Promising Technologies for the Inspection of Polymer Insulators: Technology Review and Evaluation

Technical Report

Promising Technologies for the Inspection of Polymer Insulators: Technology Review and Evaluation
1002025

Final Report, October 2003

EPRI Project Manager A. Phillips

EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT. ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT EDM International, Inc. Southwest Research Institute, Inc.

ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169, (925) 609-1310 (fax). Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Copyright 2003 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

CITATIONS
This report was prepared by EDM International, Inc. 4001 Automation Way Fort Collins, CO 80525-3479 Principal Investigator A. Stewart Southwest Research Institute 6220 Culebra Road San Antonio, TX 78228-0510 Principal Investigator E. Franke This report describes research sponsored by EPRI. The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Promising Technologies for the Inspection of Polymer Insulators: Technology Review and Evaluation, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA. 2003. 1002025.

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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

This report documents an investigation into feasible inspection technologies to identify high-risk polymer insulatorsalso called non-ceramic insulators (NCI) or composite insulatorsinservice. The concepts and technologies identified and evaluated form a platform from which future EPRI research initiatives will be launched. Results & Findings The study identified a range of technologies. These technologies include imaging methods and processing, mechanical response, chemical species, and products; hyperspectral imaging and spectroradiometry; and, millimeter wave sensor applications. The results showed that a number of the identified techniques are feasible and warrant further investigation. In fact, both the EPRI base-funded enhanced NCI project and supplemental opportunities have been developed to investigate and develop the concepts further. Challenges & Objectives Polymer insulators, composed of fiberglass rods covered with polymer sheds, have been in use for nearly 40 years. Polymer insulators offer many advantages over ceramics, but field experience has shown that they also have unique failure modes. Accumulated experience also has shown that damaged insulators cannot always be detected by existing methods and that an NCI can fail with no advance indication. Insulator failure without any prior indication can pose a hazard to public and utility personnel. In addition, premature failures represent a significant threat to circuit and system reliability. Applications, Values & Use As the population of installed polymer insulators ages, and as the use becomes more widespread, the need for an efficient and effective inspection method grows. If no inspection technologies are developed to assess the condition of polymer insulators, the future of these lightweight and costeffective insulators may be limited to only applications where their traditional ancestors, ceramic insulators, have significant disadvantages (for example, high contamination or vandalism areas.) To make polymer insulators a truly feasible option, an effective and efficient inspection technique must be developed that can be performed from a remote location and have a high success rate.

EPRI Perspective EPRI has taken a unique position in identifying and evaluating a range of technologies that have not been traditionally applied in the power industry. Although this is a comparatively high-risk approach, it has the potential to solve a large issue that has been eluding the industry for years. Based on this studys results, EPRI has launched the following four initiatives: 1. A supplemental project to develop a tool for identifying high-risk polymer insulators by evaluating the dynamic mechanical response. 2. A supplemental project to develop low-cost modifications in the design of polymer insulators to make them self-diagnosing (units having a high inspectability). 3. A base-funded task to investigate imaging techniques for identifying high-risk NCI inservice. 4. A base-funded task that is continually identifying the state-of-the-art in inspection and assessment techniques. If you have any interest in any of these initiatives, contact Dr. Andrew Phillips at aphillip@epri.com or 704.717.6438. Approach A team of technology experts met to identify novel, unexplored concepts for detecting a damaged or defective NCI well in advance of failure. The experts conducted a brainstorming session to identify concepts, evaluate the concepts potential effectiveness, and assess the likelihood of successfully developing the more promising concepts into viable inspection technologies. Keywords Polymer insulator Non-ceramic insulator NCI Composite insulator Polymer insulator Inspection Assessment

vi

CONTENTS

1 PROJECT BACKGROUND....................................................................................................1-1 Background and Summary....................................................................................................1-1 2 BRAINSTORMING SESSION ................................................................................................2-1 3 SUMMARIES OF CONCEPTS FOR INSPECTING NCI ........................................................3-1 Concept 1: Imaging Methods ...............................................................................................3-2 Technology Description ....................................................................................................3-2 Potential Benefit ...............................................................................................................3-3 Implementation Unknowns ...............................................................................................3-4 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan ......................................................3-5 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ................................................................................3-5 Phase 2. Prototype Development ................................................................................3-5 Concept 2: Image Processing of Insulator End Fitting and Rod Alignment..........................3-6 Technology Description ...................................................................................................3-7 Potential Benefit ...............................................................................................................3-7 Implementation Unknowns ...............................................................................................3-8 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan .......................................................3-8 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ................................................................................3-8 Phase 2. Prototype Development ................................................................................3-8 Initial Testing ....................................................................................................................3-9 Concept 3: Mechanical Testing ..........................................................................................3-13 Technology Description ..................................................................................................3-13 Potential Benefit .............................................................................................................3-14 Implementation Unknowns .............................................................................................3-15 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan .....................................................3-15 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ..............................................................................3-15 Phase 2. Prototype Development ..............................................................................3-16

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Initial Testing ..................................................................................................................3-16 Concept 4: Chemical Species and Products ......................................................................3-20 Technology Description ..................................................................................................3-20 Potential Benefit .............................................................................................................3-21 Implementation Unknowns .............................................................................................3-21 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan .....................................................3-21 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ..............................................................................3-21 Phase 2. Prototype Development ..............................................................................3-22 References - Image Processing of Insulator End fitting and Rod Alignment ..................3-22 Concept 5: Hyperspectral Imaging and Spectroradiometry Methods.................................3-23 Technology Description ..................................................................................................3-23 Potential Benefit .............................................................................................................3-24 Implementation Unknowns .............................................................................................3-24 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan .....................................................3-24 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ..............................................................................3-24 Phase 2. Prototype Development ..............................................................................3-25 References Hyperspectral Imaging and Spectroradiometry Methods .........................3-25 Concept 6: Millimeter Wave Sensor Applications...............................................................3-26 Technology Description ..................................................................................................3-26 Potential Benefit .............................................................................................................3-27 Risks and Implementation Unknowns ............................................................................3-27 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan .....................................................3-28 Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation ..............................................................................3-28 Phase 2. Prototype Development ..............................................................................3-28 References - Millimeter Wave Sensor Applications........................................................3-29 Related Concept: Active Microwave, Radiofrequency, or Maser Pumping Combined with Thermal Imaging....................................................................................3-29 Brief Description ........................................................................................................3-29 Potential Benefit.........................................................................................................3-30 Implementation Unknowns ........................................................................................3-30 Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan.................................................3-30

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1 Spectrophotometer Measurements of Spectral Absorption......................................3-3 Figure 3-2 Rod Section with Fracture Under Load and No Load...............................................3-6 Figure 3-3 Angular Displacement of a Rod when a Fracture Occurs and the Unit is Under Unrestrained Loading of a Sufficient Magnitude......................................................3-7 Figure 3-4 Insulator Under No Load and With No Fracture. ......................................................3-9 Figure 3-5 Photograph of Entire Insulator with 2500 lbs Applied and a Fracture Depth of 10 mm (Note: The Information on the Yellow Board is Incorrectthe Load was 2500 lbs) ..........................................................................................................................3-10 Figure 3-6 Close-up Photograph of 4 mm Cut with the Rod under 2500 lbs Load ..................3-11 Figure 3-7 Increase in Gap Size as a Function of Cut Depth (Note: Increase in Gap Size is Between Insulator Unloaded and Loaded with 2500 lbs) .............................................3-12 Figure 3-8 Schematic of Mechanical Testing Concept ............................................................3-13 Figure 3-9 Impulse Testing of Gas Turbines Blades to Detect Shifts in Natural Frequency Due to Progressive Airfoil Cracking .................................................................................3-14 Figure 3-10 Impulse Testing Equipment: 1) Dual Channel Spectrum Analyzer (HP3560A) used to Record Transfer Function (vibration/force) Spectrums; 2) Instrumented Impulse Hammer Delivers Measured Impulses to Bottom Attachment; 3) Accelerometer Attached to Bottom Attachment Piece Measures Vibration Response; 4) Microphone Located Between Sheds Measures Sound Signal Related to Vibration..........................................................................................................3-17 Figure 3-11 Impulse Response Spectra of 6-ft Insulator using Accelerometers and Microphone Pickups.........................................................................................................3-18 Figure 3-12 The Mid-wave Infrared IMSS has a Spectral Resolution of 0.01 Microns and Over 200 Spectral Bins Between 3 to 5 Microns (from Pacific Advanced Technology) .....................................................................................................................3-24

ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 Details of insulator under test ....................................................................................3-9 Table 3-2 Gap Size Both With and Without Load Applied as a Function of Cut Depth (Note: The No Load Values were Calculated as an Average of the Gap Size Both Before and After the Load was Applied) ..........................................................................3-11 Table 3-3 Potential Applications of MMW for NCI Defect Detection ........................................3-27

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PROJECT BACKGROUND

Background and Summary

Non-ceramic insulators (NCI, alternatively called polymer or composite insulators terms will be under interchangeably in this report), composed of fiberglass rods covered with polymer sheds, have been in use for nearly 40 years. Polymer insulators offer many advantages over ceramics but field experience has shown that they also have unique failure modes. Accumulated experience has also shown that damaged insulators cannot always be detected by existing methods and a NCI can fail with no advance indication. Insulator failure without any prior indication can pose a hazard to the public and utility personnel. In addition, premature failures represent a significant threat to circuit and system reliability. EPRI has recognized that the electric utility industry needs an inspection method for detecting a damaged or defective NCI well in advance of failure. As such, they contracted Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and EDM International, Inc. (EDM) to work together with EPRI as part of a Project Team to identify novel, unexplored concepts for defect detection and to detect a damaged NCI before failure. Visual inspection, widely used for ceramic insulators is not effective for a NCI since the polymer sheath can cover severe degradation of the rod. The goal of this project was to identify several concepts with promise for detecting this degradation. Therefore, a team of technology experts conducted a brainstorming session to identify concepts, evaluated the potential effectiveness of the concepts, and assessed the likelihood of successfully developing the more promising concepts into viable inspection technologies. SwRI and EDM worked cooperatively on this project. SwRIs contribution was primarily one of scientific and technical expertise. EDM supplemented SwRIs scientific and technical expertise and provided knowledge of electric utility inspection procedures. SwRI had responsibility for organizing and conducting the brainstorming meeting, which included staff from EPRI, SwRI and EDM. A summary of the concepts that were selected during a Project Team brainstorming session is included herein.

1-1

BRAINSTORMING SESSION

A creative brainstorming session was held at SwRI offices on July 9, 2002. A total of 15 representatives from EPRI, SwRI and EDM participated in the brainstorming session that was organized to identify novel, unexplored concepts for defect detection in NCI. Numerous potential concepts were identified during the brainstorming session; the concepts were than prioritized based on the consensus of the experts and the top six concepts were identified for further investigation. Each of the six most promising technologies was assigned to the appropriate technology experts who were then asked to conduct a more in-depth analysis to estimate the potential effectiveness of the methods, to identify concepts with fundamental flaws that should not be pursued and to assess the likelihood of successfully developing the more promising concepts into viable inspection technologies. In addition, the technology experts were asked to develop summaries of the concepts including a description of the technology, potential benefits, implementation unknowns, a program plan that includes feasibility investigation and prototype development. Estimates of costs associated with these various concepts have not been included in this report. Preliminary feasibility tests of two of the concepts were conducted shortly after the brainstorming session and the results are summarized in this report. The six concepts identified as warranting further examination were: Imaging Methods Image Processing of Insulator End Fitting and Rod Alignment (Note: This concept is a subset of the broader Imaging Methods. Preliminary testing of this concept was performed shortly after the brainstorming session. The results of this testing are summarized in this report.) Mechanical Testing (Note: Preliminary testing of this concept was performed shortly after the brainstorming session. The results of this testing are summarized in this report.) Chemical Species and Products Hyperspectral Imaging and Spectroradiometry Millimeter Wave Sensor Applications

The summaries prepared for each of the concepts are provided in Section 3 of this report.

2-1

SUMMARIES OF CONCEPTS FOR INSPECTING NCI

Summaries of each of the top six most promising concepts identified during the brainstorming session are provided below. These summaries include an overview of the inspection technology concept and a brief outline of the major tasks that may be required to evaluate the feasibility of the concept and develop a prototype inspection device. (Note: The concept summaries were prepared by different authors. Therefore, the formats and contents may vary. Every effort was made to merge styles into a consistent format whenever possible.)

3-1

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 1: Imaging Methods

This approach is based on the use of a sensor to produce an image of the insulator and computer image processing to enhance the image for viewing or to automatically detect a failing NCI. Different sensors could be considered to obtain images in the visible, infrared or x-ray spectra, or a combination. Visible images could identify problems such as splits or tears in the sheath or defective seals on end caps. X-ray images could detect cracks in the fiberglass rod or water intrusion under the sheath or in the end cap. Technology Description Imaging methods include using the electromagnetic spectrum for developing images from the infrared to visual to x-ray. Each of these methods can produce an image that may be analyzed to detect defects/damage. Brief descriptions of different imaging technologies that hold promise are provided below X-Ray and Neutron Imaging: The x-ray method will provide the ability to observe cracks in the fiberglass rod underneath the end fittings. Cracks in the fiberglass rod indicate an NCI that is at high risk of failure. X-ray imaging would utilize an isotopic source (properly collimated to minimize exposure to the x-ray beam) in conjunction with a real-time imaging x-ray camera. A slightly different approach would utilize a Californium 254 neutron source. Neutrons are preferentially absorbed by hydrogen atoms and would allow early and positive detection of moisture in the end fitting. Commercially available sources (x-ray or neutron) and cameras could be used if they can be placed within 3 to 4 inches of the insulator during inspection. An inspection system based on this approach would consist of a horseshoe frame holding the source and camera so they could be positioned with the insulator between them. This assembly would consist of a source that would be a cylinder of approximately 2 inches in diameter and 4 inches long and a detector that would be a cylinder approximately 4 inches in diameter and 10 inches long. The complete assembly would weigh approximately 6-8 pounds. It would be positioned at the end fittings of an insulator or scanned along the axis of the insulator by a boom, a lineman or a robotic line crawler. Visible Spectrum, Spectral Band Filtered, and Infrared Imaging: A video camera would be used to obtain monochrome or color images (with or without spectral band filters) of a complete insulator or an infrared camera to obtain thermal images. The camera(s) would be placed within 10 to 20 feet of the insulator and in a position to obtain a clear view of critical areas. Visible Spectrum Imaging -Image processing software would analyze the insulator shape to identify insulators where partial weakening or fracture of the rod causes the end caps of the insulator to be out of alignment. (Note: The concept of using imaging of NCI alignment to detect damage is further explored in the following section, Concept 2 - Image Processing of Insulator End fitting and Rod Alignment). Image feature analysis could identify cracks and splits in the sheath, damaged sheds and broken seals on the end caps. Spectral Band Filtered Imaging -The ability to detect damage could potentially be enhanced by using filters. Spectrophotometer measurements show that the sheath material absorbs more at the green/blue spectral bands than in the red and near-infrared regions (see Figure 3-2

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

3-1). On the other hand, the fiberglass rod absorbs more in the red/infrared region. This can be exploited by using optical filters to capture images in several different spectral bands. Image processing techniques would then color map the images to enhance any areas where the fiberglass rod is exposed. Infrared Imaging - Infrared imaging has been used to identify problems in substations and power plants but has been less successful for transmission line inspection. One of the reasons is that inspections have generally been done from a relatively long distance from the insulators. If an infrared camera is placed 10 to 20 feet from an insulator, the sensitivity will be much greater and smaller temperature differences can be detected.
Spectral Absorption
Relative Absorption 1.3 0.8 0.3 -0.2

445 Seal 01 Rod 01

531

614 695 Wavelength Polymer01 Rod 02

773 Polymer02

849

Figure 3-1 Spectrophotometer Measurements of Spectral Absorption

Image Processing and Analysis: Image processing and feature analysis would be used to automatically detect critical indicators: broken fibers, water under the sheath or in the end caps, cracks in the sheath or broken seals and heat caused by leakage currents. If more than one type of sensor is included in an inspection system, data fusion techniques would be used to confirm indications of insulator failure. Potential Benefit X-Ray and Neutron Imaging: A The x-ray real-time imaging capability would allow detection of cracking in the fiberglass rod under the sheath and even while looking through the end fitting steel components. If this were sensitive enough to locate a few broken fibers, this would be a reliable method for early detection of brittle fracture, which is responsible for over 50% of the failures in the EPRI NCI failure database. Neutron imaging would detect moisture under the sheath and in the end fitting, which is the cause of over 75% of the failures investigated (brittle fracture, electrical discharge and flashunder). This would provide a method for detecting high-risk insulators even before any mechanical changes occur.

3-3

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Visible Spectrum, Spectral Band Filtered, and Infrared Imaging: At long distance or in field conditions it is difficult to see where the sheath is damaged, split or unclipped to expose the rod. Multi-spectral imaging could be used to produce images where any exposed rod is marked with a distinctive color. Image Processing and Analysis: Image analysis of the condition of the seals, sheds and sheath and the alignment or shape of insulators could be used to detect cases where there is danger of water ingress or where some mechanical changes have occurred. If the change is detectable, this inspection could be performed from a helicopter or from a safe region on a tower. Implementation Unknowns X-Ray and Neutron Imaging: To produce an adequate image of the fitting region using x-rays, it is necessary to have an understanding of the material dimensions, especially the thickness of the end fitting metal areas. The attenuation of x-rays is greatly affected by the metal thickness and to develop the optimum defect detection technique for the fiberglass rod, it is necessary to optimize the x-ray energy. It is believed that there are a minimal number of designs with different metal thicknesses in the end-fitting region. If neutron radiography is evaluated, then the issue of most concern is the neutron absorption of fiberglass versus the attenuation of moisture. The attenuation of neutrons by the metal is negligible. Visible Spectrum, Spectral Band Filtered, and Infrared Imaging: Dust, corrosion or aging effects may mask visual indications of splits in the sheath, damaged seals or thermal patterns of leakage current. The size and contrast of these features must be determined in order to specify camera resolution, camera mount vibration limits, requirement for illumination and other factors that will affect the limits of damage/defect detectability. Based on similar, previous investigations, there is a good probability (greater than 75%) that the methods under discussion will successfully detect: Broken fibers, if a significant percentage of the bundle is broken Moisture under the sheath, but the detectable amount of moisture is unknown at this time Splits, tears, and other types of physical damage in the sheath larger than .05 width and .25 length Thermal patterns caused by temperature differences greater than .1 C

Based on information from the EPRI Guide to Visual Inspection of Non-Ceramic Insulators, these methods would have detected a significant number of the recorded insulator failures. The actual sensitivity/detectability of the various defects/conditions that will be practically achievable is an unknown that will need to be assessed through a feasibility study.

3-4

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan The following tasks would be required to confirm the feasibility of this concept and conduct preliminary tests. Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation X-Ray and Neutron Imaging: The initial investigation to assess the feasibility of using xray would include obtaining values of the end fitting thickness from the various manufacturers, developing preliminary x-ray procedures (including evaluation of x-ray energy and real-time imaging parameters) and verifying that cracking in the fiberglass rod can be detected using the procedure. If the results are positive, additional investigations will determine the minimum defect that can be detected, standoff distance, and other quantitative parameters. A similar approach would be used for a neutron source, including development of preliminary inspection procedures (including energy and moderation techniques and realtime imaging parameters), verification that moisture can be detected in the end fitting of the NCI and investigation of the minimum amount of moisture that can be detected. Both cases would include an initial evaluation of how the corona/grading rings would interfere with obtaining the x-ray or neutron image and the analysis of the image. Visible Spectrum, Spectral Band Filtered, and Infrared Imaging: Phase 1 tasks to develop radiography procedures and verify the concept would require about six months. Feasibility investigation of visible and infrared imaging methods would require about five months if currently available cameras and imaging processing computers were used. Image Processing and Analysis: Aged NCI insulators with defects in the sheath and seals would be used to determine how surface conditions affects the detectability of defects. Image processing methods such as edge enhancement and curve fitting would be tested to determine how well this can enhance the image features of cracked fibers, moisture, and/or other visually detectable surface defects/damage. Pattern recognition techniques would be developed and tested to provide automatic detection of defects above a specified threshold. Phase 2. Prototype Development X-Ray and Neutron Imaging: If Phase 1 results are positive, a prototype inspection device will be developed. The prototype x-ray sensor would consist of a source and a real-time imager. The scenario is to have the source emit x-rays (or neutrons) that pass through the NCI end and then into the imaging system. This prototype must be attached either to a hot stick system or a line crawler. Visible Spectrum, Spectral Band Filtered, and Infrared Imaging: A prototype visible or infrared inspection sensor could be included on the same deployment system or could be developed as a separate system since it could be used at greater stand-off distances than radiography imagers. 3-5

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 2: Image Processing of Insulator End Fitting and Rod Alignment

This approach is a subset of the Imaging Methods described previously. It involves using/processing high-resolution images of NCI under load to determine whether the end fittings are aligned and hence whether the rod has been partially damaged by a brittle fracture type failure. This method assumes that if a fiberglass rod has a fracture perpendicular to the rod axis and an unrestrained tension load is applied to the rod the distance between the fracture surfaces will increase as shown in Figure 3-2.

Applied Load

x+

No Load

Applied Load

Figure 3-2 Rod Section with Fracture Under Load and No Load

If the distance between the fracture planes, x, increases when an unrestrained load in applied then the sides of the rod will no longer be parallel. In order to ensure good mechanical performance, manufacturers put a considerable amount of effort into the attachment of end fittings. Rod diameters have a high tolerance; the inside of the end fittings are machined and the compression process is well controlled. This may allow the end fittings to be used as measurement points to determine whether the rod has a fracture (Figure 3-3).

3-6

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

load

load

load

load

Figure 3-3 Angular Displacement of a Rod when a Fracture Occurs and the Unit is Under Unrestrained Loading of a Sufficient Magnitude

The angles of the edges of the end fittings are measured to some reference resulting in angles, and . If = - , a significant value for may indicate a fractured rod. (Note: Following the brainstorming session described in Section 2, exploratory testing of this concept was performed to assess whether this approach is feasible. A summary of this initial testing is presented in the Section, Initial Testing). Technology Description High-resolution digital images of an insulator are taken and digitally processed. Edge detection is used to determine the values for and and the difference between them, , is calculated. A probability (or confidence index) for the condition of the insulator is then calculated. Alternatively, the alignment of the rod itself can be examined. The technology will require a high-resolution digital camera, image processing equipment, etc. Related ideas include: Using a laser to make the measurement Outlining the entire insulator to see if alignment anomalies can be detected.

Potential Benefit The following benefit statements may be made: The technique utilizes known technologies that are readily available. The technique can be applied from either an airborne platform or ground location.

3-7

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

When fully implemented a device can be developed that can provide an instantaneous answer to the inspector. The concept maybe implemented in the EPRI APS type of airborne inspection system where high-resolution images of each structure are taken at high speed and the images are processed after the inspection. This concept may be developed and implemented as an automated processing tool for such an inspection.

Implementation Unknowns The following unknowns exist: The speed of brittle fracture growth may be so fast that by the time any deformation can be accurately determined the insulator may only have hours or days of life left. The sufficiency of end fitting tolerances to allow meaningful measurements. The impact of extraneous factors such as grading rings and line hardware on the ability to make measurements. The sufficiency of rod deformation under everyday loads to enable detection of an anomaly. The sensitivity of the inspection technique to the viewing angle.

Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan The following tasks would be required to confirm the feasibility of this concept and conduct preliminary tests. Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation An initial investigation would be conducted to assess the amount by which the angle between the two end fittings will deform and whether this is measurable for: Normal everyday loads Normal rod sizes

In addition, a determination will be made concerning whether the tolerance of end fittings is sufficient to allow the measurement and the influence of corona rings. Phase 2. Prototype Development A set of insulators with different types of defects would be fabricated and images of the units captured while the units are under load. The images may be captured using standard highresolution digital cameras. The images may then be processed using standard desktop computers with image processing software. The system may be developed such that the digital camera could be directly linked to a laptop and the image processed in this manner. 3-8

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Based on the success of the prototype a development plan for a stand-alone device may be developed. Initial Testing Initial testing of the concept was performed at the EPRI center in Lenox, MA. An NCI was hung from a beam and a weight of 2500 lbs was hung from the end fitting. The rubber weathershed system was removed in order to simplify measurements. Figure 3-4 shows the insulator setup when the unit was intact and under no load.

Figure 3-4 Insulator Under No Load and With No Fracture.

The insulator information is shown in the table below:

Table 3-1 Details of insulator under test Insulator Length Rod diameter Comments: 15.95 mm (0.63 in.) Ohio Brass Hi-Lite XL Cat. # SML RTL 511010-1201 25,000 lbs 12,500 lbs

Rubber sheds removed and aluminum end fittings installed.

A cut, of increasing depth, was made orthogonal to the rod axis close to the live end to simulate a brittle fracture in progress. The cut was made with a hacksaw. The depths of the cut were 2, 4, 8, and 10 mm.

3-9

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

The following measurements/recordings were performed both with and without the load applied for the intact rod and each cut depth: Photograph of entire insulator Close-up photograph of cut Feeler gauge measurement of distance between fracture surfaces. (Measurements were made under no load conditions both prior to and after the load was applied).

Figure 3-5 Photograph of Entire Insulator with 2500 lbs Applied and a Fracture Depth of 10 mm (Note: The Information on the Yellow Board is Incorrectthe Load was 2500 lbs)

3-10

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Figure 3-6 Close-up Photograph of 4 mm Cut with the Rod under 2500 lbs Load Table 3-2 Gap Size Both With and Without Load Applied as a Function of Cut Depth (Note: The No Load Values were Calculated as an Average of the Gap Size Both Before and After the Load was Applied) Cut Depth (mm) 0.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 10.000 0.851 0.940 0.928 0.915 0.915 0.991 1.143 1.194 0.064 0.051 0.216 0.279 Gap size (mm) No load 2500 lbs load Delta (mm)

3-11

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

0.300

0.250 Increase in gap size (mm)

0.200

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000 0 2 4 6 Cut Depth (mm) 8 10 12

Figure 3-7 Increase in Gap Size as a Function of Cut Depth (Note: Increase in Gap Size is Between Insulator Unloaded and Loaded with 2500 lbs)

Notes: The accuracy with which the cuts were made was poor. The 2, 4, 8 and 10 mm sizes should be used as reference points only. The feeler gauge measurements were done using standard spark plug feeler gauges. The accuracy was limited especially for the smaller gap sizes. The load applied was 2500 lbs. This is a lower than normal everyday load for a dead-end insulator and a higher than normal load for a suspension (i.e. I- or vee-string) unit. These tests were a first quick pass at the concept. More accurate measurements need to be made. The images from each test are available for analysis in JPEG format.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 3: Mechanical Testing

This approach is based on the concept that degradation of the insulator fiberglass rod will cause measurable changes in insulator stiffness and deflections under load (see Figure 3-8). In this case, insulators with partially failed rods will exhibit changes in length, bending flexure, or torsional flexure due to load variations such as cable oscillations resulting from wind vorticity, cable sway, excitation caused by helicopter blade wash, or other external forces. These variations would be detected by remote instruments such as a laser vibrometer or by contact instruments such as accelerometers and microphones. A microprocessor would analyze the signals to automatically determine if the rods are intact or if brittle fracture or some other mechanism has broken some of the fibers.

Brittle Fracture Crack

Applied Force or Impact Mechanical Resonant Response

Figure 3-8 Schematic of Mechanical Testing Concept

(Note: Following the brainstorming session described in Section 2 exploratory testing of this concept was performed to assess whether this approach is feasible. A summary of this initial testing is presented in the Section Initial Testing). Technology Description Dynamic measurements are commonly used to detect flaws in structures; for example, tapping on a plaster wall to find areas that are not bonded securely has been used for generations. An elaborate device to automate this process is adapted to detect the quality of bonded tiles on the space shuttle lifting body. Dynamic characteristics are much more readily detectable than static characteristics of mechanical devices. Inexpensive vibration sensors are available with very high sensitivities and vibration testing is well established. One dynamic method uses an applied impulse and simultaneous measurement of both vibration and the applied impulse to produce a transfer function (vibration/force) spectrum. The transfer function is relatively forgiving with 3-13

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

respect to the impulse level and location. While this is the case, location will affect the frequency content and only modes that are not a node at that point will appear in the spectrum. The progressive cracking of turbine blades can be detected by a simple shift in natural frequency (Figure 3-9). More comprehensive data analysis techniques are available to assess structural stiffness and damping based on these measurements. Dynamic modeling techniques provide a means to assess the contributions of specific structural elements to the measured stiffness and damping parameters, and can predict how those parameters are affected by defects in the structural elements.
Blade Stress Response 25,00

4X

5X

ML 20,00 0 ML 8 ML 10 ML ML 15,00 AH C k d

Stress, psi

10,00

5,00

0 1,00

1,10

1,20

1,30 Frequency, Hz

1,40

1,50

1,60

Figure 3-9 Impulse Testing of Gas Turbines Blades to Detect Shifts in Natural Frequency Due to Progressive Airfoil Cracking

Potential Benefit This concept may lead to three possible inspection instruments. The first is a contact or impact device for quickly verifying the integrity of an insulator. This could be as simple as adding accelerometers to hotsticks so that a lineman could tap an insulator and determine if it has experienced brittle fracture before placing any weight on the conductor or beginning work. This would be relatively inexpensive and could reduce the chance of an insulator breaking when line work is conducted. The second possibility includes systems developed with non-contact excitation and measurement methods (acoustic, interferometer or electromagnetic) which would allow non-contact inspection from a distance so that failing insulators could be replaced before complete failure. 3-14

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Third, a line crawler system could be adapted with resonance identification instruments to address the task of surveillance/inspection of a large number of insulators as a predictive maintenance activity. In this case, it would probably be more effective to use a small electrodynamic shaker to create the extension forces and a self-contained accelerometer and or microphone to detect response signals. In addition to the potential for assessing the condition of insulators based on stand alone measurements this method holds potential for assessments based on comparative measurements to detect changes in insulator condition. For example, changes in the condition of an individual insulator could be assessed based on comparison of a measurement at given time to a baseline measurement made earlier in an insulators life, or the method could be used as the basis for a system to make go, no-go decisions for like insulators in a long section of the line, i.e., by making measurements on several identical insulators it might be feasible to identify insulators with different and potentially unacceptable frequency responses. Implementation Unknowns SwRI conducted brief, preliminary tests to confirm that adequate quality response signals can be acquired using intrusive accelerometers attached to the insulator end cap; these tests are described in the Section Initial Testing. Using this technique, it is reasonably certain that substantial damage can be detected. It is less certain, however, that incipient damage can be quantified at an early-stage especially with non-contact measurement and excitation techniques. Preliminary tests indicate that it should be possible to detect significant natural frequencies using a properly placed microphone and that changes in stiffness can be detected by measuring natural frequency shifts. One uncertainty is the sensitivity of signal strength for different microphone placements and shielding in the presence of conflicting noise such as wind or other vibrations. Another factor is the ability to detect frequency shifts due to damage in the presence of normal natural frequency variants due to manufacturing variables and insulator configurations e.g., length, number of sheaths and sheds, presence of corona ring etc. Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation Laboratory tests will be performed to identify natural frequencies for different configurations of NCIs and to quantify detectable shifts in natural frequencies for progressive damage to the insulator rod. The tests will also investigate various vibration sensor types and excitation mechanisms that could be applicable to insulator inspection for a linemans structural integrity confirmation and for predictive maintenance surveys. The sensitivity of different microphones and accelerometers will be compared and data will be analyzed to determine the capability of this approach for detecting failing insulators. It will take approximately four months for this phase of study. If initial tests demonstrate that failing insulators can be identified by mechanical measurements additional tests will be used to extend the concept to longer distance, non-contact techniques. 3-15

Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

This will include the use of a laser vibrometer or interferometer for measurement of vibration due to artificial or natural stimulus sources. An estimate of time for this portion of the study would be eight months. If the laboratory tests show that the mechanical measurement concept is feasible, additional testing and development will be done in a transmission line environment. Procedures and instruments will be selected, based on results from the laboratory tests. Similar tests will be performed on insulators suspended from a simulated transmission tower. Six months will be required for this portion of Phase 1. Phase 2. Prototype Development Several different prototype systems could be developed, depending on the results of the Phase 1 investigations. One might be a Lineman's Toolkit for contact testing insulators before work is begun. Another could be a non-contact, optical method for analyzing the mechanical vibrations of insulators that could be applied from a tower, or possibly from a helicopter or from the ground. A third possibility could be an integrated wire-crawler system that includes a dynamic shaker, accelerometer and data analysis components to identify failing insulators. It is impossible to give an accurate estimate of the development without the results from the Phase 1 testing, but this development is likely to require a year or more. Initial Testing Because there was concern that the neoprene sheds and sheath would damp out vibration induced into the insulator rod, SwRI conducted impulse testing of a high voltage insulator to evaluate the data quality. The test was conducted by simply supporting the insulator with small blocks at both ends to allow the rod and sheds to move freely. A series of tests was conducted to compare two different types of sensors shown in Figure 3-10, an accelerometer (item 3) and a microphone (item 4). For both measurement sensors, impulses were delivered in the lateral and in the axial direction using an impulse hammer (item 2). The portable dual channel HP 3560A, spectrum analyzer (item 1) was used to acquire the vibration transfer functions presented in Figure 3-11. Lateral impulses are expected to produce more bending action, which should be more sensitive to progressive rod damage.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Figure 3-10 Impulse Testing Equipment: 1) Dual Channel Spectrum Analyzer (HP3560A) used to Record Transfer Function (vibration/force) Spectrums; 2) Instrumented Impulse Hammer Delivers Measured Impulses to Bottom Attachment; 3) Accelerometer Attached to Bottom Attachment Piece Measures Vibration Response; 4) Microphone Located Between Sheds Measures Sound Signal Related to Vibration

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

X:67.5 Hz Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 10 Y:3.670804 102.TRC Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 1 104.TRC

Mag (Log) Lateral Impulse at Lower Connector Accelerometer Measurement 0.01 0 Hz X:1.88125 kHz Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 10 500 Hz Y:1.006957 106.TRC

Mag (Log)

Axial Impulse at Lower Connector Accelerometer Measurement 0.001 0 Hz X:2.3625 kHz Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 0.1 500 Hz Y:38.25506 m 110.TRC

Mag (Log) Axial Impulse at Lower Connector Accelerometer Measurement 0.01 0 Hz 5 kHz

Mag (Log) Lateral Impulse at Lower Connector Microphone Measurement at Lower Connector 0.001 0 Hz X:4.925 kHz Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 0.1 5 kHz Y:69.45056 m 112.TRC

X:4.925 kHz Y:140.7071 m Freq Resp: Hyx 2:1 111.TRC 1 Lateral Impulse at Lower Connector Microphone Measurement at Second Shed

Mag (Log)

Mag (Log) Lateral Impulse at Lower Connector Microphone Measurement at Second Shed

0.0001 0 Hz 5 kHz

0.0001 0 Hz 10 kHz

Figure 3-11 Impulse Response Spectra of 6-ft Insulator using Accelerometers and Microphone Pickups

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

The two transfer function spectrums in the upper left of Figure 3-11 represent the response of lateral and axial impulses using an accelerometer to measure vibration. These plots show a dominant natural frequency and several lower-level natural frequencies that can be clearly identified which implies that using this technique with an accelerometer should produce high confidence in detection of changes due to fiberglass rod element damage. The other four spectrums in Figure 3-11 represent the response of lateral and axial impulses using a microphone to measure the noise response to impulses in the axial and lateral direction. From this data, damping and stiffness can be estimated and changes can be detected by developing a suitable algorithm. Similar tests with a non-contact microphone produced irregular or noisy data.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 4: Chemical Species and Products

Several experimental studies have identified chemical changes within the NCI that cause brittle fracture failure. This concept is based on determining the resulting chemical products and then developing a means for detection. It will also be necessary to determine whether analyses can be done remotely, without contacting the NCI. Technology Description NCI brittle fracture failures have been linked to infiltration of water into the fiberglass/glass reinforced plastic (GRP) rod. The failure mechanisms have been attributable to either acid or water leaching of the metallic ions in the glass fibers resulting in stress corrosion cracking. [Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking induced from the combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive medium. (Reference 1)] If the metallic ion concentration manifests itself in the protective polymeric water shed, then a remote technique such as x-ray fluorescence (XRF) might be able to detect the increasing metal ion concentration. Furthermore, it may be possible for the XRF to see through the external polymer water shed and directly measure the ionic concentration of the glass fiber. Brittle fracture theories require the accumulation of water within the GRP rod. The water can be aided by acids (either resident within the GRP from hydrolysis of the epoxy hardener (Reference 2) or from corona-created nitric acid) to corrode the glass fiber. The theories all require a permeation pathway for water though the external polymer water shed. It is well known by polymer chemists that solvents swell polymers. Furthermore, some polymer characterization tests are based upon the degree of swelling of an unknown polymer in different solvents; the swelling ratios can fingerprint the polymer. When polymers swell, diffusion pathways are expanded permitting increased chemical flux (both larger molecule sizes and greater mass flux for smaller molecules) through the polymer. There may be some environmental chemicals that swell the outer polymer protective coating allowing more water to diffuse into the GRP rod. It is recommended that the database of failed NCIs be analyzed for locale-specific chemical environments that could change the water barrier properties of the water-shed polymer. If unique environmental chemicals are found that would increase the diffusion rate of water, then a monitoring technique could be targeted to high-risk environments. Several external, remote techniques can be envisioned that could assess the moisture absorption rate into the polymeric water shed or the presence of higher acid concentrations. For example, one might spray an indicator chemical (such as a pH indicator that changes color if the acid concentration is high) or a tracer chemical (similar to a dye penetrant to concentrate in water diffusion pathways). Then using remote spectral measurement instruments, one could identify whether the indicator has changed color or if the dye penetrant has an increased localized concentration on the NCI. If either situation is found, the NCI could be removed from service or inspected more closely.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Potential Benefit The chemical species and products concept summary presented herein focuses on a more fundamental aspect of NCI inspection than the other concept summaries. Results would be used to guide investigations and development of instruments to detect the specific chemical species that can be used to identify failing insulators. The NCI inspection program would benefit by learning which types of detection instruments are likely to be successful and which are likely to be unsuccessful because they are not detecting the correct products of chemical reactions. The potential inspection instruments include non-contact, close range (several feet) as well as longerrange detection devices. Implementation Unknowns The studies referenced have evaluated the chemistry within the NCI, i.e., the changes within the GRP. For a remote inspection technique, the GRP will not be visible since it is covered by the polymeric water shed. It is unknown whether the chemical changes within the GRP during stress corrosion cracking conditions manifest themselves on the surface of the NCI. For example, if water or acid migrates to the GRP and metallic ions are leached from the glass fiber, the metallic ions may concentrate in the polymeric water shed. Burnham et al (Reference 3) identify brittle fracture by the loss of calcium and aluminum ions in the GRP. By destructive chemical analytical techniques [e.g., atomic absorption (AA) spectroscopy or ion chromatography/mass spectrometer (IC/MS)] the concentration of calcium and aluminum ions in the polymeric water shed from new and failed (samples from both the failed portion and a large distance away in an intact segment) NCIs can be measured. Technical risk is present since these ions may not migrate into the outer polymer shed or they may be washed away by rainwater. Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan The following tasks would be required to confirm the feasibility of this concept and conduct preliminary tests. Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation Two matched sets of new and failed NCIs (matched by manufacturer and materials of construction) would be supplied from industry. Approximately 8 small samples (about one milligram each) will be cut from each NCI and analyzed for metal ion content, focusing on the calcium and aluminum concentrations. Composition of the chemical species will be documented and the viability of using metallic ion concentrations as an indicator of SCC will be assessed. (Approximate timeframe: 2 months). A parallel effort would include experimenting with XRF to determine its ability to measure metal ions in both the polymer water shed and the glass fiber of the matched sets of NCIs. This effort will include tuning the XRF to see through the polymer water shed (3 months).

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

To study the impact of locale-specific chemical environments that could change the water barrier properties of the water shed polymer, a stand-alone effort could be done. The database of failed NCIs would be analyzed to extract locality of failure, and a field survey to determine the environmental chemicals in those locations would be conducted. Unique chemicals or cocktails would be theoretically assessed for potential swelling using solubility parameters (3 months). In another independent effort, a series of indicator chemicals (such as a pH indicator that changes color if the acid concentration is high) or tracer chemicals (similar to a dye penetrant to concentrate in water diffusion pathways) would be evaluated. First, a theoretical assessment would be made to rank order the chemicals. Secondly, the highest probable solutions would be sprayed onto the matched sets of NCIs to evaluate the feasibility of this approach (4 months). Phase 2. Prototype Development At this time there is a wide range of possible prototype inspection instruments that might be developed. These could range from technologies based on x-ray fluorescence to spray application of an indicator. After the Phase 1 tests, a better definition of the complexity, cost and time required for prototype development will be made. References - Image Processing of Insulator End fitting and Rod Alignment 1. http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms/scc.htm on 8/16/02. 2. Brittle Fracture of Composite Insulators: Why and How they Occur, by Claude de Tourreil, Laurent Pargamin, Guy Thvenet, and Sandrine Prat; 2000 IEEE report 0-7803-6423-6/00. 3. IEEE Task Force Report: Brittle Fracture in Non-ceramic Insulators [PE-504PRD (02-2002)] by J.T. Burnham, Chairman and Principal Author; Members in Alphabetical Order: Tony Baker, Al Bernstorf, Claude de Tourreil, Jean-Marie George, Ravi Gorur, Ralf Hartings, Bob Hill, Arjan Jagtiani, Terry McQuarrie, David Mitchell, Don Ruff, Herman Schneider, Jennifer Yu, Jack Varner.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 5: Hyperspectral Imaging and Spectroradiometry Methods

This approach is based on the use of a hyperspectral imager or an optical spectrometer to "image/detect the whereabouts of various chemical species that may be present on or around an NCI. By identifying chemical species associated with degradation, useful inspection techniques could be developed. These species may include a variety of reaction products possibly driven by unwanted water that has encroached into the NCI material, or possibly chemical reaction products, which result from the unusually high corona discharge, such as ozone-induced chemical reactions. Technology Description The technology is based on the concept that there may be various chemical species on or around an NCI that indicate a problem. An imaging spectrometer would be used to indicate this. Although the midwave (MWIR) and longwave (LWIR) infrared regions of the spectrum are very important (since those are the regions that are usually used to identify certain chemical species), in concept this can apply, in theory, to any region of the spectrum, including near infrared (NIR), shortwave infrared (SWIR), and even the ultraviolet (UV). The costs for optics and focal plane arrays will vary widely between the different wavelength regions. A simple imaging spectrometer could be thought of as a camera with a color filter in front of it taking a picture of something using the sun as the light source. In this simple example, not much chemical information would be obtained; however, if the camera were to be in the infrared, and the filter very narrow in bandwidth, then some chemical information could be obtained. To improve the situation, a very narrow filter could be used. To continue to improve the situation, several filters could then be used in sequence. Recently, commercial hyperspectral imagers have been produced (Reference 4), which very rapidly process information in the visible and infrared region of the spectrum. (There are several patented technologies, which make this happen, such as a moving diffractive element front-end for an infrared camera.) Thus, chemical information can be obtained by correlation of the absorption or emission regions (dark or light areas of the image) with the corresponding wavelengths related to chemicals of interest. (Note: this is not thermal information, as is obtained from standard broadband infrared cameras, but rather chemical information, obtained due to the narrow bandwidths used.) It is possible that these imagers could be operated from the ground or helicopters. (The degree of platform stabilization will influence image quality.) Additionally, it seems possible that these imagers could be imaging the surface contamination, as well as the surrounding vapors, which result from the degradation processes. Note: While there are obvious advantages associated with the flexibility, capabilities and ease of use of a hyperspectral imager and this technology is the focus of the concept summary presented herein, an optical spectrometer could be used as an alternative basis for an inspection system based on the concept of detecting chemical species.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Figure 3-12 The Mid-wave Infrared IMSS has a Spectral Resolution of 0.01 Microns and Over 200 Spectral Bins Between 3 to 5 Microns (from Pacific Advanced Technology)

Potential Benefit The benefit is in obtaining images that represent chemical species, which may result from undesirable chemical reactions, which degrade the NCI. Implementation Unknowns It is unknown at the present time whether the chemical species present on or around a faulty NCI are concentrated enough to get reproducible data using the hyperspectral imaging technique. As with any other spectral technique, concentration is of major importance. Additionally, the characteristics of the species of interest will determine exactly what basic wavelength band would be of use. If the contamination is on the surface, it will be easier to find, because of the increased concentration, and hence increased contrast ratio. Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan The following tasks would be required to confirm the feasibility of this concept and conduct preliminary tests. Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation Determine the chemical species of interest, based on probable chemical reactions, such as oxidation etc. on or inside the NCI. Borrow, rent, or subcontract to Pacific Advanced Technology (PAT) for the use of a hyperspectral imager to test the concept. (SwRI currently has a teaming arrangement with PAT on another project, in which a similar concept is being explored to image potential chemical/biowarfare agent liquids on surfaces for the U.S. Army.) For the first step it would be important to have an assortment of "bad" NCIs to investigate, and a rigorous literature search associated with various chemical species and possible reactions. For a 3-24

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second step, it would be very advantageous to investigate NCIs that are operational, so that any possible out-gassing products might be investigated. Several wavelength bands are possible, from the visible to the longwave infrared. This concept applies to both the insulator surface itself, as well as the possible chemical vapor around the insulator. It is estimated that first tests in the Phase 1 Feasibility Investigation to determine if the concept is feasible at all would last about three months. Phase 2. Prototype Development This approach will be highly dependent on the wavelength band (determined by the chemical species of interest) and operational needs (i.e. ground-based or helicopter-based), therefore a plan for development of a prototype cannot be specified at this point. Hyperspectral imagers have been flown in helicopters, operated on missile trackers, off tripods, and even handheld. Prototype development seems very possible for this application, if there is enough chemical concentration for detection. References Hyperspectral Imaging and Spectroradiometry Methods 4. Pacific Advanced Technology: http://www.patinc.com.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Concept 6: Millimeter Wave Sensor Applications

Note: Alternative approaches that are somewhat similar to the use of MMW but are based on active microwave, radio frequency, or maser pumping are described in the Section, Related Concept: Active Microwave, Radiofrequency or Maser Pumping Combined with Thermal Imaging. This approach is based on exploiting the unique ways that millimeter waves interact with matter. A passive MMW detector could be used to detect moisture migration under the sheath or in the end cap fittings. An active MMW imaging sensor would generate images of the internal composition of NCIs. Any resulting instrument would probably have to be placed fairly close (within several feet) to the insulator to be inspected. Microprocessor analysis of the resulting signal or image would provide an indication of the condition of the insulator. Technology Description The millimeter wave (MMW) spectrum falls between microwave and infrared frequencies, from 30 to 300 GHz. Use of MMWs holds promise for detecting specific molecular structures, such as water, and for high resolution imaging of dielectric structures. Although it may be possible to detect broken fibers with high resolution MMW imaging, it is more likely that detecting the molecular precursors or byproducts of fiber failure will identify failing insulators. In contrast with infrared or optical techniques, MMWs penetrate deeper into non-metallic structures, up to 10 cm, to provide better internal viewing. The electromagnetic signals will not pass through the metallic end-cap fittings; however, MMW could be directed along the rod to detect moisture or other conditions inside the end-cap. A standoff sensor can be either passive or active and detectors can take several forms: spot beam (for mechanical scanning), an imaging array of antennas or a focal plane detector. Passive detectors sense variations in black body thermal radiation from objects, while active detectors respond to a transmitted signal, either imaging a reflection from (i.e., radar) or measuring transmission through an object. Low-power MMW radars are used for security applications such as sensing people through walls, or creating 3D holographic images of an object hidden beneath clothing. Passive radiometers are used in many roles such as measurement of air turbulence, cloud profiling, motion detection or reading the amount of moisture in crops. Multi-channel radiometers can detect molecular resonance profiles and identify the presence of specific molecules such as water or pipeline gases (methyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, etc.). In addition to standoff sensors, a contact sensor may also be used to measure the relative transmissibility of MMW energy in a dielectric structure, which can indicate internal problems with the material.

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Summaries of Concepts for Inspecting NCI

Potential Benefit Table 3-3 addresses promising applications of MMW technology to the problem of insulator failures caused by seal penetration and moisture ingress. In all cases, the sensor is used to see beneath the rubber sheath of an insulator and inspect the fiberglass rod beneath. With the exception of the down-rod signal measurement, all approaches are non-contact.
Table 3-3 Potential Applications of MMW for NCI Defect Detection Technique Down-rod signal measurement (contact method) Passive Spot Radiometer (Multi-channel) Pre-Failure Detection Flash-under, Brittle Fracture Flash-under (This is a nonimaging method and the resolution is too low to see cracked fibers.) Flash-under, Brittle Fracture Flash-under, Brittle Fracture Flash-under, Brittle Fracture Indication Loss of signal through structure indicating changes in material Water resonance line or Rasterscan image

Passive Array Imager Active Array Imager Active Chirp Radar (3D holography)

Interpretable Image Interpretable Image Interpretable Image

Risks and Implementation Unknowns Based on tests and investigations of similar materials, a contact sensor, measuring transmission and reflection in fiberglass, has a high probability (approximately 75%) of successfully detecting fiber problems. Non-contact methods using either passive or active millimeter wave imaging are estimated to have lower probability (approximately 50%) of success, largely because of uncertainty of the MMW penetration through the metal fixture. Detection of trapped water is considered a low probability, primarily because the resonance of water is not very strong in this band and because there is little data on the characteristics of trapped water. Several questions need to be answered before implementing one or more MMW approaches: 1. Which method provides the best detection for the various failure modes (direct transmissibility measurement, passive radiometer, active radar)? 2. Is imaging of the structure required, or can a spot-beam radiometer sense water or corrosive chemicals associated with coronal interaction? 3. If an imaging system is used, which is the preferred method (phased array, synthetic aperture or mechanical raster scan)?

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4. For standoff methods, electromagnetic energy will not penetrate the metal end cap of the insulator. Can the technique chosen see enough of the metal-fiberglass junction region to detect brittle fractures in progress? 5. If water has penetrated the fiberglass structure, is it of sufficient amount to be easily detected? When it is bound within the rod, will it still have a characteristically distinctive resonance? Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan The following tasks would be required to confirm the feasibility of this concept and conduct preliminary tests. Phase 1. Feasibility Investigation The first phase of investigation should strive to answer the questions above and narrow the options to one or two best approaches. Both laboratory tests and paper analyses will be conducted (5 months). 1. Devise a method of coupling MMW energy into structure for down-rod contact measurement. Characterize rods to compare effects of different faults. 2. Measure swept frequency (multi-channel) resonance spectra of typical amounts of water at 23 GHz 3. Purchase and evaluate a COTS MMW handheld imaging scanner 4. Tradeoff imaging methods with respect to standoff distance, platform stability, processing time and image resolution. Phase 2. Prototype Development A prototype system will be developed to prove the best concept selected in Phase 1 (this will take approximately 10 months). 1. Design and develop a MMW sensing system. 2. Build and test key components. 3. Integrate and test sensor system. 4. Evaluate sensor against sample targets.

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References - Millimeter Wave Sensor Applications Passive MMW Sensors 5. http://www.trexenterprises.com/environ.html 6. http://millivision.com:8071/hscanner.html Active MMW (Radar) Sensors 7. http://www-ee.eng.hawaii.edu/~delisio/delisio/RESEARCH/ACTIMG.HTM 8. http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/res-news/SPFlash.htm MMW Holography 9. http://www.pnl.gov/nsd/commercial/body/description.html MMW Spectroscopy 10. http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/publications/t&d/tsa/microwave_radar.pdf 11. http://spec.jpl.nasa.gov/ 12. http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/MolSpec/index.html Related Concept: Active Microwave, Radiofrequency, or Maser Pumping Combined with Thermal Imaging Brief Description Additional concepts that are somewhat related to those described earlier are elaborated on here. They are separated since they are hybrid concepts, not easily integrated into the preceding information on MMW, and may be applicable for greater distances away from the insulator than the MMW concept. (1) Active microwave or radiofrequency pumping (from a distance) of the contained water molecules would be used to heat up trapped water or chemical compounds within the NCI, which would then be imaged with a thermal imager. This concept could also be expanded to excitation of the water with a maser, tuned to absorption lines of water or chemical compounds of interest. (2) Active microwave, radiofrequency, or maser pumping into the power line structure (upstream or downstream of the NCI) and then imaged with a thermal imager as mentioned above. (3) These techniques could also be expanded to looking for the re-radiated energy from the water molecules, which could be in the RF or MMW region. Note: It may be preferable to avoid tuning the excitation source exactly to the water resonances, since they may be shifted due to interactions with the polymer, etc. Additionally, as in a microwave oven, one

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does not necessarily want all the absorption to occur near the surface, so some detuning may be highly desirable. Potential Benefit Concepts (1) and (2) described in the Brief Description above could be "add-ons" to existing thermal imaging techniques. All three concepts could be looked on as "resonance" phenomena, in which case good differentiation from the background may be available. Implementation Unknowns The power levels for the pumping are unknown at this time, although some rough estimates could be made based on the known background heating of the NCIs from the sun. It is not known if enough water is present inside the NCI to make this concept desirable. Further, even if the heating occurs as desired, the thermal diffusion of the heat back out may be so blurred that a clear image cannot be obtained. Brief Technology Evaluation and Development Plan Laboratory experiments could be conducted with NCIs that were purposely spiked with water. Basic laboratory experiments of this type could be conducted with existing laboratory equipment.

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Program: Overhead Transmission Systems

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