva 4what6 refers to a thing or something abstract" +vem 4who6 may ha'e the geniti'e form

hvems 4whose,6 but it is more common to use hvem followed by the refle-i'e ronoun sin/si/sitt/sine" (1) a. Hvem har stj$let t#flene mine? who has stolen slippers.the my :ho has stolen my slippers; b. Hvem snakket du med? who talked you with :ho did you talk to; c. Hvems b#ker er dette? whose books are this :hose books are these; d. Hvem sine b#ker er dette? who his>her books are this :hose books are these; e. Hva har du kj#pt? what have you bou#ht :hat did you buy; f. Hva skjer p$ mandag? what happens on /onday The ronoun hvilken 4which6 refers to ersons as well as to things" %t is inflected according to gender and number: hvilkenGhvilketGhvilke 4whoGwhich"6 :nli!e hvem 4who6 and hva 4what,6 it re&uires a limited &uantity to choose from" Therefore hvilken 4which6 is fre&uently an ad$unct of a noun" (") a. Hvilken er di kusine? which is your cousin :hich one is your cousin; b. Hvilket er ditt hus? which is your house c. Hvilke er dine votter? which are your mittens :hich ones are you mittens; d. Hvilken jente mener du? which #irl mean you :hich #irl do you mean;

e. Hvilket hus er st#rst? which house is bi##est :hich house is the bi##est; f. Hvilke biler er eldst? which cars are oldest; :hich cars are the oldest;

7"7"7 Duantitati'e ronouns

Duantitati'e ronouns gi'e information about share or &uantity" Common ronouns, li!e alle 4all,6 begge 4both,6 hver 4e'ery,6 mange 4many,6 m#e 4much,6 f 4few,6 and ingen 4nobody6 belong to this grou " 7"7"7"1 Totality ronouns Norwegian uses the ronouns all/alle 4all,6 begge 4both,6 samtlige 4all theP,6 and hele 4whole6 to indicate that the set of referents is in its totality without e-clusion" The word all 4all6 in the singular refers to uncountable nouns: all melka 4all the mil!,6 alt smret 4all the butter"6 %n general, howe'er, these words are used in the lural" To e- ress the totality of a countable singular noun, the ronoun hele 4whole6 is used: hele huset 4the whole house,6 hele dagen 4the whole day"6 The words samtlige 4all6 and begge 4both6 are both used in the lural" The word all/alle 4all6 can be combined either with indefinite or with definite form" -egge 4both6 and hele 4whole6 can only be combined with definite form, and samtlige 4all6 normally $ust with indefinite form" (1) all melk all melken all milk all milk.the all milk all the milk begge spillerne both players both players alle spillere all players all players alle spillerne all players.the all the players

hele spillet whole play.the the whole play

samtlige spillere all players all players

7"7"7". +istributi'e ronouns The most common distributi'e ronoun in Norwegian is hver 4e'eryGeach"6 This ronoun always occurs together with an indefinite noun in the singular, and it agrees in gender with this noun: hver mann 4each man,6 hver kvinne 4each woman,6 hvert hus 4each house"6 %t also occurs inde endently at the end of the clause" (1) a. Hver student m$ kunne dette.

every student must could this *very student must know this. b. Vi betalte E- kroner hver. we payed 42 1rowns each )ther distributi'e ronouns are hver eneste 4e'ery6 and the combined forms hver og en 4each6 and hver sinGhvert sitt6each"6 %f something is e&ually shared, hver sin 4each6 is used to e- ress this" (") a. @uttene fikk hver sin is. boys.the #ot each his ice'cream $he boys were #iven an ice cream each. b. De kj#pte hvert sitt hus. they bou#ht each their house $hey bou#ht one house each. c. De kj#pte hver sine to aviser. they bou#ht each their two newspapers $hey bou#ht two papers each. 7"7"7"7 Generalising ronouns A 'ery common ronoun in Norwegian is man 4oneGyou"6 (ithout further s ecifications, it refers to a erson" The direct ob$ect form of the ronoun is en and the geniti'e form ens 4ones"6 (1) a. 9an kan ofte sk/lde p$ sin partner. one can often blame on ones partner <ne>you can often blame ones>your partner. b. <m noen prater med en i b/en ... if somebody talks with one in town.the If somebody talks to you in townM c. 3ns partner er ofte den verste kritikeren. ones partner is often the worst critic.the <nes>+our partner is often ones>your worst critic. The word man 4one6 is often used instead of jeg 4%"6 %n addition, there are many ronouns that consist of an interrogati'e and som helst 4anyhowGanywayGany time6 etc"

(") a. Hvem som helst kan gj#re dette. who that ever can do this %nyone can do this. b. "eg aksepterer hva som helst. I accept what that ever I accept anythin#. c. "eg vil ikke bo hvor som helst. I will not live where that ever I dont want to live =ust anywhere. 7"7"7"9 #ultitude ronouns The most common multitude ronouns are mange 4many6 and f 4few,6 which refer to countable nouns and m#e 4much6 and lite 4little,6 which refer to uncountable nouns or nouns that indicate a &uantity" (1) mange b#ker f$ b#ker many books few books m/e vin lite vin much wine little wine m/e epler lite epler much apples little apples

/artly, these ronouns can be com ared" (") a. mange b#ker flere b#ker flest b#ker many books more books most books b. f$ b#ker f*rre b#ker f*rrest b#ker few books fewer books fewest books c. m/e vin mere vin mest vin much wine more wine most wine d. lite vin mindre vin minst vin little wine less wine least wine 7"7"7"= The indefinite article The indefinite article in Norwegian is en in masculine, ei in feminine, and et in neuter" Normally, it is unstressed, but in writing, it is im ossible to se arate it from the numeral enGeiGett" (1) a. Vi har kj#pt en n/ bil. we have bou#ht a new car b. @uttene stjal en s/kkel. boys.the stole a bike

$he boys stole a bike. c. Det ligger ei bok p$ bordet. it lies a book on table.the $here is a book (lyin#) on the table. d. Vi kj#rte forbi ei kirke. we drove passed a church :e passed a church. e. Hun satte et kr/ss i ruta. she placed a cross in s7uare.the )he ticked off the bo,. f. ;ena pakket den inn i et r#dt papir. 9ena wrapped it in in a red paper 9ena wrapped it in a red wrappin# paper. There is no indefinite lural article in Norwegian" (") a. Vi har kj#pt n/e biler. we have bou#ht new cars b. Det ligger b#ker p$ bordet. it lies books on table.the $here are books (lyin#) on the table. c. ;ena pakket dem inn i r#de papir. 9ena wrapped them in in red papers 9ena wrapped them in red wrappin# papers. 7"7"7"? %ndefinite ronouns The most common indefinite ronoun is noenGnoe 4someoneGsomethingGanyoneGanything"6 (hen used inde endently in masculine and feminine, it refers to a erson, when used inde endently in neuter, it signifies a thing or a henomenon" The lural form normally signifies ersons" (1) a. )oen har stj$let t#flene mine. someone has stolen slippers my )omeone has stolen my slippers. b. )oe har hendt. somethin# has happened c. )oen ble irriterte.

someone became irritated )omeone was irritated. The ronoun is often used together with a noun" Then it means 4some, any 2more than nothing3"6 (") a. Han sprang noen kilometer. he ran some kilometers He ran a few kilometers. b. )oen fiskere stod og pratet p$ brua. some fishermen stood and talked on brid#e.the )ome fishermen were talkin# on the brid#e. c. Har du noen penger? have you any money @o you have any money; d. &ari beh#ver ikke noen penger. Aari needs not any money Aari doesnt need any money. )ther indefinite ronouns in Norwegian are enkelte 4some,6 adskillige 4se'eral,6 and visse 4certain"6 They are normally only used in the lural" (&) a. 3nkelte menn! tror at han kommer til $ klare det. some men believe that he comes to to mana#e it )ome (men) believe that hell succeed. b. Visse kvinner! tror at han kommer til $ misl/kkes. certain women believe that he comes to to fail 1ertain (women) believe that hell fail. c. %dskillige barn! h$per at han kommer til $ snuble. several children hope that he comes to to trip )everal (children) hope that hell trip. 7"7"7"@ Negating ronouns The ronoun ingenGintet 4nobody, noGnothing6 can be inde endent, and in masculine and feminine it then refers to a erson" %n neuter it refers to a thing or a henomenon" The neuter form is rather formal, and it is not 'ery common in s eech and in informal writing" (1) a. Ingen vet hva vi skal gj#re. nobody knows what we shall do

.obody knows what to do. b. Intet er mer ubehagelig enn en lungebetennelse. nothin# is more unpleasant than a pneumonia .othin# is more unpleasant than pneumonia. %t is also ossible to combine a negati'e ronoun with a noun" (") a. Ingen bok ble solgt. no book became sold .o book was sold. b. Intet forslag kunne v*re dummere. no su##estion could be stupid.er .o su##estion could be more stupid. c. Vi fikk ingen penger. we #ot no money The ronoun ingenting 4nothing6 refers to things" (&) a. Ingenting har hendt. nothin# has happened b. Vi fant ingenting. we found nothin# (hen the ob$ect is a negated ronoun 2ingenting 4nothing63 or a noun hrase with ingen 2ingen s#kkel 4no bi!e63 it cannot be laced further to the right than the negation, as illustrated by the ungrammaticality of 29a3" The e-am les in 29b3 are rarely used in s eech, but may be found in literary te-ts" Howe'er, the constructions in 29c3, with the negation 2ikke 4not63 and a ositi'e ronoun 2noenting 4somethingGanything63 or a noun hrase with noen 2noen s#kkel 4someGany bi!e63, are generally referred: (() a. Han hadde sett ingenting. he had seen nothin# b. Han hadde ingenting sett. he had nothin# seen Han hadde kj#pt ingen s/kkel. he had bou#ht no bike

Han hadde ingen s/kkel kj#pt. he had no bike bou#ht Han hadde ikke kj#pt noen s/kkel. he had not bou#ht any bike

c. Han hadde ikke sett noenting. he had not seen anythin#

7"7"9 *elational ronouns

Norwegian has a number of relational ronouns" They can e- ress com arisons, such as samme 4same,6 likedan 4similar,6 succession, such as frste 4first,6 neste 4ne-t,6 s atial com arisons, such as borterste 4further,6 midterste 4middle,6 or focus, such as selv 4self"6 7"7"9"1 Com arati'e ronouns The most common com arati'e ronouns are annen 4other,6 samme 4same,6 likedan 4similar,6 and slik 4such"6 /amme 4same6 is rinci ally indeclinable, while the remaining ones agree with the gender of the noun: annenGannetGandre 4other,6 likedanGlikedantGlikedanne 4similar,6 slikGsliktGslike 4such"6 (1) en annen bil an other car et likedant hus a similar house et slikt hus a such house (? such a house)

Annen 4other6 can be combined with a enn 4than61 hrase, while samme 4same,6 likedan 4similar,6 and slik 4such6 can be combined with a som 4asGthat61 hrase" (") a. et annet forslag enn dette ! an other su##estion than this b. samme forslag som forrige gang ! same su##estion as last time c. et likedant 4 slikt forslag som Hedda presenterte ! a similar > such su##estion as Hedda presented a similar>such a su##estion (as that Hedda presented) 7"7"9". )rdinati'e ronouns )rdinati'e ronouns e- ress succession in time or s ace" They include words such as frste 4first,6 siste 4last,6 forrige 4former,6 etc" Normally, they are indeclineable" (1) den siste romanen the last novel.the the latest novel dette f#rste fors#ket this first try.the this first try det siste fors#ket the last try.the the last try neste gang ne,t time ne,t time min forrige hustru my last wife my former wife

7"7"9"7 /ers ecti'e ronouns

/ers ecti'e ronouns state osition in ro ortion to something else" They include h#re 4right6 and venstre 4left,6 the oints of the com ass, and a number of ronouns that state osition, li!e vre 4u er,6 nedre 4lower,6 fremre 4front,6 hitre 4the one nearer,6 midterste 4middle"6 %n addition, the words rett 4right6 and feil 4wrong6 belong to this grou " These ronouns can occur with both indefinite and definite nouns" :sed in re osition hrases, they generally combine with an indefinite noun without any article" )therwise they beha'e li!e an ad$ecti'e, and re&uire double definiteness 2both a renominal definite article, and a definiteness suffi-3" (1) a. p$ 4 i h#/re h$nd on > in ri#ht hand on>in the ri#ht hand den h#/re h$nda. the ri#ht hand.the the ri#ht hand den s#ndre sida the southern side.the the southern side

b. p$ s#ndre side 5 p$ s#rsida ! on southern side on south'side.the on the southern side on the south side c. p$ rett sted on ri#ht place on the ri#ht place det rette stedet the ri#ht place.the the ri#ht place

d. i feil retning in wron# direction in the wron# direction

den feile retninga the wron# direction.the the wron# direction

#ost of the words mainly occur only in definite hrases" (") de n*rmest stolen n e de /tre veggen n e,terio the nearest chair.the thefurthercorner.the the middle lift.the the wall.the r the nearest chair the further corner the middle lift the e,terior wall de bortre hj#rnet t de midterst heise n e n

7"7"9"9 ,ocusing ronouns The focusing ronouns in Norwegian are selv 4self,6 egen 4own,6 eneste 4only,6 blotte 4mere"6 /elv 4self6 can be indefinite, and then it follows its noun" %t can also be definite, and then it recedes the noun: selve 4self"6 (1) kongen selv kin#.the self the kin# himself vi selv we self we ourselves selve kongen self kin#.the the very kin# selve det innerste self the innermost the innermost itself

The ronoun egen 4own6 intensifies a hrase with a geniti'e attribute" /rinci ally, this ronoun always has strong inflection: egenGegetGegne" Sometimes the wea! egne occurs after the definite article" (") min egen bil my own car hans eget forslag his own su##estion hennes egne romaner her own novels det egne forslaget su##estion (? the own his>her own su##estion)

7"9 >E*;S
>erbs denote e'ents or actions: sn 4to snow,6 falle 4to fall,6 arbeide 4to wor!,6 kjpe 4to buy,6 gi 4to gi'e"6 They are inflected for tense 2 resent or ast3, and they may also ha'e a s ecific form for commands 2the im erati'e3" Norwegian 'erbs also ha'e a assi'e form,but only in the resent tense" The 'erbs kjpe 4to buy6 and gi 4to gi'e6 may be inflected for all these categories" (1) Present kj#per buy(s) gir #ive(s) Past kj#pte bou#ht ga #ave Imperative kj#p! buy! gi! #ive! Passive present kj#pes is'bou#ht gis is'#iven

7"9"1 ,orm
%n Norwegian, 'erbs may ha'e different forms in the infiniti'e and in the im erati'e" The infiniti'e generally ends in 1e" (1) Imperative snakk! talk! b/tt! chan#e! kjenn! feel! s/ng! sin#! Infinitive snakke talk b/tte chan#e kjenne feel s/nge sin#

>erbs may be formed in the following way: (") a. ,oot: g$ #o tro believe

b. ,oot * *e suffi-: snakke talk

kaste throw smalne become narrow

c. ,oot * derivational suffi-: svartne become black3 blacken d. #erivational prefi- * root: beBh#ve need e. &ompound: st#vBsuge dust'suck vacuum avBbr/te off'break interrupt forBakte despise

Com ounds with a article and a 'erb root, li!e av-br#te ha'e s ecial ro erties, see aragra h 7"9"1"1 7"9"1"1 Com ounding with articles Norwegian has 'erb articles, which may be laced both before and after the 'erb" (hen the article is laced before the 'erb, it is refi-ed to it, and it is then often used in a more abstract sense" (hen the article is laced after the 'erb, it normally has a more concrete inter retation" (1) a. Jegjeringen avgikk. #overnment.the off.went $he #overnment resi#ned. b. Han uttr/kker seg bra. he out.presses D*E9 well He e,presses himself well. ;/set gikk av. li#ht.the went off $he li#ht went off. Han tr/kte ut majonesen fra tuben. he pressed out mayonnaise.the from tube.the He pressed the mayonnaise out of the tube.

Sometimes both 'ariants can be used in the same e- ression, and we then get a stylistic difference" (") a. ;*reren fremsatte en h/potese. teacher.the forward.placed a hypothesis $he teacher put forward a hypothesis. b. Hun ble oppsagt. she became up.said )he was fired. ;*reren satte frem en h/potese. teacher.the placed forward a hypothesis $he teacher put forward a hypothesis.

Hun ble sagt opp. she became said up )he was fired.

The refi-ed 'ariant 2to the left abo'e3 is more formal and common in written language, whereas the 'ariant with the article to the right is more natural and common in s o!en language"

)ften, only one of the 'ariants is allowed" (&) a. Henning br#t av greina. Hennin# broke off branch.the Hennin# broke off the branch. b. Henning br#t av taleren. Hennin# broke off speaker.the L Henning avbr#t greina. Hennin# off.broke branch.the

Henning avbr#t taleren. Hennin# off.broke speaker.the Hennin# interrupted the speaker.

7"9". Transiti'e and intransiti'e 'erbs

%n Norwegian clauses, there is always a sub$ect" The 'erb may also ha'e one or two ob$ects and additionally they may ha'e re ositional ob$ects" %f the ob$ect is a ersonal ronoun it occurs in the ob$ect form: meg 4me,6 oss 4us,6 etc" >erbs that ta!e an ob$ect are called transitive" Transitive verbs: (1) a. &nut k/sset 3lse. Anut kissed *lse b. 3lse ga &nut ei bok. *lse #ave Anut a book c. 3lse ga ei bok til &nut. *lse #ave a book to Anut Intransitive verbs: (") a. ;inda kj#rer fort. 9inda drives fast Hun kj#rer fort. she drives fast Hun s$ p$ ham. she looked on him )he looked at him. Han snakket med henne om de#. he talked with her about you He talked to her about you. "eg k/sset deg. I kissed you Du ga meg ei bok. you #ave me a book Du ga ei bok til meg. you #ave a book to me

b. ;inda s$ p$ 3rik. 9inda looked on *rik 9inda looked at *rik.

c. *rik snakket med 9inda om *lse. *rik talked with 9inda about *lse *rik talked to 9inda about *lse.

Some intransiti'e 'erbs may ha'e a cognate object, that is an ob$ect which means a ro-imately the same as the 'erb" (&) a. Vi danset. we danced Vi danset en dans 4 en tango. we danced a dance > a tan#o

b. Hun sov. she slept

Hun sov sin skj#nnhetss#vn. she slept her beauty.sleep

#any 'erbs may ta!e a refle-i'e ronoun" This is seg in the third erson" %t refers to the sub$ect of the clause" (() a. 3va vasket seg. cf. 3va vasket barnet. *va washed D*E9 *va washed child.the *va washed herself. *va washed the child. b. De barberte seg. cf. De barberte pasienten. D*E9 they shaved they shaved patient.the $hey shaved themselves. $hey shaved the patient. c. Hun gjemte seg. cf. Hun gjemte fl/ktningen. D*E9 she hid she hid refu#ee.the )he hid herself. )he hid the refu#ee. Some 'erbs ha'e a refle-i'e ronoun that cannot be e-changed for an ordinary ob$ect" (4) a. Henning angret seg. Hennin# re#retted D*E9 Hennin# re#retted it. b. ;ise giftet seg. 9ise married D*E9 9ise #ot married. c. ;ena m$ sk/nde seg. 9ena must hurry D*E9 9ena must hurry.

7"9"7 Au-iliaries
%n Norwegian there are au-iliaries and modals of different !inds" They can be used to e- ress, for instance, time 2tense3, or to ma!e the clause assi'e" The Norwegian 'erbs used to e- ress time are the following: (1) Infinitive skulle komme ha Present skal kommer har Past skullet kom hadde Past participle skullet kommet hatt future future past

/kal 4shall6 is followed by the infiniti'e and it e- resses future 2often with a certain sense of intention3" <ommer 4comes6 is followed by til 4to6 and the infiniti'eL it e- resses future 2without any intention3" +a 4ha'e6 is followed by a ast artici le, and it e- resses that something has ha ened" (") a. Du skal hjelpe meg. you shal help me +ou will help me. b. Du kommer til $ hjelpe meg. you come to to help me +ou will help me. c. Du har hjulpet meg. you have helped me To create a assi'e sentence, Norwegian may use the 'erb bli 4become,6 which is followed by the ast artici le" 2Norwegian also uses the s ecial s1form of the 'erb to ma!e a clause assi'e in many cases, see aragra h 7"9"8"1"3 The 'erb bli inflects in the following way: (&) Infinitive bli Present blir Past ble Past participle blitt

(() Hun ble kj#rt til s/kehuset. she became driven to hospital.the )he was sent to the hospital. Norwegian also has se'eral modal 'erbs" These are used to e- ress intention, obligation, ermission, wish, or the li!e" They are always followed by the infiniti'e" The most common modal 'erbs are inflected li!e this" (4) Infinitive skulle kunne ville m$tte burde la f$ Present skal kan vil m$ b#r lar f$r Past skullet kunne ville m$tte burde lot fikk Past participle skullet kunnet villet m$ttet . latt f$tt shall can3 be able to want to must3 have to ou#ht to let3 permit #et to3 be allowed to

(N) a. Han skulle springe en runde. he should run a lap b. Hun kunne ikke berge seg. she could not save D*E9

)he could not save herself. c. Vi lar dem g$. we let them walk. :e will let them walk.

7"9"9 Tense
Norwegian e- resses three tenses, resent 2now3, ast 2before now3, and future 2after now3 by using s ecial 'erb forms or by combining an au-iliary with a certain 'erb form" )nly the resent and ast tenses ha'e their own 'erb forms" (1) Simple present kaster throw(s) kj#per buy(s) Simple past kastet threw kj#pte bou#ht

The other tenses are formed by using an au-iliary" /erfect and lu erfect are formed with the au-iliary ha 4ha'e"6 /resent uses the resent tense of ha, har, and the lu erfect uses the ast tense of ha, hadde" The au-iliary ha is always followed by the ast artici le 2which always ends in -t3" (") Perfect har kastet has thrown har has kj#pt bou#ht Pluperfect hadde kastet had thrown hadde had kj#pt bou#ht

,uture is formed with the au-iliary skal 4will, shall,6 which is followed by the infiniti'e, or the au-iliary kommer 4comes,6 which is followed by til and the infiniti'e" /kal normally e- resses intention, which kommer does not" (&) skal kaste shall throw will throw3 is #oin# to throw skal kj#pe shall buy will buy3 is #oin# to buy kommer til $ kaste comes to to throw will throw3 is #oin# to throw

kommer til $ kj#pe comes to to buy will buy3 is #oin# to buy

,uture is also 'ery often e- ressed by $ust the resent form:

(() Vi stenger butikken om ei stund. we close shop.the about e while :e close (will close) the shop in a while.

7"9"= The con$ugations

The wea! 'erbs in Norwegian ha'e a -de or -te in the ast form" The strong 'erbs change the stem 'owel in the ast" The three most common ways to inflect 'erbs are shown below" (1) Infinitive .. sparke /. kj#pe b/gge s/ 0. g$ Imperative spark! kj#p! b/gg! s/! g$! Present sparker kj#per b/gger s/r g$r Past sparket kj#pte b/gde s/dde gikk Past participle sparket kj#pt b/gd s/dd g$tt kick buy build sew walk

See the following aragra hs" 7"9"="1 ,irst con$ugation The first con$ugation has -et in the ast tense" #ost Norwegian 'erbs are inflected this way" The different forms are illustrated with the 'erb hente 4fetch6 below" (1) a. Infinitive: Vi kan hente Per. we can fetch 6er b. Imperative: Ikke hent bilen! not fetch car.the @ont fetch the car. c. Present: Han henter ikke avisen sin. he fetches not newspaper.the his He doesnt fetch his newspaper. d. Past: Hun hentet den i g$r. she fetched it yesterday e. Past participle: Vi har allerede hentet den. we have already fetched it #any other 'ery fre&uent 'erbs are inflected in the same way" arbeide 4wor!,6 fl#tte 4mo'e,6 handle 4buy, trade,6 havne 4end u ,6 hente 4fetch,6 hevde 4maintain, claim,6 huske 4remember,6 hpe 4ho e,6 jobbe 4wor!,6 kaste

4throw,6 koste 4cost,6 lande 4land, arri'e,6 lede 4lead,6 mangle 4miss, lac!,6 miste 4lose,6 passe 4fit,6 ramme 4stri!e,6 regne 4rain, count,6 samle 4collect,6 satse 4bet,6 sikre 4secure, ensure,6 sikte 4aim,6 skade 4hurt, harm,6 skaffe 4 ro'ide,6 snakke 4tal!, s ea!,6 starte 4start,6 stoppe 4sto ,6 sttte 4su ort,6 t#de 4inter ret,6 understreke 4em hasiKe,6 utvikle 4de'elo ,6 vente 4wait,6 virke 4seem,6 nske 4wish, want,6 pne 4o en"6 7"9"=". Second con$ugation The smaller class of wea! 'erbs in Norwegian contains two subclasses: The first subclass As in the first con$ugation has im erati'e forms ending in a consonant and ast tense forms in -de, or -te" ;elow the 'erb forms are illustrated for kjpe 4buy6 and b#gge 4build"6 (1) a. Infinitive: Vi skal kj#pe den i morgen. we shall buy it tomorrow :e will buy it tomorrow. b. Imperative: Ikke kj#p bilen! not buy car.the @ont buy the car. c. Present: Han kj#per ofte b#ker he buys often books He often buys books. d. Past: Hun kj#pte den i g$r. she bou#ht it yesterday e. Past participle: De har allerede kj#pt den. they have already bou#ht it (") a. Infinitive: "eg skal b/gge den i morgen. I shall build it tomorrow I will build it tomorrow. b. Imperative: Ikke b/gg huset! not build house.the @ont build the house. c. Present: Han b/gger ofte hus he builds often houses He often builds houses.

d. Past: Hun b/gde det i g$r. she built it yesterday e. Past participle: De har b/gd det. they have built it Se'eral common 'erbs are inflected li!e kjpe: beg#nne 4begin,6 betale 4 ay,6 bruke 4use,6 finnes 4e-ist,6 fortelle 4tell,6 fle 4feel,6 flge 4follow,6 fre 4lead,6 hete 4be called,6 hre 4listen, hear,6 kjenne 4feel, !now,6 kjpe 4buy,6 kjre 4dri'e,6 klare 4manage,6 like 4li!e,6 mene 4mean, thin!,6 mte 4meet,6 reise 4tra'el,6 selge 4sell,6 sende 4send,6 skape 4create,6 spille 4 lay,6 stille 4 lace, ose,6 s#nes 4thin!, consider,6 tape 4lose,6 tenke 4thin!,6 trenge 4need,6 vare 4last,6 velge 4choose,6 vise 4show,6 ke 4increase"6 Se'eral common 'erbs are inflected li!e b#gge: behve 4need,6 b#gge 4build,6 b#e 4bend,6 eie 4own,6 feie 4swee ,6 gjre 4do,6 lage 4ma!e,6 leve 4li'e,6 t#gge 4chew,6 t#e 4stretch,6 ve 4 ractice"6 The second subclass This subclass contains 'erbs with stems ending in a stressed 'owel" ;oth the infiniti'e and the im erati'e are identical to the stem ro 4row,6 s# 4sew"6 %n the resent tense, they get the ending -r: ror 4rows,6 s#r 4sews"6 The ast and the ast artici le show the ending -dde and -dd: rodde 4rowed6 Q rodd 4rowed,6 s#dde 4sewed6 Q s#dd 4sewn6: (&) a. Infinitive: Vi skal s/ den i morgen. we shall sew it tomorrow :ell sew it tomorrow. b. Imperative: '/ en bluse! sew a blouse Vi skal str# salt p$ den. we shall sprinkle salt on it :ell sprinkle salt on it tomorrow.

'tr# salt p$ den! sprinkle salt on it De str#r salt p$ den. they sprinkle salt on it $hey are sprinklin# salt on it.

c. Present: De s/r en bluse. they sew a blouse $hey are sewin# a blouse. d. Past: Hun s/dde den i g$r. she sewed it yesterday

De str#dde salt p$ den. they sprinkled salt on it De har str#dd salt p$ den. they have sprinkled salt on it.

e. Past participle: Han har allerede s/dd den. he has already sewn it

)ne of the most common 'erbs, ha 4ha'e6 is inflected according to this con$ugation"

(() Infinitive ha

Imperative ha!

Present har

Past hadde

Past participle hatt

have

Sometimes the stem 'owel is changed in the ast forms of the 'erbs in the second con$ugation" ;elow you find e-am les of the 'erbs: velge 4choose,6 selge 4sell,6 flge 4follow,6 gjre 4do, ma!e,6 smrre 4grease, smear,6 burde 4ought to"6 (4) Infinitive velge selge f#lge gj#re sm#rre burde Imperative velg! selg! f#lg! gj#r! sm#rr! . Present velger selger f#lger gj#r sm#rer b#r Past valgte solgte fulgte gjorde smurte burde Past participle valgt solgt fulgt gjort smurt . choose sell follow do #rease spread ou#ht to

7"9"=". Third con$ugation The third con$ugation includes se'eral 'erbs which end in a consonant" They ty ically ha'e a 'owel change in the ast tense" Some of them also ha'e a 'owel change in the ast artici le" #any of them are &uite common" (1) Infinitive bite skrive br/te s/nge drikke finne ta sl$ b*re skj*re ligge se komme sove Present biter skriver br/ter s/nger drikker finner tar sl$r b*rer skj*rer ligger ser kommer sover Past beit skreiv br#t sang drakk fant tok slo bar skar l$ s$ kom sov Past participle bitt skrevet brutt sunget drukket funnet tatt sl$tt b$ret sk$ret ligget sett kommet sovet bite write break sin# drink find take hit carry cut lie see come sleep

The following 'erbs are con$ugated li!e bite 4bite6: drive 4dri'e, drift,6 ride 4ride,6 stige 4ste , rise"6 The following 'erbs are con$ugated li!e br#te 4brea!6: fl#te 4float,6 fr#se 4freeKe,6 l#ve 4lie,6 skr#te 4boast"6 The following 'erbs are con$ugated li!e drikke 4drin!6: binde 4bind,6 finnes 4e-ist, be,6 rekke 4reach, ha'e time to,6 sitte 4sit,6 springe 4run,6 s#nke 4sin!"6

7"9"? #ood
Norwegian only has two modes: im erati'e and indicati'e" The im erati'e e- resses a command" (1) @$! :alk>Ko! 'pring! Dun! 'itt! )it (down)!

The indicati'e is the form that is used in all other circumstances" The indicati'e can be either resent or ast tense, see further aragra h 7"9"9"

7"9"@ Non1finite forms

The non1finite forms of a 'erb in Norwegian are infiniti'e, resent artici le, and ast artici le" The infiniti'e is receded by the infiniti'al mar!er 4to6 or by an au-iliary" The resent artici le follows the 'erb vre 4be6 or bli 4become,6 and the ast artici le follows the au-iliaries ha 4ha'e,6 vre 4be,6 or bli 4become"6 (1) a. Infinitive: $! fas=inere (to) fascinate b. Present participle: de! er fas=inerende+ de! blir v*rende (they) are fascinatin#3 (they) become stayin# they are fascinatin#3 they are stayin# c. Past participle: han! er fas=inert+ hun! er dratt+ vi! ble sett (he) is fascinated3 (she) is #one3 (we) became seen he is fascinated3 she has #one3 we were seen The au-iliary vre 4be6 is ossible with the ast artici le of intransiti'e 'erbs" )ften these 'erbs e- ress some !ind of mo'ement or transition: (") a. Han er reist. he is #one He has #one. b. "enta er sovnet. #irl.the is fallen.asleep $he #irl has fallen asleep. c. Pengene er forsvunnet. money.the is disappeared $he money has disappeared.

The ast artici le form can also be used in assi'e clauses with assi'e, and then the au-iliary bli 4become6 is used: (&) a. De ble avh#rt. they became interro#ated $hey were interro#ated. b. 'ofaen blir fl/ttet fra rom til rom. couch.the becomes moved from room to room $he couch is moved from room to room. c. Pengene ble stj$let. money.the became stolen $he money #ot stolen. The ast artici le can also recede a noun" (() ei n/!b/gd h/tte+ et opp!spist sm#rbr#d a (newly)built cotta#e3 an (up)eaten sandwich (hen the resent artici le is used with the au-iliary vre 4be6 it denotes an e- erience" (hen it is used with bli 4become6 on the other hand it e- resses continuous as ect" (4) a. Filmen var skremmende. film.the was terrifyin# $he film was terrifyin#. b. 'ituasjonen var opphissende. situation.the was e,citin# $he situation was e,citin#. c. Hun ble g$ende aleine. she became walkin# alone )he ended up walkin# alone. d. De ble sittende i ro. they became sittin# in peace $hey kept sittin# still. /resent artici le is mainly used before nouns" (N) en smittende latter+ en arbeidende mann an infectious lau#hter3 a workin# man

7"9"A Agreement

Norwegian 'erbs do not show agreement with the sub$ect" All forms are the same, regardless of what sub$ect is used" (1) Singular: Plural: .. jeg r#/ker I smoke vi r#/ker we smoke /. du r#/ker you smoke dere r#/ker you smoke 0. han4hun4det r#/ker he>she>it smokes de r#/ker they smoke

7"9"8 /1forms
%n Norwegian many 'erbs may ta!e an s1form" The -s is added to the inflected form of the 'erb and it either turns an acti'e sentence into a assi'e one or it e- resses reci rocity" (1) a. Passive: D#ren $pnes plutselig. door.the is.opened suddenly $he door is suddenly opened. b. ,eciprocit : De m#ttes. they met $hey met each other. See the following aragra hs" Adding the 1s to the inflected 'erb creates the s1form of the 'erb, so it will always be the last 2rightmost3 element" (hen the 'erb is in the resent tense and ends in an -r, this -r disa ears when adding the -s" (") Active & S && +form & Active & S && +form & a. Infinitive: snakke+ snakkesM s/nge+ s/nges talk be.talked sin# be.sun#

b. Present: snakker+ snakkesM s/nger+ s/nges talks is.talked sin#s is.sun# c. Past: snakket+ .M sang+ . talked san# d. Past participle: snakket+ .M sunget+ . talked sun# 7"9"8"1 /1 assi'e %n Norwegian the s1form of the 'erb is a common way to create assi'e sentences" Howe'er, the ;s1 assi'e is only ossible in the resent tense" Com are the acti'e sentences on the left below to the assi'e ones on the right"

(1)

Active a. Henning kj#per boka. Hennin# buys book.the Hennin# buys the book.

Passive 8oka kj#pes av Henning !. book.the is.bou#ht by Hennin# $he book is bou#ht by Hennin#.

b. ;ise b/gger huset. Huset b/gges av ;ise !. 9ise builds house.the house.the is.built by 9ise 9ise builds the house. $he house is built by 9ise. See aragra h 1"1."9 on the assi'e construction" 7"9"8". )ther s1forms The s1form of the 'erb may be used to e- ress that the lural sub$ect does things to each other 2reci rocity3" (1) a. Vi snakkes hver fredag. we talk.) every Eriday :e talk to each other every Eriday. b. De m#ttes i Paris. they met.) in 6aris $hey met (each other) in 6aris. Some 'erbs always ha'e the s1form" These 'erbs ha'e no s1less form with similar meaning" The most common are: finnes 4be, e-ist,6 l#kkes 4succeed"6

7"= /re ositions

/re ositions denote a relation between two things" Ty ically, they are short words that denote a local relation, but they may also denote time relations or more abstract relations" They are ne'er inflected" The most common re ositions are the following" (1) i+ Henning bor i Droms#. vasen i skapet in Hennin# lives in $roms5 vase.the in cupboard.the Hennin# lives in $roms5. the vase in the cupboard av+&& De er lagd av marmor. en av guttene of it is made of marble one of boys.the It is made of marble. one of the boys "+&& Hun satt p$ stolen. grenene p$ treet on she sat on chair.the branches.the on tree.the )he sat on the chair. the branches of the tree

for+&& Det var lett for ;ise. moten for tiden for it was easy for 9ise fashion.the for time.the It was easy for 9ise. the fashion of today med+&& Han skreiv med pennen. dama med hunden with he wrote with pen.the lady.the with do#.the He wrote with the pen. the lady with the do# til+&& Vi reiste til ;und. brevet til Hedda to we traveled to 9und letter.the to Hedda :e went to 9und. the letter to Hedda om+ ;egg den om halsen. boka om 3mil i ;#nneberget about3 around put it around neck.the book.the about *mil in 95nneber#et 6ut it around your neck. the book about *mil in 95nneber#et fra+ Hun er fra 'alFburg. kvinnen fra Je/kjavNk from she is from )alBbur# woman.the from Deyk=avOk )he is from )alBbur#. the woman from Deyk=avik The re osition i is often used in tem oral e- ressions to denote the time of the day i kveld 4tonight,6 or how long something ta!es: arbeide i tre timer 4wor! for three hours"6 The re osition av is often used in abstract conte-ts when a noun is deri'ed from a 'erb salget av huset 4the selling of the house,6 or when one wants to denote a member of a grou : en av guttene 4one of the boys"6 %t is also used to e- ress the agent of a assi'e clause: Prisen deles ut av kongen 4The rice is awarded by the !ing"6 The re osition p is sometimes used to e- ress that something is a art of something else: beina p stolen 4the legs of the chair"6 The re osition med is sometimes used to e- ress content of a case, 'essel, or the li!e: ei flaske med melk 4a bottle of mil!"6 The re osition til is used with 'erbs li!e gi 4gi'e6 and sende 4send6: =i den til <arin 4Gi'e it to Iarin"6 The re osition om is often used in tem oral e- ression to tell how long it is left until something will ha en: 'eg kommer om tre timer 4% will arri'e in three hours"6 See further aragra h ."= on re ositional hrases"

7"? A+>E*;S

The word class of ad'erbs contains many different sorts of words" They e- ress, for instance, time, lace, or degree, and they can be used to negate the clause, or modify it in another way" Ad'erbs may modify clauses, 'erbs, ad$ecti'es, or other ad'erbs" (1) a. Henning kan kanskje hjelpe deg. Hennin# can perhaps help you b. ;inda bor her. 9inda lives here c. ;ena springer fort. 9ena runs fast d. . skal 3spen lese. now shall *spen read .ow *spen will read. e. %lbert er sv$rt gammel. %lbert is very old f. Dette skjer ganske sjelden. this happens 7uite seldom Ad'erbs are normally not inflected, but a few of them may be inflected for com arison"

7"?"1 #or hological ro erties

Ad'erbs are normally not inflected" A few of them can howe'er be inflected for com arison, that is they ha'e s ecific forms that denotes higher degree 2com arati'e3 and highest degree 2su erlati'e3 in a com arison" (1) a. Henning kj#rer fort. Hennin# drives fast b. Henning kj#rer fortere enn ;ise. Hennin# drives faster than 9ise c. Diril kj#rer fortest. $iril drives fastest $iril drives the fastest. Se'eral of the ad'erbs that are inflected for com arison ha'e a different root in com arati'e and su erlati'e than they ha'e in the ositi'e form"

(1) Positive fort sakte lenge ofte m/e lite n*r gjerne vel4bra ille

&omparative fortere saktere lengre oftere mere mindre n*rmere heller bedre verre

Superlative fortest saktest lengst oftest mest minst n*rmest helst best verst

fast slowly lon#3 for a lon# time often very3 much little near willin#ly well badly

Suffi-es are often used to form ad'erbs" Among these suffi-es we find: (") *vis+ gradvis fors#ksvis *lig+ egentlig virkelig #radually tentatively

actually really3 truely somewhere nowhere

*steds+ noensteds ingensteds

Com ounding is a roducti'e way to form ad'erbs" Es ecially common are the refi-es der or sometimes her eller hvor followed by a re osition" Ad'erbs li!e derav 4of that,6 can be changed to av det3 (&) dertil to that3 there deretter afterwards derimot on the other hand derfra from there herav of this hvorav of (from) what3 which3 whom

7"?". >arious ty es of ad'erbs

Among the most common ad'erbs we find ad'erbs that denote or as! for time, lace or manner" her 4here,6 der 4there,6 hit 4here, this way,6 dit 4there, that way,6 hvor 4where,6 n 4now,6 da 4then,6 allerede 4already,6 enn 4yet,6 lenge 4long, for a long time,6 straks 4immediately,6 nr 4when,6 s 4so,6 slik% snn 4so, li!e thisGli!e that,6 fort 4fast,6 hvordan 4how"6 (1) a. Hvor er du? where are you b. .r when drar leave "eg er her. I am here du? you "eg drar n. I leave now

:hen are you leavin#; c. Hvordan gj#r man dette? how does one this How do you do this;

Im leavin# now. 9an gj#r slik. one does such +ou do it like this.

Among the most common ad'erbs we also find some that denote or as! for degree" svrt 4'ery, much,6 mer 4more,6 mest 4most,6 lite 4little,6 mindre 4less,6 minst 4least,6 s 4so, that,6 like 4as,6 ganske 4 retty,6 hvor 4where"6 (") a. Hvor interessert er du? where interested are you How interested are you; "eg er sv$rt/ganske interessert. I am very>7uite interested Im 7uite interested.

b. Dette firmaet er like stort som ditt. this company.the is as bi# as yours. $his company is as bi# as yours. Ad'erbs also e- ress that something is true, false, or credible" They can also connect to something re'iously said" ikke 4not,6 kanskje 4maybe, erha s,6 sanns#nligvis 4 robably,6 absolutt 4absolutely,6 virkelig 4really"6 ogs 4also,6 bare 4$ust, only,6 egentlig 4actually,6 jo 4as we !now,6 vel 4% thin!"6 The last two ad'erbs are &uite 'ague, and normally not translated into English at all" Ad'erbs may also be so called 'erb articles, short words denoting, for e-am le, direction, which follow the 'erb" See further aragra h ."1"9" inn 4in,6 ut 4out,6 opp 4u ,6 ned 4down,6 fram 4forth,6 bak 4bac!"6 (&) Da inn hunden. &j#r fram bilen. take in do#.the drive forth car.the 9et in the do#. @rive out the car. ;egg ned v$pnene. lay down weapons.the 9ay down the weapons.

Some ad'erb of lace are build by adding an -e to articles li!e these" The article inn denotes direction and corres onds to inne 4inside,6 which denotes where something is laced" (() a. &j#r inn bilen i garasjen. drive in car.the in #ara#e.the @rive the car into the #ara#e.

b. 8ilen st$r her inne i garasjen. car.the stands here in in #ara#e.the $he car is here inside the #ara#e. c. &om fram i l/set. come forth in li#ht.the 1ome forth into the li#ht. d. 'till deg framme p$ s=enen. place you forth on sta#e.the 6lace yourself in the front of the sta#e. e. @$ ned til b/en. #o down to city.the :alk down to the city. f. Vi var nede i b/en. we were down in city.the :e were down in the city.

7"@ N:#E*A0S
Numerals indicate how many there are of something 2cardinal numbers: for e-am le tre 4three63 or which one in an ordered set something is 2ordinal numbers: for e-am le tredje 4third63" (1) &ardinal numbersP en one to two tre three fire four fem five seks si, sju+ s/v seven $tte ei#ht ni nine ti ten elleve eleven tolv twelve tretten thirteen fjorten fourteen femten fifteen seksten si,teen s/tten seventeen atten ei#hteen Ordinal numbersP f#rste first andre second tredje third fjerde fourth femte fifth sjette si,th sjuende+ s/vende seventh $ttende ei#hth niende ninth tiende tenth ellefte eleventh tolvte twelfth trettende thirteenth fjortende fourteenth femtende fifteenth sekstende si,teenth s/ttende seventeenth attende ei#hteenth

nitten tjue+ t/ve tjueen tjueto tretti trettien f#rti femti seksti s/tti $tti nitti hundre tusen million miljard

nineteen twenty twenty'one twenty'two thirty thirty'one forty fifty si,ty seventy ei#hty ninety hundred thousand million Cr. milliard %m. billion

nittende tjuende+ t/vende tjuef#rste tjueandre trettiende trettif#rste f#rtiende femtiende sekstiende s/ttiende $ttiende nittiende hundrede tusende millionte .

nineteenth twentieth twenty'first twenty'second thirtieth thirty'first fortieth fiftieth si,tieth seventieth ei#htieth ninetieth hundredth thousandth millionth 8

7"@"1 Syntactic function

Numerals can be used in three ways" They may be redicates, ty ically after the 'erbs vre 4be6 or bli 4become"6 They may also occur in front of nouns, both in indefinite and definite noun hrases" ,inally, they may be used inde endently, that is without a noun" )rdinal numbers do not occur as redicates, and only rarely in indefinite noun hrases" (1) a. Predicativel : &ardinal numbers: %ntallet medlemmer var tolv. number.the members was twelve $he number of members was twelve. tre hus three houses #efinite noun p!rase: de fire b#kene the four books.the the four books c. Independentl : alle tre all three Ordinal numbers: .

b.

Indefinite noun p!rase:

en tredje gang a third time den fjerde boka the fourth book.the the fourth book den tredje the third (one)

7"@". #or hology: cardinal numbers

The numeral enGeiGett 4one6 agrees with its noun" (1) Masculine: en bil a./%)1 car %eminine: ei seng a.E*/ bed )euter: ett hus a..*L$ house

)ther numerals ending in 1en do not agree in gender with the noun" The masculine form is used with all nouns" (") Masculine: tjueen biler twenty'one cars %eminine: tjueen senger twenty'one beds )euter: tjueen hus twenty'one houses

7"@"7 #or hology: ordinal numbers

)rdinal numbers are uninflected"

7"A C)N<:NCT%)NS, S:;<:NCT%)NS, AN+ THE %N,%N%T%>A0 #A*IE*

Con$unctions are words li!e og 4and,6 men 4but,6 eller 4or6L these words lin! elements of the same !ind" (1) a. Henning s/kler+ men ;ise. kj#rer bil. Hennin# bikes but 9ise drives car Hennin# bikes but 9ise drives a car. b. Henning og ;ise s/kler Hennin# and 9ise bike Sub$unctions are words li!e at 4that,6om 4if,6ettersom 4since6L these words introduce subordinate clauses" (") a. Han visste at han ville komme for seint. he knew that he would come too late b. Du f$r den+ ettersom du er min venn. you #et it since you are my friend The infiniti'al mar!er is and it introduces infiniti'al clauses" (&) a. &nut beg/nte lese. Anut be#an to read b. Det er fint seile.

it

is nice to sail

7"A"1 Con$unctions
All con$unctions connect two elements of the same !ind" The Norwegian con$unctions are: og 4and,6 samt 4and 2also3,6 eller 4or,6 men 4but,6 skjnt 4though, although,6 fordi 4for, because,6 for 4for, as"6 They may connect two main clauses" (1) a. ;ise s/nger og 3spen spiller. 9ise sin#s and *spen plays b. 3va er vakker+ skj#nt hun har ingen selvtillit. *va is beautiful althou#h she has no self'esteem *va is beautiful3 althou#h she has #ot no self esteem. Con$unctions can also connect to hrases" (") a. den gamle mannen og hunden hans the old man.the and do#.the his the old man and his do# b. ;ise og Henning er ganske livlige+ men sv*rt snille. 9ise and Hennin# are pretty lively but very kind 7"A"1"1 Co ulati'e con$unctions Co ulati'e con$unctions connect elements of the same ty e without im lying any difference between them" Co ulati'e con$unctions are og 4and6 and samt 4and 2also3"6 (1) a. Henning og 3spen tar milit*rtjenesten. Hennin# and *spen take military.service.the Hennin# and *spen are doin# their military service. b. Vi arbeider og tenker p$ deg. we work and think on you :e are workin# and thinkin# of you. The con$unction samt 4and 2also36 is mostly used to mar! that something is se arate from the other elements" (") P$ br/llupsreisen dro ;ena og "an samt ;enas fetter Per. on honey'moon.the went 9ena and !an as'well'as 9enas cousin 6er 9ena and !an as well as 9enaa cousin 6er went on the honey'moon. The con$unction og 4and6 can be em hasised by bde 4both"6

(&) 8$de Henning og 3spen tar milit*rtjenesten. Coth Hennin# and *spen take military.service.the Coth Hennin# and *spen are doin# their military service. 7"A"1". +is$uncti'e con$unctions +is$uncti'e con$unctions e- ress an alternati'e" There is only one con$unction of this sort in Norwegian: eller 4or"6 (1) a. "eg vet ikke om det er en mann eller ei kvinne. I know not whether it is a man or a woman I dont know whether it is a man or a woman. b. <m du s/kler eller g$r spiller ingen rolle. whether you bike or walk plays no part :hether you bike or walk doesnt matter. The e- ression can be em hasised with enten 4either6 or the negation hverken 4neither"6 (") a. 3nten 3spen eller Henning m$ g$ av. either *spen or Hennin# must #o off *ither Hennin# or *spen must resi#n. b. Hverken 3spen eller Henning m$ g$ av. neither *spen nor Hennin# must #o off .either Hennin# nor *spen must resi#n. 7"A"1"7 Ad'ersati'e con$unctions Ad'ersati'e con$unctions e- ress a contrast" %n Norwegian men 4but6 and skjnt 4but, though6 are used" (1) a. 8oka er vanskelig+ men interessant. book.the is difficult but interestin# $he book is difficult but interestin#. b. Han drikker m/e+ skj#nt spiser lite. he drinks a.lot thou#h eats little He drinks a lot thou#h he eats little. The e- ression may be em hasised by riktignok meaning 4admittedly6 in the first art of the co1ordination, or by likevel or dog, both meaning 4ne'ertheless, still, anyway6 in the second" (") a. 'vein er riktignok tjukk+ men likevel ganske flott.

)vein is admittedly fat

but anyway 7uite handsome

b. Vi har riktignok mange venner+ men kan dog ikke v*re helt sikre. we have admittedly many friends but can still not be 7uite sure :e admittedly have many friends but we still cannot be sure. 7"A"1"9 E- lanati'e con$unctions E- lanati'e con$unctions im ly that the second art of the co1ordination is an e- lanation of the first one" Norwegian uses for 4for, as"6 (1) a. Han vil ikke+ for han orker ikke. he wants not because he mana#es not He doesnt want to because he is tired. b. &nut var bek/mret+ for han hadde ingen penger. Anut was worried because he had no money 7"A"1"= Conclusi'e con$unctions Conclusi'e con$unctions im ly that the second art of the co1ordination is a conclusion or a conse&uence" (1) 3va var tr#tt+ s$ hun ble hjemme. *va was tired so she stayed home *va was tired3 so she stayed at home.

7"A". Sub$unctions
Sub$unctions are words that introduce subordinate clauses" The ty ical sub$unctions at 4that,6 som 4that, which,6 and om 4if6 lac! content almost entirely" )thers denote a s ecific relation between the subordinate clause and its main clause, such as cause: ettersom 4since6L time: mens 4while6L etc" 7"A"."1 Synta- and inflection Sub$unctions are not inflected" They are sometimes written as two or more words: fordi at 4because,6 til tross for at 4although,6 slik at 4so that6 for at 4in order to"6 7"A".". The most common sub$unctions Among the most common sub$unctions in Norwegian are at 4that,6 som 4that, which,6 om 4if, whether6 and enn 4than"6

At 4that6 is used to introduce clauses that tell or re ort something, or clauses that denote a conse&uence" %n the latter case it is almost always receded by an ad$ecti'e modified by s 4so, as"6 (1) a. Han fortalte at han hadde f$tt ei tre kilo tung gjedde. he told that he had #ot a three kilo heavy pike He told us that he had #ot a pike of three kilos. b. Forslaget om at huset skulle rives ble stemt ned. proposal.the about that house.the should demolish.6%)) became voted down $he proposal that the house should be demolished was turned down. c. Han var s l/kkelig at han danset. he was so happy that he danced /om 4that, who, which,6 is used to introduce relati'e clauses or com arati'e clauses 2and hrases3" %n the latter case it is normally translated by 4as6 in English, and it is almost always receded by an ad$ecti'e modified by like 4as"6 (") a. mannen som st$r der borte man.the that stands there away the man standin# over there b. "eg kjenner ei jente som bor i D#nsberg. I know a #irl that lives in $5nsber# c. Det gamle huset+ som er b/gd i ,AO-+ har blitt fl/ttet to ganger. the old house.the that is built in 1GQ2 has been moved two times $he old house3 which was built in 1GQ23 has been moved twice. d. "eg har like d/re bukser som du har. I have as e,pensive trousers as you have /om is also used to double a &uestioned sub$ect in a subordinate clause" (&) Vi vet hvem som har kj#pt den. we know who that has bou#ht it :e know who has bou#ht it. 9m is used to introduce conditional clauses or interrogati'e clauses, which corres ond to yes1no &uestions" (() a. Om det ikke regner s$ drar vi p$ utflukt. if it not rains then #o we on picnic If it doesnt rain3 we will #o for a picnic.

b. 3va spurte om vi ville v*re med. *va asked if we wanted be with *va asked if we wanted to come alon#. 8nn is used to introduce com arati'e clauses 2or hrases3" They are almost always receded by a com arati'e ad$ecti'e or an ad$ecti'e modified by mer 4more"6 (4) a. Du har en bedre s/kkel enn jeg har. you have a better bike than I have b. Dette er mer interessant enn jeg trodde. this is more interestin# than I thou#ht 7"A"."7 Sub$unctions grou ed according to their meaning Sub$unctions may signal many different sorts of connections between the main clause and the subordinate clause" They may for instance e- ress time, that is that the e'ent in the subordinate clause is simultaneous to, earlier, or later than the e'ent of the main clause" %n a similar way they can e- ress that the subordinate clause constitutes a condition for or a reason to the e'ent of the main clause" The most common sub$unctions are listed below" Temporal subjunctions: nrGda 4when,6fr 4before,6 til 4until,6 mens 4while,6 siden 4after, since"6 (1) a. Du m$ hjelpe meg med klesvasken f!r vi kan g$. you must help me with laundry.the before we can #o +ou must help me with the laundry before we can #o. b. Hun smilte da han gikk. she smiled when he left ausal subjunctions: ettersom 4as, because, since,6for .at$ 4because,6 fordi .at$ 4because,6 av at 4in that"6 (") Han gikk ettersom hun ikke snakket med ham. he left since she not talked with him He left since she didnt talk to him. onditional subjunctions: om 4if,6 hvis 4if,6 s vidt 4insofar as,6 forutsatt at 4 ro'ided that"6 (&) "eg hjelper deg om/hvis du vil. I help you if you want Ill help you if you want me to.

oncessive subjunctions: til tross for at 4though,6 selv om 4although,6 skjnt 4e'en though"6 (() Vi arbeider til tross for at / selv om vi ikke f$r noen l#nn. we work to despite for that even if we not #et any salary :e are workin#3 even thou#h we don-t #et paid. !inal subjunctions: for at 4in order to"6 (4) Vi m$ selge bilen for at vi skal klare det. we must sell car.the for that we shall mana#e it :e must sell the car3 in order to make it. onsecutive subjunctions: slik at 4so that"6 (N) Han jobbet slik at han ble r#d i ansiktet. he worked such that he became red in face.the He worked so that his face became red. omparative subjunctions: .like$333som 4as"""as,6 .slik/snn$ som 4as,6 liksom 4as,6 enn 4than,6 jo333desto/dess/jo 4the"""the,6 som om 4as if"6 (Q) a. Han gjorde som de ba ham om $ gj#re. he did as they asked him about to do He did what they asked him to do. b. Jo st#rre de er+ desto hardere faller de. the bi##er they are the harder fall they $he bi##er they are3 the harder they fall. Descriptive subjunctions: av at 4in that,6 uten at 4not that, without"6 (G) a. Han ble reddet av at kameratene grep inn. he became saved of that friends.the #rabbed in He was saved because his friends intervened. b. Vi m$ hjelpe Henning uten at l*reren merker det. we must help Hennin# without that teacher.the notices it :e must help Hennin# without the teacher noticin#.

7"A"7 The infiniti'al mar!er

The infiniti'al mar!er in Norwegian is 4to"6 %t is used to introduce infiniti'al clauses" (1) a. Det er h/ggelig $ seile.

it is nice to sail It is nice to #o sailin#. b. Han lovte $ ikke s/nge. he promised to not sin# He promised not to sin#. c. Vi ble lei av $ s/nge. we became tired of to sin# :e became tired of sin#in#. See further aragra h 1"11"1 on infiniti'al hrases"