. .

mtnmir@gmail.com

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.

.

. . .

.
.

ACP

Azimuth Clock Pulse

GEN

ADC

Analog-to-Digital Converter

GTC

Gain Time Control

ADT

Automatic Detection and Tracking

HPF

High Pass Filter

AFC

Automatic Frequency Control

IAGC Instantaneous AGC

AGC

Automatic Gain Control

ICAO International Civil Aviation Org

AM

Amplitude Modulation

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

ATC

Air Traffic Control

IFA

Intermediate Frequency Amplifier

ATR

Anti Transmit-Receive

IFF

Identification Friend or Foe

BPF

Band Pass Filter

ISLS

Interrogator Side-lobe Suppression

B/W

Black and White

LAN

Local Area Network

CA

Civil Aviation

LNA

Low Noise Amplifier

CFA

Crossed Field Amplifier

LO

Local Oscillator

CFAR Constant False Alarm Rate

LPF

Low Pass Filter

CFD

LSB

Least Significant Bit or Byte

COHO Coherent Oscillator

LTA

Local Track Averaging

CRO

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

LVA

Large Vertical Aperture

CRT

Cathode Ray Tube

MDS

Minimum Detectable Signal

CW

Continuous Wave

MIX

Mixer

DAC

Digital-to-Analog Converter

MF

Matched Filter

DSP

Digital Signal Processing

MOD

Modulator

FAR

False Alarm Rate

MSB

Most Significant Bit or Byte

FET

Field Effect Transistor

MTD

Moving Target Detection

FPF

False Plot Filter

MTI

Moving Target Indication

FTC

Fast Time Constant

MTBF Mean Time Between Failures

Crossed Field Device

Generator


MTTR Mean Time To Repair

RPM

Revolution Per Minute

OTH

RSL

Reduced Side Lobe

Over-the-horizon

OOP

Object-Oriented Programming

RSP

Radar Signal Processor

Pfa

Probability of False Alarms

RSR

Reverse-switching Rectifier

PFN

Pulse Forming Network

RX

Receiver

PLL

Phase Locked Loop

SAM

Surface-to-Air Missile

PPI

Plan Position Indicator

SAR

Synthetic Aperture Radar

PRF

Pulse Repetition Frequency

SAW

Surface Acoustic Wave

PRI

Pulse Repetition Interval

SCR

Silicon-Controlled Rectifier

PSD

Phase Sensitive Detector

SIF

Selective Identification Feature

PSR

Primary Surveillance Radar

STALO Stable Local Oscillator

RAM

Random Access Memory

STC

Short Time Constant

RCM Remote Control & Monitoring

SSR

Secondary Surveillance Radar

RCP

Range Clock Pulse

TR

Transmit-receive

RCS

Radar Cross Section

TX

Transmitter

RDE

Radar Data Extractor

TWS

Track-while-scan

RDP

Radar Data Processor

TWT

Traveling Wave Tube

RFA

Radio Frequency Amplifier

VAMP Video Amplifier

ROM Read Only Memory

VCO

Voltage-Controlled Oscillator

Ap

Antenna Aperture

No

Noise Density

Av

Amplifier Voltage Gain

nm

Nautical Mile

Bandwidth

Pav

Average Power

Speed of Light

Pden

Power Density

DC

Direct Current

Ppeak

Peak Power

D.C.

Duty Cycle

pps

Pulse Per Second

dB

Decibel

Pd

Probability of Detection

dBm

Decibel to a Milli-Watt

Pfa

Probability of False Alarm

dBW Decibel to a Watt

Pr

Received Power

Ed

Magnetron Hartree Voltage

Pt

Transmitted Power

Et

Transmitted Energy

Ptx

Transmitter Power

Frequency

Slant Range

Doppler Frequency Shift

R()

Autocorrelation Function

Antenna Gain

Smin

Minimum Detectable Signal

Gm

Tube Trans-conductance

SCR

Signal-to-clutter Ratio

H()

Transfer Function

SNR

Signal-to-noise Ratio

h(t)

Impulse Response

Pulse Repetition Interval

Boltzman's Constant

Td

Time Delay Elapsed

Klystron Factor

To

Absolute Temperature

knot

Nautical Mile per Hour

Ts

Sampling Period

Positive Integer Number

Velocity

Number of Pulses

Va

Anode Voltage

Noise Average Power

VA

Anode Supply Voltage

NF

Noise Figure

vB

Blind Speed


Vg

Grid Voltage

Antenna Beamwidth

vr

Relative Velocity

Wavelength

XOR Exclusive OR

Permeability

Alpha Constant

pi Constant

Beta Constant

Radar Cross-Section

Phase Constant

Pulse Duration

Range Resolution

Angular Frequency

Permittivity

Phase Angle

Efficiency

Antenna Angular Speed

-
Sensors

.
Radar

. RAdio Detection And Ranging

1-1

c =1/

Permeability

Permittivity . 3 x 108 m/s

R = c Td / 2

1-2

Td .

.
Sonar SOund

Navigation And Ranging

Azimuth Angle Elevation Angle

. Phase Array
-

Continuous Wave Radar

.

Pulse Radar .

- .

-
Pulse Duration

. Pulse Repetition Interval

Duty Cycle
1-3

D.C. = / T

T .

Pulse Repetition Frequency

1-4

PRF = 1/ T

Echo Pulse

. Range Ambiguity

Ambiguous Target

1-5

Rmax = c T / 2 = c / 2 PRF

R
-

Rmes

1-6

R = Rmes + Rmax

Range Accuracy

Range Resolution
.

r = c / 2

1-7

-
-

RF . IR

Frequency Bands
-
.

Microwaves L

Frequency Band

Freq. Range

Low Frequency LF

30 300 kHz

Medium Frequency MF

300 3000 kHz

High Frequency HF

3 30 MHz

Very High Frequency VHF

30 300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency UHF

300 1000 MHz

L Band

1 2 GHz

S Band

2 4 GHz

C Band

4 6 GHz

X Band

8 12.4 GHz

Ku Band

12.4 18 GHz

K Band

18 26.5 GHz

Ka Band

26.5 40 GHz

. -

c
c=

1-8

Wave Band

Wavelength

Freq. Range

Frequency Band

Decametric Waves

10 100

3 30 MHz

High Frequency HF

1 10

30 300 MHz

Metric Waves

Decimetric Waves

Centimetric Waves

Millimetric Waves

0.1 1

300 3000MHz

0.01 0.1

3 30 GHz

0.001 0.01

30 300 GHz

Very High Frequency VHF

Ultra High Frequency UHF

Super High Freq SHF

Extremely Hi Freq EHF

-
-

Marine Radar

Airborne Radar
.

Two-Dimensional 2D

Three-Dimensional 3D .

Monostatic

Bistatic
.

. Active Radar

. Passive Radar

.
:

Early Warning Radar

Surveillance Radar

Secondary Radar

Height Finder


Tracking Radar

Guidance Radar

Doppler Radar

Radio Altimeter

Meteorological Radar

Astronomical Radar
Laser Radar

Synthetic Aperture Radar

Over-the-horizon Radar

- Cobra Dane

Cobra Dane
. ICBM

- 1L117

- 1L117

- Utes-T

Air Traffic Control

SAM-D) Patriot

. Scud

- Utes-T

- Patriot

Mortar
.

-
-

. AWACS Boeing 707

- AWACS

-

-
.

- 1.6s 300 pps

.

- .
- 600km 150km
.

- 2.7GHz
.

- OTH SAR

-
. Cobra Dane

- - Utes-T
Radome .

-
. .

. Power Density R

Pt
2-1

Pden = Pt / A = Pt / 4R2

. R
.

Directive

. Directive Gain

Pden = G Pt / 4R2

2-2

2-3

Pi = Pden = G Pt / 4R2

2-4

Pr (den) = Pi /4R2 = GPt/(4)2R4

Pr
Antenna Aperture

2-5

Pr = Pr (den) Ap = GPtAp/(4)2R4

Ap

2-6

G = 4 Ap / 2

2-5
2-7

Pr = Pt G2 2 / (4)3 R4

Sensitivity

Smin 2-7

2-8

) Rmax = 4( Pt G2 2 / (4)3 Smin

-
2-8

2-8

Attenuation
.

2-8 .
.

.
-

Radar Cross Section . RCS

.

) (

Reflectivity, transparency and

. absorbability

Stealth Materials
.

F117 - Stealth
B2 . Tomahawk

- F117

Polarization ) (

.
.

. Polarization Diversity

.
.

Point

Targets

Distributed Targets

.
-
-

. T

Sinusoids

2-9

)v(t) = ao/2 + an cos(2nt/T) + bn sin(2nt/T

n = 1,2, bn an


2-10

an = 2/T v (t) cos(2nt/T) dt

2-11

bn = 2/T v (t) sin(2nt/T) dt

. -T/2 t T/2
A

-/2 t /2

2-12

) v(t) = A cos ( 2ct

elsewhere

=0

c
. -/2 t /2
2-13

}))an = A/T{sinc((c n/T)) + sinc((c + n/T

2-14

bn = 0

. sinc(x) = sin(x) / x
PRF
2-15

))A(nPRF) = APRF sinc( (c nPRF

2-16

APRF sinc( (c + nPRF)) 0

. -
Amplitude Spectrum
.

-
Minimum Detectable Signal

MDS

.

.

. Cosmic Noise

Thermal Noise

2-17

N = k To B

k To 1.38 10-23 J/K B

) (3dB

2-18

B = |H()| 2 d / |H(o)|2

Magnitude
. 2-17

. -

Signal-to-noise Ratio

SNR = Pr / N

2-19
Decibel
2-20

dB

)SNR = 10 log10 (Pr / N

Noise Figure

NF = SNRi / SNRo

2-21

-
2-17

2-19

2-22

Smin = k To B SNRmin

2-8

2-23

) Rmax = 4( PtG22 / (4)3 kToB SNRmin

-
.

- .

-
1-3

0.001 0.1%

Peak Power .

Pt Average Power Pav

2-24

Pt = Pav / D.C.

D.C. .
.

Et = Pt

2-25

2-23

2-26

)Rmax = 4( EtG22 / (4)3kToB SNRmin

2-27

B = 1/

2-28

) Rmax = 4( EtG22 / (4)3 kTo SNRmin

2-28

.
.

1-7
.

. Pulse Compression

.
.

Loss . Energy Conversion

= P t / Pi

2-29

. RF Wattmeter
L

Ptx
2-30

dB

Pt = Ptx - L

- .
- 27C 1.2MHz

- 5m2

400km 10kW 3GHz

1% 1000 . 2dB

- 3GHz 1%
10kW

0.8m2 . 90%

- .
-

4dB 0.5m2 100km

1J 300MHz 30dB
. 27C . 1.38x10-23 J/K

.
.

-
Antenna

Waveguide

Duplexer

Transmitter

Receiver

) ( . Video Signal

Display

Zooming .

Pulse Generator

PRF

. 1-5

.
-

Transducer

Radiator

.
Feeder

Directivity Dipole

Waveguide

Horn

.
.

Reflector

Beamwidth

Azimuth

2D Elevation
. Height Finders Dish

Lens Radome
.
Directors

Parasitic .

RF Generator Modulator
. -

Modulator

RF Generator

Self-oscillating

.
-:

Vacuum Tubes
.

Crossed Field Devices

) CFA (Amplitron
.

Linear-Beam Devices
. Traveling Wave Tube

Solid State Devices

. Waveform
Thyratron

FET

.
-

Direct Tuned Receiver

. Super

Regenerative Receivers
.

Homodyne

CW
. Motion Detector

Super-heterodyne . -

. Intermediate Frequency

RFA

LNA . 4dB

Mixer

. Local Oscillator


3-1
3-2

vo = Ar cos 2r t . ALO cos 2LO t

}= ArALO{cos2(r -LO )t + cos2(r +LO )t

BPF

Center Frequency

IF
3-3

IF = r - LO

.
IFA

.
.

Selectivity .

.
Radar Signal Processing

Detector

. Envelope Detector

LPF - .


Gaussian

AM

Video Amplifier

.
Range Indicator

CRO

Horizontal Deflection

.
Vertical Deflection .

) . ( -

Time Base
.

1-2
. -

. Oscilloscope

Marks
.

Plan Position Indicator . PPI
Azimuth

. Bearing

Scan Line

CRT

.

.

. Intensity Modulation

Plots

) . (-

-
Persistence

) (
90 180 . -

Potentiometer

Inductocyne
2-phase

. /2

Synthetic Display

.
.

Corridors

-
.

- 300Hz . 600km
50cm

-
. 20cm

- .
- 3GHz 40MHz
.

-
.

-
.

- .
- .

. Interference

Signal Processing .

Clutter

.

.
Dynamic Range

.

. Signal-to-Clutter Ratio

.
Filters

White Noise

BPF

. Center

Frequency

Resonance
.

Bandwidth

Quality Factor
.

SAW .

Active Filters

Digital Filters

ADC

Main Lobe

. North

SNR = Pr / k To B

4-1

-

SNR = Pr / k To

4-2

2-25

SNR = Er / k To = E / No

4-3

No Noise Density
. W / Hz

Detectability Factor

) s(t
4-4

s(t) e-j2t dt

= )S(

) H(

4-5
4-6

)X() = H() S(
X() ej2t d = - H() S() ej2t d

= )x(t

) x(t t = to 0 < to <

Sampling
SNR = | x(to) | 2 / N

4-7

N
4-8

( No/2 ) |H()|2 d

=N

No/2 .

.


4-9

SNR = |-H()S() ej2 to d|2 / No/2 -|H()|2 d

Schwartz Inequality

4-10

|U()|2 d -|V()|2 d

|-U()V() d|2

V U .

Parseval Theorem

4-11

|S()|2 d

= s2(t) dt

= E

) U() = H( V() = S() ej2to

|-H()S()ej2tod|2 -|H()|2d -|S()ej2to|2d 4-12

4-9
4-13

SNR 2/No |- S() ej2 to d| 2

4-14

SNR 2 |s(to)| 2 / No

.

4-15

SNRmax = 2 |s(to)| 2 / No

4-12

4-16

H() = S*() e-j2 to

4-17

H() = K S*() e-j2 to

to K

S*() ). s(t
Matched

Filter ) S( Waveform
.

Convolution ) sr(t

Impulse Response ) h(t

sr() h(t - ) d

4-18

= )x(t

. Dummy Variable
) H(

H() ej2 t d

4-19

= )h(t

)s(t
4-16

) S*( to

4-20

)S*() ej2(t - to) d = s(to t

= )h(t

) . s(to t) = s*(t - to 4-18

4-21

sr() s(to - t - ) d

= )x(t

Cross Correlation Function

) z(t) y(t
4-22

y() z(t + ) d

= )R(t

. 4-21
4-23

)x(t) = R(t - to

) (
.

Auto Correlation Function

.

Correlator

- .

.
-

Logarithmic

Amplification and Differentiation .

- .

Short Time Constant STC

Fast Time Constant FTC

HPF - .

Spikes

Point Targets

Distributed Targets .

Super-

Clutter Visible -

Sub-Clutter Visible

DSP

Look-up Table ROM

-
-

Automatic Gain Control AGC .

IAGC AGC .

Gain

Time Control GTC Sensitivity Time Control

-
-

Rn n

Phasor

Sum .

Correlated
.

Pre-detection Integration

Coherent .
.

Post-detection Integration

Non-coherent

SNR

SNRint = SNR

4-24

SNRint

T
T ) -

( . Angular Speed

Beamwidth B
4-25

= B / T

4-26

= B / T

4-27

= B PRF /

. 360/

6/

Scan Rate

Revolutions Per Minute

= B PRF / 6 RPM

4-28

)x(to

. -

-
-

2-7

. 5-7

. False Alarms

.

.

Synchronous Pulse Filtering

.

AND

- .

Coincidence
. -

.
MTI
MTI

-
Detection

. Magic-T
.

Threshold of Detection

.
.

Diodes

. LPF

Detector Law

Square Law
.

. System Noise

False Alarm Rate FAR

Constant FAR CFAR

- .

CFAR
. Thresholding

Adaptive

. Range Cell

. CFAR
DSP .

Amplitude Discrimination

. Cell Averaging

. CFAR

Phase Discrimination

Limiting

Clutter Map

- . A
-
. .

-
.

-
.

- .
- CFAR
.

-
.

- 2 10RPM

. 300Hz

-
Doppler Effect

A
5-1

( t ) = A cos 2t

5-2

( t ) = A cos t

td

5-3

) ( t ) = A cos ( t + td

5-4

) ( t ) = A cos ( t +

Phase Angle
5-5

= td

v r


5-6

td = r / v

5-7

=r/v=r

. Phase Constant 1-8
= / v = 2 /

5-8

Relative Motion

5-9

d = d / dt = vr

vr
Doppler Shift
5-10

d = d / 2 = vr /

5-11

d = (vr / v)

d = 2 vr /

5-12

knots
nautical mile )

1.852

/ (

5-13

d = 1.03 vr /

Clutter

.
Moving Target Indication MTI

Frequency Discriminator

-
Phase Sensitive Detector
.

.
LPF -

vx = Ar cos ( t + ) . AL cos t

5-14

} = Ar AL { cos ( 2t + ) + cos

5-15

5-16

vo = Ar AL cos

Coherent Oscillator

.
. Ar AL sin

. -
Bipolar

Unipolar

. -

. MTI

MTI

Two-pulse Canceller

.
Delay

Subtractor - .

- MTI
)

( .

. MTI

MTI
5-17

Improvement Factor = SCRo / SCRi

SCR . Signal-to-Clutter Ratio

MTI

MTI
.

Transversal Filters
an . ] [1,-1

[1,-2,1] [1,-3,3,-1]

- .

.
a0 = 1

- MTI
- MTI

5-18

d < 1/

PRF

.

5-19

) v1 = k sin ( 2d t + o

o k .
T
5-20

) v2 = k sin ( 2d ( t T ) + o

MTI

5-21
5-22

v = v1 - v2
) = 2 k sin ( dT ) cos ( 2d ( t T ) + o

) | H(d) | = 2 sin ( dT

5-23

5-24

dT = n

5-25

d = n / T = n PRF

. n = 0, 1, 2,... -
MTI .

- MTI

MTI

MTI 5-25

. PRF

Blind Speeds

5-12

5-25

5-26

vB = n PRF / 2

) (

/2
5-27

r = n / 2

5-7 . 5-8

T
5-28

vB = r / T = n PRF / 2

-
MTI

Staggered

. Sparse

.

-
MTI Blind Phases

MTI

- .

COHO

/2 . -

Phasor Sum
.

Inphase
. Quadrature

} {0, } {/2,3/2

-
-

. 5-12
v
5-29

vr = v cos

Tangential Speed MTI

MTI
.

. Meteo Channel

-

MTI

MTI

Moving Target Detection MTD

- 360 knots 300MHz

.

- MTI .

- MTI
.

- 360
150MHz 250Hz 270

-
.

-
.

- .
]. [1,-4,6,-4,1

- MATLAB
.

- SIMULINK
MTI .

. Plot

.

Radar Data Processing .

Position Sensor .

Synchronous Transformer

. .

Optical

Encoder

ACP's
North Mark
- .

RCP's

.
.

Range Cell .

CFAR

.
-

. Automatic Detection
:


.

Sliding or Moving Window Detector .

B/W

6-1

THL THH A Valid Plot Exists

6-2

< THL OR > THH No Valid Plots Exist

4-28
.

Beamwidth - .

. Beam Splitting

-
Post-detection

. Non-Gaussian

Plot Extractor

.
-

Within-beam Tracking

Track-while-scan

TWS

Digital Signal Processors

OOP C++

TWS

RAM .

Track Initiation

Heading

Track Termination .

PPI .

Text

Label .

Flight Plan

Air Traffic Control

.

MTI CFAR

. RAM
-

.

Prediction Filter .

Error Estimation .

Track Smoothing LPF

.

Weighting Factors

. Adaptive Filtering

Alpha-Beta Tracker
.

.
Smoothed Position

6-3

) x n = xpn + ( xn - xpn

6-4

v n = v n-1 + ( xn - x pn ) / Ts

x xn

xpn n

Ts
.

= 0

= 1
.

= 0

= 1

n+1
6-5

x p(n+1) = x n + v n Ts

Delays
. Ts

6-6

vn = (xn - xn-1 ) / Ts

6-7

x p(n+1) = (1 - (+)) xpn+ (1 + (+) ) xn - xn-1

+ = 1
6-8

x p(n+1) = 2 xn - xn-1

.
Benedict

6-9

) = 2 / ( 2 -

Kalman Filter .

. FAR

. False Plot Filter

Pfa

False Target Filter

MTI

.
.

Serial Communications .

RS232 Ethernet

Digital Modulation

Modem .

Remote Control and Monitoring Systems

. RCMS

Data Format

ICAO . CA Format

) ASTERIX

(All Purpose Structured Eurocontrol Radar Information Exchange

.

Fields

. Parity Bit

Messages

PSR . SSR
.

Idle Field

.
Even Parity -

.
13
1

12
1

11
1

10
1

9
1

8
1

7
1

6
1

5
1

4
1

3
0

2
0

1
0

ID .

' '1
Simulated .

- .
13
P

12
0

11
1

10
0

9
0

8
1

7
1

6
0

5
1

4
1

3
0

2
0

1
T

Slant Range 1/16

MSB -
.

13
P

12
1/16

11
1/8

9
1/2

10
1/4

7
2

8
1

6
4

5
8

4
16

3
32

2
64

1
128

0.088
ACP - .
12 13
1 P

11
2

10
4

9
8

7
32

8
16

6
64

2
3
4
5
1024 512 256 128

1
204

-
' '0

Azimuth Runlength
.
- .
13
P

12
1/8

11
1/4

10
1/2

9
1

8
2

7
4

6
4

5
8

4
16

3
32

2
64

1
0

-
-

. Multi Tracking

Workstations

LAN - .

ATC

. Topaz

Local Track Averaging LTA

Double Averaging
.

- .
-
.

- .
.

- 1s 2

. 333Hz

-
.

- .
-

- Binary

0137

240km 75 .

Airborne

.

Attenuation

. Bandwidth

Tunability

Frequency Agile . Frequency Hopping

. Frequency Diversity

Arcing
X-Ray

. Efficiency

. Maximum Power Transfer

Distortion

CW

MTTR

Lifetime

. MTBF
-

RF .

Vacuum Tubes

- Thermionic Valves
.

HF . VHF

Reliability

.

. Thermo-ionic Emission

-
Diode

Cathode

Anode .
Filament

Heater

- .
.

. -

-
Ia If

. If2 Rf

Saturation .-

Va . -

6.3V

-
-

. Triode

Control Grid .

Vg

. -
.

-
Rk

- .

Rg

. IaRk

Ra

7-1

Va = VA - Ia Ra

. Rg

Trans-conductance
7-2

Gm = Ia / Vg

7-1
7-3

Va = - Ia Ra = - Gm Vg Ra

AV = Va / Vg = - Gm Ra

7-4

-
FET

Screen . Tetrode

T2 . -

Secondary

Emission

Pentode

T1

. -

-
-
Magnetron Crossed Field Devices

. Mobile

50ns

Cavity Magnetron

- .
Interaction Region

.
Waveguide

Loop

Ed Hartree Voltage

90% - .
-

Pushing Figure

. MHz/A
360 Pulling Figure

. 15MHz

Back Heating

.
.


'C

Stray Capacitance ' r

- . rd

Ed

-

. Coaxial Magnetron

-
Klystron

Linear-Beam .

.

Relativistic

Electron Gun Focusing

. RF Section

Collector
.

Buncher

Catcher

7- 5

I = K V 3/2

K
7- 6

P = K V 5/3

Reflex Klystron

.
-

Traveling Wave Tube

Linear-Beam
.

TWT

- .

Helix
.

.
.

TWT .

LNA .
Twystron

-
-

. - Power Supply
.

) (

3-phase

. Frequency Converter

) 50Hz ( 400Hz

Isolator

-

. Thyratron

Thyristor

Ceramic

. Trigger

Hard-tube . Line-type

Pulsed Amplifier
.

. -

. -

Vo

Zo
Vo/2 . 2

Pulse Forming Network . -

RF Choke

Residual Magnetism .

Zener Diode
.

Trigger Pulse


) (

ra .- RL

Cs Stray Capacitance

. EA

rA ' C .

Reverse-switching Rectifier

SCR .

RSR

Holding Current .

-
. RSR
15kV/s RSR2
RSR1

- RSR
FET

. Reliability

Fail Soft

- .
- .
- .
.

- PFN .
-

- .
- 10M
Gm = 10mA/V Ra = 10K

Rk = 500

- 10kW 0.1% 40%

2dB

. 32dB

39kV
.

Frequency Converter or Translator

. BPF

Image Rejection

:
. Sensitivity
. Selectivity
. Noise Figure
. Bandwidth
. Dynamic Range

. Phase Stability
. Interference Rejection
. Isolation and Protection

-
Duplexer Antenna Switch

Gas Dischargers

PIN Diodes .


8-1

)Isolation = Pt / Pr (max

1MW

2.5W . 56dB

. Branch-type

- .

- TR Switch - )ATR (Anti TR

. Switch

-
TR

. ATR

.
Stubs

ATR

Balanced Duplexer .

Hybrid Junction

- .

Directional Coupler

. 3dB
TR

.
.
Dummy Load

.
90

10% .

Deionization
.

Keep-alive

. Radioactive
-

TR

.
Protection

PN PIN

. Blanking

Ferrite

-
Circulator

.
-

.
-

Saturation

Limiter .

Soft Limiter

Hard Limiter

- .

Gardner

8-2

)SNRo = SNRi (1 + 2 SNRi) / (4/ + SNRi

SNRi 1
8-3

SNRo = 2 SNRi

SNRi 1
8-4

SNRo = /4 SNRi

MDS

Wideband Interference

.
.

.
.

Stable Local Oscillator . STALO

Coherent Oscillator

. COHO
PRF

.
.

- .

. AFC

Positive Feedback .

360 .

180

Reactance

X1 , X2

. X3
.

-
)( X3
X1 , X2

)( Hartley

X3 . Colpitt

. Frequency Drift

Coupler

Quality Factor .

Crystal Oscillator

AFC

VCO .LPF
PLL
.

. -

. Frequency Synthesizer

.

-
-

. Signal Multiplier

. 3-2 Balanced Modulator

Ring Detector

- .

. Square Wave
Hot-carriers .

.-

Common Emitter
. Common Base

Coincidence Phase Detector .

AND .

B
v1 , v2 In-Phase

A
. Out of Phase

XOR
.

-
-

-
.

C1 L1

Tuner .

C1 STALO

) (

Q1

LNA
. Ambient Noise

. System Noise

.

Q2

Q3 .

. D1 D2

C10 .

C13 C12 L5

LPF . C14
. Q4

Emitter Follower .

Direct Coupling

PPI .

. C12
AGC Line .

AGC AGC

IAGC
.

- Image Rejection
.

- .

- Branch-type .
150MHz

. ATR TR

50
. 35H/m
.

- .

PLL Control Word

512

- .
.

- - D2

. C14

Identification Friend or Foe

.
Interceptors .

IFF

.
Repeater

.

.

Interrogation

.
Transponder

. Reply

.-

-
-

IFF
.

Secondary Surveillance Radar

SSR 1030MHz
. 1090MHz

PRF

Digital
. -

-
:
Interrogator
Transponder
Responser
-
. 2D

. LVA

-
Diplexer

Mode Generator

Radar Data Extractor

PSR / SSR

Plot Combiner

-
-

.
. Duplexer

Omni-directional

. 1030MHz

1090MHz

3 0.5s .

.

Challenge

Mode Interlacing

Altimeters
.

. Squadron

.

Interval

Mode

General Identification

3 s

Personal Identification

5 s

/ Military/Civil

8 s

3/A

Civil Identity

17 s

Altitude

21 s

Undefined

25 s

Purpose

. 0.8s
.

Confidential Mode 1 Mode 2

. Mode 3 Mode A
Mode B

. Mode C

Mode D

- Mode D Mode B

Mark-X (SIF) -

Selective Identification Feature

- .
Mark-XII -

Mode 4

Cryptography .

- - Mark-XIIA

Mode 5
.

Select

Mode S

Distinct Address

Cremney

Parol .

-
-

Frames .

F1 0.45s

1.45s .

F2 - .

-
X

4096 .

ABCD A

MSB . A4A2A1

.

Octal
.

Mode 1 0.45s

2.9s ) B A . ( B3

D1 . Mode C

ICAO

Emergency 7700

Skyjack . 7500 7600

Communication Failure

7777
.

. Side-lobes


.

False Replies Fruits

Interrogator Side-lobe Suppression ISLS

.

2s .

P3 P1

P2 ISLS
- .

- ISLS

.


.

ISLS

Monopulse -

. -

ISLS

0.088 ACP

.
Lira-VMk
. 1L117

- .
- .
- .
-
.

-
.

- C A 2000

. 8000 ft

- .
-
.

- 1kW
-90dBm 0.15 m2

. 30dB

1. Skolnik M.I., "Introduction to Radar Systems", McGraw-Hill, Inc., New

York, 2nd Edition, 1980.
2. Skolnik M.I., "Radar Handbook", McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 2nd
Edition, 1990.
3. Brookner E., "Radar Technology", Artech House, Inc., Massachusetts,
1977.
4. Nathanson F.E., "Radar Design Principles", McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
York, 2nd Edition, 1991.
5. Cole H.W., "Understanding Radar", BlackWell Scientific Publications,
Oxford, 2nd Edition, 1992.
6. Ewell G.W., "Radar Transmitters", McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1981.
7. Daffalla M.M., "Automation of Manually Operated Search Radar",
MSc Thesis, University of Khartoum, 1998.
8. Marconi College, "Appreciations of Radar", Marconi GEC,
Chelmsford, 1996.
9.

Lira Bureau, Surveillance Radar 1L117 Documentation, Lemz

Company, Moscow.

10. Meyer D.P., "Radar Target Detection", Academic Press, New York,
1973.
11. Crispin J.W., "Methods of Radar Cross-Section Analysis", Academic
Press, 1968.
12. Ruck G.T., " Radar Cross-Section Handbook", Plenum Press, New
York, 1970.
13. Barton D.K., "The Radar Equation", Artech House, Dedham,
Masschutes, 1974.
14. Rabiner L.R., "Digital Signal Processing", IEEE Press, New York,
1972.


15. Spangenberg K.R., "Vacuum Tubes", McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1948.
16. Parker W.N., "Gas Tubes Protect High-Power Transmitters",
Electronics, 1956.
17. Gerard W.A., "Frequency-Agile Coaxial Magnetrons", Microwave J.,
1973.
18. Eaves and Reedy, "Principles of
Reinhold, 1987.

Modern Radar", Van Nostrand

19. Toomay J.C., "Principles of Radar", SciTech, PHI, 1998.

20. Peyton Z. and Peebles, Jr., "Radar Principles", John Wiley, 2004.
21. Kraus and Fleisch, "Electromagnetics with Applications", McGrawHill, 1999.
22. Deitel and Deitel, "C++ How to Program", Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition,
1998.
23. Bhatta S., "Antenna and Wave Propagation", Shiva Book, VTU, 2003.
24. Silver S., "Microwave Antenna Theory and Design", McGraw-Hill,
1949.
25. Kraus J.D., "Antennas", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
26. Van Voorhis S.N., "Microwave Receivers", McGraw-Hill, 1948.
27. Blackman S., "Multiple-Target Tracking with Radar Applications",
Artech, 1986.
28. ICAO Circular Reference, "SSR Mode S Advisory Circular",174AN/110, 1983.
29. Cole H.W., "The Future of SSR", ICAO Bulletin, 1980.
30. Barton D.K., "Modern Radar System Analysis", Artech House,
Norwood, 1988.
31. Carey T.J., "Low Noise Synthesizer Design", HP Journal, Vol 38,
1987.
32. Woodward P.M., "Probability and Information Theory, with
Applications to Radar", Pergamon Press Ltd., London, 1953.