Strouth 1

Doug Strouth Professor Brister Great Thinkers: Thomas Kuhn 24 May 2012 Plate Tectonics: !atural "#olution of Geological Theory

$stract: Through an e%amination of the historical &ers&ecti#e of the 'e#elo&ment of the theory of continental 'rift
an' its acce&tance in the geological community( ) ha#e looke' for e#i'ence of a Kuhnian re#olution an' foun' #ery little* By com&aring the criteria +hich Kuhn thinks are necessary for scientific re#olutions +ith the e#ents +hich le' to &late tectonics $ecoming the recogni,e' &ara'igm in geology( ) -u'ge that the shift from many com&eting geological theories to a glo$al 'rift theory 'i' not constitute a Kuhnian re#olution( an' to call it such is a misa&&lication of Kuhn.s o+n criteria for scientific re#olutions*

)n his groun'$reaking +ork The Structure of Scientific /e#olutions 0SS/1( Thomas Kuhn &ro&ose' that the &rogression of scientific stu'y has $een intermittently su$-ecte' to re#olutionary shifts in the foun'ing &remises an' &ractices of the 'isci&line2 a ne+ school of thinking re&laces the ol'er metho's of the &ast* Kuhn e%amine' se#eral historical case stu'ies +here he $elie#e' the &ara'igm of the 'isci&line change'* 3o+e#er( since the release of SS/( many ha#e challenge' the Kuhnian account of scientific &rogression( +hether all scientific 'isci&lines un'ergo 'ramatic re#olutions( an' +hether Kuhn merely cite' the cases +hich fit his mo'el* n e%amination of the historical 'e#elo&ment of the theory of continental 'rift an' its refine' counter&art the theory of &late tectonics re#eals no such Kuhnian re#olution* 4sing Kuhn.s o+n +ork an' the criteria for the 'e#elo&ment of re#olutions( outline' in SS/( it can $e sho+n that at the #ery least this &articular theory 'i' not constitute a Kuhnian scientific re#olution( e#en though it re#olutioni,e' the fiel' of geology an' the un'erstan'ing of &lanet "arth( an' at the most( Kuhn.s theory fits +ith #ery selecti#e scientific fiel's such as those he outline' in his +ork*

Strouth 2
lfre' 5egener 'i' not &ro&ose the theory of continental 'rift until 1612( an' the stu'y of geology $efore this +as a mess of #arying theories* 7Prior to 5egener( geology +as characteri,e' $y theoretical &luralism: the e%istence of a num$er of geo&hysical theories an' theories of the earth.s history +hich +ere mutually incom&ati$le8 09e Gran' 161* The most im&ortant of these theories +ere :&ermanentism. an' :contractionism.* Permanentism $elie#e' that the &rimary aim of geology +as to 'escri$e the "arth an' create ma&s an' e%aminations of the "arth at the current &erio'2 un'er &ermanentism there +as not a search for the causes of geological &henomena* The &ermanentists also hel' the #ie+ that the continents +ere &ermanent an' ha' al+ays e%iste' in a form similar to the &resent( hence the name* Many of them +ere also ctualists( saying that the &hysical forces that change the +orl' in the &resent +ere near i'entical to those that ha' +orke' on the "arth.s surface in the &ast 09e Gran' 201* This theory encountere' &ro$lems +hen confronte' $y fin'ings in the fiel's of &alaeo$iogeogra&hy an' $iogeogra&hy that attem&te' to account for the s&rea' of fossils an' li#ing s&ecies 09e Gran' 221* The fossil recor's an' similarities $et+een s&ecies on 'ifferent continents 'i' not match +ith the geological theory of &ermanentism $ecause of its ill fit +ith e#olutionary 'ata* The o&&osing #ie+&oint( contractionism stemme' largely from the 'e$ate o#er mountain formation* n ustrian name' "'uar' Suess in the late 1;00s &u$lishe' a $ook calle' The <ace of the "arth +here he sai' that mountains resulte' from the cooling an' contracting of the continents after the initial formation of the "arth* These contractions he claime' resulte' in the formation of oceanic $asins an' mountains* lthough &ro&onents of contractionism in "uro&e acce&te' the +hole theory( merican

su&&orters only cre'ite' the account of mountain formation( the oceanic $asins they $elie#e' ha' forme' much earlier in the "arth.s 'e#elo&ment* contractionism +as refute' in the early 1600s( aroun' the time 5egener +as first &ro&osing his theory( $y the 'isco#ery of ra'ioacti#e heat in the "arth.s crust in 160= an' the 'isco#ery that the "arth might not $e cooling $ut &erha&s e#en heating u& 0Ste+art 2>1* These 'isco#eries +ere a 'irect refutation of the fun'amental forces that contractionists $elie#e' 'ro#e the 'e#elo&ment of the &lanet*

Strouth 3
The relation of this 'e$ate $et+een contractionism an' &ermanentism $ecomes e#i'ent +hen looking at Kuhn.s analy,ation of a scientific community $efore the acce&tance of its first &ara'igm* Kuhn 'i' not account for a scientific re#olution gro+ing out of a fiel' +ith many com&eting theories( +hich +ere not incommensura$le( $ut this is e%actly ho+ geology looke' $efore( an' most nota$ly( after 5egener &ro&ose' his theory* ?ommensura$ility +as Kuhn.s term for ho+ +ell the terms an' &rinci&les of one scientific &ara'igm +ere un'erstan'a$le un'er the ne+ &ara'igm* ?once&ts that +ere incommensura$le +ere not -ust $eyon' the un'erstan'ing of scientist in the other &ara'igm $ut they ten' to talk &ast each other or rely on foun'ing &rinci&les that ne+ &ara'igm scientists faile' or refuse' to ackno+le'ge* <rom the $eginning( the historical gro+th of continental 'rift theory a&&ears to 'iffer from +hat Kuhn 'escri$e' as a tra'itional re#olution* Both contractionism an' &ermanentism ha' o#erla&&ing analysis of the same o$ser#ations* Thus( $y 'efinition( these t+o theories +ere not incommensura$le* They share' 'efinitions an' the mental frame+ork that 'ictate' the a&&lication of their share' terminology( $oth fun'amental areas that much 'iffer to $e calle' incommensura$le* Kuhn.s 'escri&tion of the goals of &re@&ara'igmatic fiel's also 'iffers from the reality in geology &rior to 5egener.s &ro&osal* Kuhn +rites( 7The &re@&ara'igm &erio'( in &articular( is regularly marke' $y freAuent an' 'ee& 'e$ates o#er legitimate metho's( &ro$lems( an' stan'ar's of solution8 0Kuhn 4;1* 3o+e#er( this +as not true of geology $efore 5egener* )t +as essentially &re@&ara'igmatic $ecause of its multi&licity of theories( yet this 'i' not interru&t the 'aily +ork of geologists( many of +ho +ere not in#ol#e' in the 'e$ate o#er theories* historical account re#eals( 7<e+ geologists acti#ely engage' in 'is&utes o#er glo$al

theories***many regar'e' them as largely irrele#ant to their 'aily +ork8 09e Gran' 161* 5hen +e s&eak of &ara'igms in terms of the account of &late tectonics +e see that the 'isci&line +as s&lit se#eral 'ifferent +ays $efore an' after continental 'rift entere' the scientific arena* Bthers augmente' 5egener.s theory( an' there +as com&etition among #arying #ersions of 'rift theory as time +ent on* "#en +hen com&aring this history to a $roa'er 'efinition of incommensura$ility( like <eyera$en'.s( it is a &oor fit* Many of the theories talke' &ast each other an' cannot $e calle' incommensura$le $ecause they +ere circular or 'i' not seem to com&are e%actly* <eyera$en'.s theory of incommensura$ility 'ealt +ith com&aring

Strouth 4
com&rehensi#e theories( +hich 5egener.s +as $ut his com&etitors +ere not 03oyningen@3uene 10C1* The theories of continental 'rift an' &late tectonics are not incommensura$le +ith each other( nor +ere they incommensura$le +ith the theories that came $efore them $ecause the 'e#elo&ment of tectonic theory gre+ naturally out of continental 'rift an' e%&laine' many of the inconsistencies in com&eting theories* s contractionism +as 'efeate'( &ermanentists $ecame engrosse' +ith 'escri$ing strata or analy,ing current geogra&hical 'ata rather than looking for geological causes for the "arth.s current state* !e+ 'isci&lines like &alaeo$iogeogra&hy an' other s&ecialist stu'ies cro&&e' u& from the anomalies &ermanentism an' contractionism coul' not account for* !e+ theories +ere &ut for+ar'( amongst them refine' theories of continental 'rift 0Ste+art 2;1* The 'ifferences that se&arate' contractionists an' &ermanentists +ent 'ee&er than -ust theoretical 'escri&tion( the 'ifference +as geogra&hical as +ell2 as geology entere' into the t+entieth century "uro&eans an' merican.s hel' conflicting #ie+s* "uro&eans ha#ing gro+n to+ar' the contractionist theory sa+ the "arth as a shifting chaotic mass* mericans leane' to+ar' &ermanentism an' a sta$le 0Breskes 201* This 'istinction +ent on to affect the acce&tance of 5egener.s theory an' the #ersions of continental 'rift theory that +oul' come* )n the +ake of the 'e$ate o#er a contracting "arth( in "uro&e( theories 'e#elo&e' to account for the formation of mountain ranges an' to e%&lain other geological &henomena( such as the forces $ehin' &eculiar strata 'e#elo&ment* )n merica the focus +as more e#i'ence $ase' an' follo+e' the &ermanentist tra'ition* The ma-or e#ent of the century( in terms of the 'e#elo&ment of geology( ho+e#er +as a$out to come a$out* 7)n 1612( a German meteorologist an' geo&hysicist( lfre' 5egener &ro&ose' that the continents of the earth +ere mo$ile8 0Breskes 61* 3e &u$lishe' a $ook calle'( The Brigins of ?ontinents an' Bceans( +here he 're+ on fossil recor's an' the &hysical fitting of continental shel#es to form a su&er continent( that he theori,e' $roke a&art o#er time* <our e'itions of his $ook came out from 161D to 1626 0Breskes DD1* 5egener.s +ork hel&e' to &ut the final nails in the coffin of contractionism* 5egener( ha#ing come from a $ackgroun' in meteorology ha' note' the measura$le tem&erature shifts in fossil recor's aroun' the +orl'( an' +ith the refutation of secular cooling an' contractionism( 5egener &ro&ose' continental 'rift +as the cause of these tem&erature 'ifferences* Buil'ing u&on these tren's(

Strouth 5
5egener e%&an'e' his inter&retation of 'ata sets to allo+ for &re'ictions of +hen 'rift e#ents ha' occurre'* These +ere $ase' on the age of fossils an' the surroun'ing rock ty&es an' ho+ they matche' +ith his ma& of a su&er continent 0Breskes D;@D61* s geological science mo#e' into the t+entieth century the fiel' +as in 'isarray from the anomalies it ha' encountere'* )n his analysis( Kuhn i'entifies anomalies as the cause of crises in a &re@ re#olutionary science* There +ere anomalies that contri$ute' to the 'e#elo&ment of &late tectonics an' 'rift theory( $ut they +ere not anomalies in the current &ara'igm( $ut in general they +ere une%&laine' $ecause geology lacke' a 'escri&tion of the forces that +oul' ha#e cause' them* "#i'ence like the 'isco#ery of isostasy( an' anomalies like ra'ioacti#e elements in the "arth.s crust( the &resence of fossils in locations that +oul' ha#e reAuire' 'rift or a lan' $ri'ge( tem&erature changes e#i'ence' in fossil recor's( an' com&osition of se'iment $oth on continents an' in the sea$e'( all &ointe' to+ar' tectonic an' 'rift theory* But these anomalies +ere not enough to con#ince the scientific community imme'iately2 many scientists faile' to recogni,e 5egener.s e#i'ence as a collection of anomalies +ithin their o+n theories* 5egener +as accuse' of failing to $e o$-ecti#e( something that shoul' not ha&&en in a Kuhnian normal science( an' +oul' 'etract from the social an' logical im&lications of Kuhn.s 'escri&tion of theory choice* 5egener o&erate' outsi'e the tren' of 'e'ucti#e reasoning that geology +as o&erating un'er an' ma'e #ast generali,ations $ase' off the 'ata a#aila$le to him2 5egener.s 'ata ga#e a more accurate account of glo$al geological change( $ut lacke' s&ecific instances* Because Kuhnian normal science in#ol#es &u,,le sol#ing +ithin a limite' sco&e 'efine' $y the &ara'igm( he +as neither &racticing Kuhnian normal science* 3e +as not +orking +ithin any of the &ara'igms of the time( $ecause they lacke' +hat he nee'e' to 'escri$e continental changes* This history flatly re-ects Kuhn.s #ie+ of the 'e#elo&ment of a crisis an' a re#olution $ecause the fiel' +as constantly in crisis an' there +as no set goal of normal science in +hich a'#ocates of 'rift coul' o&erate* Drift came at a time +hen geology +as in crisis not o#er anomalies $ut o#er +hether there +ere any anomalies at all* )f the anomalies +ere truly the cause of the crisis there shoul' ha#e seen signs +ithin the scientific community that their &ara'igm +as ill fitting* ?ontractionists ha' $een 'efeate' $y e#i'ence the "arth +as not cooling( $ut they refuse'

Strouth 6
to recant their &osition in other areas of the fiel'* Permanentists still $elie#e' their theory +as accurate an' continue' on +ith the categori,ation that ha' al+ays &o&ulate' their +ork* 3o+e#er( Kuhn says( 7 ll crises $egin +ith the $lurring of a &ara'igm an' the conseAuent loosening of the rules for normal research8 0Kuhn ;41* Geology 'i' not see the rules loosene' $ecause there +ere fe+ rules to $egin +ith( an' the rules of the fiel' seeme' to hol' +hen analy,ing +hat 5egener ha' 'one +rong* <urthermore( to $lur any of the original &ara'igms further +oul' ha#e remo#e' geology.s legitimacy as a science* )t ha' $arely looke' at causes $efore( they ha' #ery little e#i'ence of causation( an' their 'ay@to@'ay research +as more a$out making geological ma&s an' e%amining strata then making any inferences a$out the 'ata* This $are$ones structure to the fiel' &rior to 5egener might ha#e contri$ute' to +hy Kuhn.s theory of scientific 'e#elo&ment is a &oor fit* )f 5egener.s theory +as so holistic +hy +as it re-ecte'E The ans+er lies in 5egener.s ina$ility to assign causes to +hy 'rift ha&&ens( a &ro$lem that +oul' &lague the theory until the si%ties* 75egener lacke' an a'eAuate causal mechanism8 0Breskes C21* Scientists #ie+e' 5egener.s e%&lanation of the effects of continental 'rift as insufficient to confirm the theory* This is &eculiar $ecause there +ere other une%&laina$le &henomenons that geologists 'i' acce&t at the time( like geosynclines 0Breskes C=1* 5egener 'i' a goo' -o$ e%&laining the kinematics of 'rift through the use of isostasy( an' shoul' ha#e ha' sufficient causal forces in this area of his theory( $ut the metho's of 'ata collection an' lack of oceanogra&hic e#i'ence hin'ere' his argument* The le#el of agreement o#er +hether isostasy +as a flui' that the crust reste' on +as not an acce&te' fact until at least 1624* 4nfortunately( 5egener.s theory ha' come right 'uring a &erio' +hen t+o theories +ere fighting o#er +hether isostasy +as real an' ho+ it +orke' 0Breskes >C1* 5egener alrea'y ha' a +orking un'erstan'ing of ho+ it +orke' an' e#i'ence to su&&ort his theories( $ut $ecause of the su$-ecti#e nature of some of this e#i'ence e#en his $asic &remises +ere not recogni,e' as facts until later* The re-ection of 5egener.s theory 'oes not fit +ith Kuhn.s re#olutionary &rogression* 5egener.s theories +ere not re-ecte' $ecause of any e%tra lea&s scientists +oul' ha#e to make in their thinking $ut $ecause they claime' he lacke' sufficient e#i'ence( e#en though &re#ious claims ha' ha' less* )n a

Strouth 7
Kuhnian &rogression( 5egener.s theories +oul' ha#e $een either acce&te' or re-ecte'( $ut not hel' at $ay until further e#i'ence su&&orte' him( +hich is the +ay it &laye' out* lthough Kuhn 'oes not $elie#e that theory choice is &urely rational( an' rightly so( he 'oes see re-ection of theories as an in'icator of the mental frame+ork of the &ara'igm the ne+ theory re&resents* Geologists +ere not un+illing to acce&t continental 'rift $ecause of a 'is&ute o#er the 'efinition of &ree%isting conce&ts( or the intro'uction of ne+ ones* They +ere un+illing to acce&t 'rift $ecause 5egener lacke' e#i'ence( they +ere uncomforta$le +ith accounting for causation( an' the s&ecific mechanics of isostasy +ere not +ell un'erstoo'* They seeme' almost hesitant to &rogress* Their science( as &re#iously state'( +as #ery much accustome' to 'ealing +ith geological ma&&ing an' categori,ation* "#en the acce&tance of the theory in "uro&e +as oriente' to its &ragmatic a&&lication to s&ecific areas of categori,ation an' e%&lanation of their causes* 3arol' Feffreys( a lea'ing geo&hysicist( +rote a $ook in 1624 calle' The "arth: )ts Brigins( 3istory( an' Physical ?onstitution( in +hich he critici,e' 5egenerGs theory &rimarily on the groun's of a lack of causal e%&lanation* FeffreysG status as a lea'er in his fiel' con#ince' many others through the years to take u& his attacks on 5egener 0Ste+art =4@=D1* The rece&tion of 5egener.s theory +as luke+arm in 162C at the merican ssociation of Petroleum Geologists sym&osium 0Ste+art =>1* 3is o&&onents accuse' him of generali,ations an' again targete' his lack of causal e#i'ence* Drift &ro&onents em&hasi,e' the &ossi$ility of continental shifts an' ho+ a holistic #ie+ of the e#i'ence su&&orte' it* The 'i#i'e $et+een those +ho acce&te' an' those +ho re-ecte' the theory came 'o+n to their &hiloso&hies of science an' the &re#ious theories each area ha' en'orse'* The merican scientific community +as no+here near as concerne' +ith theory as their "uro&ean counter&arts* 7The hostility of merican Geologists to the theory of continental 'rift might suggest that they +ere hostile to theory in general8 0Breskes 12C1* Those +ho acce&te' 'rift $efore the 16C0s 'i' so $ecause of the &ractical a&&lications it hel' in their o+n fiel's 09e Gran' ;01* Geologists in areas like the l&s( South frica( ustralia( an' South merica use' the theory to account for $iological #ariation on the continents an' ho+ continents use' to $e -oine'* The search for a more 'etaile' mechanism to -ustify 5egener.s theory continue'

Strouth 8
through the thirties( forties( an' fifties( +ith little groun' $eing gaine'* 3o+e#er( the theory continue' to accumulate geo&hysical an' fossil e#i'ence* By 16D0( merican science still ha' not come u& +ith a

unifying theory of geology( $ut remaine' firm in its re-ection of 'rift* This coul' $e in large &art to the stagnation of merican geology follo+ing 55))* !e+ sciences such as oceanogra&hy +ere forming( an' these hel' &romise for confirming 'rift $ut ha' yet to mature 09e Gran' 11>@11;1* t this time 'rift ha' +orke' its +ay into scientific e'ucation( $ut only in &assing* Many te%ts mentione' it $ut 'isregar'e' it as a #ia$le theory $ecause of its lack of causal e%&lanation 09e Gran' 1211* 5ith reference to the te%t$ooks of the time( Kuhn sa+ the e'ucation of the ne%t generation of scientists as a 'ogmatic necessity to the continuation of science* 3e reasone' that the acce&te' &ara'igm in a fiel' &ro#i'es ne+ scientists +ith their most $asic un'erstan'ing of e#i'ential stan'ar's an' metho'ological tools* 0Kuhn 1=;1* ccor'ing to Kuhn( te%t$ooks shoul' feature little in the +ay of history or com&eting theories* 3o+e#er( this +as not the case 'uring the e#olution of 'rift an' &late tectonics* Books mentione' it from the 1620s until the confirmation of &late tectonic theory in the 16C0s +hen it $ecame the only theory* The fiel' +as a$le to 'e#elo& an' 'escri$e the +orl' although it lacke' e#i'ence for the anomalies it encountere'( an' a firm &ara'igm in +hich generations of scientists coul' $e e'ucate'* Het( Kuhn &laces hea#ily em&hasis on the metho' in +hich &ara'igms in'uct scientists into their mi'st* <or a science to esta$lish an' maintain rigi' &arameters for normal science( e'ucation naturally lea's the charge in aiming future 'e#elo&ments $y teaching the stan'ar' research an' theory choice are hel' to* The frame+ork that +as &resent in geology +as loose though( 5egener face' re-ection $ecause he lacke' a s&ecific category of e#i'ence( not from a lack of critical thinking or an a$un'ance of other e#i'ence* More concrete sciences( such as &hysics( are a$le to o&erate an' train scientists to a&&ly certain criteria to their +ork an' the $asic assum&tions they o&erate un'er* Geology 'i' no such thing until after &late tectonics $ecame the only acce&ta$le theory* Sciences that lack long term e%&lanations or immo#a$le theories a&&ear to e'ucate their acolytes in a 'ifferent manner than Kuhn 'escri$e'* The ne+ fiel's that gre+ out of the &ost@55)) community continue' to gi#e traction to continental 'rift through the 16C0s* <or e%am&le( &aleomagnetism analy,e' geomagnetic fiel's an'

Strouth 9
scientists use' it to trace the large@scale mo#ement of &arts of the crust( +hich +oul' ha#e measura$le magnetic im&act 09e Gran' 1411* Paleoclimatic 'ata cou&le' +ith that of &aleomagnetism &ro#i'e' a strong case for 'rift( an' +ith much more accuracy than 5egener ha' ha'* 7Drift en-oye' a fa#ora$le &ress in the later 16D0s an' early 16C0s an' for this***&alaeomagnetism +as largely res&onsi$le8 09e Gran' 1D=1* ?on#ecti#e currents un'er the crust +ere re#isite' as causes for 'rift 'uring this time 0Breskes 2C>1* They ha' &re#iously $een theori,e' a$out $y $oth o&&onents an' &ro&onents of 'rift $ut no+ the time +as ri&e to look at them not as a fi% for contractionism( $ut as the cause of 'rift* !a#y o$ser#ations of the ocean floors re#eale' that #ery fe+ formations +ere ol'er than 100 million years* 3arry 3ess &ut this information for+ar' in 16C0 +hen he $uilt u&on the theories of rthur 3olmes +ho in the 1620s ha' theori,e' a$out con#ection as the cause of continental 'rift 0Breskes 112( 2C;1* )n her history of the theory of continental 'rift( !aomi Breskes +rites( 7To #ie+ 3ess.s &a&er as re#olutionary rather than e#olutionary is to ignore the +ork that 3olmes( Iening Meines,( an' 3ess himself 'i' in the 16=0s an' 1640s8 0Breskes 2C;1* Kuhn.s notion of a re#olution &reme'itate' $y a crisis in the science 'oes not measure u& to ho+ 3ess an' his &re'ecessors +orke' to #ali'ate their theory* During the interim &erio' $et+een 161D( +hen 5egener.s first $ook +as &u$lishe'( an' the confirmation of seafloor s&rea'ing in the 16C0s( geology continue' as normal* The &re#ious 'enial of causes for the "arth. &resent state an' the 'enial of causes for 'rift theory ha' left geology in the same state it ha' $een in 'uring the entire nineteenth century( +here geologists s&ent their time cataloguing strata an' rock formations* The gro+th of ne+ fiel's in'icates an e#olution of the #ie+ of geology rather than a re#olution $ecause the &ro$lems of the fiel' ha' not shifte'* To say that any re#olutionary thinking occurre' s&ontaneously( rather than as an e#ol#e' reaction to the accumulate' 'ata 'uring those 40 years of normal science( +oul' $e a$sur' $ecause geology change' slo+ly an' +as still commensura$le +ith its &ast* The final confirmation of 'rift theory came in 16C= an' +as +i'ely acce&te' $y 16CC* llan ?o%( a gra'uate stu'ent( theori,e' that if the seafloor ha' s&rea' an' if the "arth ha' re&eate'ly re#erse' its magnetic fiel' orientation( then the ocean floor shoul' sho+ this in a series of &arallel stri&es of

Strouth 10
normally an' a$normally magneti,e' $asalts 0Breskes 2>11* This confirmation of theory an' the ensuing research has manifeste' itself as the &late tectonic theory +e kno+ to'ay* Plate tectonic theory ha' gro+n out of the geo&hysical #ie+ of the "arth an' use' 'ifferent e#i'ence than 5egener.s original theory( $ut it 'i' confirm his e#i'ence* The geological community that ha' laughe' at 5egener.s theory +as &ersua'e' $y a more rigorous an' scientific account of the "arth* The t+o theories( continental 'rift an' &late tectonics( 'escri$e the same &henomenon an' together form a com&lete account of the "arth.s history* The e#i'ence gre+ e#olutionarily from 1612 to the 16C0s( rather than s&ontaneously( an' as such it 'oes not constitute a Kuhnian re#olution* The original theory &ut for+ar' $y 5egener +as far from com&lete an' 'i' not $y itself instigate a re#olution( $ut o#er time( through a gra'ual +eakening of com&eting &ara'igms( it came to $e acce&te'* The ol' an' ne+ theories are commensura$le an' can $e com&are' in terms of accuracy( truth( an' &re'icti#e ca&a$ility* The 'ecision making &rocess that e#entually le' to the choice of tectonic theory as the &ara'igm for geological research someho+ 'i' in#ol#e em&irical analysis or com&arison of theories* Theories a$out 'rift +ere freAuently e#aluate' against other 'rift theories an' against com&eting theories* Through this &rocess consensus +as e#entually reache' that 'rift +as the true theory* The later &ara'igms sho+ &rogress $ecause they 'o a $etter -o$ at 'escri$ing the +orl' an' accounting for anomalies the other theories ha' &ro$lems +ith* Thus( scientific &rogress +as ma'e( contrary to +hat Kuhn +oul' say a$out the lack of &rogress that is achie#e' across &ara'igm shifts* Kuhn +oul' 'isagree that there +as any o$-ecti#e &rogress $ecause the theory 'i' not stem from a rational theory choice an' $ecause there is no o$-ecti#e scale against +hich to -u'ge scientific &rogress* ) 'isagree +ith Kuhn that this o$-ecti#e scale 'oes not e%ist $ecause the $enefits of scientific &ractice continue to multi&ly* The &ragmatic a'#antages gaine' $y acce&ting tectonic theory #ersus re-ecting it is &rogress enough in my min'* "arthAuake &re'iction an' the o$ser#ation of magnetic fiel's #astly im&ro#e' thanks to the +ork 'one in 'e#elo&ing tectonic theory* )n the en'( ) feel ) must agree +ith "rnst Mayr.s #ie+ of a&&lying Kuhn to $iology( an' further e%ten' it to the fiel' of geology* Mayr sai' that( 7)t is &ossi$le that e%&lanations in#ol#ing uni#ersal la+s

Strouth 11
are su$-ect to Kuhnian re#olutions8 $ut he 'enie' that other scientific areas are &rone to re#olutionary change 0Mayr 1C>1* Geology an' &late tectonics 'eal +ith an analysis of o$ser#a$le &henomena an' the causes $ehin' them( many of +hich 'o not al+ays $eha#e e%actly the same* The lack of true uni#ersal or mathematical truths in geology a&&ears to make it as immune to Kuhnian re#olutions as $iology is* Mayr also sai'( 7?hanges in conce&ts ha#e far more im&act than ne+ 'isco#eries8 0Mayr 1CC1* 5e sa+ this in tectonic theory in the case of isostasy( con#ection currents( an' the a&&lication of geo&hysics to 'rift theory* These i'eas ha' e%iste' $efore $ut ne+ conce&tual metho's of fitting them together to form a holistic theory is +hat create' &late tectonics* t no &articular &oint in time +ere tectonic &lates 'isco#ere'* The conce&t of them gre+ e#olutionarily out of the 'ata geology ha' alrea'y collecte'* 5egener 'i' #ery little of his o+n fiel'+ork an' his $ook +as on the +hole a collection of other &eo&le.s e#i'ence +hich he ha' assem$le' 09e Gran' 401* Presenting ne+ conce&ts is +hat lea's to e#olution in scienceJre#olutions are fe+ an' far $et+een an' 'o not al+ays o&erate the +ay Kuhn sai' they 'o* To call &late tectonics a re#olution is an e%am&le of a misa&&lication of Kuhnian theory*

Strouth 12

5orks ?ite' 3oyningen@3uene( Paul* 7Paul <eyera$en' an' Thomas Kuhn*8 )n The 5orst "nemy of Sc)enceE: "ssays in Memory of Paul <eyera$en'* "'* $y Fohn Preston( Gon,alo Mune#ar( an' Da#i' 9am$* B%for': B%for' 4ni#ersity Press( 2000* Kuhn( Thomas* The Structure of Scientific /e#olutions* ?hicago: The 4ni#ersity of ?hicago Press( 166C* 9e Gran'( 3*"* Drifting ?ontinents an' Shifting Theories* ?am$ri'ge: ?am$ri'ge 4ni#ersity Press( 16;;* Mayr( "rnst* 5hat Makes Biology 4niAueE* ?am$ri'ge: ?am$ri'ge 4ni#ersity Press( 2004* Breskes( !aomi* The /e-ection of ?ontinental Drift* !e+ Hork: B%for' 4ni#ersity Press( 1666* Ste+art( Fohn* Drifting ?ontinents K ?olli'ing Para'igms* Bloomington: )n'iana 4ni#ersity Press( 1660*