A SEMINAR REPORT ON THE COAST AND ITS ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS

BY

MAGBAGBEOLA FIYINFOLUWA ADEOLU AGY/07/0830

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH) DEGREE IN APPLIED GEOLOGY JUNE, 2011
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CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this project was carried out by Mr. Fiyinfoluwa A. Magbagbeola (AGY/07/0830) of the Department of Applied geology, Federal University of Technology, Akure and that to the best of my knowledge has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of a degree.

---------------------------------------------Dr A.Y.B Anifowose Seminar Supervisor

------------------------------------------Dr. S.A Opeloye H.O.D, Applied Geology

DEDICATION
This report is dedicated to the Lord Almighty, the provider of wisdom and knowledge. The report is also dedicated to my parents, Mr. & Mrs. Magbagbeola, for their immense support and encouragement financially and spiritually.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I give the Almighty God all my gratitude. I appreciate my loving parents, Mr. and Mrs. Magbagbeola for their endless support towards the success of my chosen career. A big thank you goes to my siblings for their thoughtful gestures towards the success of my career. I am grateful to my supervisor, Dr. A.Y.B Anifowose, for ensuring that I prepare a proper write-up in presenting this seminar topic. To the Dean of the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Prof. J.A. Adekoya, the Head of Department of Applied Geology, Dr Opeloye, Dr Asiwaju- Bello, Dr Ashidi, Dr Jegede, Dr Okonkwo , Mr Adetunji, Mr Olabode, Mr Adepoju, Mr Owoseni ,Mr Adisa, Mrs. Ogunlabi and all technologists, may God reward you bountifully.

TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page .................................................................................................................................... i Certification ................................................................................................................................ ii Dedication ................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgement..................................................................................................................... iv Table of Content ......................................................................................................................... v Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures........................................................................................................................... viii List of Plates .............................................................................................................................. ix CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Intoduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Coasts .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Classification of Coasts ........................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Formation of Coasts ............................................................................................................ 3 1.4 Types of Coasts .................................................................................................................... 4 1.4.1 Erosional Coasts ........................................................................................................... 4 1.4.2 Drowned Coasts ........................................................................................................... 4 1.4.3 Depositional Coasts ...................................................................................................... 5 1.4.4 Uplifted Coasts ............................................................................................................. 5 1.5 Human Uses of Coasts ......................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Threats to the Coasts ........................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 Coastal Processes ................................................................................................................ 7 2.1 Waves ................................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Types of Waves ................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Constructive Waves........................................................................................................ 8 2.2.2 Destructive Waves......................................................................................................... 9 2.3 Water Wave Properties .................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Coastal Landforms ............................................................................................................ 12 3.1 Erosional Landforms ......................................................................................................... 12 3.1.1 Headland................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.2 Cliff ......................................................................................................................... 12 3.1.3 Sea Caves ............................................................................................................... 12 3.1.4 Wave-Cut Platform ................................................................................................ 13 3.1.5 Sea Stacks............................................................................................................... 13 3.1.6 Sea Arches ............................................................................................................. 13 3.2 Depositional Landforms of the Coasts ............................................................................... 13 3.2.1 Beach ...................................................................................................................... 14 3.2.2 Berm ....................................................................................................................... 14 3.2.3 Spit .......................................................................................................................... 14 3.2.4 Tombolo .................................................................................................................. 14 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.2.9 Barrier Islands ......................................................................................................... 14 Sand Bar ................................................................................................................. 15 Baymouth Bar ......................................................................................................... 15 Bay .......................................................................................................................... 15 Salt Marsh ............................................................................................................... 16

3.2.10 Estuary ..................................................................................................................... 16 3.2.11 Lagoon ..................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 17 BIBLIOGRAPHY..18

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 : Coastal Profile ............................................................................................................. 2 Figure 2 : Active Currents of the Coasts ...................................................................................... 8 Figure 3 : Constructive Waves .................................................................................................. 10 Figure 4: Destructive Waves ..................................................................................................... 10 Figure 5: Wave Properties ......................................................................................................... 11 Figure 6: Erosional and Depositional Landforms of the Coasts .................................................. 17

LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Headlands of Basalt at Maui in Hawaii ......................................................................... 18 Plate 2: Cliff faces at Newfoundland, Canada ............................................................................ 18 Plate 3: Cave at Baja California, Mexico ................................................................................... 18 Plate 4: Wave-cut platform at Newfoundland, Canada ............................................................... 18 Plate 5: Sea Stacks at Victoria, Australia ................................................................................... 19 Plate 6: Sea Arch at Le Cayes.................................................................................................... 19 Plate 7: Beach face and Bern at Singapore ................................................................................. 19 Plate 8: Spit at Dungeness, Near Sequim, Washington.............................................................. 19 Plate 9: Tombolo at Southern California .................................................................................... 20 Plate 10: Sand Bar at Cebu, Phillipines...................................................................................... 20 Plate 11: Estuary at Belize ......................................................................................................... 20 Plate 12: Barrier Islands at Florida ............................................................................................ 20 Plate 13: Baymouth bar at Australia .......................................................................................... 21 Plate 14: Bay between Headlands in Brazil ............................................................................... 21 Plate 15: Lagoon at Glenwork at Australia ................................................................................ 21 Plate 16: Salt Marsh at Plymouth, Devon .................................................................................. 21

ABSTRACT
The coast is where the land meets the sea or ocean. Some of the most spectacular scenery is found along coastlines and produced by the effects of wave erosion and sediment deposition. Wave erosion undercuts steep shorelines creating coastal cliffs. Hydraulic action, abrasion, and chemical solution all work to cut a notch at the high water level near the base of the cliff. Constant undercutting and erosion causes the cliffs to retreat landward. A number of mechanical and chemical effects produce erosion of rocky shorelines by waves. Depending on the geology of the coastline, nature of wave attack, and long-term changes in sea-level as well as tidal ranges, erosional landforms such as wave-cut notches, sea cliffs and even unusual landforms such as caves, sea arches, and sea stacks can form. Likewise, various types of wave current patterns result in the formation of several depositional landforms at the coast. Reduction of wave energy results in depositional landforms such as spits, bayhead beaches, barrier beaches or bay-mouth bars and tombolos . These depositional landforms are possible along coasts depending on the configuration of the original coastline, direction of sediment transport, nature of the waves, and shape and steepness of the offshore underwater slope. The processes leading to the formation of these landforms are discussed in the write-up.

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
While spending a month at the shore, one does not notice much change in the appearance of the beach. Tides rise and fall everyday, waves strike the shore all the time, and the sand you walked on yesterday is probably the same one you walked on today. To the normal eye, the shape of the beach does not change. However, sand continuously moves rapidly at the beaches. The beach does not seem to change because new sand is being supplied at about the same rate as the old sand is being removed. Minor changes in the coast are usually caused by the action of waves and currents cutting back or eating away at the coast. Wave erosion and deposition greatly modify coasts from their original shapes. Because soft material is more easily weathered than hard material, small bays may be formed in sediments or soft rock, while the harder, more resistant rocks remain as headlands, points, and peninsulas. In other cases, waves or currents may deposit so much material that they build up bars, peninsulas, spits, or barrier beaches. 1.1 Coasts Coast is a geographical term that refers to the zone of contact between a land surface and a large body of water. The term is usually applied to a land area that borders a sea or an ocean, such as the Atlantic coast or the Pacific coast. The coast comprises the interface between the land and the sea. The shoreline is the actual margin of the two, whereas the term coast is much broader and includes areas below and above the water line, such as shoals, dunes and cliffs. Erosion is the dominant geomorphic process acting on coasts. Coastal sediments are subject to multiple episodes of erosion, transportation and deposition; though a net seaward transport takes place on a global scale. The deep ocean floor becomes the resting place for terrestrial sediment eroded from the land. A typical coastal profile is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Coastal Profile

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1.2

Formation of Coasts The main agents responsible for deposition and erosion along coastlines are waves, tides and currents. The formation of coasts is also heavily influenced by their lithology. The harder the material the less likely it is to erode or suffer the effects of erosion. Variants in the rock create different-shaped coastlines. Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves.

1.3

Classification of Coast There are two schemes to classifying coasts. (i) Coasts can be classified as erosional or depositional depending on whether their primary features were created by erosion of land or deposition of eroded material. Erosional coasts are those that developed where active erosion by wave action occurs or where rivers or glaciers caused erosion when sea level was lower than it presently is; these include cliffs or rocky shores while depositional coasts develop where sediments accumulate either from a local source or after being transported to the area in rivers and glaciers or by ocean currents and waves; these include deltas, mangrove swamps, salt marshes, barrier islands, and beach-sand dunes
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(ii) Coasts can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary coasts are generally young and are shaped by terrestrial processes, including erosion, river/stream deposition, glaciers, volcanism, and tectonic movements. Secondary coasts are shaped mainly by marine erosion or deposition due to wave action, sediment transport by currents, or building activities of certain organisms (e.g., reefs); generally these coasts are older. 1.4 Types of Coasts Many coasts have been drowned during the past 15,000 years by the rise in sea level caused by the melting of the Pleistocene glaciers. Other coasts have been uplifted by tectonic forces at a rate greater than the rise in sea level so that the sea floor features are now exposed on dry land. Types of coasts are: 1.4.1 Erosional Coasts Many steep, rocky coasts have been visibly changed by wave erosion. Soluble rocks such as limestone dissolve as waves wash against them, and more durable rocks such as granite are fractured or broken along fractures by the enormous pressures caused by waves slamming into rocks. Wave impacts pressures have been measured as high as 60 metric tones per square meter. The southern California coast, San Diego Coast, National Seashore, Massachusetts and Northern California Coast are all erosional coasts. 1.4.2 Drowned Coasts Drowned coasts are common because sea level has been rising worldwide for the past 15,000 years. During the glacial ages of the Pleistocene, average sea level was 130 meters below its present level. The shallow sea floor near the continents was then dry land, and rivers flowed across it, cutting valleys. As the great ice sheets melted, sea level began to rise, drowning the river valleys. The coast of New Orleans and Dauphin Island in USA are typical examples of drowning coast.

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1.4.3

Depositional Coasts Many coasts are gently sloping plains and show few effects of wave erosion. Such coasts are found along most of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico shores of the United States. These coasts are primarily shaped by sediment deposition, particularly by long-shore drift of sand. 1.4.4 Uplifted Coasts Uplifted or emergent coasts have been elevated by deep-seated tectonic forces. The land has risen faster than sea level, so parts of the old sea floor are now dry land. If the shore is elevated by tectonic uplift, the flat surfaces will become visible as uplifted marine terraces. They formed beneath the ocean floor but are now visible because of uplift. The tectonically unstable Pacific coast of the United States and Canada has many areas marked by uplifted terraces.

1.5

Human Uses of Coasts

An increasing part of the global population inhabits coastal regions. Many of the world's major cities have been built on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Jurisdictions that are landlocked have achieved port status by such measures such as building canals. The coast is a crucial frontier and must be defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed Coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries also require a navy and some form of coast guard. Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water are an important draw for tourists. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy. Coasts are popular destinations because of recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, and sunbathing. Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.

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1.6

Threats to the Coast

Coasts also face many environmental challenges relating to human-induced impacts. The human influence on climate change is thought to be a contributing factor of an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitat. Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris, the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills, small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean. Fishing has diminished due to habitat degradation , overfishing , trawling, by catch and climate change. Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has gone from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. By-catch, which is the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing is typically returned the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. By-catch represents approximately one- quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught. Also, the melting arctic ice which causes sea-level rise will result in the flooding coastal areas.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Coastal Processes
Coastal processes are the set of mechanisms that operate along a coastline, bringing about various combinations of erosion and deposition. Activities around the coast depend on the types of waves reaching the shore. 2.1 Waves The energy that moves sand along a beach comes from the wind-driven water waves that break upon the shore. As wind blows over the surface of an ocean, some of the winds energy is transferred to the water surface by friction, forming the waves that move through the water. The height of waves are controlled by the wind speed, the length of time that the wind blows, and the distance that the wind blows over the water. The largest waves form where high winds blow over a long expanse of open water for an extended period of time. Waves do not come straight into shore. A wave crest usually arrives at an angle to the shoreline. One end breaks first, and then the rest breaks progressively along the shore. The angled approach of a wave toward shore can change the direction of wave travel. One end of the wave reaches shallow water first. This end of the wave feels the bottom first and it slows down while the rest of the wave continues at its deep-water speed. As more of the waves come in contact with the bottom, more of the water slows down. As the wave slows progressively along tits length, the wave crests changes direction and becomes nearly parallel with the shoreline. This bending of waves is termed wave refraction. Wave currents along the coasts are illustrated in Figure 2. Surf or breakers are waves that have become so steep that the crest of the wave topples forward, moving faster than the main body of the wave. The breaker then advances as a turbulent, often foamy mass. Long-shore current is a steady movement of water parallel to the shoreline, which carries sand and contributes to the long-shore drift. Long-shore drift is the movement of sand parallel to the shoreline, in the along-the-shore direction. Long16

shore drift is caused by the water waves breaking against the shore. As the waves break, they thrust water forward, creating movement of water in the direction the wave is traveling. If a wave approaches a beach at an angle, the forward rush of water is directed partially parallel to and partially perpendicular to the shore. Rip currents are narrow currents that flow straight out to sea in the surf zone, returning water seaward that breaking waves have pushed ashore. Rip currents travel at the water surface and die out with depth. Rip currents are important transporter of sediments as they carry fine-grained sediments out of the surf zone into the deep water.

Figure 2: Active currents at the Coasts

2.2

Types of Waves Water waves can be classified into two; 2.2.1 Constructive Waves Constructive waves are low energy waves with a stronger swash than backwash. Where there are less than 8 waves breaking each minute they tend to be constructive waves. Constructive waves tend to deposit material and build up a beach. Constructive waves are responsible for long-shore drift of sediments
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which result in depositional landforms. Constructive waves are shown in Figure 3. 2.2.2 Destructive Waves By contrast, destructive waves have much higher energy than constructive waves. They are much larger in height. They have a weak swash but a strong backwash, and they therefore erode the beach by pulling sand and shingle (beach materials) down the beach as water returns to the sea. A typical destructive wave is shown in Figure 4. These waves are responsible for erosional landforms. Processes with which destructive waves erode the coast are; Attrition: Materials carried by the waves bump into each other and so are smoothed and broken down into smaller particles. Hydraulic Action: This process involves the force of water against the coast. The waves enter cracks (faults) in the coastline and compress the air within the crack. When the wave retreats, the air in the crack expands quickly, causing a minor explosion. This process is repeated continuously

Corrosion: This is the chemical action of sea water. The acids in the salt water slowly dissolve rocks on the coast. Limestone and chalk are particularly prone to this process.

Abrasion/Corrasion: This is the process by which the coast is worn down by material carried by the waves. Waves throw these particles against the rock, sometimes at high velocity.

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Figure 3: Constructive Waves

Figure 4: Destructive Waves

2.3

Water Wave Properties The source of energy for coastal erosion and sediment transport is wave action. A wave possesses potential energy as a result of its position above the wave trough, and kinetic energy caused by the motion of the water within the wave. This wave energy is generated by the frictional effect of winds moving over the ocean surface. The higher the wind speed and the longer the fetch, or distance of open water across which the wind blows and waves travel, the larger the waves and the more energy they therefore possess.
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It is important to realize that moving waves do not move the water itself forward, but rather the waves impart a circular motion to the individual molecules of water. Waves possess several measurable characteristics including length and height. Wavelength is defined as the horizontal distance from wave crest to wave crest, while wave height is the vertical difference between the wave's trough and crest. The time taken for successive crests to pass a point is called the wave period and remains almost constant despite other changes in the wave. The length of a wave (L) is equal to the product of the wave period (P) and the velocity of the wave (V). Figure 5 shows some of the wave properties.

Figure 5: Wave Properties

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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Coastal Landforms
Coastal landforms are features left behind by coastal processes; they are remnants of various coastal activities. Coastal landforms can be classified as Depositional or Erosional depending on the nature of the processes taking place along the coast. Some features of the coast occur in form of bodies of water extending from the ocean. 3.1 Erosional Landforms Coasts Some of the most spectacular scenery is found along coastlines and produced by the effects of wave erosion. Erosional landforms are illustrated in Figure 6A. Landforms formed from coastal erosion usually involve hard rocks with various resistances to erosion. Coastal erosion features include; 3.1.1 Headland Headlands are characterized by high, breaking waves, rocky shores, intense erosion, and steep sea cliffs. A headland is gradually straightened by wave action. Some headlands are located at the Southern Californian coastline and around Maui in Hawaii. A basaltic headland in Maui, Hawaii is shown on Plate 1. 3.1.2 Cliff Wave erosion of headlands produces sea cliffs. Cliffs are steep slopes that retreat inland by mass wasting as wave erosion undercuts them. A cliff is a steep, vertical face of rock, earth, or ice, formed by erosion of headlands by the action of water waves. Plate 2 shows cliff faces at Newfoundland, Canada. 3.1.3 Sea Caves A cave is a natural chamber or hollow beneath the surface of the earth or in the side of a hill, cliff, or mountain. Caves vary in size and shape. In some places, underground chambers and galleries may be linked to form cave systems that continue for hundreds of miles. Many caves have large openings to the surface or
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may have multiple outlets. Other caves may be totally shut off from the surface or may exist partly or entirely under water. Caves are cavities eroded by wave action along zones of weakness in the cliff rock. Plate 3 shows a cave at Baja California, Mexico. 3.1.4 Wave-cut Platform A wave-cut platform is a nearly horizontal bench of rock formed beneath the surf zone as a coast retreats by wave erosion. The platform widens as the sea cliffs retreat. The depth of water above a wave cut-platform is generally 6 meters or less, coinciding with the depth turbulent breakers actively erode the sea bottom. A wave-cut platform in Newfoundland, Canada is shown on Plate 4. 3.1.5 Sea Stacks A sea stack is an isolated promontory of rock along the coast, formed from a sea arch that has collapsed because of the action of waves. They are erosional remnants of headlands left behind as the coasts retreat inland. They form rocky islands off retreating coasts, often directly off headlands. Sea stacks at Victoria, Australia are shown on Plate 5. 3.1.6 Sea Arches A sea arch is a sea cave that has been eroded all the way through by waves, leaving behind an arc of rock. They are bridges of rock left above openings eroded in headlands or stacks by waves. The openings are eroded in spots where the rock is weaker than normal, perhaps because of closely spaced fractures. A sea arch at Le Cayes is shown on Plate 6. 3.2 Depositional Landforms of the Coasts These are landforms resulting from the deposition of sand along the coasts. These are illustrated in Figure 6B. They are formed by the sediments brought to the coasts by tides. Such landforms include;

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3.2.1 Beach A beach is a gently sloping strip of land bordering an ocean or other body of water. Beaches form by the action of rivers, waves, currents, tides, and wind and they are usually covered with sand or gravel. The beach extends from the lowwater line to a cliff or zone of permanent vegetation. The steepest part of a beach is the beach face, which is the section exposed to wave action particularly at high tide. A beach face at Singapore is shown in Plate 7. 3.2.2 Berm A berm is the upper part of the beach, landward of the usual high water line. It is a wave-deposited sediment platform that is flat or slopes slightly landward. It is usually dry, being covered by waves only during severe storms. 3.2.3 Spit A spit is a long, narrow sandbar that is connected to the shore at one end. It is deposited and shaped by currents flowing along the shore, and often forms an arc around the mouth of a river or a bay. A spit at Dungeness, Washington is shown on Plate 8. 3.2.4 Tombolo This is a striking but rare feature formed by longshore drift. It is a bar of sediments connecting a former island to the mainland. Waves are refracted around an island in such a way that they tend to converge behind the island. Sand is deposited along the zone of convergence. A tombolo at Southern California is shown on Plate 9. 3.2.5 Barrier Islands Barrier islands are ridges of sand that lie parallel to the shoreline and extend above sea level. These barrier islands may have formed from sand eroded by waves from deeper water offshore, or they may be greatly elongated sand spits formed by longshore drifts. A barrier island at Florida is shown on plate 12.
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3.2.6 Sand Bar A sandbar is a ridge-like deposit of sediment, usually sand, that has built up in a river channel or at the mouth of a river. As the current slows around a river bend or as a river enters the ocean, the river deposits sediment to form sandbars. Sandbars are also found near beaches, where sand is carried offshore by waves. A sand bar at Cebu, Philippines is shown on Plate 10. 3.2.7 Baymouth Bar A baymouth bar is a ridge of sediments that cuts a bay off from the ocean, is formed by sediment migrating across what was earlier an open bay. They are formed when a sand spit closes off a bay. It occurs because a sand spit curls over at its tip when current-generating waves are refracted around the tip; eventually an inlet to bay may be cut by tidal action or by water flow from a river emptying into the bay; sediment accumulation will occur within bay. A baymouth bar in Australia is shown on Plate 13. As a result of the deposition of sand along the coast, some parts of the ocean are extended or separated from the main water body, resulting in a few features that are unique to coastal regions. These include; 3.2.8 Bay A bay is a part of an ocean that is partially surrounded by land. It is formed when water fills land that has sunk because of movement in the Earths crust or a rise in sea level. A bay is generally smaller than a gulf. Bays often make excellent harbors because their waters are relatively calm and protected. A bay in Brazil is shown on Plate 14.

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3.2.9 Salt Marsh A salt marsh is a marsh in which the water that inundates the surface of the ground is salty. Most salt marshes form along coasts and are flooded and exposed by the action of tides. A salt marsh at Plymouth, Devon is shown on Plate 16. 3.2.10 Estuary An estuary is a semi enclosed coastal area, where seawater mixes with fresh water from rivers; also, the tidal area of the lower part of a river. Tidal forces create variable estuarine characteristics in sea inlets. Variation in the seasonal discharge of rivers causes the limits of these zones to shift, and this increases the overall ecological complexity of estuaries. An estuary at Belize is shown on Plate 11. 3.2.11 Lagoon Lagoons, in contrast to salt-marsh estuaries, have a less well defined drainage network and larger open areas and are usually shallowoften less than 2 m (6.5 ft) deep. A raised ridge, or sand barrier, is characteristic of lagoons. This feature was formed during the interglacial stage of the Pleistocene Epoch, some 80,000 years ago, when sea shorelines were about 6 m (20 ft) above present average levels. During the last ice age, fluvial and atmospheric processes eroded the earlier coast. When sea levels rose anew, the areas behind the barrier were once again flooded. Lagoons are present on all continents. A lagoon at Glenwork, Australia is shown on Plate 15.

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Wave-cut platform Beach

Figure 6 A & B: Erosional and Depositional Landforms of the Coast respectively

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Headland

Cliff

Plate 1: Headlands of Basalt at Maui in Hawaii

Plate 2: Cliff faces at Newfoundland, Canada

Wave-cut platform

Plate 3: Cave at Baja California, Mexico

Plate 4: Wave-cut platform at Newfoundland, Canada

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Sea Stacks

Sea Arch

Plate 5: The 12 apostles Sea Stacks at Victoria, Australia

Plate 6: Sea Arch at Le Cayes

Bern

Spit

Plate 7: Beach face and Bern at Singapore

Plate 8: Spit at Dungeness, Near Sequim, Washington.

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Tombolo

Sand Bar

Plate 9: Tombolo at Southern California

Plate 10: Sand Bar at Cebu, Phillipines

Barrier Island Estuary

Plate 11: Estuary at Belize

Plate 12: Barrier Islands at Florida

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Bay

Baymouth Bar

Plate 13: Baymouth bar at Australia

Plate 14: Bay between Headlands in Brazil

Lagoon

Plate 15: Lagoon at Glenwork at Australia

Plate 16: Salt Marsh at Plymouth, Devon

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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Conclusion
The coastline is where the land meets the sea or ocean. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the dynamic nature of tides. The term "coastal zone" can be used instead, which is a spatial zone where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region. Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys. Barring the effects of tectonic uplift and sea level change, erosion is the dominant geomorphic process acting on coasts. Coastal sediments are subject to multiple episodes of erosion, transportation and deposition, though a net seaward transport takes place on a global scale. The deep ocean floor becomes the resting place for terrestrial sediment eroded from the land. Landforms of the coast can either be erosional or depositional depending on which coastal processes lead to their formation. The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore is an important part of a local ecosystem as the mixture of fresh water and salt water in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals, and insects crucial to the food chain. The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.

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Bibliography
Plummer, C.C, Cardson, D.D (2008): Physical Geology. Twelfth Edition. McGraw-Hill Publishers. 659 pages.

Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms. Second Edition. Prentice-Hall Inc. 412 pages. www.wikipedia.org/coasts www.googlebooks.com/Robert G.Dean.Coastal processes with engineering applications, 2002. Microsoft Encarta 2008.16th Edition. Britannica Encyclopedia 2008. 12th Edition.

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