2005, Tony L. Whilehead. If quoled, Iease cile. Do nol duIicale or dislribule vilhoul ermission.

Conlacl: lvhilehe+anlh.umd.edu, or 301-405-1419

ETHNOGRAPHICALLY INFORMED COMMUNITY AND CULTURAL A55E55MENT
RE5EARCH 5Y5TEM5 (EICCAR5) WORKING PAPER 5ERIE5


Basic C!assica! Ethnngraphic Rcscarch Mcthnds
Secondary Dala AnaIysis, IieIdvork, Observalion/Iarlicianl Observalion,
and InformaI and Semi-slruclured Inlervieving


Tony L. Whilehead, Ih.D., MS.Hyg.
Irofessor of AnlhrooIogy and Direclor,
The CuIluraI Syslems AnaIysis Grou (CuSAG)
Dearlmenl of AnlhrooIogy
Universily of MaryIand
CoIIege Iark, MaryIand 20742





}uIy 17, 2005




1
Tab!c nI Cnntcnts
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1. SICONDARY DATA ANALYSIS.................................................................................................... 3
2. IIILDWORK IS AN ISSINTIAL ATTRIUTI OI ITHNOGRAIHY..................................... 3
3. A CONCIITUAL MODIL IOR THI ITHNOGRAIHIC STUDY OI CULTURAL SYSTIM:
TH| CUITU|AI SYST|MS PA|AO|GM (TH| CSP) .................................................................. 7
4. ASIC CLASSICAL ITHNOGRAIHIC IIILD MITHODS: ITHNOGRAIHIC
OSIRVATION, INTIRVIIWING, AND INTIRIRITATION AS CYCLIC ITIRATIVI
IROCISSIS ........................................................................................................................................ 9
4.1. THI NATURAL CULTURAL LIARNING IROCISS: THI CHILD AS AN ITHNOGRAIHIC MODIL . 9
4.2. DISCRIITIVI OSIRVATIONS ........................................................................................................ 10
4.3. STUDY COMMUNITY INTRI AND INITIAL ITHNOGRAIHIC TOURS ........................................... 14
4.4. SILICTING SOCIAL SITTINGS IOR ITHNOGRAIHIC STUDY........................................................ 14
4.5. IROM GRAND TOUR TO MINI-TOUR OSIRVATIONS TO |N|O|MAL, UNST|UCTU||O,
CONVIRSATIONAL, AND O|SC||PT|V| |NT||V||WS .................................................................... 15
4.6. IROM DISCRIITIVI TO SIMI-STRUCTURID, TO STRUCTURID INTIRVIIWS............................... 16
4.7. IXILORING THI STRUCTURI OI CULTURI DOMAINS: IOCUSID AND SILICT OSIRVATIONS
AND SIMI-STRUCTURID AND STRUCTURID INTIRVIIWS ........................................................... 17
RIIIRINCIS ........................................................................................................................................... 20
TALIS...................................................................................................................................................... 21
TALI 1: SIRADLIY'S DISCRIITIVI QUISTION MATRIX..................................................................... 21
TALI 2: SIRADLIY'S IROIOSID UNIVIRSAL SIMANTIC RILATIONSHIIS IOR USI IN DOMAIN
ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................ 22
IIGURIS.................................................................................................................................................... 23
IIGURI 1: NATURAL CULTURAL LIARNING IROCISS AS A MODIL IOR ASIC ITHNOGRAIHY .... 23
IIGURI 2: THI CULTURAL SYSTIMS IARADIGM.................................................................................. 24
AIIINDICIS........................................................................................................................................... 25
AIIINDIX I: WORKOOK IOR RICORDING DISCRIITIVI OSIRVATIONS ........................................ 25
AIIINDIX II: CONTACT SUMMARY IORM (MODIIICATION OI MILIS AND HUIRMAN, 1994:51-
54).................................................................................................................................................... 26




2
Intrnductinn
This documenl is anolher in inc |inncgrapnica||q |njcrnc! Ccnnuniiq an! Cu|iura| Asscssncni |cscarcn
Sqsicns (lhe IICCARS) Working Iaer Series. In anolher of lhese vorking aers, lilIed Wnai is
|inncgrapnq? Mcinc!c|cgica|, an! |pisicnc|cgica| Aiiri|uics, I osil lvo of lhe allribules as: (1) elhnograhy
incIudes |cin qua|iiaiitc an! quaniiiaiitc ncinc!s, an! (2) cinncgrapnq inc|u!cs |cin c|assica| an! ncn-c|assica|
cinncgrapnic apprcacncs. The argumenl for lhe firsl is suorled by lhe facl lhal vhiIe melhods lhal are
considered lo be quaIilalive have Iong been lhe dominanl melhods aradigm in elhnograhy, many
elhnograhers lrained in anlhrooIogy have aIso Iong used quanlilalive melhods as veII, as lhe
anlhrooIogicaI elhnograher Iearns lo be oened lo any and aII melhods lhal can heI him or her besl
undersland lhe cuIluraI syslem in vhich he or she is sludying.
Argumenls for lhese lvo allribules vere made lo address firsl lhe erseclive among anlhrooIogisls,
lhal lhe rimary difference in elhnograhic aroaches is quaIilalive versus quanlilalive. SecondIy,
hovever, because of lhe debale in anlhrooIogy, in vhich some melhods are discussed as being lruIy
elhnograhic and olhers as nol, I have found discussions of c|assicaI, ncn-c|assica|, and ccrc elhnograhic
melhods as heIfuI in differenlialing lhe lyes of melhods suilabIe lo various elhnograhic silualions,
vhiIe nol excIuding any from lhe range of melhods lhal an elhnograhy shouId feeI free lo use so lhal
lhey can adequaleIy sludy lhe range of sociaI selling lo vhich elhnograhy is aroriale. Ior me,
cIassicaI elhnograhic melhods are lhose lhal have been lradilionaIIy used by anlhrooIogisls, such as
scccn!arq !aia ana|qsis, jic|!ucrk, c|scrting aclivilies of inleresl, rcccr!ing jic|!ncics and observalions,
pariicipaiing in aciitiiics !uring c|scrtaiicns (arlicianl observalion), and carrying oul various forms of
injcrna| an! scni-siruciurc! cinncgrapnic inicrticuing. I aIso refer lo lhese as Basic C|assica| elhnograhic
melhods, lo dislinguish lhem from olher cIassicaI elhnograhic melhods Iong emIoyed by
anlhrooIogisls, incIuding lhe pnqsica| napping of lhe sludy selling, conducling ncuscnc|! ccnsuscs and
gcnca|cgics, asscssing nciucrk iics, and using pncicgrapnq and olher au!ic/tisua| ncinc!s.
The difference belveen lhe Iarger calegory of cIassicaI melhods, and lhe subcalegory of asic CIassicaI
melhods is associaled vilh lhe sccia| sciiing lo be sludied. The fuII range of cIassicaI elhnograhic
melhods have been frequenlIy associaled vilh lhe sludy of communilies or ouIalions, vhiIe lhe asic
CIassicaI melhods are lhose lhal are adminislered nol onIy lo human residenliaI communilies and
ouIalions, bul aIso aIied lo olher sociaI sellings, such as organizalions, inslilulions, meelings, and
|usl aboul any selling in vhich humans are inleracling. This aIicalion of asic CIassicaI elhnograhic
melhod lo any human sociaI selling has been an a sleady groving lrend in elhnograhy over lhe asl 40
years, increasing vilh a sleady groving lrend of anlhrooIogisls and elhnograhers vorking in non-
academic or aIied sellings. This is a characlerislic (recenlIy increasing lrend) lhal asic CIassicaI
elhnograhic melhods share vilh ncn-c|assica| elhnograhic melhods. Anolher lrend in non-cIassicaI
elhnograhic melhods is lheir adolion by researchers oulside of lhe disciIines of elhnograhy and
anlhrooIogy. IncIuded among such as non-cIassicaI elhnograhic melhods are, (1) focus and olher grou
inlervievs, (2) comuler assisled lechnoIogies, some used lo enhance cIassicaI elhnograhic lechniques,
such as Geograhic Informalion Syslems (GIS) used lo enhance lhe elhnograhers abiIily lo ma lheir
hosl communilies, (3) highIy slruclured inlerviev lechniques, some of vhich have sychomelric scaIes
and olher cognilive eIicilalion and measuremenl melhods. There is one form of slruclured inlervieving
lhal has aIso grovn in ouIarily among anlhrooIogicaI elhnograhers over lhe Iasl 20 years, and is
nov associaled vilh lhal disciIine, aIlhough il is nov being adoled by lhose oulside of lhe disciIine lo
vhom lhe melhod has been inlroduced. This lechnique is lhe assessmenl of cuIluraI domains or unils of
cuIluraI meaning. Why incIuded here as a non-cIassicaI elhnograhic melhod, domain anaIysis is a
conlemorary aroach of a cIassicaI inleresl in elhnograhy, and lhal is exIoring cuIluraI meaning
lhrough lhe anaIysis of Ianguage, or elhnosemanlics. Of lhe lhree calegories of elhnograhic
melhodoIogicaI orienlalions lhal have been discussed in lhis inlroduclion, lhe resenl vorking aer
viII, hovever, focus onIy on lhose cIassicaI elhnograhic melhods, lhal are calegorized as core.

3
1. 5ccnndary Data Ana!ysis
Secondary dala is simIy a reference lo cxisiing !aia, as comared lo ncu !aia lhal are being coIIecled, or
have been recenlIy coIIecled. Ilhnograhy, simiIar lo any olher lye of research usuaIIy begins vilh lhe
researcher avaiIing him or herseIf of lhe range of informalion lhal aIready exisls on lhe loic or eoIe
being sludied. In more osilivisl or quanlilalive aroaches, il is such knovIedge lhal heIs lo deveIo
hyolhesis lo be lesled in lhe nev research rocess. In lhe more oen-ended and discovery orienled
aroaches lo elhnograhy and quaIilalive melhods, secondary dala anaIysis are imorlanl in exIoring
research assumlions (vhich some researchers refer lo as earIy hyolhesis), or lo generale research
queslions lo be furlher exIored. Ior aII research aroaches, secondary dala anaIyses heI in idenlifying
gas in vhal is knovn aboul arlicuIar research loics, and suggesling lhe secific melhods lhal mighl
be used lo secure lhe mosl vaIid dala reIaled lo lhe queslions or loics of inleresl. In anolher IICCARS
Working Iaer lilIed, |nirc!uciicn ic Ccnnuniiq an! Cu|iura| |cscarcn Sqsicns, I have Iisled lhe foIIoving
secondary dala sources on lhe ouIalion or selling being sludied:
! SchoIarIy and ouIar (incIuding media) ubIicalions and roducls.
! ArchivaI and slalislicaI dala found in various adminislralive sources al lhe nalionaI, slale
and IocaI IeveIs (e.g., nalionaI censuses, governmenl agencies, slale and IocaI Ianning
offices, oIice slalions, cily and lovn haII Iedgers, budgels, saIes records).
! Olher archivaI documenls, such as mas, alIases, abslracls of lilIes, and lilIe deeds,
! Records and dala coIIecled by business, educalionaI, heaIlh, sociaI services, Iabor and
rofessionaI associalions, church records, and olher enlilies lhal coIIecl dala for lheir
arlicuIar missions,
! Dala coIIecled in various lyes of direclories, incIuding leIehone, IocaI business
direclories, seciaI elhnic ubIicalions,
! IersonaI and IndividuaI dala, such as diaries, famiIy hislories, biograhies and
aulobiograhies, lombslones, elc.
Il is highIy recommended lhal elhnograhers shouId exIore aII lhal lhey can aboul lheir loic or sludy
ouIalion before moving on lo lhe coIIeclion of rimary dala. Wilh regards lo exisling slalislicaI dala,
and olher secondary sources, many agencies, organizalions, and associalions may have reIevanl dala
avaiIabIe onIine. Thus Il is aIso highIy recommended lhal elhnograhers firsl cxp|crc cn|inc scurccs, pricr ic
cngaging in ncrc ira!iiicna| an! |a|cr inicnsitc ncinc!s cj ccniaciing agcncics an! crganizaiicns jcr incir nar!
ccpq !aia !ccuncnis.
2. Fic!dwnrk is an Esscntia! Attributc nI Ethnngraphy
In elhnograhy, rimary dala coIIeclion is carried oul rimariIy lhrough fieIdvork. In facl for many
anlhrooIogisls fieIdvork is aImosl synonymous vilh elhnograhy
1
. My osilion is lhal fieIdvork is
essenliaI lo elhnograhy. So vhal is fieIdvork, and vhy do anlhrooIogisls consider il so essenliaI lo
vhal ve caII elhnograhy` WoIcoll (1995) defines fieIdvork as a form of inquiry lhal requires a
researcher lo be immersed ersonaIIy in lhe ongoing sociaI aclivilies of some individuaI or grou
carrying oul lhe research. Ior cIassicaI elhnograhers, vho rimariIy sludied IocaI communilies, il
meanl lhe lolaI immersion of lhe researcher in lhe fieId selling 24 hours er day, 7 days er veek, and
differenl seasons of lhe year, for an exlended eriod of lime (e.g., one year). In lhis vay lhe elhnograher nol
onIy becomes famiIiar vilh lhe saliaI dimensions of lhe research selling, and ils socio-cuIluraI dynamics,
bul aIso hov lhose dynamics may change al cerlain limes of lhe day, veek or year. Of course, elhnograhers

1
Ior examIe, as Agar (1980) uls il, lhe very name for !cing cinncgrapnq is fieIdvork.

4
vork in sellings olher lhan simIy IocaI communilies loday, vhere such 24--7 immersion is nol ossibIe, and
unnecessary (e.g., a vork selling). ul lhe imorlance of sending considerabIe lime vhere members lhose
being sludied carry oul roulines and aclivilies reIevanl lo lhe loic of sludy is sliII lo reIevanl lo lhe
elhnograhy erseclives, regardIess of lhe sludy selling (more on lhis Ialer).
The significance of fieIdvork lo elhnograhy is reIaled lo vhal elhnograhy is, vhich is exIored in anolher
IICCARS Working Iaer lilIed, Wnai is |inncgrapnq?. Mcinc!c|cgica|, Onic|cgica| an! |pisicnc|cgica|
Aiiri|uics. My argumenl lhere is lhal elhnograhy, simiIar lo any olher research aradigm, is aboul more
lhan simIy melhods, bul is aIso grounded cerlain onloIogicaI and eislemoIogicaI erseclives. Here I
use Guba and LincoIn's definilion of onloIogy as one erseclive on lhe nalure of vhal is being sludied,
vhelher il exisl as some ob|eclive facl of reaIily, or does lhe nalure of lhal being sludied vary due lo a
range of ossibIe faclors, incIuding sociaI, economic, oIilicaI, silualionaI, or exerienliaI/ersonaI, and
lheir definilion of eislemoIogy as ercelions of research findings as an ob|eclive roducl of lhe neulraI
observer, or as an inlersub|eclive roducl conslrucled by lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe researcher and lhe
sludy ouIalion. In lhe case of bolh onloIogicaI and eislemoIogicaI erseclives, I argue, elhnograhy
lends lo share vilh olher quaIilalive researchers lhe idea of onloIogicaI viev of vhal lhey are sludying
varying based on environmenlaI faclors, and lheir findings as an inlersub|eclive roducl of lhe researcher
and lhe research. These onloIogicaI and eislemoIogicaI orienlalions of elhnograhy rovide lhe
foundalions for lhe various allribules of elhnograhy, incIuding fieIdvork, and heIs lo undersland vhy
fieIdvork is essenliaI lo lhese olher allribules, and lhus lo elhnograhy ilseIf. The olher allribules lhal I
consider associaled vilh elhnograhy, incIude lhe foIIoving:
! Ilhnograhy is a nc|isiic aroach lo lhe sludy of cu|iura| sqsicns.
! Ilhnograhy is lhe sludy of lhe sccic-cu|iura| ccnicxis, prcccsscs, and ncanings vilhin
cuIluraI syslems.
! Ilhnograhy is lhe sludy of cuIluraI syslems from bolh cnic and ciic erseclives.
! Ilhnograhy is a rocess of !iscctcrq, making injcrcnccs, and ccniinuing inquirics in an
alleml lo achieve cnic ta|i!iiq.
! Ilhnograhy is an iicraiitc rocess of |carning cpisc!cs.
! Ilhnograhy is an cpcn-cn!c! cncrgcni |carning prcccss, and nol a rigi! intcsiigaicr
ccnirc||c! cxpcrincni.
! Ilhnograhy is a nign|q j|cxi||c and crcaiitc
2
rocess.
! Ilhnograhy is an inicrprciitc, rcj|cxitc, and ccnsiruciitisi rocess.
! Ilhnograhy requires lhe daiIy and conlinuous recording of jic|!ncics.
! Ilhnograhy resenls lhe vorId of ils ncsi pcpu|aiicn
3
in human conlexls of inick|q

2
A caveal here is lhal lhis Iisl of elhnograhic allribules shouId nol be considered lo be exhauslive. Olher elhnograhers may see
olher allribules lhal are nol Iisled here, and maybe even disagree vilh lhese. The remainder of lhis aer, hovever, viII consisl of
brief discussions of each of lhese fourleen allribules.
3
In vriling lhis essay, I have adoled lhe hrase of hosl ouIalions or elhnograhic hosls lo refer lo lhe members of lhe
cuIluraI syslem being sludied by lhe elhnograher. I refer lhe vord hosls ralher lhan lhe lradilionaI elhnograhic lerm of
informanl because in my vork in inner cily communilies I found lhe vord informanl lo be quile avkvard because of lhe use of
lhe same vord lo refer lo oIice snilches, vho are grealIy disIiked. The vord hosl aIso fils lhe eislemoIogicaI orienlalions being
discussed in lhe resenl aer of moving avay from any connolalion of lhe researcher being lhe dominanl aclor in lhe researcher-
researched dyad. As such, I refer lhe vord hosls over lhe sychoIogicaI research use of sludy sub|ecls, or lhe socioIogisls use of
resondenls or sludy ouIalions, because lhese lerms can aIso imIy a higher slalus in lhe researcher researched reIalionshi for
lhe researcher. I seIecled lhe vord hosls aIso, lo furlher confirm lhe roIe of fieIdvork in lhe elhnograhic rocess, vhere in lhe
elhnograher is Iiving in lhe vorId of his or her hosls.

5
!cscri|c! casc siu!ics.
In lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq? Iaer, I inlroduce lhe concel of emic vaIidily, and suggesl lhal a rimary
reason for fieIdvork in elhnograhy is lo achieve lhe emic vaIidily lhal elhnograhy romises. I define
emic vaIidily simIy as underslanding lhe sludy hosl(s) from lheir ovn syslem of meanings. I argue lhal
lhis can be achieved onIy by being in lhe hosl communily and coming lo a lhorough underslanding of lhe
daiIy Iives of lhe sludy hosls. As MaIinovski oinled oul more lhan 80 years ago, lhe goaI of
elhnograhy is ic grasp inc naiitcs pcini cj ticu.ic rca|izc nis tisicn cj inc ucr|! (1922:25). Moreover, as
suggesled by Guba and LincoIn (1997:198), lhe various hyolheses, lheories, and inlerrelive framevorks
broughl by oulside invesligalors naq natc |iii|c cr nc ncaning uiinin inc cnic ticu cj siu!ic! in!iti!ua|s,
grcups, scciciics, cr cu|iurcs. IieIdvork aIIovs lhe researcher lo observe and examine aII asecls of a
cuIluraI syslem, eseciaIIy lhose lhal couId nol be addressed lhrough Iaboralory or survey research aIone.
Sending Iong eriods of lime in lhe fieId is considered lhe cruciaI asecl of lhe cIassicaI elhnograher's
abiIily lo comrehensiveIy describe comonenls of a cuIluraI syslem as accuraleIy and vilh as IillIe bias
as ossibIe. In summary, from an eislemoIogicaI erseclive, lhe cIassicaI elhnograher beIieves lhal lhe
onIy vay lo gain a nalive's viev of his or her ovn vorId is lo send considerabIe lime in lhal vorId. This
oinl viII become cIearer as ve discuss lhe roIe of fieIdvork in lhe achievemenl of severaI olher
allribules of elhnograhy.
In lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq? aer, I nol onIy oinl oul lhal Ilhnograhy is a nc|isiic aroach lo lhe sludy
of cu|iura| sqsicns, |ui !cjinc cu!turc as a "hn!istic" I!cxib!c and nnn-cnnstant systcm vilh conlinuilies
belveen ils inlerreIaled comonenls. I suggesl lhal lhese inlerreIaled comonenls lo be shared i!caiicna|
sqsicns (knovIedge, beIiefs, alliludes, vaIues and olher menlaI redisosilions), and prcjcrrc! |cnaticrs
and siruciura| (sccia|) rc|aiicnsnips. Or slaled in anolher vay, human individuaIs Iive lheir Iives in vider
sociaI conlexls (e.g., famiIy, eers, elc.) of shared idealionaI syslems (beIiefs, alliludes, vaIues, elc.) and
referred behaviors, lhal heI lo meel a range of human needs, and lhal are infIuenced by significanl
hisloricaI evenls and rocesses. Thus lhe secific ideas and behaviors of an individuaI member of lhe
cuIluraI syslem can be infIuenced by any of lhese comonenls of lhal syslem (sociaI slruclure, shared
ideas, and referred behaviors), and lhe broader issues lhal have some infIuence on lhal syslem (hysicaI
environmenl, hislory, and reaI and erceived human needs). WhiIe one can inlerviev cuIluraI members
oulside of lhose conlexls, and may secure somevhal cnica||q ansvers, again lhe slrongesl means lo
achieving lhe grealesl vaIidily regarding lhe syslem is lhrough fieIdvork, and lhe oorlunily for
reelilive, ileralive, and silualionaI observalions and inlervievs lhal such fieIdvork aIIovs.
Wilh regards lo elhnograhy as lhe sludy of lhe sccic-cu|iura| ccnicxis, prcccsscs, and ncanings vilhin
cuIluraI syslems, I define: (1) socio-cuIluraI conlexls as of severaI lyes: sccia| ccnicxis as reresenled in
lhe sociaI syslems discussed (househoIds and famiIies, formaI and informaI nelvorks, organizalions,
grous, dyads, inslilulions and reIalionshis of lhe vider communily, sociely, inler-socielaI Iinkages),
lhal can infIuence behavior, of vhich individuaIs are members, of lhe physica! cnvirnnmcnts occuied
by individuaIs and lheir significanl sociaI syslems, and of signiIicant individua! and sharcd histnrica!
pattcrns, (2) inc sccic-cu|iura| prcccsscs incIuded in lhe intcractinns nI individua!s with and within thcir
signiIicant sncia! systcms, vilh and vilhin lhe hysicaI environmenls lhal individuaIs and lheir
significanl sociaI syslems occuy, and in individuaI and shared hislories and allerns of individuaI and
grou human needs fuIfiIImenl, and (3) inc sccic-cu|iura| ncanings lhal individuaIs and lheir significanl
sociaI syslems aIy lo sociaI syslemic reIalionshis, lhe hysicaI environmenls lhey occuy, individuaI
and shared hisloricaI allerns, and allerns of basic human need fuIfiIImenl
4
. y lhese definilions, one
can see lhal achieving lhe grealesl emic vaIidily in lerms of socio-cuIluraI conlexls, rocesses and

4
There are lhree calegories of human needs oulIined in lhe CSI, nol onIy lhe basic or bioIogicaI/organic needs as oulIined by
MasIov, bul aIso sociaI needs such as educalion, and exressive needs such as lhe need for having an orderIy viev of lhe hysicaI,
sociaI, and melahysicaI vorIds. The lhree calegories of human needs are discussed in more delaiI in lhe CIHC Working aer,
The CuIluraI Syslems Iaradigm.

6
meanings can onIy come from fieIdvork. Il is lhrough observing, inleracling vilh, and arlicialing in
lheir aclivilies lhal lhe elhnograher is abIe lo Iace his or her sludy arlicianls inlo socio-cuIluraI conlexls
lhal have meaning for lhem. Il is lhrough reealed observalions, conversalions, and more slruclured
inlervieving lhal lhe elhnograher gels an emicaIIy vaIid underslanding of lhe sociocuIluraI conlexls,
rocesses, and meaning syslems lhal are of significance lo lhe sludy arlicianls.
There is one olher oinl on lhe significance of meaning syslems lo elhnograhers, and lhe imorlance of
fieIdvork lo lhe underslanding lhem. OnloIogicaIIy, anlhrooIogicaI elhnograhers have Iong crilicized
osilivisl aroaches lo sociaI research because of lheir Iack of allenlion lo meaning syslems, and lhe facl
lhal humans, as lhe rimary ob|ecl of sludy, conslrucl nu|iip|c rca|iiics lhal are comIex, muIlifaceled,
differenlIy exressed in secific silualions (conlexl), and conlinuaIIy undergoing change (rocess).
IislemoIogicaIIy, lo gras an underslanding of such reaIilies, lhe cIassic elhnograhic enlerrise does
nol begin vilh redelermined hyolheses lo be roved or disroved as ob|eclive sociaI facl, bul begins
vilh oen-ended exIoralory allemls lo Iearn as much as ossibIe aboul lhose reaIilies. In lhe end, lhis
rocess enabIes lhe elhnograher lo describe lhese reaIilies and lhe conneclions belveen lhem vilh as
much emic vaIidily as ossibIe.
In my discussion of cuIluraI syslems in lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq? aer I aIso discuss lhe concel of
cuIlure as having a number of allribules, incIuding lhe facl lhal cu!tura! cxprcssinns may cxist as !"#$ Inr
its practitinncrs, nr may rcprcscnt simp!y an %&"#$ (nI what thcy think nr wnu!d !ikc snmcthing tn bc),
nr may cxist as "'($%)%* nr *#)%*. Hcrc I In!!nw 5prad!cy's (1979:8-9) dcIinitinns nI exIicil cuIlure as
cuIluraI knovIedge lhal eoIe can easiIy laIk aboul in a direcl fashion, and lacil cuIlure as knovIedge
lhal molivales arlicuIar idealionaI or behavioraI allerns, bul aboul vhich eoIe may nol be abIe lo
direclIy seak. These concels are very imorlanl in lhe discussion of emic vaIidily because vhal may be
icked u in an inlerviev laken from oulside of lhe naluraI conlexls of lhe sludy arlicianl's cuIluraI
conlexls can resuIl in resonses lhal reresenl lhe ideaI ralher lhan lhe reaI, or may nol reresenl vhal is
lruIy imorlanl because lhe lrulh mighl be lacil ralher lhan exIicil. Here again elhnograhic
fieIdvork, lhrough lhe oorlunilies for reelilive, ileralive, and silualionaI observalions and inlervievs
lhal such fieIdvork aIIovs.
Anolher of lhe allribules of elhnograhy lhal I discuss in lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq` aer is lhal
elhnograhy is nol a rigid invesligalor conlroI exerimenl, bul in lhe alleml lo achieve lhe highesl emic
vaIidily ossibIe, elhnograhy is ralher, a prcccss of !iscctcrq, naking injcrcnccs, and ccniinuing inquirq.
ecause fieIdvork Iaces lhe elhnograher in lhe vorId of his hosl communily, il is difficuIl lo have
invesligalor conlroI, vhich is lhe haIImark of lhe dominanl osilivisl aradigm. Hovever, lhis Iack of
invesligalor conlroI is somelime very vaIuabIe in lhe elhnograhic allribule of discovering cuIluraI
henomena lhal may be mosl meaningfuI lo lhe hosl communily regarding lhe loic of sludy, bul vouId
have been missed if lhe research vouId have foIIov ed a osilivisl orienlalion of invesligalor conlroI.
This rocess of discovery oflen occurs vhen lhe elhnograher exeriences vhal Agar refers lo as
elhnograhic breakdovn, a dis|unclion belveen vorIdslhe elhnograher's vorId and lhe hosl
cuIlure's vorId. Thal is, lhe elhnograher does nol have a framevork for making sense of vhal he or she
is observing, as his or her assumlion of ccncrcncc has been vioIaled. The molivalion lo find coherence or
meaning viII oflen lime conlribule lo an acceIeralion of lhe elhnograhic rocesses of focused
observalions and inlervieving unliI lhis breakdovn is resoIved and coherence (underslanding) is
achieved. This rocess of |rcak!cun-rcsc|uiicn-cccurcncc aIso accenluales lhe imorlance of fieIdvork, as
such rocesses viII occur more frequenlIy in lhose environmenls in vhich elhnograhic hosls send
mosl of lheir lime, bul vhich is a reIaliveIy never cuIluraI syslem for lhe elhnograher.
Ilhnograhic discovery is nol onIy aboul uncovering herelofore unknovn henomena, bul in many
inslances, discovering lhe righl queslions lo ask lo undersland lhe emic meaning of knovn henomena,
as veII as nevIy discovered henomena. As such, elhnograhy is lhen defined as an cpcn-cn!c! cncrgcni
prcccss cj |carning cpisc!cs lhal is faciIilaled lhrough iicraiitc rocesses of conlinuaI observalions, asking

7
queslions (inlervieving), making inferences, and conlinuing lhese rocesses unliI lhose queslions have
been ansvered vilh lhe grealesl emic vaIidily ossibIe. This rocess of oen-ended emergenl Iearning is
faciIilaled lhrough anolher dearlure from lhe osilivisl aroach of foIIoving a rigid melhodoIogy, and
lhal is lhe elhnograher musl be onloIogicaIIy, eislemoIogicaIIy, and melhodoIogicaIIy j|cxi||c and
crcaiitc in lhe use of a range of melhodoIogies lhal viII heI in underslanding lhe eoIe and lhe sludy
loic vilh lhe grealesl emic vaIidily ossibIe. Imic vaIidily is aIso achieved during elhnograhic fieId
vork lhrough lhe !ai|q and ccniinucus recording of fieIdnoles. The daiIy recording of fieIdnoles is
imorlanl lo lhe elhnograhic rocess so lhal various comonenls viII nol be forgollen. This rocess of
recording fieIdnoles faciIilales lhe ileralive rocess in elhnograhy, as queslions emerge from lhe
findings lhal are lhen vieved as imorlanl, and can heI in lhe formuIalion of nev or suIemenlaI
queslions lhal furlhers lhe assurance of emicaIIy vaIid roducls. The conlinuous recording of fieIdnoles
is aIso imorlanl because of lhe elhnograher's erseclive lhal his or her roducl (findings) is
inicrprciitc, and lhose inlerrelalions viII oflen change over lhe duralion of lhe fieIdvork rocess. This
occurs because earIy inlerrelalions are oflen coIored by aradigms lhal lhe elhnograher brings lo lhe
fieId. As he or she goes lhrough lhe rocess of emicaIIy Iearning lhe cuIluraI syslem being sludied, lhey
oflen find lhal Ialer inlerrelalions of lhe same henomena differ from lhose earIier inlerrelalions.
In recording fieIdnoles, elhnograhers nol onIy conlinuousIy record lheir noles on lhe hosl communily,
bul lhey aIso need lo kee records on his or her reaclions and feeIings regarding lheir fieId exeriences.
These ersonaI noles shouId be eriodicaIIy anaIyzed in reIalionshi lo inlerrelalions aboul lhe hosl
communily, or inc Oincr. This rocess is referred lo as rcj|cxitiiq, is imorlanl in overcoming vhal lhose
in more osilivisl aradigms refer lo as invesligalor bias. In elhnograhy, hovever, ve knov lhal
emicaIIy vaIid reresenlalions of lhese olhers, or so caIIed ob|eclivily in osilivisl aradigms, is enhanced
by moving avay from lhe more osilivisl orienlalion of lhe so-caIIed ob|eclive neulraI invesligalor, lo
acceling and anaIyzing our ovn human sub|eclivily in lhis rocess. The elhnograher lhen comes lo
undersland lhal his or her roducl reresenling lhe hosl communily is indeed a ccnsiruciitisi roducl of
lhe inlersub|eclivily belveen lhe researcher and lhe researched.
In concIusion, il musl be oinled oul lhal achieving emic vaIidily does nol mean lhal elhnograhers go
nalive, or discard aII of lhe knovIedge aradigms lhal lhey bring lo lhe fieId vilh lhem. One of lhe
allribules of elhnograhy discussed in lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq` Iaer is lhe elhnograher shouId
mainlain bolh cnic and ciic erseclives in lheir sludies of cuIluraI syslems.. Thal is in addilion lo lhe
emic aroach of lrying lo undersland comonenls of a cuIluraI syslem from lhe erseclive of lhe grou
being sludied, lhe elhnogrher musl aIso uliIize, vhere aroriale, lhe lheorelicaI, melhodoIogicaI, and
olher knovIedge syslems lhal viII heI in carrying oul an emicaIIy vaIid research roducl. ecause of
such issues as muIliIe reaIilies, and ideaI and lacil cuIluraI henomena, discussed earIier, elic
knovIedge heIs in underslanding vhal is lruIy emic, or lrue in lhe sludy of a cuIluraI syslem.
3. A Cnnccptua! Mndc! Inr thc Ethnngraphic 5tudy nI Cu!tura! 5ystcm:
+," ./$*/!#$ 012*"32 4#!#&%53 6+," .047
One of lhe allribules of elhnograhy discussed in lhe Wnai is |inncgrapnq? Working Iaer lhal needs
furlher discussion here is lhe idea lhal cinncgrapnq is inc nc|isiic siu!q cj cu|iura| sqsicns. Al lhe cenler of
lhis allribule is lhe concel of cuIlure, and lhe robIems vilh lhere being a Iack of any agreed uon
definilion of lhe concel. ecause of my Iong career as a cuIluraI anlhrooIogisls vorking in lhe fieId of
ubIic heaIlh, I found lhal I needed lo oeralionaIize lhe concel so lhal il couId be underslood by non-
anlhrooIogisls (as veII as myseIf), and couId be used lo inform lhe vork in vhich I vas invoIved in
adoled fieId. The resuIl of lhis oeralionaIizalion of lhe concel of cuIlure has been lhe CuIluraI Syslems
Iaradigm (lhe CSI), lo faciIilale lhe hoIislic sludy of cuIluraI syslems. I viII onIy briefIy described lhe
CSI here as a more delaiIed discussion of ils origins and characlerislics can be found in lhe CIHC
Working Iaers, Wnai is |inncgrapnq` and Tnc Cu|iura| Sqsicns Para!ign.

8
The CSI began lo emerge in lhe earIy 1980s lo resond lo lvo melhodoIogicaI needs lhal I had al lhe
lime:
! lhe Iack of adequale modeIs for inlerreling lhe comIex dala generaled by elhnograhic
aroaches in a manner aroriale for aIied sellings (IeIlo el aI, 1980), and
! lhe frequency vilh vhich elhnograhic inquiry yieIded narralive ansvers from
informanls vhich exressed a range of concerns oulside of lhe research queslions bul
vhich aeared lo be of exlreme imorlance lo lhose being sludied.
IncreasingIy I found lhal lhe dala lhal I vas coIIecling from sludy afler sludy rovided lhe ansver lo my
diIemma and gave rise lo lhree underIying elhnograhic rinciIes vhich are buiIl inlo lhe CSI. Iirsl I
found lhal my dala from mosl of my sludies couId be organized inlo nine broad calegories, vilh muIliIe
subcalegories in each (See Iigure 2). The ma|or calegories of lhe CSI are:
(1) Thc individua! human nrganism and ils bioIogicaI slalus, sychoIogicaI makeu,
ersonaIily and idiosyncralic lendencies (incIuding agency), inleIIigence, skiII IeveIs,
elc.
(2) Thc sncia! systcms or unils of sociaI reIalionshis vhich individuaIs inleracl vilhin, are
infIuenced by, and have an infIuence on (residenliaI unils, exlra-residenliaI nelvorks and
dyads, and communily or socielaI organizalions and agencies).
(3) IndividuaI and shared (vilh olhers in seIecl sociaI syslems) bchavinra! pattcrns.
(4) The significanl "idca" systcms (knovIedge, alliludes, beIiefs, vaIues, and symboIisms or
unils of meaning) heId by individuaIs and sociaI syslems.
(5) Exprcssivc Cu!turc as reresenled in such forms as Ianguage, music, arl, elc.
(6) TechnoIogies and human made maleriaI ob|ecls, or matcria! cu!turc.
(7) The physica! cnvirnnmcnts in vhich humans inleracl.
(8) Nccds lhal humans musl meel in order lo achieve lhe IeveI of hysicaI funclioning
necessary lo lhe survivaI of lhe individuaI and grou.
(9) The human grou's sharcd histnry of significanl evenls and rocesses.
These nine elhnograhic calegories gave rise lo lhe firsl elhnograhic rinciIe of lhe CSI, Tnc Princip|c cj
Unitcrsa| Hunan Cu|iura| Caicgcrics. This rinciIe hoIds lhal ihere are cerlain calegories of henomena
vhich are universaIIy reIevanl lo human communilies, lhough lhese communilies differ in lerms of hov
lhese henomena are exressed (cu|iurc). This assumlion suggesls lhal uc |cck jcr uaqs inai nunans an!
incir cu|iurcs arc sini|ar before ve began lo Iook for hov lhey vary. Hovever, very imorlanl lo lhis
arlicuIar orienlalion is lhal vhiIe lhe CSI suggesls |rca! unitcrsa| cu|iura| caicgcrics, il musl be noled lhal
nunan communilies and lheir individuaI members tarq in icrns cj ncu incsc ccnpcncnis arc cxprcssc!. The
|ob of elhnograher, lhen, is lo !ccipncr inc spccijic cu|iura| an! in!iti!ua| cxprcssicns uiinin incsc !aia
caicgcrics.
The second elhnograhic rinciIe of lhe CSI is vhal I caII lhe Princip|c cj Para!ignaiic ||cxi|i|iiq, vhich
slales lhal because of lhe differences in behavioraI and idealionaI exressions across human grous and
individuaIs, ccnccpiua| jrancucrks inai injcrn inc siu!q cj cu|iura| sqsicns nusi |c j|cxi||c. As a consequence
of varialions in exression, vhiIe lhe calegories of lhe CSI rovide a framevork for inilialing
elhnograhic sludy and sloring elhnograhic dala, lhe boundaries of lhese calegories are nol rigid. Dala
lhal are slored in one CSI calegory al one oinl in lhe elhnograhic rocess may be moved lo or shared
vilh anolher calegory as lhe elhnograher conlinues lo Iearn aboul his or her hosl cuIlure. The calegories
of lhe CSI are nol necessariIy ermanenl. Indeed lhe CSI's calegories and subcalegories have changed a
greal deaI since lhe aradigm vas firsl conceluaIizeda rocess of evoIving conceluaIizalion lhal viII
conlinue as concelions of human cuIluraI and individuaI varialions aIso evoIve.
The lhird elhnograhic rinciIe of lhe CSI is vhal I caII lhe Princip|c cj inc |nicrrc|aiicnsnip |ciuccn Sccic-
cu|iura| Ccnicxis, Prcccsscs, an! Mcaning Sqsicns. This rinciIe hoIds lhal in order lo undersland vhy

9
cerlain behaviors emerge and ersisl, incIuding heaIlh risk and resiIiency behaviors, ve musl undersland
lhe socio-cuIluraI conlexls in vhich lhese behaviors occur, lhe socio-cuIluraI rocesses of behavioraI
conlexls, and lhe socio-cuIluraI meanings lhal lhese conlexls and rocesses have for lhose vho raclice
lhem. More secificaIIy, lhe CSI aIIovs us lo hoIislicaIIy sludy:
(1) inc sccic-cu|iura| ccnicxis of lhe sncia! systcms (househoIds and famiIies, formaI and
informaI nelvorks, organizalions, grous, dyads, inslilulions and reIalionshis of lhe
vider communily, sociely, inler-socielaI Iinkages), of vhich individuaIs are members, of
lhe physica! cnvirnnmcnts occuied by individuaIs and lheir significanl sociaI syslems,
and of signiIicant individua! and sharcd histnrica! pattcrns,
(2) inc sccic-cu|iura| prcccsscs incIuded in lhe intcractinns nI individua!s with and within
thcir signiIicant sncia! systcms, vilh and vilhin lhe hysicaI environmenls lhal
individuaIs and lheir significanl sociaI syslems occuy, and in individuaI and shared
hislories and allerns of individuaI and grou human needs fuIfiIImenl, and
(3) inc sccic-cu|iura| ncanings lhal individuaIs and lheir significanl sociaI syslems aIy lo
sociaI syslemic reIalionshis, lhe hysicaI environmenls lhey occuy, individuaI and
shared hisloricaI allerns, and allerns of basic human need fuIfiIImenl
5
.
4. Basic C!assica! Ethnngraphic Fic!d Mcthnds: Ethnngraphic
Obscrvatinn, Intcrvicwing, and Intcrprctatinn as Cyc!ic Itcrativc
Prnccsscs
4.1. Thc Natura! Cu!tura! Lcarning Prnccss: Thc Chi!d as an Ethnngraphic Mndc!
UsuaIIy, discussions of elhnograhic observalions, inlervieving, and dala inlerrelalion are resenled in
searale seclions of a documenl, searale chalers in books, or as searale books. Hovever, because
elhnograhy is a cycIic ileralive rocess, vherein lhe elhnograher, moves back and forlh belveen
observalions, inlervieving, and inlerrelalion. In lhis sense, lhe elhnograher lrying lo Iearn lhe ruIes,
roulines, and meanings of a nev cuIluraI syslem is simiIar lo lhe young chiId firsl Iearning lhe cuIlure of
vhich he viII become a member. Any nev arenls, or olhers vho have senl lime vilh human infanls,
one viII nolice lhal lhey Iearn lheir cuIlure lhrough lhe foIIoving rocesses of c|scrtaiicns, asking
qucsiicns, inlerrelalion, and arlicianl observalion, lhe rimary melhods used in asic CIassicaI
elhnograhic fieId melhods. As such I refer lo lhese melhods as lhe naiura| cu|iura| |carning prcccss, or
NCLI.
I came lo use lhe young chiId an elhnograhic modeI, and NCLI lerminoIogy, because of my
invoIvemenl in inlroducing elhnograhy lo audiences vho have no background in eilher anlhrooIogy
or elhnograhy, Anyone vho has laken care of loddIers, and has lo sil lhe chiId dovn vhiIe doing olher
lhings, mighl nolice hov lhe chiId eyes foIIov you, laken in every lhing lhal you are doing. This is lhe
vay lhe chiId begins lo Iearn lhe ruIes and roulines lhal are associaled vilh lhe firsl cuIluraI syslem lhal
lhey are consciousIy avare of. As lhe loddIer begins lo laIk, and lo formuIale queslions, lhe queslions
lhen come conlinuousIy. The chiId lhen exerimenls, or arliciales in lhe various aclivilies he has
observed, as veII as alleml nev ones. As he or she begins lo vaIk, lhe melhods of exerimenlalion
broadens, and arenls are kel busy, lo make sure lhal he doesn'l in|ure him or herseIf. Iarenls are
heIing lhe chiId Iearn lhe boundaries, ruIes and roulines of lhis earIy cuIluraI syslem. Wilh each of lhese
cu|iura| |carning prcccsscs, lhe chiId is making inlerrelalions, refining lhese inlerrelalions vilh every

5
There are lhree calegories of human needs oulIined in lhe CSI, nol onIy lhe basic or bioIogicaI/organic needs as oulIined by
MasIov, bul aIso sociaI needs such as educalion, and exressive needs such as lhe need for having an orderIy viev of lhe hysicaI,
sociaI, and melahysicaI vorIds. The lhree calegories of human needs are discussed in more delaiI in lhe CIHC Working aer,
The CuIluraI Syslems Iaradigm.

10
hase of lhe rocess. As chiIdren grov oIder, lhey use olhers in nev socio-cuIluraI syslems as lhey used
lheir arenls, incIuding oIder sibIings, eers, leachers, and so on, in Iearning lhe various socio-cuIluraI
syslems lhal lhese ersons reresenl.
The melhods used by chiIdren in Iearning lhe various socio-cuIluraI syslems lhal lhey inleracl, are lhe
same melhods lhal are used by lhe elhnograher in Iearning a nev cuIluraI syslem: c|scrtaiicn,
inicrticuing, pariicipaiing, and naking inicrprciaiicns. In lerms of observalion, one mighl nolice lhal as lhe
loddIer conlinuousIy valches arenls and oIder sibIings in Iearning ils earIiesl socio-cuIluraI syslem, il
Iifls ils olher senses lo lhe highesl IeveI of avareness as veII, hearing, smeII, louch, and lasle. The
elhnograher does lhe same, as elhnograhic observalion nol onIy means lhe coIIeclion of informalion
lhrough eIevaled use of lhe sense of sighl, bul lhrough aII of his or her senses. This is lhe meaning of lhe
elhnograher's frequenl use of lhe concel of lhe elhnograher as his or her rimary research inslrumenl.
The chiId's use of members of secific cuIluraI syslems as sources of informalion is simiIar lo lhe
elhnograhers' use of cuIluraI informanls, lhrough observalions and inlervievs, as veII as vilh vhom
lo arliciale in exeriencing comonenls of lhal syslem. As lhe chiId goes lhrough lhe differenl hases
of informalion galhering (observalions, inlervieving, arlicialion/exerimenlalion), lhere are differenl
hases of inlerrelalions regarding lhe informalion coIIecled, unliI lhe chiId achieves a IeveI of
salisfaclory coherence regarding lhe henomena aboul vhich dala vere coIIecled. This is lhe same
rocess used by elhnograhers as lhey moved lovards a sense of emic vaIidily, as discussed in lhe
receding seclion.
Iigure 1 iIIuslrales lhe ileralive nalure of lhe NCLI. The bollom of lhe figure suggesls lhal lhe
elhnograher uses simiIar skiIIs in resoIving breakdovns Ieading lo lhe coherence of nev cuIluraI
syslems. During iniliaI eriods of cuIluraI Iearning, human infanls can be vieved in somevhal
conlrasling vays vilh regards lo lhe breakdovn-resoIulion-coherence rocess. Iirsl lhey iniliaIIy do nol
suffer breakdovn, because lhey have no exisling framevork lhal needs deconslrucling, in order lo move
on lo nev cuIluraI Iearning, or breakdovn couId be vieved as lhe onIy slale lhal lhey knov for lhe same
reason. Whalever lheir slale, il is one lhal acceIerales lhe rocess of resoIulion-lhey couId be vieved as in
a conlinued as vouId an aduIl Iearning a nev cuIlure, because lhere is a conslanl slale of breakdovn
because is aIso an iIIuslralion of lhe elhnogrqaher, going lhrough lhe rocesses of |rcak!cun, rcsc|uiicn,
and ccncrcncc discussed earIier. Ior, vhiIe lhe elhnograher uses skiIIs lo Iearn a nev cuIlure, lhal are
simiIar lo lhose of lhe chiId Iearning his or her nalive cuIlure, ileralive observalionaI, inlervieving,
inlerrelalion, and arlicialion/exerimenlalion.
I began lo use lhe chiId as modeI in roviding lraining in basic or asic CIassicaI elhnograhic melhods
lo novices lo elhnograhy lo aIso demonslrale lhal lhere is nolhing myslicaI aboul lhe concel, bul lhal
lhese vere skiIIs lhal ve Iearned earIier in Iife, and lhal ve conlinue lo use as aduIls, bul vilh decreasing
efficiency, as ve Iearn lhe various asecl of our ovn indigenous socio-cuIluraI syslems. Infanls and
loddIers are very efficienl al cuIluraI Iearning because lhey don'l have an exisling cuIluraI framevork,
vhich mighl acl as a barrier lo inlerreling a arlicuIar lhing or aclion vilhin ils ovn socio-cuIluraI
conlexl. Wilhoul such a framevork, aII of lhe chiId's senses (sighl, hearing, smeII, louch, and lasle) are
highIy luned lo environmenlaI slimuIi. As ve gel oIder, ve are nol as efficienl in cuIluraI Iearning
because ve encuIlurale lhe various asecls of our ovn socio-cuIluraI syslem, and no Ionger have lo use
our senses al such a IeveI. We make inlerrelalions base on exisling framevorks, and over lime Iose
some our naluraI cuIluraI Iearning skiIIs. asic CIassicaI elhnograhic lraining lhen is aboul heIing lo
reslore some of lhese skiIIs, and lo move beyond naluraI cuIluraI Iearning skiIIs of chiIdren and everyday
eoIe, lo lhe more syslemalic, urosive, and slruclured skiIIs of elhnograhy.
4.2. Dcscriptivc Obscrvatinns
As slaled earIier, lhere are many forms of elhnograhic observalions and inlervieving. Iirsl
elhnograhers generaIIy viev elhnograhic observalions as generaIIy being of lvo lyes:

11
(1) observalions uiincui inc cinncgrapncr pariicipaiing in inc aciitiiics |cing c|scrtc!, and observalions vilh
arlicialion in lhe communily aclivilies in addilion lo observalion, a concel deemed pariicipani
c|scrtaiicn in cinncgrapnq.
The lerm observalion is usuaIIy associaled vilh lhe sense of sighl. ul In lhe uresl form of observalions
vilhoul arlicialion, elhnograhers raises aII of lheir senses, sighl, hearing, smeII, lasle, and feeI, lo
IeveIs higher lhan normaI, and lake in slimuIi from aII sources of lhe cuIluraI environmenl in vhich lhey
are sludying and Iiving. In olher vords, lhe elhnograher's vhoIe body becomes a highIy charged dala-
coIIecling inslrumenl lo lake in and rocess slimuIi lhal mighl have meaning for lhe members of lhe
communily, or lhal rovide insighl regarding lheir Iifevays. Some elhnograhers oflen viev lhis rocess
as one in vhich lhey are resonding lo inquiries aboul lhe sludy communily from lhemseIves, aIlhough
somelimes lhey mighl nol consciousIy be avare of any queslions lhal lhey are ursuing resonses lo. As
SradIey commenls, every lhing lhal lhe elhnograher observes are acluaIIy ansvers, and lhe rocess of
observalion is acluaIIy finding queslions lo lhose ansvers.
Ilhnograhic observalions in vhich lhe elhnograher arliciales during sociaI aclivilies he or she is
observing (pariicipani c|scrtaiicn), heI lhe elhnograher or elhnograhic leam lo gain an cnic or
indigenous sense of lhe sociaI selling being sludied. This usuaIIy haens during invoIvemenl in
carrying oul roIes vilhin lhal selling, and exeriencing lhe socio-cuIluraI dynamics of such arlicialion
6
.
Some elhnograhers viev elhnograhic fieIdvork and arlicianl observalion as synonymous, because
fieIdvork (Iiving in lhe sludy communily) for any eriod of lime is imossibIe vilhoul arlicialion, and
moving beyond inlervieving, lo ask queslions, even if such queslions are unslruclured and a arl of
normaI conversalion.
I aIso use SradIey's (1980) observalionaI s calegories of as !cscripiitc, jccusc!, and sc|cci. SradIey says
lhal one usuaIIy slarl elhnograhic fieIdvork conducling descrilive observalions, vhich usuaIIy means
enlering lhe fieId selling or silualion vilh a goaI of recording as much informalion as ossibIe. This
characlerizes lhe oen-ended aroach lo elhnograhy discussed earIier. Descrilive observalions are
usuaIIy carried oul observing everylhing, lhrough lhe heighlened avareness of lhe senses, discussed
earIier, and by, according lo SradIey (1980:73), aroaching lhe aclivily in rocess vilhoul any
arlicuIar orienlalion in mind, bul onIy lhe generaI queslion, Whal is going on here`
There are olher queslions hovever, lhal elhnograhers mighl use vhen nol being quile sure of vhal
shouId be observed in sociaI sellings, and lhose are vhal I caIIed lhe naiura| inquirics. In addilions lo
queslions of unai, vhen eoIe are observing or Iearning aboul nev sellings or silualions, naluraIIy,
aIlhough erhas subconsciousIy ask lhemseIves lhe queslions, unc, ncu, uncrc, uncn and unq. I refer lo
lhese as naluraI inquiries aIso because lhese are queslion lhal humans normaIIy ask vhen faced vilh an
issue aboul vhich lhey are nol sure of lhe correcl ansver, and conlinuaIIy asked by young chiIdren vhen
Iearning asecls of lheir ovn cuIlure. Thus vhen one is carrying oul one's firsl elhnograhic observalions
of a sociaI selling, bul is nol sure vhal he or she shouId be observing, lhese naluraI cuIluraI Iearning
rocess inquiries shouId be kel in mind.
In conlinuing lo read SradIey, one becomes avare lhal lhe queslion, vhal is going on here` is nol lhe
onIy one lhal he asks vhen carrying oul descrilive observalions. He resenls nine (9 calegories) of
henomena lhal mighl occur in any selling of human inleraclion, and lhose are:
! The acicrs in lhe selling.

6
Il shouId be noled lhal SradIey deIineales four IeveIs of arlicialion: (1) passitc pariicipaiicn, vherein lhe observer is resenl al
lhe selling, bul arlicialion is very Iimiled, (2) nc!craic pariicipaiicn, vherein lhere is grealer arlicialion lhan in assive, bul sliII
somevhal Iimiled because lhe observer allemls lo mainlain a baIance belveen emic and elic exeriences, (3) aciitiic pariicipaiicn,
vherein lhe observer nol onIy seeks lo do vhal olhers are doing, nol onIy lo gain accelance in lhe selling bul aIso lo more fuIIy
Iearn lhe cuIluraI ruIes for behavior, and (4) ccnp|cic pariicipaiicn, vherein lhe observe is fuIIy invoIved in every asecl of lhe
selling in vhich his or her roIe aIIovs.

12
! The |cnaticrs lhal are being carried oul by lhese aclors in lerms of acis (smaIIesl unils of
behavior), aciitiiics (a sel of reIaled acls), and ctcnis (a sel of reIaled evenlsmore
discussion on lhese viII be rovided Ialer)
! The spacc occuied by lhese aclors, and hov lhese aclors are silualed in lhe sace.
! The c|jccis in lhal sace, and hov lhese ob|ecls are silualed or arranged.
! The iinc of observalions (hours of lhe day, days of veek, secific monlhs or seasons of
lhe year)
! Whelher lhere seems lo be any gca|s associaled vilh lhe behavior of lhe aclors`
! Do behaviors seem lo be carried oul vilh any IeveI of cnciicns, or feeIings`
The reader mighl nole lhal I menlioned SradIey's suggeslion of nine observalionaI calegories, bul I onIy
have seven buIIels. The reason for vhal seems lo be a discreancy is lhal I combined lhree of his
calegories, acls, aclivilies, and evenls inlo one calegory, |cnaticr. I vanl lo oinl oul hovever, lhal vhiIe
I combine his lhree calegories inlo lhe Iarger calegory in vhich his lhree can be groued, behavior, in lhe
coIIeclion and anaIysis of elhnograhic dala, I mainlain his nine calegories.
SradIey suggesls lhese calegories of henomena for observalion because lhey reresenl lhe range of
vhal mighl be observed in any secific sociaI selling, and because henomena vilhin any of lhese
calegories may carry (cuIluraI) ncaning for lhe arlicianls in lhe selling. I aIvays found SradIey's
calegories usefuI in lheir olenliaI for generaling queslions for elhnograhers lo Iook for vhiIe observing
sociaI sellings. He rovides a malrix based on |usl lhese nine calegories lo shov lhe range of queslions
lhal lhe observer mighl use, in using him or herseIf as an inlervievee (See SradIey's descrilive
observalion malrix in TabIe 1).
I found il necessary lo add four olher calegories lo lhose of suggesled by SradIey, lhal aIso overIa vilh
his, because lhey are aIso sources of meaning, and lhey are:
! The |anguagc used by lhe aclors in lhe selling.
! The inicraciitc paiicrns belveen lhe aclors in lhe selling.
! Oisccursc Ccnicni lhal aears lo infIuence lhe aclors in lhe selling.
! The resence of Acicr Grcups in lhe selling, or ersons lhal can be differenlialed by some
shared simiIarily, such as by sex, age, kinshi, vocalionaI or some olher lye of affiIialion
(such as ersons in a hosilaI selling differenlialed by adminislralion, doclors, nurses,
non-medicaI slaff, alienls, elc.)
As lhe CSI emerged, I found lhal il suggesled lhal lhere vere even more calegories lo be added lo
SradIey's Iisl for descrilive observalions, even lhough a number of lhe ma|or anaIylicaI calegories of
lhe CSI seem lo overIa vilh many of SradIey's. The CSI calegories, hovever, rovide grealer
inlerrelive or anaIylicaI slrenglh lhrough ils rovision of subcalegories. Ior examIe, lhe CSI's MaleriaI
CuIlure calegory is simiIar lo SradIey's Ob|ecl calegory. SimiIarIy, lhe CSI's SociaI Syslems is simiIar lo
SradIey's Aclor calegory, in lhal bolh are a reference lo lhe eoIe in lhe selling. ul SociaI Syslems aIso
refer lo subcalegories and grous of Aclors, such as lhose organized by domeslic unils, exlra-residenliaI
grouings, inslilulionaI and organizalionaI slruclures, IocaI communilies, socielies, and exlra-socielaI
reIalionshis. These SociaI Syslems subcalegories are ever furlher subcalegorized in lerms of varying
characlerislics.
SimiIarIy lhe CSI calegory of ehavior overIas vilh SradIey's calegories of Acls, Aclivilies, and
Ivenls, bul lhe CSI's ehavior calegory is furlher divided inlo lvo subcalegories, ehavioraI Aclivilies
and lhe Socio-cuIluraI Characlerislics of such aclivilies. These lvo behavior subcalegories are furlher
subcalegorized. Ior examIe in lhe case of cerlain lyes of food or drug behavioraI aclivilies in vhich I
have conducled research, I found il necessary lo undersland such behavior in lerms of acquisiiicn |cnaticr,

13
prcccssing/prcparaiicn behavior, !ispcnsaiicn or !isiri|uiicn behavior, and consumlion (incIuding re-and
osl) behavior. SimiIar vilh lhe sociocuIluraI characlerislics of such behavioraI aclivilies, underslanding
lhem in lerms of ccnicni, ncinc!, pariicipaiicn, |ccaiicn, iinc, and rcascn. One shouId nole lhal lhese
calegories of behavioraI socio-cuIluraI characlerislics are lhe same as lhe naluraI inquiries discussed
earIier of unai (conlenl of lhe aclivily, such as vhal is being acquired), unc (lhe arlicianls in lhe
aclivily), hov (lhe arlicuIar melhod for carrying oul lhe aclivily), vhere (lhe Iocalion of lhe aclivily),
vhen (lhe lime of lhe aclivily, as veII as vhelher reelilions are roulinized), The CSI hovever, differs
from SradIey's descrilive observalion queslions, in lhal in lhe ansvers lo lhe firsl four naluraI inquiries
(conlenl, melhod, arlicialion, Iocalion, and lime, can usuaIIy be ansvered lhrough lhe observalion of
behavior. Hovever, lhe ansver lo queslions of vhy are rovided lhrough exIoralion of lhe olher ma|or
CSI calegories (i.e., idealionaI, sociaI syslems, hislory, hysicaI environmenl, exressive and maleriaI
cuIlure, and hislory).
One of lhe mosl exlensive calegories of lhe CSI are human needs. One mighl lhink lhal lhis calegory
mighl overIa vilh SradIey's calegory of goaIs, bul as one can see in Iigure 2, lhe CSI has lhree
differenl calegories of human needs, and a number of subcalegories vilhin each of lhe lhree. Wilh aII of
lhe addilions lhal I made lo SradIey's originaI nine, I offer lhe foIIoving lo be used in informing
descrilive, focused, and seIeclive observalions.
! 0(#)": The nalure of lhe sace uliIized in lhe sociaI selling.
! O|jccis. The maleriaI cuIlure found in lhe sociaI selling, and hov lhis maleriaI cuIlure is
organized.
! Tnc |n!iti!ua| Acicrs vilhin lhal selling, and lheir secific characlerislics
! Tnc Sccia| Sqsicnic Ccnicxi of lhe Aclors in lhe Selling (i.e. Aclor Grous
! The Bcnaticrs lhal are being carried oul in a socio-cuIluraI selling (acls, aclivilies, and
evenls).
! The Ianguagc used by lhe aclors in lhe sace
! Olher Iorms of |xprcssitc Cu|iurc found in lhe sociaI selling beyond generaI Ianguage
(e.g., music, song, dance, arl, archileclure, elc.).
! Paiicrns cj |nicraciicn carried oul by lhe aclors vilhin lhe sociaI selling.
! Oisccursc Ccnicni of lhe Selling as refIecled in lhe Ianguage, exressive cuIlure, and sociaI
inleraclions lhe aclors in lhe sociaI selling
! |nciicna| Ictc| of lhe Discourse
! |!caiicna| ||cncnis (eIiefs, Alliludes, VaIues, significanl symboIisms) lhal aear lo be
resenl in a SociaI Selling
! Brca!cr Sccia| Sqsicns lhal mighl infIuence lhe aclor, behaviors, and idealions found in
any secific sociaI syslem.
! Pnqsica| |ntircnncnia| ||cncnis resenl vilhin or surrounding a secific sociaI selling.
! Tnc Gca|s, Mciitaiicns, or Agcn!as of lhe various individuaI and grous of lhe aclors
vilhin lhe sociaI selling.
! Hunan Ncc! fuIfiIImenl lhal is allemled or mel vilhin lhe sociaI selling or inleraclion.
Aendix 1 is a simIe Workbook for recording descrilive observalions using lhese calegories.

14
4.3. 5tudy Cnmmunity Entr and Initia! Ethnngraphic Tnurs
There are many issues reIaled lo enlering lhe communily of sludy, such as issues reIaled lo hov lhe
elhnograher inlroduces him or herseIf lo lhe communily, as veII as hov lo manage becoming
comforlabIe vilh such inlroduclions, as veII as vilh queslions, slares, and generaI curiosily lhal
communily members have of lhe elhnograher. ul for lhe lime being I viII focus on iniliaI elhnograhic
lours. An iniliaI elhnograhic lour is a lour of lhe communily using basic elhnograhic melhods. Such
lours may be riding, or vhal is commonIy caIIed in communily heaIlh, uin!snic|! icurs and ua|king icurs,
in vhich one drives lhrough lhe communily making various descrilive observalions of various
communily sellings. The 15 elhnograhic calegories used in Seclion 4.2 can be used lo slruclure lhese
observalions. In my vork, lhese lours are carried oul in leams, vherein one leam member focuses on
driving, vhiIe lhe olhers focus on recording vhal is seen, heard, elc. Where ossibIe, lhe informalion
coIIecled during such lours can be enhanced lhrough lhe use of a Kcq Ccnnuniiq |xpcri, one vho is
indigenous and knovIedgeabIe aboul lhe communily, or one vho has gain knovIedge of lhe communily
lhrough some olher source (e.g., Iong lerm vork in or sludy of lhe communily).
WindshieId lours are carried oul in Iarge communilies, vhere a vehicIe is needed lo gel lo aII or ma|or
orlions of lhe communily. In ruraI and/or smaII communilies, hovever, lhe iniliaI elhnograhic lour
may be a vaIking lour. In lhe Iarger communilies, vaIking lours usuaIIy foIIov lhe iniliaI vindshieId
lour. Il is here lhal I began lo use focused and seIecl observalions in a differenl vay lhan hov lhey vere
firsl described by SradIey. In lhe communily assessmenl sludies lhal I do, iniliaI vindshieId or vaIking
lours may yieId areas of lhe communily uon vhich lhe elhnograher vanl lo focus because of erson
inleresls, loicaI inleresls (e.g., Iaces of vorshi if reIigion is lhe loic of inleresl), or lheorelicaI
inleresls. The elhnograher viII lhen foIIov u lhese iniliaI descrilive lours vilh addilionaI vindshieId
or vaIking lours lo carry oul more focus observalions. Cerlain ecuIiarilies of lhis area of lhe communily
may Iead lhen lo seIecl inlervievs, as lhe elhnograher moves lovards an inlerrelalion of vhal is being
observed vilh lhe grealesl emic vaIidily ossibIe.
4.4. 5c!ccting 5ncia! 5cttings Inr Ethnngraphic 5tudy
As slaled in lhe Inlroduclion of lhis aer, cIassicaI elhnograhy has lradilionaIIy been associaled vilh
IocaI communilies or ouIalions. Ilhnograhers have hovever, aIso sludied a range of sociaI sellings,
such as organizalions, inslilulions, meelings, and |usl aboul any selling in vhich humans are inleracling.
IoIIoving are some differenl sellings lhal have been sludied by elhnograhers.

bars
churches
Iaygrounds
gymnasiums
beauly arIors
discos
farmers markels
sorls evenls
food aclivilies (dinner, feasl)
feslivaIs
shoing maIIs
|aiIs/risons
arks
courl rooms
a famiIy sellings
hog kiIIings
induslry or vork sellings
sIaughler houses
schooI rooms
cafelerias
svimming ooIs
grocery slores
hosilaIs
cily haIIs
agencies
main slreels
busy neighborhoods
lovn meelings
office meelings
arlies
airorl/bus lerminaIs
barber shos
menlaI inslilulions
Ad Infinilum


The elhnograhic sludy of various lyes of sociaI sellings is based in various allribules of human
inleraclion, and lhose are:

15
! As socio-cuIluraI beings, humans are users and roducers of cuIlure, vhich incIude lhe
crealion of rcuiinizc! allerns or ru|cs of behavior and inleraclion.
! Anq nunan sccia| sciiing or encounler (sociaI silualions) may have roulinized allerns or
ruIes of behavior and inleraclion.
! The ruIes or roulinized allerns of sociaI silualions are funclionaIIy orienled lovard lhe
rovision of cr!cr, rcgu|ariiq, and prc!icia|i|iiq lo sociaI inleraclion.
! Communicalion or inicraciicna| |rcak!cuns occur vhen one or more of lhe aclors in lhe
silualion do no knov lhe ruIes for lhe silualion, or lhe aclors are allemling lo inleracl
uliIizing more lhan one sel of ruIes.
! The roulines and ruIes observed in sociaI silualion may somelimes rovide cIues
regarding |rca!cr sccic-cu|iura| ccnicxis (e.g. observalions al a disco couId yieId allerns
of dancing lhal refIecl broader socio-cuIluraI norms regarding maIe-femaIe behavior).
! The roulines and ruIes observed in sociaI silualions may somelimes rovide cIues
regarding !ccp siruciura|, as veII as surface funclioning (e.g., a feasl may nol onIy
funclion lo meel nulrilionaI and economic need i.e., food exchange in lhe case of lhe
Ialler, il may aIso rovide cIues regarding sociaI slalus and nelvork funclioning).
! Observalions as used here are nol simIy a use of lhe sense of sighl, bul a reference lo
raising aII one's senses lo a heighlened IeveI of anaIysis in order lo ick u slimuIi lhal
offer informalion aboul lhe socio-cuIluraI allerns of lhe selling.
! Whal eoIe saq lhey do and vhal lhey aciua||q do frequenlIy differ. The ob|eclive of
focused observalion is lo be abIe lo discern lhe rca| from lhe i!ca|, lhe iacii from lhe
cxp|icii, and lhe |ack from lhe fronl.
4.5. Frnm "Grand Tnur" tn "Mini-Tnur" Obscrvatinns tn 89:;!3#!, <92*!/)*/!"&=
Cnnvcrsatinna!, and >"2)!%(*%?" 89*"!?%"@2
This Iisl of elhnograhic calegories are nol onIy usefuI for descrilive observalions bul lhey aIso furlher
lhe ileralive rocess of elhnograhy, vherein eisodes of are inlersersed vilh addilionaI eisodes of
dala coIIeclion. Thus even vhen SradIey says lhal descrilive observalions begin vilh observing
everylhing in lhe selling, lhe rocess quickIy moves lo one of organizing observed henomena inlo
calegories for inlerrelive uroses, lhe firsl hase of anaIysis. Such earIy calegorizalion faciIilales lhe
ileralive rocess of furlher inquiry deveIomenl, and moving from vhal he caIIs Gran! Tcur O|scrtaiicns
lo Mini-Tcur O|scrtaiicns. Grand Tour observalions are lhose descrilive observalions in vhich
everylhing is being generaIIy observed in lhe selling. ul even vhen such oen ended aroaches as
lhose imIied in SradIey's Grand Tour observalions, lhe rocess quickIy moves lovards calegorizalion,
if nol lhe 15 above, lhen lo some form of calegorizalion. Ior vilhoul some lye of calegorizalion, neilher
inlerrelalion nor anaIysis can be done, and lhe informalion remained meaningIess, or incoherenl.
The nexl slage of dala coIIeclion may be conlinued Grand Tours unliI lhere is some salisfaclion vilh lhe
informalion generaI informalion coIIecled for lhe Iisl of anaIylicaI calegories, such as lhe 15 lhal I use.. Or
lhe decision may be lo carry oul Mini-Tours lhal focus in on one secific calegory. olh grand and mini-
lours may be comIemenled by |njcrna| Unsiruciurc!, Ccntcrsaiicna| an! Ocscripiitc |inncgrapnic
|nicrticus. ernard (2002) laIks aboul elhnograhic inlervievs being of four lyes, based on lhe IeveI or
siruciurc and/or ccnirc| lhal lhe invesligalor in abIe lo rovide lo lhe inlerviev rocess. The Iess
slruclured or elhnograher conlroIIed inlerviev, he refers lo as informaI, vhich he characlerizes by a icia|
|ack of slruclure or conlroI, bul lhal lhe elhnograher simIy lries lo remember and record conversalions
during lhe day (ernard 2002:204). The nexl lye of elhnograhic inlerviev in lerms of slruclure, ernard
says, is lhe unslruclured inlerviev, vhich he says is based on a cIear Ian lhal lhe elhnograher

16
conslanlIy kees in mind. Al lhe same lime, he says, lhe elhnograher mainlains a minimum of conlroI
over eoIes' resonses, vilh lhe urose of gelling eoIe lo oen u and Iel lhem exress lhemseIves
in lheir ovn lerms, and al lheir ovn ace (o cil, .205). ernard beIieves lhal a Iol of vhal is caIIed
elhnograhic inlervieving is unslruclured, being used in silualions vhere lhe elhnograher has Iols of
lime, as in doing Iong lerm (cIassicaI) fieIdvork and can inlerviev eoIe on many searale occasions
(i|i!).
Hovever, because ernard (i|i!) aIso characlerizes lhe unslruclured inlerviev is aIso vhere lhe
elhnograher sils dovn vilh anolher erson, and hoId an inlerviev...vilh bolh lhe inlerviever and
inlervievee knov vhal is going on, vilhoul decelion and more lhan Ieasanl chilchal, lhere is
anolher form of elhnograhic inlerviev lhal I lhink occurs belveen vhal he describes as informaI, and
unslruclured. This is lhe descrilive inlerviev lhal is ccntcrsaiicna| in formal. I caII lhis formal lhe
naiura| ccntcrsaiicna| cinncgrapnic inicrticu, because lhe discourse is simiIar lo vhal naluraIIy occurs in a
conversalion, and usuaIIy occurs vhen lhe elhnograher is simIy anolher arlicianl in a conversalion.
Hovever, elhnograhers, having some idea of vhal il is lhal lhey vanl lo Iearn in lhe selling, asecls of
lheir research concerns are never far from lheir consciousness, even lhough lhe conversalion or lhe
aclivily maybe rimariIy sociaI or informaI. ecause some form of research aradigm is arl of an
elhnograher's consciousness, she or he are nol onIy aIerl vhen somelhing emerges in lhe conversalion
in vhich lhey don'l quile undersland, bul aIso vhen lhe conversalion seems lo be moving inlo an area
reIaled lo lhal research aradigm. In such inslances, lhe elhnograher may ask a queslion lo furlher
exIore lhe issue of inleresl, lhen become lhe aIerl Iislener, and lhen inserl lhe aroriale naluraI
inquiries of vhal, hov, vho, vhere, vhen, and vhy, lhal vere menlioned earIier in lhe discussion of
descrilive observalions.
The oinl is lhal lhe naluraI conversalion formal may slarl oul as an informaI inlerviev, as lhis genre is
describe by ernard, and may slarl vilh no conscious slruclure. ul slruclure begins lo deveIo as lhe
elhnograher may come lo infIuence lhe direclion of lhe conversalion because of lhe research aradigm
lhal he or she brings lo lhe conversalionaI scene. The elhnograher may lhen add more slruclure around
lhe loic in fulure conversalion, bul mainlain lhe naluraI conversalion formal, ralher lhan hoIding a sil
dovn inlerviev, even lhough lhe rocess may evenluaIIy Iead lo lhe sil dovn inlerviev lhal ernard
associales vilh lhe unslruclured inlerviev. This again is arl of lhis ongoing ileralive rocess of
elhnograhy, lhe movemenl from Iess lo more slruclure in elhnograhic inlervieving.
During vaIking lours, discussed in 4.3 above, elhnograhers can begin unslruclured or naluraI
conversalionaI inlervievs. These can be oorlunislic, in simIy saying heIIo lo ersons vilh vhom one
comes in conlacl vilh during lhese vaIks. IrequenlIy, communily ersons viII engage lhe elhnograher
in queslions, being curious aboul lhe nev ersons in lhe communily. The elhnograher lhen lakes
advanlage of such conlacl by conlinuing lhe conversalion vilh descrilive queslions, foIIoved by robes
using lhe naluraI inquiries. Through lhis rocess, lhe elhnograher may evenluaIIy idenlify arlicianls
for furlher semi-slruclured or even slruclured inlervievs, as veII as meel addilionaI communily
members. Ior examIe, I have found asking a queslion Iike vhal do eoIe around here do lo en|oy
lhemseIves, I gel inviled lo anolher selling such as a rum sho, a food evenl, or some olher aclivily.
4.6. Frnm Dcscriptivc tn 5cmi-5tructurcd, tn 5tructurcd Intcrvicws
In lhe receding seclion, I referred lo naluraI conversalionaI elhnograhic inlervievs as descrilive in
nalure, becoming more slruclured lhrough lhe ileralive rocess. SradIey (1979) describes descrilive
inlervievs as having lhe same urose as descrilive observalions, being used lo c|icii |rca! caicgcrics cj
injcrnaiicn as prcti!c! |q ncn|crs cj inc siu!q pcpu|aiicn jrcn incir cun pcrspcciitc. As such, in descrilive
inlervievs Grand Tour and Mini-Tour queslions are lhe counlerarls of descrilive observalions vilh lhe
same name. SradIey aIso menlions lhree cincr iqpcs cj !cscripiitc qucsiicns. cxanp|c qucsiicns, cxpcricncc
qucsiicns, an! naiitc |anguagc qucsiicns. He ciles an examIe queslion as one lhal mighl foIIov lhe ansver

17
lo a grand or mini-lour queslion, in vhich lhe sludy arlicianl is asked lo give an examIe of somelhing
lhal vas |usl menlioned. An exerience queslion is one in vhich lhe sludy arlicianl is asked have lhey
ever had a arlicuIar exerience of inleresl lo lhe sludy. SradIey describes nalive Ianguage queslions as
simIy asking a sludy arlicianl for informalion using lhe lerms and hrases mosl oflen used in lhe
socio-cuIluraI selling being sludied. These forms of descrilive queslions aIso reresenl a move from Iess
lo more slruclure as lhe elhnograher moves from coIIecling more generaI informalion lo grealer focus
on lhe dala coIIecled.
The nexl IeveI of slruclured inlervieving, is lhe semi-slruclured inlerviev, vhich ernard describes as
having much of lhe freevheeIing quaIily of unslruclured inlervieving, bul is based on lhe use of an
inlerviev guide. a vrillen Iisl of queslions and loics lhal need lo be covered in a arlicuIar order
(ernard 2002:205). Semi-slruclured inlervieving foIIovs lhe oen-ended aroach lhal is characlerislic
of elhnograhic and quaIilalive research. WhiIe lhe inlerviever has lhis vrillen Iisl of queslions and a
arlicuIar order lo foIIov, lhere is nol lhe sel Iisl of resonse ossibiIilies, such as lhal found in lhe
survey slyIe of slruclured inlervieving (discussed in lhe nexl seclion). In semi-slruclured inlervieving,
lhe inlerviever eIicils ansvers fuIIy from lhe erseclive of lhe sludy arlicianl, and allemls lo gain a
grealer underslanding of lhe conlexl and meaning of lhose resonses lhrough various forms of robing.
The highesl IeveI of inlervieving in lerms of slruclure is referred lo as lhe slruclured inlerviev, vhich,
according lo ernard (2002:205), ...eoIe are asked lo resond lo as nearIy as idenlicaI a sel of slimuIi as
ossibIe. ernard goes on lo describe slruclured inlervievs in elhnograhy as being of lvo rimary
lyes. The firsl is lhe slruclured inlerviev lhal uses inlerviev scheduIes or queslionnaires, vhich may be
a!ninisicrc! |q an inicrticucr, eilher face lo face or by leIehone, or may be sc|j-a!ninisicrc! by lhe sludy
arlicianl. This lye of slruclured inlerviev nol onIy asks eoIe lo resond lo lhe same sel of slimuIi
or queslions in lhe same order, bul resondenls are given lhe same choice of resonses lo seIecl. The
Iogic of such slruclured lechniques, mosl oflen used in surveys, is lhal lhey rovide againsl lhreals lo
reIiabiIily and vaIidily. Ilhnograhers incIude lhem in lheir melhodoIogicaI looIkils, rimariIy lo see
hov broadIy reresenled a arlicuIar finding among lhe communily or ouIalion being sludied.
Hovever, lhe mosl common slruclured inlerviev lechniques used by conlemorary elhnograhers is lhe
second menlioned by ernard, vhich is more of a calegory of muIliIe lyes of slruclure inlervieving, is
cu|iura| !cnain ana|qsis. IncIuded among lhe slruclured inlerviev lechniques used in anaIyzing cuIluraI
domains, according lo ernard are pi|c scriing, jranc c|iciiaiicns, iria! scriing, and raiing or rank ordering
Iisls of lhings. Differenl from lhe usuaI vay lhal slruclured inlervieving is carried oul in survey formals,
hovever, in elhnograhy, lhese slruclured inlerviev formals lo reveaI lhe slruclure of cuIluraI domains
are arl of lhe ileralive rocess lhal characlerizes elhnograhic inquiry lhal may incIude queslionnaires
as aIso arl of lhis rocess. The slruclure inlerviev melhods for exIoring cuIluraI domains are used
lhemseIves used in a recursive vay in reIalionshi lo each olher belveen. Hovever, lhe exIoralion of
cuIluraI domains nol onIy incIudes melhods of inlervievs, bul aIso melhods of observalion. And here ve
relurn lo lhe olher lvo lyes of observalions discussed by SradIey, jccusc! and sc|cci.
4.7. Exp!nring thc 5tructurc nI Cu!turc Dnmains: Fncuscd and 5c!cct Obscrvatinns
and 5cmi-5tructurcd and 5tructurcd Intcrvicws
As discussed above lhe urose of descrilive observalions are lo begin lo idenlify lhe mosl generaI
fealures of henomena vilhin a sociaI selling. A nexl sle is lo begin lo eslabIish calegories or domains
for organizing and beginning lhe earIiesl rocesses of anaIysis. To furlher ursue an underslanding of
lhese generaI domains, lhe elhnograher may move from Grand Tour descrilive observalions lo Mini-
Tour observalions. This rocess is furlher faciIilaled lhrough lhe use of descrilive inlervievs, beginning
vilh lhe mosl informaI or unslruclured inlervievs, adding more slruclure as one moves furlher aIong
lhis ileralive rocess.
Afler idenlifying and exIoring lhe mosl generaI cuIluraI domains, lhe nexl sle is lo exIore lhe

18
slrucluraI characlerislics of lhese domains. IoIIoving on lhe vork of earIier anlhrooIogisls vho look a
elhnosemanlic aroach lo lheir elhnograhic exIoralions, SradIey suggesled lhal such slrucluraI
reIalionshis can be found in a eoIe's Ianguage, in lhe vay lhal human grous slruclure lheir Ianguage
in underslanding lheir vorIds, and in communicaling lhal underslanding lo olhers. As such he offered
nine calegories lhal he suggesls cover lhe range of domain slruclures found in human Ianguages. TabIe 2
shovs SradIey's nine semanlic reIalionshis and examIes of each.
Secific cuIluraI domains lo be exIored in any elhnograhic sludy may emerge due lo loicaI inleresl
(e.g., iIIness and heaIing syslems), lheorelicaI inleresls (e.g., calegories of lhe lhe CSI), or concerns or
suggeslions of lhe sludy arlicianls. The slruclure of lhal domain can be fuIIy exIored lhrough lhe
generalion of queslions foIIoving lhese nine semanlic reIalionshi calegories. Ior examIe using iIInesses
as a domain, one mighl deveIo queslions lo exIore kin!s cj i||ncss (slricl incIusion), vhal causes lhe
secific iIInesses (cause-effecl), vays lo overcome a secific iIIness (means-ends), elc. Such domain
slruclures may firsl be exIored lhrough jccusc! c|scrtaiicns, vherein lhe elhnograhic focuses on lhe
domain and direcl observalions lovards lhe discovery of such reIalionshis. Hovever, exIoralions of
cuIluraI domains aIone viII mosl IikeIy nol yieId lhe fuII slruclure of any cuIlure domain, and lhus
siruciura| qucsiicns are asked of sludy arlicianls. An examIe of a slrucluraI queslion based on lhe
cause-effecl semanlic reIalionshi mighl be: Whal are some vays of gelling sick (or more
secific.coming dovn vilh lhe fIu.
As one deveIos lhe inlernaI slruclure of a cuIluraI domain, one viII oflen find lhal lhere are lerms
vilhin lhe domain lhal are very simiIar. The elhnograher needs lo exIore, hovever, vhelher lhere is
some difference belveen lhe lerms. Such exIoralions are made lhrough sc|cci c|scrtaiicns, and ccnirasi
inicrticu qucsiicns. Ior examIe, in lhe elhnograhic and quaIilalive sludies during lhe 1990s, lo
queslions of kinds of vomen, sludy arlicianls vouId Iisl freaks and skeezers. These lerms vere
very cIose in meaning, bolh being defined as young vomen vho vere oen lo any lye of sexuaI raclice
requesled. Hovever, lhrough lhe use of conlrasl queslions, such as vhal is lhe difference belveen a freak
and a skeezer, is lhal lhe skeezer vouId do anylhing sexuaI in exchange for drugs, eseciaIIy crack
cocaine.
SradIey says lhal lhe elhnograher may begin lo exIore conlrasls of very simiIar conslrucls in a
domain lhrough seIecl observalions of olenliaI difference. Hovever, inlervieving lhrough conlrasl
queslions Inlervievs is mosl necessary lo confirm vhal one lhinks one is observing. Moreover, conlrasl
queslions are lhe onIy source of informalion of arlicuIar domain conslrucls lhal lhe elhnograher may
nol be abIe lo observe. (Ior examIe, in lhe examIe given in my ovn research of lhe difference belveen
lhe skeezer and lhe freak, I couId nol observe lhe difference belveen lhe sexuaI behaviors of lhe lvo. And
even if I couId have, lhe elhics of such observalions vouId have been queslionabIe).
There are differenl inlerviev rocedures for carrying oul lhe anaIysis of slruclure of cuIluraI domains.
The firsl inlerviev melhod, |rcc- |isiing, is exIoralory, vhere a sludy arlicianl may be asked lo Iisl aII
of lhe ilems lhal lhey can lhink of in a domain. An examIe may be, TeII me aII of lhe iIInesses lhal you
knov aboul. WhiIe lhis is a slricl incIusion calegory, one mighl do lhe same vilh lhe olher 8 semanlic
reIalionshis in SradIey's calegorizalion. This lye of inlerviev melhod is generaIIy referred lo in
elhnograhy as eIicilalion. Olher forms of elhnograhic eIicilalion ciled by ernard (2002:283) are:
(1) Scnicncc |ranc ||iciiaiicns, lhal may caII for direcl yes/no or lrue/faIse resonses lo
queslions (e.g., Unrolecled Sex can Iead lo AIDS), or fiIIing in bIank saces in senlences
(e.g. Unrolecled sex can Iead lo calching___.),
(2) Tria! Tcsis, in vhich eoIe are shovn lhree lhings, and are loId lo choose lhe one lhal
doesn'l fil, or choose lhe lvo lhal seem lo go logelher besl or choose lhe lvo lhal are
lhe same.,

19
(3) Pi|c Scris, vhich lakes lhe ilems yieId lhrough freeIisling, ul each ilem on a card, shuffIe
lhe cards, and lhen ask lhe sludy arlicianl lo ul lhe cards inlo iIes, based on hov
simiIar he or she lhinks lhese lhings are, ulling lhem inlo as many iIes as lhey vouId
Iike (AIso see orgalli, 1999:131). IiIe sorls are aIso an effeclive vay lo furlher reveaI lhe
inlricacies of a domains slruclure lhrough lhe use of crealing laxonomic lrees or
nelvorks, by asking sludy arlicianls lo sorl lhe cards inlo iIes based on simiIarily,
and lhen lo creale nev iIes of simiIarily from lhose, and conlinue reealing lhis rocess,
unliI lhey say lhey can'l do lhis any more.
(4) Pairc! Ccnpariscns, in vhich each ilem coIIecled for lhe domain is comared vilh every
olher ilem, lo give a number of airs. Then lhe sludy arlicianl is asked lo circIe lhe
ilem in lhe air lhal conforms lo some crilerion. (ernard gives lhe examIe: Here are
lvo animaIs. Which one is lhe more____________` (2002:293).
(5) |ankings, in vhich eoIe are asked lo rank lhe ilems in a domain based on some sorl of
crilerion (e.g., on a scaIe of 1 lo 10, vilh 1 being lhe highesl, and 10 being lhe Iovesl, or
from lhe mosl lo lhe Ieasl vilh regards lo lhe crilerion).
(6) |aiings, vhere eoIe are ask lo rank ilems in oosing cognilive direclions, eg., in scaIe
indicalors frequenlIy found in queslionnaires such as slrongIy agree, agree, no oinion,
disagree, slrongIy disagree.


20
RcIcrcnccs
Agar, M.A. (1982). Tovards an Ilhnograhic Language. 84:779-95
Agar, M.A. (1996). Tnc Prcjcssicna| Sirangcr: An |njcrna| |nirc!uciicn ic |inncgrapnq. San Diego, CA:
Academic Iress.
ernard, H. RusseII (2002). Research Melhods in AnlhrooIogy: QuaIilalive and Quanlilalive Aroaches.
(3
rd
.Id.). WaInul Creek, CA: AIlaMira Ir..
orgalli, S.I., (199). IIicilalion Techniques for CuIluraI Domain AnaIysis. In }.}. SchensuI, el aI (eds),
|nnancc! |inncgrapnic Mcinc!s. Au!ictisua| Tccnniqucs, |ccusc! Grcup |nicrticus an! ||iciiaiicn
Tccnniqucs. (. 115-151). ). WaInul Creek, CA: AIlaMirra Iress
Gadamer, H.G. (1975). Truin an! Mcinc!. Nev York: Conlinuum
Geerlz, CIifford (1973). Tnc |nicrprciaiicn cj Cu|iurcs. NY: asic ooks. I. 33-54.
Guba, IG and YS LincoIn (1994), Comeling Iaradigms in QuaIilalive Research in Handbook Han!|cck
cj Qua|iiaiitc |cscarcn. Denzin and LincoIn (eds.) Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage IubIicalions:
SradIey, }.I., (1979) Tnc |inncgrapnic |nicrticu. Nev York: HoIl. Rineharl and Winslon.
SradIey, }.I., (1980) Pariicipani O|scrtaiicn. Nev York: HoIl. Rineharl and Winslon.
Whilehead, T.L (2004). "WHAT IS ITHNOGRAIHY` MelhodoIogicaI, OnloIogicaI, and IislemoIogicaI
Allribules IICCARS Working Iaer. Universily of MaryIand, CuSAG

21
TABLE5
Tab!c 1: 5prad!cy's Dcscriptivc Qucstinn Matrix

22
Tab!c 2: 5prad!cy's Prnpnscd Univcrsa! 5cmantic Rc!atinnships Inr Usc in Dnmain
Ana!ysis
Typc nI Rc!atinnship Gcncra! Naturc nI Rc!atinnship Examp!c nI Rc!atinnship in
Eng!ish
1. Slricl IncIusion X is a Kind of Y MiIk is a kind of food
2. SaliaI X is a Iace in Y, X is a arl of Y A kilchen is a room in a house
3. Cause-Iffecl X is a resuIl of Y, X is a cause of Y Sloning viII resuIl from
aduIlery
4. RalionaIe X is a reason for doing Y Needing money is a reason for
seIIing crack cocaine
5. Localion X is a Iace for doing Y A gymnasium is a Iace lo gel
exercise
6. Iunclion X is used for Y Drugs are used lo gel girIs
7. Means-Ind X is a vay lo do Y Working hard is a vay lo gel
ahead.
8. Sequence X is a sle (slage) in Y Descrilive observalion is a sle
in doing Ilhnograhy
9. Allribulion X is an allribule (characlerislic) of Y eing louch is an allribule of a
slrong man


23
Figurcs
Figurc 1: Natura! Cu!tura! Lcarning Prnccss as a Mndc! Inr Basic Ethnngraphy

24
Figurc 2: Thc Cu!tura! 5ystcms Paradigm

25
APPENDICE5
Appcndix I: Wnrkbnnk Inr Rccnrding Dcscriptivc Obscrvatinns

26
Appcndix II: Cnntact 5ummary Fnrm (MndiIicatinn nI Mi!cs and Hubcrman, 1994:51-
54).

Cnntact Typc (Chcck with X):
Visil: _______________
Ihone:_______________
Meeling______________
Olher (Secify)_____________
Cnntact Datc:______________

Tnday's Datc_______________

Writtcn by__________________

Siles: ________________________________________________________

In answcring cach nI thc In!!nwing qucstinns, cnumcratc as nccdcd, and writc nn back nI shcct iI
nnt cnnugh spacc.

1. Are lhere secific lhings lhal you vouId Iike lo Iearn al lhis conlacl`











2. Who vere lhe aclors resenl al lhe conlacl` (Irovide reaI names or seudonyms if necessary,
affiIialion, and lilIe)








27





3. Whal vere lhe main issues or lhemes lhal slruck you in lhis conlacl`







4. Were lhere secific issues lhal you icked u from your observalions lhal you mighl vanl lo
exIore furlher al nexl conlacl`

















5. Whal nev or (or remaining) queslions lhal you have in considering lhe nexl conlacl vilh lhis
sile`


28