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Tectonic evolution of the ManitobaSaskatchewan segment of the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson Orogen, Canada1, 2
Kevin M. Ansdell

Abstract: Time slices and schematic cross-sections that attempt to show the spatial and temporal relationship between geological entities within the ManitobaSaskatchewan segment of the Trans-Hudson Orogen and that are consistent with the available geological, geophysical, geochemical, isotopic, and geochronological data are presented. The TransHudson orogenic belt developed as a result of closure of the Manikewan Ocean, which initially opened at about 2.1 Ga by rifting of a possible Neoarchean supercontinent. The oldest oceanic arc rocks indicate that subduction was ongoing by 1.92 Ga, with the development of a complex Manikewan Ring of Fire that lasted for the next 100 Ma. Intraoceanic accretion of arc, ocean-floor, and ocean-island rocks within the Manikewan Ocean at 1.87 Ga formed the Flin Flon Glennie complex, which then subsequently collided with the accreted terranes along the Hearne craton margin at ca. 1.85 Ga. These rocks were then deformed and metamorphosed over the next 75 Ma during collisions with the Sask craton and the Superior craton, both of which are interpreted to have been drifting generally northwards towards the Hearne craton. The generation of arc magmas in the orogen ceased at 1.83 Ga, an indication that continental collisions were well advanced at that stage. The present arrangement and erosion level of geological entities is related to structural reorganization after the peak of regional metamorphism at ca. 1.81. The schematic time slices and sections form part of ongoing efforts to better understand the geological evolution of the Paleoproterozoic of Canada. Rsum : Cet article prsente des tranches de temps et des coupes transversales schmatiques qui tentent de monter les relations spatiales et temporelles entre les entits gologiques lintrieur du segment ManitobaSaskatchewan de lorogne trans-hudsonien et qui concordent avec les donnes gologiques, gophysiques, gochimiques, isotopiques et gochronologiques disponibles. Le dveloppement de la ceinture orognique trans-hudsonienne rsulte de la fermeture de locan Manikewan qui, lorigine, stait ouvert vers 2,1 Ga par la distension dun possible supercontinent no-archen. Les plus anciennes roches darc ocanique indiquent que la subduction tait en cours vers 1,92 Ga avec le dveloppement dun anneau de feu Manikewan complexe qui a dur 100 millions dannes. Laccrtion intra-ocanique de roches darc, du fonds ocanique et dles ocaniques lintrieur de locan Manikewan 1,87 Ga a form le complexe de Flin Flon Glennie, lequel est ensuite entr en collision avec les terranes accrts le long de la bordure du craton Hearne il y a environ 1,85 Ga. Ces roches ont ensuite t dformes et mtamorphoses au cours des 75 millions dannes qui ont suivi, durant des collisions avec le craton Sask et le craton Suprieur; tous deux auraient driv en direction gnrale nord vers le craton Hearne. La gnration de magmas darc dans lorogne a cess 1,83 Ga, une indication que les collisions continentales taient bien avances ce stade. Les positions et le niveau drosion actuels des entits gologiques sont relis la rorganisation structurale aprs la crte de mtamorphisme rgional vers 1,81 Ga. Les tranches de temps et les sections schmatiques forment une partie des efforts en cours pour mieux comprendre lvolution gologique au Paloprotrozoque au Canada. [Traduit par la Rdaction] Ansdell 759

Introduction
Unravelling the evolution of Earth is the main aim of geological studies and requires integration of lithological and structural mapping with geochemistry, geophysics, and geochronology. The formulation of plate tectonics provided a

mechanism for the generation, movement, and deformation of the Earths crust that has implications for the distribution and topographic features of continental land masses over time. The position of continents affects oceanic circulation patterns, climate, and the distribution of organisms and sedimentary basins, whereas the location of plate boundaries is

Received 12 November 2003. Accepted 8 March 2005. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at http://cjes.nrc.ca on 20 June 2005. Paper handled by Associate Editor R.M. Clowes. K.M. Ansdell. Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 114 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada (e-mail: kevin.ansdell@usask.ca).
1 2

This article is one of a selection of papers published in this Special Issue on The Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect of Lithoprobe. Lithoprobe Publication 1403.
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an important control on volcanic activity, mountain building, and the formation of natural resources. The distribution of continental crust and plate boundaries can be observed today, but their location in the past requires paleomagnetic and geochronological control of specific geological features that are known or thought to be associated with plate margins or interiors. The aim of this paper is to integrate available geological data to reconstruct the location of geological entities involved in the development of the ManitobaSaskatchewan segment of the Trans-Hudson Orogen (MS-THO) in central Canada (Fig. 1). This region is aerially insignificant on a global scale, but it forms part of an extensive Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt that has remnants in North America and northern Europe (Fig. 1C), and it preserves evidence for significant crustal growth and recycling at that time (Hoffman 1988; Zhao et al. 2002). In addition, a voluminous data set, which has resulted from Lithoprobes Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect (THOT) and the Geological Survey of Canada-led NATMAP (National Geoscience Mapping Program) Shield Margin project (this entire issue; Clowes et al. 1999; Lucas et al. 1999a, 1999b), can be used to construct paleotectonic maps for specific time periods in the Paleoproterozoic development of this region. Because the rocks within the orogen have been metamorphosed and multiply deformed during the Trans-Hudson orogeny, the reconstruction of these time slices is fraught with difficulty. Nevertheless, they represent a useful way of showing geological events that were occurring at the same time and they force us to examine the evidence for the spatial relationship among different rock units, some of which remain problematic. Ultimately, these paleotectonic maps can be linked to other similar maps to produce better reconstructions of the Paleoproterozoic world.

Superior, Hearne, and Sask cratons. The Sask craton is exposed in two structural windows in the southern part of the MS-THO, underlies much of the Reindeer Zone, and probably forms much of the Precambrian basement underneath the Phanerozoic cover to the south.

Time-slice construction
The schematic paleotectonic diagrams shown in this paper (Fig. 2) are constructed by considering the huge volume of geological, geochemical, and geochronological data that has been generated in the last 20 years in the MS-THO. These data are used to update orogen-scale paleotectonic reconstructions developed by, for example, Lewry (1981b), Green et al. (1985a, 1985b), Ansdell et al. (1995), and Clowes et al. (1999). The time period designated for each paleotectonic map is constrained by the available UPb geochronological control on geological events (short time periods indicate a well-constrained time period) and on the occurrence of significant geological events that indicate a change in tectonic scenario. Ansdell et al. (2005) summarize the geochronological control on geological events in the MS-THO and provide some of the important references for geochronological data. Scale and orientation are not provided, although there is a voluminous set of paleomagnetic data available for the orogen (Symons and Harris 2005). Constraints provided by paleomagnetic data for the various diagrams will be described later in the text. The paleotectonic diagrams are constructed assuming that the Hearne craton represents a fixed block in space. Movements are then considered relative to this fixed block. In addition, it is assumed that plate tectonic processes were operating in a similar manner as observed at the present day and that the three Archean cratons (Superior, Hearne, Sask) were located on their own plates prior to the final stages of continental collision. Finally, geological studies in the MS-THO are ongoing because there are a number of unresolved issues, and thus there is an element of personal bias in the construction of the time slices.

General geological relationships

The MS-THO represents the southwestern part of the exposed THO in the Canadian Shield. The THO extends northeastwards into Nunavut and northern Quebec, as it wraps around the Archean Superior craton, and is interpreted to extend southwards into the United States below the Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks of the Williston basin (Fig. 1B). The THO may be cut by the Central Plains orogen (Sims and Peterman 1986) or may extend as far west as northern Arizona (Hill and Bickford 2001). To the west and north of the MS-THO are the Archean rocks of the Hearne and Rae cratons, which have been substantially reworked during Paleoproterozoic orogenesis. The MS-THO is subdivided into three zones: Hearne Province, Superior Boundary Zone, and the Reindeer Zone (Fig. 1A). The latter consists of volcanic, intrusive, and sedimentary rocks that developed in a variety of plate tectonic environments ranging from island-arc and back-arc to oceanisland settings and active continental margins. The first two consist of sedimentary and volcanic rocks that were laid down unconformably on the margins of the Archean Hearne and Superior cratons, respectively. All were subsequently metamorphosed and deformed during the Trans-Hudson orogeny. All the rocks of the THO have been deformed and metamorphosed to varying degrees as a result of collisions between juvenile Paleoproterozoic terranes and the Archean

Formation of the Manikewan Ocean

The MS-THO preserves the remnants of Paleoproterozoic volcanic and sedimentary rock units that were deformed and metamorphosed as Archean cratons collided. Convergent plate boundaries must have been in existence to generate these collisions, and by inference there must have been oceanic crust which was subducted to generate arc magmas (e.g., Flin Flon domain; Stern et al. 1995a, 1995b). This ocean basin, which closed as the older continents collided, was named the Manikewan Ocean by Stauffer (1984). However, when and how did this ocean basin develop? The development of new ocean basins initially requires the rifting of older continental blocks, although whether this occurs as a result of passive lithospheric stretching or active doming above a mantle plume remains controversial (e.g., Storey et al. 1992). Distinguishing between these two scenarios is often difficult, but there should be differences in relative timing, volume, and composition of mafic magma associated with the rifting event (White 1992). If rifting is successful, then the new ocean basins will have sedimentary sequences forming on the margins of the bounding conti 2005 NRC Canada

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Fig. 1. (A) Simplified geological map of the ManitobaSaskatchewan segment of the THO showing the location and numbers of Lithoprobe seismic reflection lines discussed in the text. The Flin Flon and Glennie domains are termed the Flin Flon Glennie complex (Ashton 1999). HL, Hanson Lake block; ORSZ, Owl River shear zone. (B) The distribution of Archean and Paleoproterozoic elements within the North American craton (modified after Hoffman 1988). The rectangle outlines the location of Fig. 1A. THO, Trans-Hudson Orogen; S, Superior craton; H, Hearne Province; R, Rae Province; GFTZ, Great Falls Tectonic Zone. (C) Present-day global distribution of Paleoproterozoic orogens and Archean cratons (modified after Zhao et al. 2002). Paleoproterozoic orogens: AK, Akitkan; C, Capricorn; CA, Central Australia basement; EB, Eburnian; KK, Kola-Karelian; LP, Limpopo belt; M, Moyar belt; SF, Sveocfennian; TA, TransAmazonian; TNC, Trans-North China. The Transantarctic orogen in Antarctica is not shown.

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nents. Thus, any lithological remnants of the initial rifting should be preserved on the continental margins below passive margin sedimentary sequences and close to the transition between oceanic and continental crust. Evidence for rifting of the Archean cratons now bordering the THO should thus be preserved within the Wollaston domain and the Superior Boundary Zone (Fig. 1). These are regions in which Archean continental crust is unconformably overlain by supracrustal rocks and severely reworked during the Paleoproterozoic. The oldest supracrustal rocks in the Wollaston domain occur within the Courtenay Lake Cairns Lake fold belt (Money 1968) and form part of the Needle Falls Group (Fig. 3; Ray 1979; Coombe 1994). This is dominantly a sedimentary sequence consisting of a generally fining-upward clastic succession of arkoses, conglomerates, and variably graphitic pelites towards the base, overlain by calcareous clastic units, marble, and iron formation. The youngest unit is a homogeneous arkose. Overall, these sedimentary rocks are interpreted as a riftfill sequence with detritus being derived predominantly from Neoarchean sources ranging in age from about 25852510 Ma (Hamilton et al. 2000; Rayner et al. 2005). Igneous rocks are rare, although there are amphibolites intercalated with the clastic rocks near the base of the Needle Falls Group that have a trace-element geochemical signature indicative of within-plate continental rift tholeiites (Fossenier et al. 1995; MacNeil et al. 1997). In addition, the Cook Lake area also contains quartzfeldspar porphyries, probably derived from crustal melts generated by the influx of mafic magma into the crust, which are only found within the lowermost clastic succession. A UPb age of 2075 2 Ma obtained from one of these porphyries (Ansdell et al. 2000) has been interpreted as the best, albeit minimum, direct estimate for the age of rifting along the margin of the Hearne craton. The supracrustal rocks of the Superior Boundary Zone that overlie Archean basement gneisses form part of the Ospwagan Group (Fig. 3; Scoates et al. 1977; Bleeker 1990; Zwanzig 1999). The lowermost sequence of clastic sedimentary rocks (Manasan Formation) is interpreted to overlie unconformably Archean gneisses and consists of locally developed pebble conglomerates grading up into quartzites and wackes that probably were deposited in a passive margin setting. The overlying formations indicate that the basin was then starved of clastic detritus. The Thompson Formation consists of dolomitic and calcareous rocks that are overlain by pelitic sedimentary rocks, cherts, and silicate- and sulphidefacies iron formations (Pipe Formation). There is a return to clastic sedimentation during the deposition of the Setting Formation, which precedes the eruption of the mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks of the Bah Lake assemblage of the Ospwagan Group. Associated with this volcanic package are metagreywackes, which are interpreted as turbidites shed off volcanic edifices, and mafic and ultramafic intrusive rocks. The ages of detrital zircons indicate that a significant proportion of the clastic detritus was derived from the Superior craton, although Hamilton and Bleeker (2002) also obtained an age of ca. 1974 Ma for a detrital zircon from a greywacke in the Setting Formation, which they interpreted as being derived from penecontemporaneous volcanic activity. This age provides a minimum age for the deposition of the under-

lying sedimentary rocks of the Ospwagan Group and thus of rifting along this margin of the Superior craton. The ages obtained from both the Wollaston domain and the Superior Boundary Zone are consistent with other estimates for the timing of rifting along the margins of the Hearne and Superior cratons, respectively (Fig. 2B). Aspler and Chiarenzelli (1998) and Aspler et al. (2001) suggested that gabbroic intrusions into the lower part of the Hurwitz Group, which developed in an intracratonic basin on the Hearne craton, at ca. 2.1 Ga represent a period of lithospheric extension and mantle melting, which eventually led to rifting. The estimated age of rifting along the margin of the Superior craton is considered to be about 2.2 Ga (Wardle et al. 2002); this is consistent with an a UPb age of 2025 25 Ma from diagenetic apatite cement in the Richmond Gulf Group, on the east shore of Hudson Bay (Chandler and Parrish 1989), and with the ca. 2.0 Ga age of mafic volcanism and rift sedimentary rocks preserved in the Povungnituk Group in the QuebecBaffin segment of the THO (Parrish 1989; Machado et al. 1993). The configuration of Archean cratons prior to rifting of the Hearne and Superior cratons is controversial. Aspler and Chiarenzelli (1998) suggested that gabbroic intrusions in the Hurwitz Group herald the breakup of a Neoarchean earliest Paleoproterozoic supercontinent, termed Kenorland. They also suggested that the spatial relationship between Archean continental blocks prior to fragmentation of this supercontinent was similar to that attained after reassembly during the Paleoproterozoic to form the core of Laurentia. Thus, the present Hearne and Superior cratons were adjacent to each other prior to rifting, which would mean that the pre-rifting geological history of the two margins should be similar. However, marked differences in the age of geological events along the northern margin of the Superior Province and the southern margin of the Hearne Province (Ansdell et al. 2005) do not support a straightforward fit of the two Archean cratons (Bleeker 2002). In addition, the interpretation of paleomagnetic signatures from mafic dykes cutting the Archean cratons and from rocks within the Reindeer Zone have led to differing suggestions as to the maximum separation of the Hearne and Superior cratons and rotation between them (e.g., Symons and Harris 2005; Evans 2002). Nevertheless, there are mafic dyke systems, such as the ca. 2.45 Ga Matachewan and Kaminak dykes (Heaman 1997) that intrude the Superior and Hearne cratons, and which may have been derived by melting of the same mantle plume. Correlation of dykes of this age and stratigraphy led to the suggestion that the Wyoming and Superior cratons were adjacent to each other at 2.45 Ga and thus formed part of a larger Archean craton (Fig. 2A; Roscoe and Card 1993; Heaman 1997). It is unclear where the Hearne craton was situated with respect to this reconstruction (Fig. 2A), although recently Bleeker (2004) has proposed that the Hearne craton may have been adjacent to the Huronian margin of the Superior craton.

The size of the Manikewan Ocean

There is little direct record of the early evolution of the Manikewan Ocean, which developed as a result of ocean spreading processes. The oceanic crust that formed was de 2005 NRC Canada

Fig. 2. Schematic time slices showing the distribution of tectonic elements during the evolution of the THO during the Paleoproterozoic. (A) Possible distribution of Archean Superior, Wyoming, and Karelia cratons (Heaman 1997) prior to development of the Manikewan Ocean. The relationship between these cratons and the HearneRae craton is controversial, although Aspler and Chiarenzelli (1998) suggest that they may have been linked as part of a larger supercontinent (Kenorland). In contrast, Bleeker (2004) suggests that the Hearne craton may have been adjacent to the southern margin of the Superior craton at ca. 2.45 Ga. The Sask craton may have originally been part of the Wyoming craton. (B) Constraints on the age of rifting along the Superior and Hearne cratons. Rifting and sea-floor spreading leads to the formation of the Manikewan Ocean. (C) Possible relationship between tectonic elements within the Pacific-like Manikewan Ocean. Flower-symbol refers to clastic input into sedimentary basins. (D) Accretion of oceanic terranes to form the Flin Flon Glennie complex and a simplified La Ronge Lynn Lake arc system. (E) Successor arc magmatism, resulting from subduction below the Flin Flon Glennie complex, and extension of the margin of the Superior craton. ?? underlines our lack of understanding of the geological history of the northeastern Reindeer Zone. (F) Collision between the Flin Flon Glennie complex and the Hearne craton margin and development of the Wathaman batholith. (G) Formation of the Kisseynew basin on extending Flin Flon Glennie complex crust. Exhumation of the older arc rocks leads to provision of detritus for the Kisseynew basin, and smaller fluvial-alluvial basins on the successor arc. (H) Collapse of the Kisseynew basin as the Sask and Superior cratons attempt to subduct below the Reindeer Zone rocks. (I) Crustal thickening and peak regional metamorphism in the THO, including formation of the structural windows into the Sask craton. (J) Post-continental collision strikeslip movement along the Needle Falls shear zone, Tabbernor fault, and Superior boundary fault leading to southeastwards extrusion of the internides of the THO.

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Fig. 3. Tectonostratigraphic columns for the supracrustal sequences on the margins of the Hearne craton (A) and the Superior craton (B). See text for details.

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stroyed when subduction zones were generated within or along the margins of the Manikewan Ocean. The age of the oldest arc-volcanic rocks in the MS-THO is ca. 1.92 Ga; thus, the first ca. 150 Ma history of the ocean is not recorded by any preserved oceanic rocks. The Wollaston domain and Superior Boundary Zone do contain supracrustal rocks that formed on the continental margins of this ocean, although these supracrustal sequences are not complete and have been metamorphosed to at least amphibolite grade and multiply deformed. The only method by which the size of the Manikewan Ocean can be determined is paleomagnetism, although the thermal and structural evolution of the rocks during the TransHudson orogeny makes interpretation of paleomagnetic data difficult. Symons (1991, 1998) has used paleomagnetic data obtained from granitoid plutons of known age, which are assumed to have acted as rigid bodies that were not tilted during deformation, to suggest that the Manikewan Ocean was about 5500 km wide at ca. 1850 Ma (Symons and Harris 2005). This means that the distance between the Superior and Hearne cratons at 1850 Ma (Fig. 2F), as suggested by the poles for the Sudbury intrusive complex and the Wathaman batholith, respectively, was about 5500 km. However, Evans (2002) suggests that there are a number of interpretations of the paleomagnetic data sets that allow for varying widths of the ocean between the Hearne and Superior cratons, although he emphasizes that there is a lack of data for the period of time from rifting of the Hearne margin and the development of the first subduction-related rocks. Overall, the paleomagnetic data have been used to imply that the Manikewan Ocean may have been Pacific-like in size. Thus, if the interpretation of the paleomagnetic data (Symons and Harris 2005) is correct, the distance between the Superior and Hearne cratons (Figs. 2C2F) was about 5000 km or more. This distance then decreased as the two cratons drifted together on oceanic crust that was being subducted prior to terminal continentcontinent collision (Figs. 2G2J).

Development of the Manikewan Ocean Ring of Fire

The oldest volcanic rocks preserved in the MS-THO are ca. 1.92 Ga arc rocks that provide a minimum age for the initiation of subduction within the Manikewan Ocean. The location of arcs with respect to each other during the first 40 Ma of subduction history and their continuity during this period (Fig. 2C) is difficult to unravel because of later structural and thermal reworking during the Trans-Hudson orogeny. However, the geochemical and isotopic compositions of volcanic rocks within the Reindeer Zone provide constraints on the location of arcs with respect to craton margins or continental fragments and show that volcanic rocks were also generated in back-arc basins and above mantle plumes. The oldest volcanic rocks in the Flin Flon belt occur in distinct structural blocks and cannot be correlated across the block-bounding faults. However, their geochemical characteristics and Nd isotopic signatures indicate that the majority of the volcanic rocks formed in oceanic arcs, back arcs, and ocean islands that developed at some distance from significant blocks of continental crust (Stern et al. 1995a, 1995b; Bailes and Galley 1999). Nevertheless, small areas of arc

crust (e.g., Mystic Lake, Snell basalt, Snow Lake) have lower Nd(t) values than coeval juvenile arc crust (Stern et al. 1992, 1995a) and inherited ca. 2.5 Ga zircons (David et al. 1996; Stern et al. 1999). These data suggest that, within the Manikewan Ocean, there were fragments of Neoarchean continental crust on which some of the arc rocks may have been constructed. Some of this Neoarchean crust is preserved as fault-bounded blocks in the Northeast Arm shear zone (David and Syme 1994), probably during the intraoceanic accretionary episodethat generated the Flin Flon Glennie complex (see later in the text). Recently, a number of workers have recognized the broad similarity between arc rocks in the Flin Flon belt and those forming in other domains within the Reindeer Zone at the same time. Maxeiner et al. (1999) suggest that the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline igneous rocks of the Hanson Lake block and southeastern Glennie domain have lithological and compositional similarities to the arc rocks of the western Flin Flon belt. The oldest rocks within the thin arcuate volcanic belts of the Glennie domain are also dominated by tholeiitic arc and ocean-floor rocks (Delaney 1992). The La Ronge domain, which will be described in more detail later in the text, is dominated by arc volcanic rocks, although Ashton (1999) emphasized that our understanding of the relationship between the Glennie domain and the southern end of the La Ronge domain (Fig. 1) is still problematic. The arc rocks within the Reindeer Zone may have all been generated above subduction zones that were linked within the Manikewan Ocean. Figure 2C provides a possible scenario, although the intense structural reworking of the oldest volcanic assemblages means that it is impossible to determine the original geographical relationship between arcs and intervening oceanfloor and ocean-island rocks. The Manikewan Ocean was probably as complex as the present-day southwestern Pacific (Hall 2002) and would have included small fragments of older continental crust, back-arc basins, oceanic plateaus, and juvenile arc crust. The Flin Flon belt, for example, has all these components, and economically important volcanogenic massive sulphide CuZn deposits, which were generated in a rifted arc environment similar to the Lau basin (Syme et al. 1999). The La Ronge and Lynn Lake volcano-plutonic belts and associated sedimentary rocks lie along the southern margin of the Hearne craton. The physical links between the La Ronge and Lynn Lake belts and the tectonic elements to the southeast (e.g., Glennie and Flin Flon domains) are poorly understood. Figure 1 shows that the La Ronge and Lynn Lake domains are separated from the Glennie, Flin Flon, and Superior Boundary Zone by metasedimentary rocks of the Kisseynew domain, whereas the nature of the contacts between the southwestern portions of the La Ronge, Rottenstone, and Glennie domains just to the north of the Phanerozoic cover has not been addressed since reconnaissance mapping by Lewry (1981a). In Figures 2C to 2H, the arc terranes along the Hearne margin are associated with different subduction zones than the arc terranes preserved in the Reindeer Zone, and thus on different plates. This allows the northward drift of the Sask craton relative to the Hearne craton along a transform or very obliquely convergent plate boundary. One of the challenges in paleotectonic reconstructions in the THO is to properly link the rocks along the Hearne margin with
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those in the centre of the orogen. Because of the difficulty in providing this linkage at the present time, the magmatic and accretionary evolution of the Hearne craton margin is discussed separately later in the text.

The Manikewan Ring of Fire: magmatism and accretion along the Hearne continental margin
The geological evolution of the southern margin of the Hearne craton has been the focus of recent mapping initiatives that tie the surface geology with the Lithoprobe seismic images. These images have convincingly shown that as a result of the final stages of continental collision the Hearne craton is now underlain by the dominantly Paleoproterozoic rocks of the internal parts of the orogen, and that the crust contains reflectors that dip towards the Hearne craton. However, for the development of the time slices (Fig. 2) it is important to review the age and character of the volcanic and sedimentary packages that were accreted to the margin of the Hearne craton, and the timing of this accretion and subsequent continentcontinent collision. The present-day extent of the Archean Hearne craton is important to determine, particularly with respect to interpretation of seismic data. Historically, the evolution of the Hearne continental margin has been linked to the development of an island-arc outboard of the margin. Ray and Wanless (1980) and Lewry et al. (1981) suggested that the arc complex developed on oceanic crust at about 1.9 Ga above a northwest-dipping slab with the supracrustal rocks of the Rottenstone domain being deposited in a back-arc environment with respect to this arc. The direction of subduction has also been suggested to have been directed away from the Hearne margin prior to the generation of the Wathaman batholith (e.g., Bickford et al. 1990; Maxeiner et al. 2001). The lack of arc volcanic rocks in the Wollaston domain was used as evidence that the Hearne craton and the overlying Paleoproterozoic sedimentary rock were on the lower plate. New interpretations of the geological evolution of the rocks accreted to the Hearne craton margin have been derived from mapping and associated geochemistry and geochronology in a superb transect across the northern margin of the Reindeer Zone preserved on Reindeer Lake (e.g., Maxeiner et al. 2001, 2005; Corrigan et al. 1999a, 1999b). Units on Reindeer Lake can be correlated along structural strike with rock units in the La Ronge, Rottenstone, Lynn Lake, and Southern Indian domains (Fig. 1A). The ca. 1.88 Ga Reed Lake volcanic assemblage, which is temporally equivalent to arc volcanic rocks in the Central Metavolcanic belt of the La Ronge domain (e.g., Van Schmus et al. 1987), consists of an arc that was constructed on the older Lawrence Point volcanic assemblage (Fig. 4). Maxeiner et al. (2005) suggested that the Lawrence Point assemblage represents a supra-subduction zone ophiolite, which may have originally been formed in a back-arc environment. These rocks are bounded to the south by an imbricate zone containing ca. 1.87 Ga turbiditic sediments (Duck Lake assemblage, Fig. 2D), and ca. 1.9 Ga ocean-floor basalts and metasedimentary rocks (Levesque Bay supracrustal assemblage), which together are considered to represent sediments deposited in a fore-arc setting with respect to the La Ronge Lynn Lake arc system and obducted

fragments of back-arc (?) ocean-floor rocks (Figs. 2C, 2D). The Clements Island arc-volcanic rocks (ca. 1.9 Ga, Corrigan et al. 2001), at the north end of Reindeer Lake, are separated in time and space from the Reed Lake volcanic assemblage. The back-arc ocean-floor rocks preserved in the Laxdal Doucet islands area (Wright 2001) may be equivalent to the ocean-floor rocks preserved in the Lawrence Point assemblage. There is enough evidence provided by internally deformed xenoliths and crosscutting relationships to show that the earliest ductile deformation preserved in the Paleoproterozoic rocks along the Hearne margin predated the intrusion of the Wathaman batholith (Maxeiner et al. 2001; Coolican 2001; Beaumont-Smith and Bohm 2002). In the Lynn Lake belt, Zwanzig et al. (1999) and Beaumont-Smith and Bohm (2002) suggest that the earliest deformation was related to accretion of arc and ocean-floor rocks at about 1.87 Ga (Fig. 4C). The age of the volcanic rocks that were accreted, either to the Hearne margin or to form an intraoceanic collage, vary from 15 1910 + 1 Ma in the Lynn Lake belt to 1878 3 Ma in the Rusty Lake belt (e.g., Baldwin et al. 1987). In addition, the geochemical signatures of the volcanic rocks in the La Ronge, Lynn Lake, Rusty Lake, and Clements Island belts indicate arc and ocean-floor environments (Watters and Pearce 1987; Syme 1985, 1990; Zwanzig et al. 1999; Maxeiner et al. 2005). It is of interest that the volcanic rocks of the northern Lynn Lake belt have Nd isotopic compositions indicative of contamination by Neoarchean crust, whereas those in the southern Lynn Lake belt have more juvenile Nd isotope compositions (Beaumont-Smith and Bohm 2002). Mafic intrusions in the Lynn Lake belt also yield Nd(t) values ranging from 0.6 to +4.0 (Hegner et al. 1989), which suggests that Lynn Lake crust may be complicated and include fragments of older, possibly Archean crust. In contrast, the variation in Nd isotopic compositions of volcanic and plutonic rocks in the La Ronge domain is more restrictive (+2.0 to +4.7; Chauvel et al. 1987; Thom et al. 1990, Hegner et al. 1989; Kyser and Stauffer 1995), which lends support to its origin as an oceanic island-arc system (Fig. 2C). Overall, the variety of tectonic environments in which volcanic rocks formed along the Hearne margin and the range in age is as diverse as seen in the Flin Flon belt, and thus the geometry of plate boundaries along the margin was probably very complicated. In addition, the variations observed in the Nd isotopic composition of volcanic rocks in the Lynn Lake and La Ronge belts suggest that there may have been fragments of older crust outboard of the Hearne craton in the Manikewan Ocean with which the magmas may have interacted. Sedimentary rocks preserved along the margin can yield information on the accretionary history. Detrital zircons or their Nd isotopic composition represent proxies of the source of clastic material in the sedimentary rocks, and thus can record the juxtaposition of distinct tectonic units. For example, the Archean rocks of the Hearne craton are unconformably overlain by sedimentary rocks of the Wollaston domain, all of which were severely deformed and metamorphosed during the Trans-Hudson orogeny (Lewry and Sibbald 1980). The basal sedimentary units (Needle Falls Group) have been described above and record the rifting of the Hearne margin. Overlying these rocks is the Wollaston Group (Fig. 3), which represents the thickest preserved part of the section. Tran et
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Fig. 4. Schematic cross-sections showing the timing of magmatism, sedimentation, and accretion along the margin of the Hearne craton culminating in underthrusting by the Sask craton. Slab delamination in D and G may have assisted in the generation of the voluminous Wathaman batholith at ca. 1860 Ma and the small volume potassic and alkalic intrusive rocks in the northern MS-THO at ca. 1830 Ma. Based on Tran (2001), Maxeiner et al. (2001), and Hollings and Ansdell (2002). See text for more details.

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al. (2003) and Tran (2001) obtained Nd isotope data from whole rocks and sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) UPb geochronological data from detrital zircons from selected locations within the Wollaston Group stratigraphy. Both sets of data show that the clastic material in these sedimentary rocks was not derived solely from the Archean rocks of the adjacent Hearne craton. Yeo and Savage (1999) suggested that the Paleoproterozoic components of the sediment could have been provided by rivers draining the Taltson orogen to the west and flowing over the intervening Archean Rae and Hearne cratons. However, the SHRIMP UPb data (Tran 2001) convincingly supports derivation of Paleoproterozoic detritus from rocks similar in age (1.921.88 Ga) to the terranes being accreted to the margin of the Hearne, and not to the older Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Taltson orogen. Tran (2001) interpreted the Wollaston Group sediments to have been deposited initially in a back-arc basin behind a continental magmatic arc, parts of which may be preserved within the supracrustals of the Rottenstone domain (Figs. 4B, 4C). There is a possibility that the Clements Island arc volcanic rocks may have been part of this arc. Sedimentation in the Wollaston domain ceased prior to the intrusion of the Wathaman batholith, a continental margin batholith (Lewry et al. 1981), which was emplaced between ca. 1865 Ma and 1850 Ma (Meyer et al. 1992) and has typically been related to the accretion of the La Ronge arc to the margin of the Hearne craton. The sedimentary rocks were then incorporated into a westward-verging fold and thrust belt (Tran 2001). The overall development of the Wollaston Group in a back-arc foreland setting supports the general model suggested by Ray and Wanless (1980) and Lewry and Collerson (1990). Other sedimentary sequences related to the accretionary history of the Hearne margin include the turbiditic sediments of the Milton Island assemblage (Corrigan et al. 1998). These rocks contain detrital zircons derived from the Hearne craton and adjacent emerging volcano-plutonic terranes (Fig. 2E; Ansdell et al. 1999b), and were thus deposited in a sedimentary basin between the two. The clastic rocks of the Park Island assemblage, which overlie the Milton Island assemblage, are interpreted to have been deposited in a foreland basin with local derivation of material from Paleoproterozoic crust that was thickened during collisions along the Hearne margin (Corrigan et al. 1998). Corrigan et al. (1998, 1999a) indicated that the Wathaman batholith and smaller intrusive bodies of the same age and composition intrude Archean metamorphic rocks of the Peter Lake domain to the north, and older Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Rottenstone and La Ronge domains to the south. This supports the interpretation that the Wathaman batholith stitches the La Ronge arc to the margin of the Hearne craton (Fig. 4D). The interpretation of paleomagnetic data by Symons (1991) and Symons and Harris (2005) conflicts with this geological observation, as they suggest that there was still a significant ocean basin between the La Ronge arc and the Hearne margin at the time of Wathaman batholith formation. The process leading to magma production is less clear, but may have resulted from breakoff of a subducted slab associated with an earlier accretionary event which allowed hot asthenosphere to initiate significant partial melting of hydrated mantle over an extensive area. The volume of magma produced also was

dependant on the degree of obliquity of subduction with a greater volume being generated on the broadly eastwestoriented margin of the Hearne craton as a result of near perpendicular plate movement as opposed to highly oblique relative movement further to the southwest. Historically, the eastern edge of the Hearne craton in Saskatchewan has been correlated with the eastern margin of the Wollaston domain and the Peter Lake domain, which is marked by the presence of late tectonic shear zones, such as the Needle Falls shear zone (Stauffer and Lewry 1993). The rocks to the east and south of the Wathaman batholith were all considered to be Paleoproterozoic in age, until the discovery of ca. 2.5 Ga augen gneiss in the core of a structural dome in the southern Rottenstone domain (Fig. 1A; Bickford et al. 2001). The best interpretation of this inlier is that it is a structural window into the Hearne basement below the veneer of supracrustal rocks that were originally deposited on the Hearne craton. Thus, the Wathaman batholith is an intrusion that was emplaced into complex crust consisting of Archean and Neoarchean rocks of the Hearne craton, and Paleoproterozoic rocks that had already been accreted to the margin (Fig. 2F). The variation in initial Nd(t) values from the Wathaman batholith (0.3 to 8.0; Chauvel et al. 1987; Kyser and Stauffer 1992; MacHattie et al. 2001) emphasize the complexity of both the magma source and the crust into which it was emplaced. At this point, the southern margin of Archean Hearne crust in Manitoba is difficult to determine, but may be significantly further south than the northern edge of the Wathaman batholith. Nd isotope mapping may be very useful to define better the buried extent of older Archean crust. On Reindeer Lake, for example, the Nd isotopic composition of Wathaman-age plutons indicates significantly less involvement of older crust from north to south (MacHattie et al. 2001).

The Flin Flon Glennie complex

The Flin Flon Glennie complex (Ashton 1999) represents a collage of volcanic, intrusive, and sedimentary rocks that were amalgamated to form a crustal entity that had a significant effect on the structural development of the internides of the MS-THO (Fig. 1A). The original subdivisions within the Reindeer Zone included the volcano-plutonic Flin Flon, Hanson Lake, and Glennie domains, and the sedimentary rock-dominated Kisseynew domain, and were based on variations in lithology and structural style (Macdonald and Broughton 1980). These two-dimensional subdivisions were used to imply that each of the domains had a distinct geological history, even though their boundaries were poorly delineated and that they were juxtaposed during the latest stages of continental collision. Lewry et al. (1990) made an attempt to redefine domains by using structural data to constrain the three-dimensional relationships within the internides of the MS-THO and provided the first suggestion that the Flin Flon, Hanson Lake, and Glennie domains may have been part of the same structural entity. They also inferred that the internides of the MS-THO were allochthonous with respect to the structurally underlying rocks of the Sask craton, which are described later in the text, and this relationship has been supported by seismic reflection lines (Lucas et al. 1993). The Flin Flon belt contains assemblages of rocks that
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developed in distinct tectonic settings in a largely oceanic environment as part of a complex Manikewan Ring of Fire and that are juxtaposed along faults. UPb zircon ages from granitoid intrusions, which cut the earliest shear zone fabrics in the Mystic Lake, MeridianWest Arm, and Elbow Lake shear zones, indicate that these volcanic assemblages were juxtaposed at about 1.87 Ga (Figs. 2C, 2D; Lucas et al. 1996; Ansdell and Ryan 1997). The chemical composition of granitoid intrusions and volcanic rocks that range in age from 1.861.83 Ga indicate that subduction continued beneath this accretionary complex (Figs. 2E2G; Whalen et al. 1999; Ansdell et al. 1999a; Ansdell and Connors 1995). In addition, the intraoceanic accretionary complex emerged above sea level, as highlighted by the development of a paleoweathering profile (Holland et al. 1989; Pan and Stauffer 2000), and the deposition of fluvialalluvial sedimentary rocks at ca. 1.84 1.83 Ga that contained clastic material derived locally from erosion of successor arc rocks that must have been rapidly exhumed (Figs. 2G, 2H; Stauffer 1990; Ansdell 1993; Ansdell et al. 1992, 1999a). Even though the timing of accretion between distinct faultbounded assemblages is only known in the Flin Flon belt, the geological evolution of the Glennie domain (Delaney 1992) is remarkably similar. In particular, the age of volcanic and plutonic rocks and the timing of fluvialalluvial sedimentation in the Glennie domain (McNicoll et al. 1992) are similar to the Flin Flon belt. This lends credence to the suggestion that volcanic terranes may be continuous between the Flin Flon and Glennie domains, and that both domains were thickened and emergent at the same time.

The Sask craton

A major achievement of the THOT has been the identification of seismically distinct crust that can be traced to surface in two areas in the Glennie and Flin Flon domains (Lucas et al. 1993). Within these areas (Hunter Bay, Istwatikan, and Nistowiak gneiss domes in the Glennie domain and the Pelican window in the Flin Flon domain) are exposures of Archean rocks (Fig. 1A) that are separated from the structurally overlying Paleoproterozoic rocks by high-strain zones (Chiarenzelli 1989; Ashton et al. 1999). The seismic data shows that the Archean rocks are isolated from the Archean rocks of the Hearne and Superior provinces, and extend into the subsurface as a crustal-scale anticlinorium. These Archean rocks form part of the Sask craton (Ansdell et al. 1995), which now represents an important component in the development of the MS-THO, as initially predicted by Lewry (1981b) and Lewry et al. (1990). The presence of Archean rocks in the Pelican window was initially identified by Bell and Macdonald (1982), and more recently further UPb geochronology has shown that the Pelican window and the areas in the Glennie domain have a distinct Archean and earliest Paleoproterozoic history (Chiarenzelli et al. 1998; Ashton et al. 1999; Rayner et al. 2005). The overall geometry and extent of the Sask craton has been estimated from Lithoprobe and COCORP (Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling) seismic sections (Lucas et al. 1993; Baird et al. 1996; Hajnal et al. 2005), Nd and Pb isotope analyses of post-collisional pegmatites in the exposed MS-THO (Bickford et al. 2005; Ansdell and Stern 1997;

Prokopiuk and Ansdell 2000), and Precambrian rocks intersected in drill holes through the Phanerozoic cover to the south (Collerson et al. 1988). Together, these methods show that the Sask craton extends over 1000 km southwards under the Phanerozoic cover and tapers northwards towards the northern end of the Glennie domain. In fact, it appears as though the volume of juvenile Paleoproterozoic crust below the Phanerozoic cover is insignificant (Collerson et al. 1988). In addition, the presence of diamondiferous kimberlites at Fort la Corne indicates that the Sask craton has a significant lithospheric root. The Sask craton exposed in the structural windows in the Glennie domain consists mainly of 2.42.5 Ga granitic to ferrodioritic orthogneisses, which are separated from Paleoproterozoic rocks by the mylonitic Nistowiak Thrust (Chiarenzelli et al. 1998; Rayner et al. 2005). A variety of rocks have been mylonitized including Archean and Paleoproterozoic granitoid and mafic rocks, and metasedimentary rocks that contain 2.82.95 Ga detritus and that may have been deposited on the margin of the Sask craton. The Pelican window consists of ca. 2.45 Ga orthopyroxene-bearing granitoid and mafic rocks, which intrude migmatitic paragneisses and leucocratic orthogneisses that are older than 2.96 Ga (Ashton et al. 1999; Rayner et al. 2005). The age and character of the rocks exposed in the structural windows and the structural character and history of the bounding Nistowiak and Pelican thrusts are remarkably similar; this together with the seismic data convincingly support the correlation between these two mylonitic high-strain zones and thus the suggestion that the Archean rocks represent exposures of the same Archean block. The small areal extent of the exposed Sask craton has made it difficult to determine the heritage of the craton. However, the age of igneous and metamorphic events in the Sask craton do not correlate well with the age of rocks exposed in the Hearne and Superior cratons (Ansdell et al. 2005). Bickford et al. (2005) suggest that the Pb isotopic composition of Sask craton rocks is more similar to parts of the Wyoming craton. Thus, the Sask craton may represent a fragment of the Wyoming craton that rifted and migrated northwards to its present position. Unfortunately, no paleomagnetic data support this speculation. In addition, some of the Neoarchean fragments preserved in the Flin Flon belt may actually be fragments of the Sask craton.

Continental collisions: the tale of three cratons

The geometrical relationships observed today and imaged by Lithoprobe seismic lines within the MS-THO are essentially a result of continental collisions that occurred in the Paleoproterozoic and which led to the final closure of the Manikewan Ocean. The structural complexity of the region results from the diachronous collision between three Archean cratons, namely the Hearne, Sask, and Superior cratons. These cratons also preserve significant, albeit variably developed, Paleoproterozoic structural and thermal events. SuperiorReindeer zone interaction The orientation of seismic reflectors in the vicinity of the Superior Boundary Zone suggests that the rocks of the Reindeer Zone underlie the margin of the Superior craton
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Fig. 5. Schematic cross-section across the Superior Boundary Zone. The section is perpendicular to the overall motion of the Sask craton and the Superior craton, so all convergent plate boundaries are likely oblique. Between 1865 and 1840 Ma, the Flin Flon Glennie complex collides with the Superior craton, whereas in F the Superior boundary fault is a sinistral strikeslip fault with the Superior craton moving northwards with respect to the Reindeer Zone. See text for details.

(White et al. 1999, 2002), which was a surprise when considering that the Superior craton had been interpreted to have formed the lower plate during collision with the Reindeer Zone, based on the lack of arc rocks on the craton (Lewry 1981b; Green et al. 1985a; Bleeker 1990). However, the apparent conflict between the dip of seismic reflectors and the evidence for the polarity of subduction has now been reconciled by comparing the seismic signature exhibited along line 3B with those from lines 1 and 2 (White et al. 2002). The northernmost seismic lines (1 and 2) preserve predominantly east-dipping structures, resulting from intensive reorientation of earlier west-dipping structures in a retroshear zone during long-lasting collision. The preservation of low-

grade metamorphic rocks and west-dipping structures in the vicinity of line 3B and intensely deformed and high-grade metamorphic rocks in the Thompson area is related to longer lasting and greater convergence in the vicinity of the Thompson promontory as opposed to the flanking reentrants (White et al. 2002). White et al. (2002) convincingly show that the low metamorphic grade supracrustal rocks of the Superior Boundary Zone, which are buried below the Phanerozoic, are preserved in an east-verging fold and thrust belt. Interaction between the Superior craton and rocks of the Reindeer Zone may have started as early as ca. 1.89 Ga (Fig. 2D), as mafic dykes, thought to be similar to the Molson dykes (1883 Ma; Heaman et al. 1986), crosscut the earliest
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Fig. 6. Schematic cross-sections showing the interaction between the Superior and Hearne cratons across the Thompson promontory of the Superior Boundary Zone. See text for details.

deformation event (Figs. 5B, 5C). White et al. (1999) emphasized that the character of the terrane that collided with the Superior craton at this time is not known, as the rocks to the west of the Superior Boundary Zone are buried by younger sedimentary rocks of the Reindeer Zone and the colliding terrane may also have rifted away during the eruption of 1864 Ma komatiites (Fig. 5D; Hulbert et al. 1994), which have been intersected below the Phanerozoic cover. These komatiites are incorporated in the thrust slices, and so the best maximum age estimate for the start of collision with the Superior craton is 1864 Ma. The minimum age for the start of a close spatial association between the Superior craton and the Reindeer Zone is probably ca. 1.84 Ga (Fig. 5E), based on the age of granitoid and mafic rocks (e.g., Bleeker et al. 1995) that were emplaced in both tectonic elements and the assumed age of the terrestrial Grass River Group (Zwanzig 1999). During collision, the Superior craton continued to march northwards as a result of a convergent plate boundary (Figs. 2F2I; Figs. 6B, 6C) above which some of the arc magmatic rocks preserved within the eastern Reindeer Zone may have been generated (e.g., White et al. 1999). The northeastern portion of the Reindeer Zone is poorly understood, although Archean crust is more extensive than originally appreciated (Zwanzig and Bohm 2002). The Superior craton is now thought to extend as far northwest as the Owl River shear zone and includes Mesoarchean crust that may have been accreted to the Superior craton during

the Trans-Hudson orogeny (Fig. 6B; Bohm et al. 2000). Thus, many of the granitoid gneisses may be Archean in age or melts originally generated in the Paleoproterozoic that were extensively contaminated by Archean crust. Nevertheless, it is likely that Superior craton crust may have significantly underthrust the southern margin of the Hearne craton (Figs. 6C, 6D). The northward movement of the Superior craton during the final stages of continental collision generated sinistral and dextral strikeslip faulting on the western and eastern sides of the Thompson promontory, respectively, and likely resulted in strikeslip displacement along the Owl River shear zone (e.g., Gibb 1975). Deformational features interpreted to be related to collision with the Superior were synchronous with peak metamorphism at ca. 1.81 Ga in the eastern Reindeer Zone, but postdate peak metamorphism farther to the west (e.g., Connors et al. 1999). The northeastsouthwest-trending regional-scale folds in the Reindeer Zone were generated by the collision with the Superior craton and led to folding of earlier structures, such as the high-strain zones separating Paleoproterozoic rocks from the Sask craton (Figs. 2I, 2J; e.g., Lewry et al. 1990; Ashton et al. 1999). Collisions in the Reindeer Zone (Flin Flon Glennie complex Sask craton) The Kisseynew domain (Fig. 1A) consists of metamorphosed turbiditic sedimentary rocks that were deposited in a
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marine basin at broadly the same time (ca. 1850 Ma) as fluvial-alluvial sediments were being deposited on the Flin Flon Glennie complex (Fig. 2F; Zwanzig 1990; Ansdell and Norman 1995; Ansdell et al. 1995; Machado et al. 1999). However, turbiditic material (e.g., Levesque Bay assemblage) derived from adjacent arcs was being deposited in basins within the Manikewan Ocean much earlier than this and are now structurally interleaved with the rocks of the Kisseynew domain. The Kisseynew basin, sensu stricto, is interpreted to have developed after the Flin Flon Glennie complex had collided with the southern margin of the La Ronge Lynn Lake belts at ca. 1850 Ma (Fig. 4F; Ansdell et al. 1995; White et al. 2000). Obducted remnants of ocean-floor rocks are preserved in the Granville Lake structural zone. The subduction zone marking the northern boundary of the Sask plate retreated, leading to extension of the Flin Flon Glennie complex in the upper plate and development of a basin which collected detritus from adjacent arc terranes (Figs. 4E, 4F). The basin was rapidly thickened and collapsed as the Sask craton started to underthrust the Flin Flon Glennie complex (Fig. 4G). Arc plutons, formed between 1840 Ma and 1830 Ma, crosscut the Kisseynew domain turbidites and were generated by broadly north-dipping subduction either of the Sask plate (Fig. 4G; Hollings and Ansdell 2002) or the Superior plate (Fig. 6C; White et al. 2000) underneath the Flin Flon Glennie complex and the Hearne margin. Ashton et al. (1999) suggest that collision between the Sask craton and the Flin Flon Glennie complex was initiated before 1826 Ma (Fig. 2H), the age of a diorite dyke that cuts the Pelican Thrust. The youngest successor arc magmatic rocks in the Flin Flon Glennie complex are about 1830 Ga (Ansdell et al. 1999a; Hollings and Ansdell 2002) and may document the ultimate clogging of a subduction zone as a result of underthrusting by the Sask craton. However, the presence of Neoarchean detrital zircons in ca. 1880 Ma turbidites (Ansdell and Stern 1997) and ca. 1845 Ma fluvial-alluvial sedimentary rocks (Ansdell 1993) in the Flin Flon belt may imply that Sask craton crust was attempting to subduct and thus collide with the margin of the Flin Flon Glennie complex much earlier than envisaged. Also, the presence of Neoarchean cores in zircons from Rottenstone domain granitoids (Clarke et al. 2005) may also suggest that material derived from the Sask craton was available in the magma source along the western margin of the THO. However, the Neoarchean zircons may also have been derived from fragments of Sask craton crust that were swimming in the Manikewan Ocean. In general, the older igneous rocks of the Flin Flon Glennie complex have isotopic signatures which indicate that Archean crust was not involved in their development, and thus there was likely a significant distance between these terranes and the nearest Archean blocks. Chiarenzelli et al. (1998) and Ashton et al. (1999, 2005) provide geological, structural, and geochronological evidence that the Sask craton was severely deformed and metamorphosed during the Trans-Hudson orogeny. The boundary between the Sask craton and the Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Flin Flon Glennie complex is a high-strain zone (e.g., Ashton et al. 2005), emphasizing that they are allochthonous with respect to each other. The Sask craton migrated northwards, underthrusting the younger rocks, and extended at least as far north as the southern end of Reindeer Lake

(Figs. 2G2J; Figs. 4G, 4H). The extent of the Sask craton is, however, difficult to determine from seismic data, but may lie below a significant portion of the Reindeer Zone (Hajnal et al. 2005). The western and eastern boundaries of the Sask plate are considered to be transform boundaries, or at least highly oblique, to allow the northward movement of the Sask plate with respect to the Hearne plate and the northward movement of the Superior plate with respect to the Sask plate (Fig. 2). The North American Central Plains conductivity anomaly (Camfield and Gough 1977), the origin of which is still controversial, may be the geophysical signature of the western margin of the Sask plate (e.g., Jones et al. 2005). HearneRae hinterland The Hearne and Rae cratons in the western Churchill Province (Fig. 1B) were juxtaposed during the Archean (Hanmer et al. 1994), but were extensively reworked during the Paleoproterozoic (e.g., Sandeman 2001). Seismic profiles across the western margin of the Hearne domain as part of the Alberta Basement Lithoprobe record east-dipping reflectivity, whereas those recorded by Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect exhibit west-dipping structures. The geometry of these structures indicates that the Hearne domain formed the upper plate of two collision zones with opposing vergence, namely the TaltsonAlberta orogen and the THO. The westdipping reflectors along the eastern Hearne margin may be consistent with long-lived westerly-dipping subduction (Figs. 2, 4). The evidence in the crust for southeasterly directed subduction has thus been destroyed, if it ever existed. The underplating of young oceanic crust from the west and continental crust from the east would have provided the drive for thickening and uplift, with the Hearne domain considered to be a collisional plateau (Ross et al. 2000). There were numerous geological consequences of these collisions. Paleoproterozoic granulite-grade metamorphism (Crocker et al. 1993) indicates significant exhumation. Ross et al. (2000) suggest that extensional structures are lacking in the southern Hearne Province, although the development of the Baker Lake basin, which is broadly synchronous with collisions along the southern Hearne domain (Rainbird et al. 2002), and the eruption and intrusion of the Christopher Island Formation rocks (Cousens et al. 2001) may suggest otherwise. In addition, the basement rocks of the Hearne domain were incorporated into thick-skinned thrust sheets, and were involved in crustal-scale buckling (Tran 2001; Aspler et al. 2002). Ross et al. (2000) suggested that part of the Hearne lithospheric mantle was removed. This led to an influx of asthenosphere which likely underwent decompression melting, and the resulting mantle melts infiltrated and metasomatized the remaining lithospheric mantle, sparking the production of potassic magmas and lower crustal melts (Cousens et al. 2001; Peterson et al. 2002). The generation of these magmas was initiated at about 1830 Ma and is temporally related to the last vestiges of subduction-related magmatism in the MSTHO (Figs. 2H, 4G, 6C). By this time, subduction of thick continental crust (Sask and (or) Superior cratons) was being initiated, albeit unsuccessfully, below the Hearne margin. The denser leading edges of these plates, consisting of eclogitized oceanic crust, probably broke off leading to asthenospheric upwelling and melting of metasomatized litho 2005 NRC Canada

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spheric mantle and lower crust. It is interesting to note that the youngest intrusive rocks along the Hearne margin are alkalic, potassic, and carbonatitic (e.g., Halden and Fryer 1999; Mumin 2002) and may have been generated by the process described above. The concentration of Paleoproterozoic deformation into discrete zones within the Hearne craton, the development of sedimentary basins, and the generation of alkalic and potassic magmatism would suggest that the crust north of the Reindeer Zone is broadly comparable to the present-day Tibetan plateau and Tien Shan in Asia. The internides of the THO would thus represent the eroded remnants of a Himalayan-type continentcontinent collision zone, an idea first suggested by Dewey and Burke (1973). Post-collision On a global scale, the MS-THO represents a small section of the Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts that welded the continents of Laurentia and Baltica, and which may have formed parts of a significant (super?)continent that was probably extant until about 1.27 Ga (Columbia; Rogers and Santosh 2002; Zhao et al. 2002). The extension of the THO into Scandinavia is well accepted, although the extension southwards is more difficult to unravel as the rocks are overlain by Phanerozoic sedimentary basins. The Great Falls Tectonic Zone, which preserves Archean and juvenile Paleoproterozoic rocks that were overprinted by ca. 1820 Ma metamorphism and deformation as a result of collision between the Wyoming craton and the Medicine Hat block (Mueller et al. 2002; Roberts et al. 2002), may have linked with the southern part of the MS-THO. Similar magmatic and metamorphic ages have also led to the suggestion that the Halls Creek orogen in northern Australia may represent a continuation of the MS-THO by way of the Great Falls Tectonic Zone (Tyler et al. 2002). Hill and Bickford (2001) also suggest that the THO and similar age rocks of the Penokean orogeny may extend much further southwestwards into Colorado and Arizona. However, since the final stages of continental collision ca. 1.8 Ga, the MS-THO has remained within the internal parts of North America. Nevertheless, many structures have been reactivated episodically during the development of the intracratonic Athabasca basin, the Williston basin, and the Western Canada sedimentary basin (e.g., Ramaekers and Catuneanu 2002; Elliott 1996) with concomitant movement of hydrothermal fluids and control of sedimentary depocentres. In addition, localized intraplate magmatic activity has occurred, namely the intrusion of MacKenzie dykes and sills at 1.27 Ga, which may have helped drive fluid flow within the uraniumrich Athabasca basin, and by the emplacement and eruption of diamondiferous kimberlites during the Cretaceous.

Reviews by Ken Ashton, Pat Bickford, Ken Collerson, and Ron Clowes are greatly appreciated.

References
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Acknowledgments
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