Time Reversal in Fiction.

What does it do?

ILOS, HF, UiO
ENG!"# $ %astero&&'ave i en'els(, le(tor$ o' ad)*n(t&ro'rammet
+hristine Eileen Eld)arn
S*&ervisor, -*an +hristian .ellicer
S&rin' /0#0

Acknowledgements
I 1o*ld li(e to than( -ames .helan and -a(o2 Lothe 3or (indl4 &rovidin' me 1ith a dra3t
t4&escri&t o3 .ro3essor .helan5s 3orthcomin' 2oo( cha&ter 6The Ethics and 7esthetics o3
8ac(1ard Narration in %artin 7mis9s Times Arrow:. I 1o*ld also li(e to than( .ro3essors
-*an .ellicer, Nelson Gon;ale;$Orte'a, and -eroen <andaele 3or hel&in' me narro1 do1n
m4 sco&e. Finall4 I 1o*ld li(e to than( m4 h*s2and and &arents 3or their hel&3*l comments
and &atience, and o3 co*rse m4 1onder3*l s*&ervisor -*an +hristian .ellicer, 1ho has
&rovided me 1ith motivational as 1ell as &ro3essional s*&&ort all the 1a4.
/

Contents
Introduction =========================== >
Chapter 1:
Writing with an Ethical and Political Force =============.. ##
The Ethical F*nction o3 Time Reversal in 6<ia)e a la semilla: ======. ##
The Ethical F*nction o3 Time Reversal in Times Arrow ========.... #!
Chapter 2:
Writing to Entertain.
7 +o'nitive .oetic 7nal4sis o3 Time Reversal and Emotive E33ects ===== ??
H*mor ============================. ?
S*s&ense and +*riosit4 =====================... 0
Unease and Horror =======================.. ?
7 Foc*s on Ethics =======================... @
Chapter 3:
Writing to Epand the !oundaries o" #ormalit$.
7 .s4cholo'ical .ers&ective on Time Reversal ===========.=== >0
The .s4cholo'ical F*nction o3 Time Reversal in Times Arrow ======... >#
Time Reversal in Ilse 7ichin'er9s 6S&ie'el'eschichte6 ========== @0
Conclusion ============================. !
Appendi ============================.... A#
!i%liograph$ ===========================.. A?
?

Old Ton's o3 S*nset
note 24 the 1riter
carr4in' the 1orld
2ac(1ards
in the 1or( o3 art
co*ld 2e eB&ressed as 3ollo1s, instead o3 #$/$?
events are *n3oldin' as ?$/$#
or ?$#$/. This is the 1a4 it is in m4
&oem.
CDr*chen4(h in Firtich, /00E

Introduction
The short &oem on the 3ore'oin' &a'e 1as 1ritten 24 the R*ssian F*t*rist 7le(sei
Dr*chen4(h and co*ld have introd*ced an4 o3 the 3ictional narratives treated in this thesis.
The R*ssian avant$'arde o3 the earl4 t1entieth$cent*r4 to4ed 1ith *n*s*al time seF*ences as
a &art o3 their &olitical eB&ression. The artist 1as considered in &osition 6to trace the 1orld
2ac(1ards [sledit9 mir s (ontsa]: CDr*chen4(h in Firtich, >"E, and th*s 3ree to discover ne1
meanin's and tr*ths.
#
In his essa4 6World2ac(1ards: Ni(olai Firtich s*ms *& the the R*ssian
van'*ard9s *se o3 tem&oral mani&*lation 24 eB&lainin' ho1 it 3ills three im&ortant 3*nctions.
Firstl4, the4 *se it to comm*nicate 1hat seems nonsensical, 2*t 1hich can &resent the reader
1ith a com&letel4 ne1 a&&roach to the 1orld. Secondl4, the4 *se the narrative strate'4 to
eB&lore the idea o3 other 1orlds and dimensions, and thirdl4, as an 6artistic G&ata'e leveled
a'ainst the dominant contem&orar4 social and c*lt*ral instit*tions: C>"@E. Un3ort*natel4, I do
not read R*ssian, 2*t I have come across a 3e1 narratives, in lan'*a'es that are more
accessi2le to me, that re&resent eBtreme cases o3 tem&oral mani&*lation. I have there3ore
ta(en an interest in loo(in' into 1hat e33ect lettin' events 2e 6*n3oldin' as ?$/$#: has had on
another set o3 stories.
I set o*t on this investi'ative )o*rne4 to 3ind o*t more a2o*t 1h4 an a*thor 1o*ld choose to
let time r*n 2ac(1ards in a narrative. %4 3oc*s 1ill 2e on 1hat time reversal does or adds to
the stor4 1here it is a&&lied. Sim&l4 readin' the stories 1ill 2e m4 main so*rce o3 in3ormation
on this &artic*lar to&ic. I have not aimed to carr4 o*t s4stematic research on the rece&tion o3
time reversal. I 1ill merel4 *se m4 o1n readin' eB&erienceCsE Cin necessar4 3riction 1ith the
readin's o3 m4 s*&ervisorE as a 2asis 3or m4 disc*ssion. It 1o*ld, ho1ever, have 2een ver4
#
Mirskontsa C1orld 2ac(1ardsE 1as also the name o3 a collection o3 &aintin's &*t to'ether 24 <elimir
Dhle2ni(ov and 7le(sei Dr*chen4(h in #"#/. Dhle2ni(ov also 1rote a short &la4 24 the same title.
>

interestin' to (no1 more a2o*t ho1 readers 'enerall4 react to this eBam&le o3 extreme
narration, as 8rian Richardson calls this t4&e o3 o*tre narrative eB&eriment. %4 2elie3 is that
the immense co'nitive load it sometimes &*ts on the reader co*ld ma(e narratives o3 this (ind
less accessi2le than most readers 1o*ld &re3er, 2*t ho&e3*ll4 this 1ill 2e investi'ated 3*rther
in 3*t*re st*dies.
The reactions 'enerated in me 24 these narratives have lead me into some theoretical territor4,
2*t 2eca*se so little has 2een 1ritten on time reversal as a narrative strate'4, I too( the li2ert4
o3 maintainin' a 2road 3oc*s and 1ritin' a2o*t more than one as&ect o3 1hat time reversal
can achieve.
The F*estion I initiall4 &*t on m4 1hite2oard, Why has the author chosen this particular
strategy in each text? has &roved not onl4 im&ossi2le to ans1er once and 3or all, 2*t irrelevant
to the tas( I 1anted to &*rs*e. The intentions o3 an a*thor are im&ossi2le to recover, even
tho*'h %artin 7mis in his 73ter1ord in Times Arrow eB&lains that his reason 3or 1ritin' a
narrative in 1hich time 1as reversed 1as that he had 1anted to do so 3or a lon' time and 1as
c*rio*s as to 1hat this 1o*ld ma(e &ossi2le. There3ore I 3ind that it is *ltimatel4 2etter to tr4
to ans1er, how successful is time reversal as a narrative strategy in each story? In ans1erin'
this one has to ma(e '*esses as to the &*r&ose o3 the narrative as a 1hole, 2*t this s*&&osition
is made in an4 comm*nicative sit*ation. The s*ccess o3 the narrative strate'4 is th*s directl4
lin(ed to 1hat time reversal does or adds to the stor4, 1hich 2rin's *s 2ac( to the main
F*estion that has &ermeated m4 research.
The direction o3 time is one o3 li3e9s eB&ected constants and there3ore easil4 ta(en 3or 'ranted.
EBtremel4 3e1 &eo&le ever 3eel that the4 eB&erience an event as i3 it 1ere ha&&enin'
@

2ac(1ards, and th*s 3e1 narratives eBist 1here time moves in reverse, at least in the Western
literar4 canon. The disco*rse CsjuzetE o3 a stor4 o3ten contains )*m&s, 3or1ard CprolepsisE and
2ac(1ards CanalepsisE, in time, 2*t the stor4 CfaulaE ver4 rarel4 does. In -an*ar4 /00"
Se4mo*r +hatman &*2lished an article in the )o*rnal !A""AT#$% called 68ac(1ards: 1here
he s4stematicall4 classi3ies 2ac(1ards narration. He anal4;es in detail the t4&e o3 2ac(1ards
narration in 1hich the stor4 moves as i3 it 1ere a 3ilm &la4ed 2ac(1ards, and eBam&li3ies this
es&eciall4 24 anal4;in' %artin 7mis9 Times Arrow. This &artic*lar novel 1ill also 2e the
center o3 m4 disc*ssion, 2*t I also &lace m*ch em&hasis on the short stories 6<ia)e a la
semilla: 24 the +*2an 1riter 7le)o +ar&entier, as 1ell as the 7*strian 1riter Ilse 7ichin'er9s
6S&ie'el'eschichte:. 7 hand3*l o3 other narratives are also mentioned, 2*t the main
disc*ssion revolves aro*nd these three, as the4 are all eBam&les o3 1hat +hatman classi3ies as
sustained ackwards narration
/
CI 1ill contin*e to re3er to the narrative strate'4 as time
reversalE. I, admittedl4, also incl*de some eBam&les 3rom narratives that are not o3 a2sol*te
time reversal, 2*t 3oc*s on the &arts o3 the stories 1here time is reversed.
Eri(a Gre2er has 1ritten an article on 2ac(1ards narration, or "etronarration, 1here she
theori;es the str*ct*re o3 these stories. She incl*des eBam&les 3rom vario*s t4&es o3 retro
narrated teBts, not all o3 s*stained time reversal, 2*t all share some common traits startin'
1ith 2ein' retroactive, not sim&l4 retros&ective C!E. Her 'oal is to s(etch o*t a str*ct*ral
model 3or all retro narrated stories, and th*s maintains a 1ider sco&e 3or her disc*ssion than I
do.
+hatman9s disc*ssion 3oc*ses on the lin'*istic conteBt 1hich 3acilitates anton4mi;in', or the
direct reversal o3 all actions. He ar'*es, 3or instance, that &*nct*al ver2s are &re3erred to
/
+hatman di33erenciates 2et1een the more common 3lash2ac(ed narratives, 1here each event &la4s o*t
accordin' to normal chronolo'4, and s*stained 2ac(1ards narratives 1here each event is reversed as 1ell as to
2e &laced in reversed order.
!

d*rative ver2s 2eca*se the4 eB&ress the direction o3 the action more clearl4, th*s consume is
&re3erred to chew& and that this
C=E e33ect is achieved not onl4 thro*'h the reversal o3 &*nct*al ver2s, 2*t also o3 a*Biliaries$ &re&ositions,
adver2s and adver2ials. Instead o3 1al(in' to1ard somethin' 4o* 1al( a1a4 3rom it. No*ns also can 2e
reversed, tho*'h to a more limited eBtent, &atients 2ecome a'ents and a'ents &atients, donors 2ecome reci&ients,
and so on. C?AE
This *se o3 co'nitive$&oetic anal4sis has ins&ired me to loo( into the lin'*istic conteBt o3
s&eci3ic emotive e33ects that are 3acilitated 24 time reversal. I 1ill close$read seF*ences o3
inverted time 1here emotions are created, and in this I 1ill dra1 on the theoretic 1or( o3
other scholars 1ithin the 3ield s*ch as %eir Stern2er', Lisa H*nshine and -eroen <andaele.
8*t I also 1ish to investi'ate 1hat time reversal does to the di33erent narratives on a macro
level. The ethical dimension is o3 s&ecial interest to me in the st*d4 o3 these stories, and I 1ill
lin( time reversal to the ethical and &olitical stance that the stories re&resent.
-ames .helan has 1ritten a 3orthcomin' 2oo( cha&ter, 1hich I have had the 3ort*ne o3 havin'
read in dra3t, called 6The Ethics and 7esthetics o3 8ac(1ard Narration in %artin 7mis9
Times Arrow:. He anal4;es the *nrelia2ilit4 inherent in the narration and 3ollo1s the
tradition o3 scholars c*rrentl4 interested in 6the ethical and aesthetic conseF*ences o3
narrative techniF*es that &*t the reader in the &osition o3 sharin' the &er&etrator9s
&ers&ective: C#E. He ho&es that 6once scholars have eBamined a 1ide ran'e o3 re&resentations
3rom a variet4 o3 theoretical &ers&ectives 1e 1ill 2e in a 2etter &osition to dra1 2roader
concl*sions: Ci2id.E. I 1ish to contri2*te in m*ch the same 1a4, )*''lin' more teBt*al
eBam&les and , to some eBtent, other varia2les o3 inter&retation.
A

The 3irst cha&ter eB&lores the e33ect time reversal can have on the ethical and &olitical
dimension o3 a narrative. The s*2)ect o3 ethics 1ill &ermeate all the cha&ters o3 the disc*ssion.
The second cha&ter is a co'nitive &oetic anal4sis o3 the emotive e33ects that are 3acilitated 24
time reversal, s*ch as the *se o3 h*mor, the creation o3 s*s&ense, and even the e33ect*ation o3
horror. The third cha&ter eB&lores time reversal in re&resentations o3 &s4cholo'ical &rocesses.
Here I consider the teBts in li'ht o3 real$li3e eB&eriences o3 time reversal.
Times Arrow 3eat*res most &rominentl4 in m4 disc*ssion 2eca*se it is the lon'est o3 the
narratives o3 s*stained time reversal that I have 3o*nd, and I 1ill 3ollo1 +hatman9s eBam&le
and re3er to the narrator o3 the novel as 6So*l:. The short stor4 6<ia)e a la semilla:, or
6-o*rne4 8ac( to the So*rce:, 3orms &art o3 +*2an 1riter 7le)o +ar&entier9s innovative short
stor4 collection 'uerra del tiempo C#">AE, War of Time. The collection is mar(ed 24 vario*s
darin' narrative eB&eriments, incl*din' that o3 the stor4 treated here, 1here time is reversed.
+ar&entier9s tem&oral creativit4 is dis&la4ed in m*ch o3 his 1or( and has 2een lin(ed to his
eB&ertise as a m*sicolo'ist CGon;Ile; EchevarrJaE. He has also 2een said to have 3athered the
movement o3 ma'ical realism, or lo real maravilloso, 1ith his #"" novel The (ingdom of
this World& a stor4 a2o*t the Haitian revol*tion in 1hich 3antastical elements hi'hli'ht the
novel9s &olitical messa'e. The t4&icall4 ma'ical realist lin( 2et1een the 3antastical and the
&olitical, is treated in m4 disc*ssion, as time reversal ar'*a2l4 is an eBam&le o3 a 3antastical
element 1hich I 1ish to sho1 has 'reat &olitical and ethical &otential.
The short stor4 6S&ie'el'eschichte: is an a1ard$1innin' short stor4 1hich I 1anted to
incl*de as m*ch 2eca*se o3 its esthetic as its &olitical F*alit4. The stor4 sho*ld 2e read in
German as the *se o3 ver4 &oetic lan'*a'e in a settin' o3 reversed time creates a stron'l4
evocative sentiment in the reader.
"

In the 3ollo1in' I ho&e to sho1 ho1 time reversal can a33ect a variet4 o3 as&ects o3 the stories
in F*estion, and that even tho*'h eBam&les o3 narratives o3 s*stained time reversal are 3e1,
the4 contri2*te 1ith an interestin' &ers&ective. Relativel4 little has 2een 1ritten on the
s*2)ect, even tho*'h it has received some attention ver4 recentl4. Gre2er9s article 1as
&*2lished in /00!, +hatman &*2lished his article 68ac(1ards: in -an*ar4 /00", and .helan9s
2oo( cha&ter has not 4et 2een &*2lished. %4 thesis ties in 1ith the 1or( o3 all three, 2*t I
have chosen a di33erent set o3 stories C6<ia)e a la Semilla: is onl4 treated hereE, and I maintain
a co'nitive &oetic as 1ell as rece&tive 3oc*s thro*'ho*t m4 disc*ssion.
#0

Chapter 1
Writing With an Ethical and Political Force.
The ethical dimension o3 narratives has 2een s*2)ect to m*ch scholarl4 scr*tin4 in the last 3e1
decades. 8oth &hiloso&hers and literar4 critics have sho1n a stron' interest in the s*2)ect, to
the eBtent that a 6do*2le t*rn: to1ards literar4 ethics has 2een identi3ied CEs(inE. Not onl4
has the ethical 3orce o3 narratives 2een st*died more closel4, 2*t the 'eneral im&ortance and
e33ect o3 literat*re on ethics has 2een 'iven m*ch em&hasis. Reversin' the direction o3 time
ma(es a narrative start 1ith the conseF*ences and move to1ards the *nderl4in' events. The
direction o3 the narrative immediatel4 &laces the 3oc*s on ca*se and there is no esca&in' the
ca*se and e33ect relationshi&. This allo1s 3or a &ortra4al o3 events that demands 3*ll
res&onsi2ilit4 3rom those 1ho have ca*sed them, and th*s an e33ective startin' &oint 3or social
and &olitical critiF*e. The three narratives o3 +ar&entier, 7ichin'er and 7mis all more or less
o&enl4 treat the s*2)ect o3 *nethical cond*ct, 2*t I 1ill mainl4 3oc*s on 7mis9 Times Arrow
as this novel also s&*rred a de2ate on the ethical res&onsi2ilities o3 a*thors in &ortra4in'
historical events. I 1ish to start this cha&ter 1ith a 3airl4 short inter&retative descri&tion o3 the
3*nction o3 time reversal in 6<ia)e a la semilla: to comment on 1hat this narrative strate'4
can do to the ethical dimension o3 a teBt and then move on to treat Times Arrow in a similar,
2*t more in$de&th, 3ashion.
&he Ethical Function o" &ime 'e(ersal in )*ia+e a la semilla,.
7s o&&osed to Times Arrow and 6S&ie'el'eschichte:
?
, 6<ia)e a la semilla: is in 3act not told
entirel4 in reverse. In the 2e'innin' and end o3 the stor4, time moves in its normal direction.
?
There are some cl*es in 2oth stories o3 a ret*rn to normal chronolo'4 as the stor4 ends, 2*t the str*ct*re o3 the
stories di33ers mar(edl4 3rom that o3 6<ia)e a la semilla: 1here t1o di33erent stories are &resented and onl4 one
in reversed time.
##

There is a stor4 1ithin the stor4, li(e a +hinese 2oB, 1here the o*ter shell 3ollo1s the normal
direction o3 time and the stor4 1ithin is s*2)ect to a 3antastical e33ect 1here time moves in
reverse. The 3act that the narrative moves 2ac( to the 1orld o3 the o*ter shell s*''ests that the
interl*de o3 time reversal 1as a di'ression, an anomal4 that is incl*ded to shed li'ht on the
1orld as 1e (no1 it. This *se o3 the 3antastical as a means to a &olitical end is central to the
ma'ical realist 'enre that +ar&entier &inned do1n 1ith his descri&tive no*n$&hrase 6lo real
maravilloso:. I 1ant to ar'*e that time reversal is *sed 2oth 3or &olitical &*r&oses in a
classical ma'ical realist manner, as 1ell as to &lace the actions o3 one individ*al *nder ethical
scr*tin4.
8oth the ethical and &olitical messa'es o3 the narrative are stren'thened 24 the circ*mstances
*nder 1hich the shi3t o3 tem&oral direction ta(es &lace. There are si'ns that indicate that the
old man, 1ho is adressed in the stor49s 3irst line, is the one 1ho invo(es time reversal in the
stor4, 6Entonces el ne'ro vie)o, F*e no se ha2Ja movido, hi;o 'estos eBtraKos, volteando s*
ca4ado so2re *n cementerio de 2aldosas.: C>@E C6Then the old Ne'ro, 1ho had not stirred,
2e'an ma(in' stran'e movements 1ith his stic(, 1hirlin' it aro*nd a2ove a 'rave4ard o3
&avin' stones.: C///EE. Here there are stron' indications o3 s*&ernat*ral volition ca*sin' time
to t*rn.

This sentence directl4 &receeds the 3irst inversion o3 chronolo'4 in the narrative, and
there3ore re&resents the shi3t to time reversal,
Los c*adrados de mIrmol, 2lancos 4 ne'ros volaron a los &isos, vistiendo la tierra. Las &iedras con saltos certeros,
3*eron a cerrar los 2oF*etes de las m*rallas. Ho)as de no'al claveteadas se enca)aron en s*s marcos, mientras los
tornillos de las charnelas volvJan a h*ndirse en s*s ho4os, con rI&ida rotaciLn. C>@$>!E The 1hite and 2lac( mar2le
sF*ares 3le1 to the 3loors and covered them. Stones lea&ed *& and *nerrin'l4 3illed the 'a&s in the 1alls. The
nailst*dded 1aln*t doors 3itted themselves into their 3rames, 1hile the scre1s ra&idl4 t1isted 2ac( into the holes in
the hin'es. C///E

7 note1orth4 3act as the other t1o narratives, that are 1ritten in a &*rel4 E*ro&ean conteBt, lac( an eB&licit
insti'ator o3 time reversal. 7ichin'er and 7mis9 stories seem to s*''est a &s4cholo'ical &henomenon ca*ses the
inversion o3 time.
#/

The e33ect o3 the old man9s ma'ic is close to that o3 &ressin' re1ind on an old movie
&ro)ector. The ho*se is soon restored to its &ast 'lor4 and the old man res*mes his tas(s as
some sort o3 ho*se(ee&er, and o&ens the door 1ith his (e4s 2e3ore he o&ens all the 1indo1s.
This act is s4m2olic o3 the movement the narrator ma(es in tellin' the stor4 o3 the dead man9s
li3e. Nothin' shall remain in the shado1, all shall 2e eB&osed.
)and the earth reclaimed e(er$thing that was its own.,
The stor4 2e'ins 1ith the demolition o3 a h*'e estate and the 3oc*s o3 the narrator is mainl4
on details o3 the 2*ildin' and its s*rro*ndin's. H*mans are onl4 indirectl4 &resent thro*'h the
mar(s and devastation the4 have in3licted on their s*rro*ndin's, and their a2sence is
em&hasi;ed 24 the stat*e that 3ocali;es the demolition,
.resenciando la demoliciLn, *na +eres con la nari; rota 4 el &e&lo desvaJdo, veteado de ne'ro el tocado de mieses,
se er'*Ja en el tras&atio, so2re s* 3*ente de mascarones 2orrosos. C>>E Witnessin' the demolition, a +eres 1ith a
2ro(en nose and discolored &e&l*m, her headdress o3 corn veined 1ith 2lac(, stood in the 2ac( 4ard a2ove her
3o*ntain o3 cr*m2lin' 'rotesF*es. C///E
The deca4 o3 the ho*se is the res*lt o3 the death o3 the o1ner o3 the ho*se, Mon %arcial $
%arFGs de +a&ellanJas N a man o3 social 'rande*r and &o1er. Time seems to 2e reversed in
order to relive his li3e and reveal 1hat has 4et to 2e *ncovered. The 3oc*s on nat*re and
scener4 in the narrative9s 3irst &art contrasts 1ith the 3oc*s &laced on the &rota'onist and his
relationshi&s 1ith the &eo&le aro*nd him in the tem&orall4 reversed &art o3 the stor4. This and
the choice o3 title, 1hich literall4 means 6)o*rne4 to the seed:, centrali;es the im&ortance o3
nat*re and its la1s, and corres&ondin'l4 do1n&la4s the im&ortance o3 h*man 2ein's and their
c*lt*rall4 2iased la1s. The 3inal &ara'ra&hs o3 the stor4 o3 the li3e o3 Mon %arcial stren'then
#?

this messa'e. 73ter he has ret*rned to the 1om2, the narrative ret*rns to 3oc*s on nat*re as to
*nderline the ori'ins o3 li3e,
Las aves volvieron al h*evo en tor2ellino de &l*mas. Los &eces c*a)aron la h*eva, de)ando *na nevada de escamas
en el 3ondo del estanF*e. Las &almas do2laron las &encas, desa&areciendo en la tierra como a2anicos cerrados. Los
tallos sor2Jan s*s ho)as 4 el s*elo tira2a de todo lo F*e le &erteneciera. C!#E 8irds ret*rned to their e''s in a
1hirl1ind o3 3eathers. Fish con'ealed into roe, leavin' a sno13all o3 scales at the 2ottom o3 their &ond. The &alm
trees 3olded their 3ronds and disa&&eared into the earth li(e sh*t 3ans. Stems 1ere rea2sor2in' their leaves, and the
earth reclaimed ever4thin' that 1as its o1n. C/?/E
When the li3e o3 the once mi'ht4 %arF*Gs has moved all the 1a4 to its 2e'innin' his social
stat*s and &olitical &o1er means nothin'. This &arallels the *nim&ortance o3 his character
a3ter his death and em&hasi;es the s*&eriorit4 o3 nat*re over the individ*al. The &olitical and
ethical 3orce o3 the narrative lies in lettin' the li3e o3 a sociall4 &o1er3*l man 2e reversed to
sho1 ho1 *nim&ortant he is in the 2i''er &ict*re. It is not 1itho*t &olitical 3orce either that it
is a dar($s(inned 1ho man is the insti'ator o3 this &rocess, as the c*lt*res o3 non$E*ro&ean
ori'in in Latin$7merica re&resent the 1ea(er &olitical voices o3 the re'ion.
-aterial and .piritual /eca$
I3 the 3irst &art o3 the stor4 is mar(ed 24 an em&hasis on the ho*se and its &h4sical
s*rro*ndin's, the 2od4 o3 the stor4 3oc*ses on the s&irit o3 the &rota'onist Mon %arcial. The
reader is ensnared 24 the &rovocation o3 c*riosit4 a2o*t his &ast, 6Me 3ranca, detallada,
&o2lada de &ecados, la con3esiLn se hi;o reticente, &enosa, llena de escondri)os. OP F*G
derecho tenJa, en el 3ondo, aF*el carmelita, a entrometerse en s* vida?: C>AE 6What had 2e'*n
as a candid, detailed con3ession o3 his man4 sins 're1 'rad*all4 more reticent, &ain3*l, and
3*ll o3 evasions. 73ter all 1hat ri'ht had the +armelite to inter3ere in his li3e?: C//?EE. The *se
o3 6aF*el: CthatE si'nals a distance that is not rendered in the En'lish translation. Even tho*'h
#

he 3inall4 s*cc*m2s and candidl4 con3esses 6his man4 sins:, the s&irit*al intr*sion o3 the
&riest 2others Mon %arcial. The re3erence to the order o3 the +armelite indicates stron'
contrasts 2et1een the &rota'onist and the ideals o3 the order, s*ch as their vo1 o3 &overt4 or
&ractice o3 contem&lative &ra4er CHimmermannE. The neBt &assa'e con3irms this 24 sho1in'
that the ca*se o3 his death 1as rooted in a seB*al activit4 that &ro2a2l4 strained his heart into
a coronar4 throm2osis. 7 vie1 o3 Mon %arcial9s li3e as mar(ed 24 m*ch &o1er and
reso*rces, and little 'ratit*de or h*milit4, is emer'in'. 8*t there is no do*2t that his material
li3e is in a state o3 deterioration. His 3inances are clearl4 not in im&ecca2le condition as his
ho*se is to 2e a*ctioned o33 even 2e3ore his death. His 1i3e seems to have disa&&eared
2eca*se her 3irst a&&earance in the stor4 descri2es her ret*rnin' 6*na tarde, de s* &aseo a las
orillas del 7lmendares.: C>"E C6one a3ternoon 3rom a drive alon' the 2an(s o3 the
7lmendares: C//EE. The material and &ersonal 'rande*r o3 Mon %arcial is slo1l4 restored in
the stor4, re3lectin' the 'rad*al deca4 it s*33ers in realit4,
Rea&arecieron m*chos &arientes. <olvieron m*chos ami'os. Pa 2rilla2an, m*4 claras, las araKas del 'ran salLn.
Las 'rietas de la 3achada se i2an cerrando. C@0E %an4 relatives rea&&eared. %an4 3riends came 2ac(. The
chandeliers in the 'reat dra1in' room 'littered 1ith 2rilliant li'hts. The crac(s in the 3aQade 1ere closin' *&, one
24 one. C//E
Time reversal lets the a*thor &resent Mon %arcial9s crac(ed 3aQade 24 descri2in' its
restoration. This allo1s 3or a d*al 3oc*s in the mind o3 the reader. On the one hand the4 can
contem&late the terri2le 3ate o3 Mon %arcial that res*lts 3rom his ethicall4 re&roacha2le
cond*ct, and on the other hand the narrative &laces em&hasis on the time 2e3ore he commits
his sins 1hen he had the choice o3 actin' di33erentl4.
#>

'eturn to Innocence
It seems clear that Mon %arcial has committed a crime, or ta(en 6a &ath disa&&roved o3 24 the
La1: as it is e*&hemisticall4 &hrased in the stor4. Whether this crime is o3 3inancial or seB*al
ins*lt is not said. The stor49s &oint o3 de&art*re incl*des a death in disre&*te and material
de3icit as 1ell as a 3orced con3ession o3 a m*ltit*de o3 sins. 8*t as the stor4 &ro'resses the
crimes committed decrease. This &rod*ces the stor49s em&hasis on innocence. +hildhood
re&resents a &*rit4 that is 3orever lost in the ad*lt, and Mon %arcial is never closer to the
stor49s ethical center than in his childhood contem&lations 3rom the mar2le 3loor,
73ectas al tercio&elo de los co)ines, las &ersonas ma4ores s*dan demasiado.C=E $ &or no conocer, con el c*er&o
echado, la 3rialdad del mIrmol en todo tiem&o. SLlo desde el s*elo &*eden a2arcarse totalmente los In'*los 4
&ers&ectivas de *na ha2itaciLn. C@@E Gro1n$*& &eo&le had a &assion 3or velvet4 c*shions, 1hich made them s1eat
too m*ch. C=E $ 2eca*se the4 had not discovered ho1 cool it 1as to lie at 3*ll len'th on a mar2le 3loor at all
seasons o3 the 4ear. Onl4 3rom the 3loor co*ld all the an'les and &ers&ectives o3 a room 2e 'ras&ed &ro&erl4. C//AE
7 &olitical messa'e co*ld 2e inter&reted 3rom this as the lo1est &ers&ective in societ4 is also
shared 24 those 1ho have the least. This is the vie1 3rom 1hich 6all the an'les and
&ers&ectives: o3 societ4 62e 'ras&ed &ro&erl4:, and the4 re&resent the o&&osite o3 Mon
%arcial, the ad*lt, 1ho is 2oth sociall4 and materiall4 &o1er3*l. 7s a child he shared this
&ers&ective o3 the 1orld, 2*t it is lost as a res*lt o3 ad*lthood, and ar'*a2l4 also 2ad choices.
It is im&ortant to &oint o*t that r*nnin' Mon %arcial9s li3e in reverse does not 3ree him 3rom
his sins. The stor4 does not end as Mon %arcial clim2s 2ac( into the 1om2. Onl4 the stor4
1ithin the stor4, 1here time is reversed, ends here. The 3inal &ara'ra&h o3 the teBt descri2es
the 1or(ers on the demolition site. One o3 them tries to tell the others o3 a r*mor that he has
heard, and in this he &rovides the reader 1ith the last cl*e to the 3all o3 Mon %arcial. He
reveals that the %arF*esa de +a&ellanJas, Mon %arcial9s 1i3e, 1as dro1ned in the river
#@

7lmendares. This is the last in3ormation 'iven to the reader a2o*t the li3e o3 Mon %arcial and
an im&ortant signal of closure& in other 1ords an indication o3 inter&retation and
comm*nicative intention 3rom the im&licit a*thor to the reader o3 the short stor4. Mon
%arcial9s social and material &o1er mas(ed his *nethical cond*ct 1hile he 1as alive in m*ch
the same 1a4 as time reversal does in the retellin' o3 his li3e. I3 1e see &ast these 2lindin'
3actors his tr*e nat*re 2ecomes evident.
The over$all e33ect o3 time reversal as a narrative strate'4 in this stor4 is sli'htl4 harder to &in
do1n com&ared to the other teBts I treat in this thesis. 8*t a rec*rrin' im&ression seems to 2e
that time reversal is stron'l4 lin(ed to the theme o3 sin, '*ilt, and redem&tion. There is no real
esca&e 3rom time9s direction. Onl4 tem&oraril4 and h4&otheticall4 can deeds 2e considered
*ndone li(e a (not. +ar&entier to4s 1ith the idea o3 shattered tiles 3l4in' 2ac( *& on the roo3
in &er3ect condition 2eca*se he has a &oint to &rove 24 lettin' them do this. 7nd in m4 vie1,
the main reason the a*thor has to let 1hat cannot ha&&en ta(e &lace, is merel4 to *nderline its
im&ossi2ilit4. Th*s the ethical dimension o3 this stor4 contains a 1arnin', 1hat is done
cannot 2e *ndone, a theme 1hich is re&eated thro*'ho*t the stories eBamined in this thesis.
This messa'e is even stron'er in the novel Times Arrow 1here a de3inin' &art o3 o*r
historical &ast is revived and reversed in a horri3ic revelation o3 cr*elt4.
&he Ethical Function o" &ime 'e(ersal in Times Arrow.
7s mentioned earlier, an im&ortant e33ect o3 time reversal in a narrative is the 3oc*s it &laces
on ca*se. The conseF*ences o3 an act lie 3*rthest into the 3*t*re 1hile the ca*se is to 2e 3o*nd
in the con)*nction o3 all the moments leadin' *& to the e33ects. With time reversal the
conseF*ences are *s*all4 (no1n, 1hile the s*s&ense lies in the revealin' o3 the 'ro*nds that
have ca*sed them. In Times Arrow the eBile and chan'e o3 name are some o3 the
#!

conseF*ences o3 the &rota'onist9s &ast misdeeds, 2*t the nat*re o3 his crime is not eB&licitl4
&resented to the reader and th*s ma(es 3or a so*rce o3 c*riosit4 in the stor4. What ca*sed him
to act in the 3irst &lace is &erha&s less im&ortant and onl4 to*ched *&on ver4 li'htl4. The
3oc*s o3 the stor4 is on the &rota'onist9s li3e after havin' committed ethicall4 re&roacha2le
acts. From the 2e'innin' 1e are &resented 1ith man4 hints a2o*t 1hat these mi'ht 2e, and it
is made clear that the &rota'onist lives 1ith the (no1led'e o3 havin' done somethin' 1ron',
2*t he sho1s 3e1 si'ns o3 re'ret. Ho1ever, the tem&oral str*ct*re o3 the narrative ma(es
catchin' *& 1ith his &ast inevita2le, th*s the ethical 3*nction o3 time reversal is eB&osed.
Gre2er sa4s that time9s normal direction is ever &resent in retronarrated stories C!A, A#E,
and all that is ha&&enin' in reverse is sim*ltaneo*sl4 considered 3ollo1in' normal chronolo'4
Ci2id.E.
The stor4 moves 3rom the death$2ed o3 Mr. Tod Friendl4 to the earl4 childhood o3 Odilo
Unverdor2en, the same &erson 1ho has re&eatedl4 chan'ed his name in order to esca&e ta(in'
res&onsi2ilit4 3or his actions. The reader is introd*ced to the doctor 1hen he lives in the US.
His &ast has a ni'htmarish 'ri& on him and dreamli(e visions o3 a male sha&e in a 1hite coat
1earin' 2i', 2lac( 2oots terrori;e him even in the last moments o3 his li3e. The reader is
com&elled to 'et to the revelation o3 the identit4 o3 this 3i'*re, and 1ill to1ards the end o3 the
2oo( see that the 3i'*re is the doctor himsel3. This rein3orces the ethical messa'e o3 havin' to
o1n *& to all the identities a &erson re&resents, and that a &erson is nothin' less than the s*m
o3 all &ast actions.
%artin 7mis sa4s the 1ritin' o3 Times Arrow 1as &rom&ted 24 readin' a 2oo( called The
!azi )octors 24 Ro2ert -a4 Li3ton. He had to4ed 1ith the idea o3 tellin' 6the stor4 o3 a man9s
li3e 2ac(1ards in time: C7mis, 673ter1ord: #!>E. The theme o3 a 3led'lin' Na;i doctor
#A

s*ddenl4 &resented him 1ith a reason to &*rs*e the idea. %ost 1ar criminals 'o 2ac( home to
en)o4 a normal li3e 3or man4 4ears and are never &*t on trial to 3ace res&onsi2ilit4 3or their
actions. The li3e stor4 o3 a Na;i doctor told 2ac(1ards 1o*ld 3orce the stor4 to 3oc*s on the
a2s*rdit4 o3 leadin' a normal li3e carr4in' the memories o3 crimes a'ainst h*manit4. To
em&hasi;e the lac( o3 a1areness sho1n 24 the doctor, a second mind has 2een &laced in his
2od4. This voice can also 2e inter&reted as the doctor9s lon' s*&&ressed conscience. The
narrator co*ld 2e re3errin' to this 1hen he advises the reader, 6I3 4o* ever close a deal 1ith
the devil, and he 1ants to ta(e somethin' 3rom 4o* in ret*rn $ don9t let him ta(e 4o*r mirror.
Not 4o*r mirror, 1hich is 4o*r re3lection, 1hich is 4o*r do*2le, 1hich is 4o*r secret sharer:
>
C#!E. The 3act that the stor4 is told 2ac(1ards also em&hasi;es the im&ortance o3 o*r
conscience as a tool 3or ethical cond*ct. The revision o3 the doctor9s li3e done 24 the voice
mi'ht not 2ene3it the doctor, 1ho is d4in', 2*t it hel&s the reader to learn a2o*t the scarin'
e33icac4 o3 s*&&ressin' *n1anted memories.
Perspecti(e
He is travellin' to1ards his secret. .arasite or &assen'er, I am travellin'
there 1ith him. It 1ill 2e 2ad. It 1ill 2e 2ad, and not intelli'i2le. 8*t I 1ill (no1 one
thin' a2o*t it Cand at least the certaint4 2rin's com3ortE, I will (no1 how 2ad the
secret is. I 1ill (no1 the nat*re o3 the o33ence. 7lread4 I (no1 this. I (no1 that it is
to do 1ith trash and shit, and it is 1ron' in time. C!/$!?E
The stor4 is told 24 the voice o3 a mind that lives inside the head o3 the doctor. The narrator is
as i'norant as the reader a2o*t the doctor9s tho*'hts and memories, 2*t can &erceive 1hat the
>
Here 7mis all*des to the short stor4 6The Secret Sharer: 24 -ose&h +onrad. The +a&tain in the stor4 hides a
criminal on his shi&. The title is am2i'*o*s as the 1ord secret can 2e a no*n or an ad)ective that modi3ies the
3ollo1in' no*n sharer. Th*s the sharer is 2oth a co$sharer o3 a secret, the +a&tain and the criminal (no1 a2o*t
the latter character9s misdeeds, and a *navo1ed &assen'er. The character Tod Friendl4 contains 2oth the
criminalR the doctor, and the +a&tainR So*l. The4 2oth share the secret o3 the doctor9s misdeeds, and 2oth the
criminal &art o3 the doctor9s &ersonalit4 and the ar'*a2l4 more innocent So*l are *na1oved &assen'ers.
#"

doctor &erceives and has access to his emotions. The narrator9s i'norance re3lects the reader9s
*ntaintedness and re&resents a h*'e contrast to the &er&etrator 1hose actions the4 2oth
contem&late. The narrator seems to a&&ear in Tod Friendl49s head at his death 2ed s*rro*nded
24 doctors. This is 1hen and 1here the stor4 starts, and the narrator cannot eB&lain the
eBistence he 3inds himsel3 in. He re&orts 3rom a dream &recedin' his 1a(in' *& in the
hos&ital,
C=E&residin' over the dar(ness o*t o3 1hich I had loomed there 1as a 3i'*re, a male sha&e, 1ith an entirel4
*nmana'ea2le a*ra, containin' s*ch thin's as 2ea*t4, terror, love, 3ilth, and a2ove all &o1er. This male sha&e or
essence seemed to 2e 1earin' a 1hite coat Ca medic9s star( 1hite smoc(E. 7nd 2lac( 2oots. 7nd a certain (ind o3
smile. C#/E
The connection 2et1een this m4sterio*s man and the additional mind inside the doctor9s head
has 2een hinted at. 7nd the narrator descri2es havin' 6the sense o3 startin' o*t on a terri2le
)o*rne4, to1ards a terri2le secret. What did the secret have to do 1ith him? Him, 1ith him,
the 1orst man in the 1orst &lace at the 1orst time: C#/E. To *nravel the identit4 o3 the
threatenin' 3i'*re in 1hite the narrator is ta(en on a )o*rne4 2ac(1ards in time. It does not
seem Tod Friendl4 is a1are o3 his li3e 2ein' lived 2ac(1ards, 2*t the 3*nction o3 it is clearR to
*nmas( the 3i'*re in the 1hite coat and as the reader *nderstands 3*rther on, to eB&ose Tod
Friendl49s real identit4.
The narrator is allo1ed to 'et to (no1 Tod Friendl4 3rom the 1ea(ened da4s o3 old a'e
thro*'h the &ea( o3 his manhood to childhood. Thro*'h him 1e see Tod Friendl49s character
chan'e 3rom a &s4cho&athic lac( o3 emotional connectedness to a &erha&s more normal ran'e
o3 emotional eB&ression. He is a hidden &assen'er m*ch li(e the reader, 2*t he sees ca*salit4
2ac(1ards 3rom o*r &ers&ective. Th*s o*r ethical concl*sions are at times ver4 di33erent 3rom
/0

his. 7n4 *se o3 violence, 3or eBam&le, is inter&reted 24 the narrator as a consolator4 &rocess,
and an4 &rocess o3 healin' is vie1ed as m*tilation. This ma(es the role o3 doctors es&eciall4
interestin' as I 1ill eB&lore more dee&l4 3*rther on. The narrator identi3ies a 3eelin' o3 hatred
to1ards doctors. 7nd this is &erha&s not stran'e 2ased on his inverted readin' o3 1hat the4 do
to &eo&le, 2*t de3initel4 odd considerin' that alread4 on the ver4 3irst &a'e he eB&resses his
hatred, 67nd the tho*'ht came to me, s*r&risin' in its 3l*enc4 and con3idence, 3*ll4 3ormed,
3*ll4 settled, Ho1 I hate doctors. 7n4 doctors. 7ll doctors.: C##E. It seems as tho*'h he is
dra1in' on em&irical in3ormation 3rom &ast eB&eriences. EB&eriences he s*&&osedl4 has not
had since he has )*st come to li3e. 8elo1 I 1ill sho1 that there are more cl*es li(e this
thro*'ho*t the novel as to the ori'ins o3 the narrator.
Even tho*'h the eBistence o3 the narrator &resents a m4ster4 to the reader, he is also an
inval*a2le intermediar4 2et1een the reader and the doctor. -*st as the doctor is the 3ilter
2et1een the narrator and the narrator9s eB&eriences, the narrator 3ilters o*r eB&erience and is
a2sol*tel4 necessar4 3or o*r )o*rne4 2ac( to discover the doctor9s &ast. One the one hand, he
is an *nrelia2le narrator
@
, 2eca*se he descri2es ever4thin' 2ac(1ards. 8*t once 1e
*nderstand the 3rame1or( 1ithin 1hich he narrates 1e can 3ollo1 the real lo'ic o3 the actions
24 reversin' them. He does not seem to 'ras& that he inter&rets the 1orld 2ac(1ards, and th*s
o*r ethical concl*sions are o3ten at odds 1ith this. Nevertheless, the narrator states his
o&inions ever4 once in a 1hile and it is clear that his concl*sions o3ten are ver4 commenda2le
des&ite inha2itin' the 2od4 o3 a morall4 re&roacha2le man and havin' a slant &ers&ective on
his s*rro*ndin's.
What can 4o* cate'oricall4 not do to someone else9s 2od4? I 1on9t claim i'norance. .rett4 m*ch the same sort o3
shit 1as comin' do1n at 7%S, i3 1e9d 'one loo(in' 3or it, and o3 co*rse it 1as ha&&enin' all over to1n at 1ell$
@
+3. .helan ,6The Ethics and 7esthetics: #0$/0
/#

(no1n locations, St %ar49s, St 7ndre19s, St 7nne9s. It is 'eneral. It is 'eneral hos&ital. No2od4 can &retend 3or a
min*te that the4 don9t (no1 1hat9s 'oin' on. CAE
This sho1s the narrator9s inverted &ers&ective as well as his instinct to &rotect h*man li3e and
res&ect 3or the 6'entleness o3 h*man 3lesh: C#/0E. Even tho*'h some o3 the incidents the
narrator inter&rets 1ron'l4 are the actions o3 doctors in 7*sch1it;, he is indirectl4
commentin' on them here 24 &ointin' o*t that &eo&le sho*ld not &ro3ess i'norance o3 1hat is
'oin' on in their o1n societ4. The German &eo&le 1ere critici;ed in m*ch the same 1a4 3or
not &rotestin' the actions o3 their militar4 and &olitical leaders. 7nother criticism o3 1ar
crimes is visi2le as the narrator sa4s, 6The devil has somethin' to 2e said 3or him, he acts on
his o1n initiative and isn9t )*st 3ollo1in' orders.: C#!E. In .helan9s terms, So*l is o3ten an
*nrelia2le narrator 1ho misreports and misevaluates
!
& 2*t at times his eval*ations are
*ntainted 24 his th1arted &ers&ective. Thro*'h these CinEdirect )*d'ements
A
&assed 24 the
narrator the overall &*r&ose or messa'e o3 the novel is &ointed o*t to the reader.
The &ers&ective o3 the narrator is *ncommon and demands a lot 3rom the reader. In some
instances 1e 3eel close to him and that 1e share a common 'oal, 6I can9t tell N and I need to
(no1 N 1hether Tod is (ind. Or ho1 *n(ind. He ta(es to4s 3rom children, C=E6 C//E. 8*t in
other moments it seems o2vio*s that the narrator is no closer to the novel9s ethical center than
the doctor himsel3, 68ir(ena*, 1here I 1as in harmon4 1ith the en'ine o3 nat*re.: C#!0E. 7nd
it is hard to (no1 1hether his moral incom&ati2ilit4 1ith the reader is onl4 a &rod*ct o3 his
2ac(1ard inter&retation o3 time. 8*t to1ards the ver4 end o3 the novel there are si'ns that the
narrator (no1s that his inter&retations have 2een 2ac(1ards. Here the narrator and the doctor
share memories and relate to them 24 *sin' the &rono*ns # and we. The4 are th*s as closel4
*nited as the4 1ill 2e in the novel. The doctor$narrator ac(no1led'es the &ain and in)*ries
!
+3. .helan, 6The Ethics and 7esthetics: ##
A
+3. .helan ,6The Ethics and 7esthetics:
//

ca*sed 24 himsel3 and the other doctors in 7*sch1it;. He miBes his childhood mista(es o3
con)*'ation 1ith the most severe actions o3 his manhood,
Wait. %ista(e there. %ista(e. +ate'or4= We 2ran'. We &*tten. We 2ran', 1e &*tten, their o1n selves 1e too(en
all a1a4. Wh4 so man4 children and 2a2ies? What 'ot into *s. Wh4 so man4? We 1ere cr*el, the children 1eren9t
even 'oin' to 2e here 3or ver4 lon'. I choiced it, did I? C#!#E
To admit to a 1ron' doin' as enormo*s as that o3 havin' 2een a doctor in a Na;i
concentration cam& is not easil4 done, and the narrator seems to need the shield o3 childhood
mista(es in order to do so. In the co*rse o3 the novel the narrator moves closer to the &erson
1hose mind he &erceives the 1orld thro*'h, and as in the &revio*s F*otation he re'ards
himsel3 as an inherent &art o3 Odilo Unverdor2en. The *se o3 we is am2i'*o*s. It re3ers to
Odilo and the narrator, and the colle'iate o3 Na;i doctors in 7*sch1it;, and &erha&s also the
rest o3 man(ind that &rod*ced this tra'ed4 and let it ha&&en. In the 3ollo1in' section I 1ill
eB&lore the s*2)ect o3 the ethical scr*tin4 that Times Arrow9s *n*s*al &ers&ective allo1s 3or.
Even tho*'h the theme o3 7mis9 novel is closel4 intert1ined 1ith WWII, the critiF*e it
re&resents 'oes 3ar 2e4ond these historical events. I 1ish to sho1 that the s*2)ect o3 ethical
eB&loration is m*lti$la4ered and 3ar reachin'.
What is the .u%+ect o" Ethical .crutin$0
/octors
The theme o3 doctors is re&eated thro*'ho*t the stor4. Their &ro3ession re&resents some o3 the
most 2i;arre eBam&les o3 reversed ca*salit4 as the4 are societ49s main m*tilators instead o3
healers. This also *nderlines the cr*elt4 o3 Na;i doctors 1hose in3amo*s eB&erimentsR 1ith
t1ins, homoseB*als, and other ethnic 'ro*&s 2esides -e1s, re&resent one o3 Na;i German49s
most 'rotesF*e cha&ters. The reversal o3 time also allo1s 3or a vivid ill*stration o3 their
/?

a2horrent 2reach 1ith the Hi&&ocratic oath. Moctors *s*all4 en)o4 a &osition o3
tr*st1orthiness and social reco'nition, 2*t the narrator9s distorted &ict*re o3 realit4 *nderlines
the dan'ers o3 &lacin' 2lind 3aith in a*thorit4, 68*t 1h4 the &ride in these doctor children?
CWh4 not shame, 1h4 not incred*lo*s dread?E: C##E. The sce&tical attit*de to1ards doctors is
ver4 *nderstanda2le 1hen considerin' the doctors in 7*sch1it;. What character en)o4s more
&o1er, more a2sol*te and terri34in'l4 scarin' &o1er, than a male, 7r4an doctor in
7*sch1it;? He re&resents not onl4 the most 2eastl4 o3 1ar criminals, 2*t also the 1orld9s
lar'est concentration o3 &o1er in s4m2olic terms. He has (no1led'e most &eo&le do not
&ossess, he is male as o&&osed to the &h4sicall4 1ea(er 3emale, he is 7r4an as o&&osed to the
&oliticall4 1ea(er non$7r4an and en)o4s a &osition o3 hi'h social stat*s as 1ell as to have
militar4 2ac(in'. +learl4, a critiF*e o3 this character transcends the 1alls o3 7*sch1it;.
The doctor sho*ld &erha&s 2e critici;ed 3or the 1a4 he &ractices medicine in the US as 1ell.
He *ses his &osition o3 a*thorit4 and intimac4 1ith &atients to &ic( *& 1omen. He has also
1or(ed as an a2ortionist, and the &roced*re is made even more 'rotesF*e 24 2ein' reversed,
67 rectan'*lar &lacenta and a 2a24 a2o*t hal3 an inch lon' 1ith a heart 2*t no 3ace are
im&lanted 1ith the aid o3 3orce&s and s&ec*l*m.: C#0#E. The 1omen 1ho enter his o33ice 3or
an a2ortion are re3erred to as 6&ros&ective lad43riends: Ci2id.E. This and the descri&tion o3 the
end o3 the cons*ltation, 6The4 sa4 'ood24e. He9ll 2e seein' them. In a2o*t ei'ht 1ee(s, on
avera'e.: Ci2id.E, are comments that em&hasi;e the li(elihood o3 the doctor 2ein' the 3ather.
He is removin' 3et*ses that he himsel3 has &laced there, and time reversal hi'hli'hts his
res&onsi2ilit4 24 3orcin' him to &lace them there instead o3 removin' them.
/

While the narrator9s misreadin' o3 normal doctors9 1or( can 2e seen a so*rce o3 h*mor Cas I
1ill sho1 3*rther onE the horror o3 his renderin's o3 the 1or( o3 the doctors in 7*sch1it; is
onl4 increased 24 the reversed ca*salit4.
Thence to the +ham2er, 1here the 2odies 1ere stac(ed care3*ll4 and, in m4 vie1, co*nter$int*itivel4, 1ith 2a2ies
and children at the 2ase o3 the &ile, then the 1omen and the elderl4, and then the men. It 1as m4 st*22orn 2elie3
that it 1o*ld 2e 2etter the other 1a4 ro*nd, 2eca*se the little ones s*rel4 ris(ed in)*r4 *nder the &ress o3 na(ed
1ei'ht. 8*t it 1or(ed. C=EThere 1as *s*all4 a lon' 1ait 1hile the 'as 1as invisi2l4 introd*ced 24 the ventilation
'rilles. C=E I al1a4s 3elt a 'or'eo*s relie3 at the moment o3 the 3irst stirrin'. C#/"E
%ass eBtermination is t*rned into a creationistic &rocess 1here li3e m4sterio*sl4 is 2reathed
into tho*sands o3 s(inn4 and na(ed 2odies, the4 are given clothes and 6Hair 3or the -e1s came
co*rtes4 o3 Fil;3a2ri( 7.G. o3 Roth, near N*rem2er'.: C#?0E. The naivet4 o3 the narrator is
almost *n2eara2le 3or the reader 1ho (no1s the tr*e chronolo'4 and intentions 2ehind these
events. The h*moristic e33ect o3 inverted time is com&letel4 'one, and the narrator9s o&en
3ascination and a1e 3or their achievements ma(es the reader shiver 1ith a dis'*st that other
renderin's o3 these in3amo*s misdeeds mi'ht not accom&lish.
The narrator never 3eels 3*rther 3rom sharin' the reader9s &oint o3 vie1 than in these scenes.
His misinter&retations are not *ncriticall4 acce&ted 24 the reader 2eca*se he has esta2lished
himsel3 as someone 1ho shares m*ch o3 the reader9s (no1led'e a2o*t the 1orld, 6I9m not a
com&lete innocent. For instance, I 3ind I am eF*i&&ed 1ith a 3air amo*nt o3 val*e$3ree
in3ormation or 'eneral (no1led'e, i3 4o* &re3er.: C#@E. He even reacts 1ith s*r&rise to the
3act that &eo&le move 2ac(1ards C#E and 3inds it 6co*nterint*itive: that &eo&le 'et 4o*n'er
instead o3 older C#>E. The 1ord innocent stems 3rom the Latin nocere, to harm, and is an
ad)ective that descri2es one that has ca*sed no harm. 7s the narrator descri2es 1hat the reader
reco'ni;es as the 'assin' o3 tho*sands o3 &eo&le in a Na;i concentration cam&, he is
/>

de3initel4 not innocent. It is also interestin' that the character o3 the doctor and the narrator
seem to 2l*r eB&onentiall4 as the stor4 moves to1ards its end, or as the case ma4 2e, its
2e'innin'. %r. Friendl4 Meath, Tod *riendly, no1 'oes 24 the 3irst name +dilo, 1hich means
3ort*nate or &ros&ero*s in 2attle, and last name ,nverdoren, *ns&oilt. +dilo co*ld also
all*de to Odile, the mali'nant 2lac( version o3 s1an &rincess Odette in -wan .ake, the t1o
2allet 3i'*res loo( ali(e, 2*t have t1o o&&osite &ersonalities, m*ch li(e the doctor9s
&ersonalit4 s&lits into the innocent So*l and criminal Odilo Unverdor2en. The iron4 o3 the
last name is sel3$s&o(en. He carries this name as he 1or(s in Schloss Hartheim and
7*sch1it; even tho*'h this is 1here his character is 2ein' s&oilt. 7nd there is no do*2t that
this is the 6terri2le secret: to1ards 1hich this )o*rne4 has 2een steerin'.
I3 2ein' res&onsi2le 3or the 'assin' &rocess in 7*sch1it; 1as not 2ad eno*'h, 1e learn that
Odilo Unverdor2en eBercised his medical &ro3ession as a Na;i doctor in other 1a4s as 1ell.
He starts o*t at Schloss Hartheim, the Na;i medical center 3or e*thanasia o3 the &h4sicall4
and mentall4 disa2led, and advances to 7*sch1it; 1here he 1or(s 1ith 7*sch1it;9 &erha&s
most dreaded 3i'*re, Mr. -ose&h %en'ele. He has 2een 'iven a role in the novel as the
6'odli(e C=E Uncle .e&i: C#/AE . This 1as Mr. %en'ele9s act*al nic( name CLi3tonE and he is
descri2ed as the &ersoni3ication o3 the Na;i o2session 1ith &o1er and 'randiose a*thorit4,
6We needed ma'ic, to resolve si'ni3icance 3rom 1hat s*rro*nded *s, 1hich scarcel4
&ermitted contem&lation, 1e needed someone 'odli(e N someone 1ho co*ld t*rn this 1orld
aro*nd. 7nd in d*e co*rse he came=: Ci2id.E. The doctor, 1hose li3e 1e 3ollo1 2ac(1ards, is
Uncle .e&i9s assistant in the novel and as the narrator sa4s, 6He led. We 3ollo1ed.: C#?!E.
Th*s he is an accom&lice in some o3 the 1orld9s most a&&allin' 1ar crimes,
/@

7s to the so$called SeB&erimental9 o&erations o3 SUncle .e&i9, he had a s*ccess rate that a&&roached $ and F*ite
&ossi2l4 attained N #00 &er cent. 7 shoc(in'l4 in3lamed e4e2all at once recti3ied 24 a sin'le in)ection. Inn*mera2le
ovaries and testes seamlessl4 'ra3ted into &lace. Women 1ent o*t o3 that la2 loo(in' t1ent4 4ears 4o*n'er. C#?E
Havin' 2een involved in this is the main char'e in the reader9s &rosec*tion o3 the doctor and
his 2e4ond naTve inter&retation also ma(es it im&ossi2le to a2solve the narrator o3
res&onsi2ilit4 3or their actions. It is cr*cial 3or the *ltimate ethical stance o3 the novel that no
one, not even the narrator 1ho lives the events 2ac(1ards, can 2e a2solved o3 these crimes
even tho*'h the4 s*33er the del*sion o3 it 2ein' 'ood and the ri'ht thin' to do.
#a1i Ideolog$
.erha&s the most *n3athoma2le &art o3 the 1ar crimes o3 the National Socialists 1as
committed 24 doctors, 2*t the4 1ere a &art o3 a lar'er ideolo'ical &ict*re. Time reversal in
Times Arrow allo1s the core o3 the Na;i ideolo'4 to 2e revealed in all its me'alomaniacal
horror, 6O*r &reternat*ral &*r&ose? To dream a race. To ma(e a &eo&le 3rom the 1eather.
From th*nder and 3rom li'htnin'. With 'as, 1ith electricit4, 1ith shit, 1ith 3ire.: C#/AE. The
narrator s*&&osedl4 tal(s a2o*t the -e1s here, 2*t the historical 3acts are so 1ell (no1n that
the dream o3 the 7r4an race is 1hat enters the mind o3 the reader no matter 1hat the narrator
claims to thin(. 7mis *ses time reversal to tell the stor4 o3 Na;i 1ar crimes d*rin' WWII in
an ori'inal 1a4. 84 &la4in' 1ith the 3rame1or( 1ithin 1hich a 1ell (no1n tale is told, he
'ra2s the reader9s attention as 1ell as 'ainin' access to the reader9s emotional re'ister in a
ver4 e33icient manner. 84 shi3tin' the tem&oral str*ct*re o3 the stor4 so that the reader is
eB&ected to o2)ect to the renderin' o3 events, he ma(es the readers rearran'e the events to 3it
the real chronolo'4. 7s I read the stor4 I 1o*ld sto& to read dialo's 2ac(1ards and
reassem2le 1hat 1as 2ein' done in reverse. To tric( the receiver into moldin' the in3ormation
2ein' comm*nicated in one &artic*lar 1a4 is a ver4 e33ective strate'4 o3 ar'*mentation and
/!

&ers*asion. The a*thor9s e33ort is in m4 vie1 ethicall4 commenda2le 2eca*se he sets o*t to
comm*nicate somethin' a2o*t E*ro&e9s 'reatest atrocities o3 the t1entieth$cent*r4, to1ards
1hich man4 have develo&ed a shield o3 &rotection that co*nteracts most e33orts o3 emotional
im&act.
The Na;i Ideolo'4 seems eBtraneo*s to most &eo&le toda4, and the ma)orit4 o3 *s int*itivel4
3eel that 1e co*ld never &artici&ate in s*ch inh*mane &ractices as man4 Germans did d*rin'
the rei'n o3 the National Socialists. 7nd this is &erha&s the novel9s most im&ortant ethical
stance, no man sho*ld a*tomaticall4 3eel a2ove 2ein' s*2)ect to this t4&e o3 2rain1ashin' and
committin' these atrocities. .erha&s man is in 3act dra1n to1ards these actions and 1e need
to *se o*r conscience or so*l activel4 in order to 1ard o33 this &art o3 o*r nat*re. The narrator
re&resents the criminal on one hand, 2*t also the innocent reader, 2eca*se he does not reali;e
1hat he is s*sce&ti2le to ta(e &art in. The F*estion /ow are these acts possile to commit? is
al1a4s raised in relation to the s*2)ect o3 1ar crimes. 8*t 2eca*se the doctor re&resents most
&eo&le, a 3ollo1er, 1e are 3orced to see that 1e co*ld easil4 2e committin' similar crimes
*nless 1e ta(e com&lete res&onsi2ilit4 3or the conseF*ences o3 o*r actions. 7s a res*lt o3
havin' lost, or i'nored, his so*l, the doctor eB&eriences a s&lit in his &ersonalit4, o3 1hich the
narrator is an inherent &art. To eB&lore this 3*rther I 1ill 3oc*s on the relationshi& 2et1een the
narrator and the doctor in the 3ollo1in' section.
)something o" its horror is remo(ed,
7mis and man4 other 1riters 1ho deal 1ith the theme o3 the Holoca*st in their 3iction, have
2een 3iercel4 critici;ed 3or attem&tin' to de&ict the *n3athoma2le 3ates o3 the victims o3 Na;i
1ar crimes. 7dorno9s 3amo*s &hrase 6a3ter 7*sch1it;, 4o* co*ld no lon'er 1rite &oems:
C7dorno ?@/E has 2een CmisEF*oted 24 man4 critics har2orin' ne'ative attit*des to1ards 1hat
/A

can 2e called entertainment on the s*2)ect o3 the Holoca*st C%artinE. It is tr*e that 7dorno
1anted to eB&ress the im&ossi2ilit4 o3 descri2in' the heino*s crimes a'ainst h*manit4 that
1ere eBec*ted 24 the Na;is. He 1rites 6The aesthetic &rinci&le o3 st4lisation C=E ma(e an
*nthin(a2le 3ate a&&ear to have some meanin'R it is trans3i'*red, somethin' o3 its horror is
removed. This alone does an in)*stice to the victims C=E: C7dorno ?#?E. 8*t he contin*es to
*nderline the *tmost im&ortance o3 attem&tin' to comm*nicate these atrocities thro*'h &oetic
&ro)ects. I 2elieve his Sdict*m9 has 2een 3reF*entl4 misF*oted 2eca*se the mere &lacin' o3 the
1ords poetry and Auschwitz in the same sentence seems int*itivel4 1ron'. It is as i3 24
readin' 3iction a2o*t the Holoca*st 1e *se the victims &ain 3or o*r entertainment. Some
critics 1o*ld 3ollo1 this line o3 ar'*ment and descri2e 7mis9 time reversal in Times Arrow
as 6a tric(s4 &ost$modernist 'ame in the 1orst o3 all &ossi2le taste.: C.arr4 ?E 7mis himsel3
claims &ersonall4 to 2e dee&l4 interested in and a33ected 24 the s*2)ect o3 the Holoca*st,
I thin( I9m o2sessed 24 this s*2)ect C=E Mo 4o* (no1 a2o*t all the di33erent &erm*tations o3 res&onse, 1hen 4o*
have to read this st*33? Po* start o33 incred*lo*s N ho1 co*ld the Germans do s*ch thin's? Then 4o* s1ear a lot,
then tear3*lness, coldness, ven'e3*lness, then a d*ll acce&tance N and that9s )*st the mind. The 2od4 is di33erent N
4o*r slee& is com&letel4 destro4ed CFtd. in Wood, 6The Literar4 li&: >E
In a literar4 de2ate in The -e1ish U*arterl4 2et1een 7mis, L*c4 Ellman, -ose&h S(i2ell, and
the critic 8r4an +he4ette called 6Writin' the Un1rita2le:, the latter ar'*ed a 3ear o3 that these
3ictional narratives 1o*ld 62etra4 the dead: C+he4ette in .arr4 /E. 7*thor -ose&h S(i2ell
res&onded,
5Rather than loo(in' at 3iction as com&etin'5 1ith s*rvivor testimon4 1e sho*ld reco'ni;e in it evidence o3 an
on'oin' en'a'ement 1ith the caes*ra that 1as the Holoca*st.C=E It is an e33ort to 5re$ima'ine5 it, 1hich, in a
1orld no1 removed 3rom it in time, &rovides the ass*rance 5that 1e are still dealin' 1ith it5, in doin' so s*ch
1or( testi3ies to the occ*rrence and contin*ed reco'nition o3 the caes*ra. CS(i2ell in .arr4 ?.E.
/"

This is clearl4 also 7mis9 intention 1hen descri2in' t1entieth$cent*r4 E*ro&e9s &erha&s most
de3inin' &henomenon and not a 6tric(s4 &ost$modernist 'ame:. 8*t readin' the 73ter1ord o3
Times Arrow leaves no do*2t that 7mis 1as alread4 intri'*ed 24 the narrative strate'4 o3
lettin' time r*n in reverse 1hen choosin' this s*2)ect.
7nother as&ect o3 7mis9 novel that has 2een m*ch critici;ed is the lac( o3 3oc*s on the
victims. .hiloso&her -.F. L4otard is cited in .arr49s essa4 sa4in' that the -e1s are al1a4s
6o33sta'e: and th*s 6missin' 3rom their o1n tra'ed4: C?E. This is tr*e o3 7mis9 novel in the
sense that 1e are onl4 allo1ed to see the -e1s thro*'h the e4es o3 the narrator, or Odilo $ i3 a
di33erence 2et1een the t1o sho*ld 2e made $ descri2in' them disres&ect3*ll4 as 6coathan'ers
and violin 2o1s: C#/>E. 8*t it is no more a challen'e 3or the reader to handle this slanted
&ers&ective than that 1hich a33ects the renderin' o3 time as 2ac(1ards in the novel. The
victims are, &aradoBicall4, 'iven im&ortance thro*'h their *nim&ortance 1hen vie1ed
thro*'h the e4es o3 the &rota'onist. 7mis, ho1ever, is eBtremel4 3oc*sed on the victims and
ta(es &ain to ma(e it clear that the victims o3 the Holoca*st are re&resented 24 more 'ro*&s
than the -e1s, 6His 3eelin' tone )olts into s&eciali;ed attit*des and readinesses, one 3or
His&anics, one 3or 7sians, one 3or 7ra2s, one 3or 7merindians, one 3or 2lac(s, one 3or -e1s.
7nd he has a secondar4 re&ertoire o3 alerted hostilit4 to1ards &im&s, hoo(ers, )*n(ies, the
insane, the cl*23ooted, the hare$li&&ed, the homoseB*al male, and the ver4 old.: C>0E. There is
also made a &oint o*t o3 Odilo havin' 1or(ed at Schloss Hartheim, a (illin' center that
s&eciali;ed in &*ttin' to death the mentall4 and &h4sicall4 disa2led. The incl*sion o3 several
'ro*&s o3 victims 1hen re3errin' to the Holoca*st is not *ncontroversial, as eBem&li3ied 24
the 3act that most historians onl4 *se the 1ord a2o*t the 'enocide o3 E*ro&ean -e1s, and
sho*ld not 2e inter&reted as an e33ort to lessen the im&ortance o3 the Shoah, 2*t an e33ort to
em&hasi;e the im&ortance o3 victims that histor4 mi'ht easil4 3or'et. This co*ld in 3act 2e
?0

3iction9s most im&ortant tas( in relation to historical events that re&resent crimes a'ainst
h*manit4 s*ch as the Na;i 'enocides, to 3oc*s on the statisticall4 less &rominent individ*als
and stri(e an emotional chord in the comin' 'enerations. Nevertheless, the amo*nt o3
2ac('ro*nd in3ormation necessar4 3or inter&retin' Times Arrow as it ar'*a2l4 1as intended
to 2e *nderstood, is enormo*s. Gre2er em&hasi;es 6die enorme Relevan; der
WissensverhVltnisse: C!"E Cthe enormo*s relevance o3 the (no1led'e conditionsE in relation
to retronarrations. The a*thor de&ends, &erha&s more stron'l4 than *s*al, on the reader9s
'eneral (no1led'e 1hen em&lo4in' time reversal. 8*t this is tr*e in the *se o3 other inverted
strate'ies o3 comm*nication, s*ch as iron4 or sarcasm, as 1ell.
8ased on m4 eB&loration o3 the vario*s 3*nctions o3 time reversal in Times Arrow I 2elieve
the ethical dimension o3 commentin' on the crimes committed 24 a Na;i doctor is 'iven more
im&act 24 lettin' time r*n in reverse. 7s a reader I have not &*t m4 '*ard *& to &rotect m4sel3
3rom, 1hat 24 man4 standards is, 4et another descri&tion o3 these atrocities. 7mis &re&ares his
reader 3or 1hat is to come in the sense that he ma(es it clear that the reader m*st reassem2le
the events accordin' to correct chronolo'4, 2*t it is im&ossi2le to 2e mentall4 &re&ared 3or the
im&act o3 7*sch1it;9 atrocities in reverse. This is the novel9s stro(e o3 'eni*s. 7s )o*rnalist
-ames Wood 1rites in his revie1 o3 the novel, 684 reversin' the narrative, 7mis not onl4
moves *s 1ith a vision o3 1hat mi'ht have 2een in some 2eni'n 1orld, 2*t hints also at the
ver4 moral del*sion o3 the Na;is. Mid not these evil men 2elieve &recisel4 that the4 1ere
doin' 'ood, dreamin' a race, t*rnin' 2ac( histor4 and time?: CWood, 6Slo*chin': /E. 7nd as
the 'eneration o3 &eo&le 1ho s*rvived the Holoca*st are d4in', narratives on the s*2)ect
C3ictional as 1ell as historicalE re&resent o*r onl4 access to these historical events. I3 3iction
sho*ld 2e 2anned 3rom treatin' the s*2)ect a most val*a2le as&ect o3 the stories o3 the
individ*als9 s*33erin's 1o*ld 2e lost. 7cademic and historical teBts on the s*2)ect share a
?#

scienti3ic distance that, com&ared to 1hat &oetic 1or(s can achieve, mi'ht challen'e the teBt9s
access to the emotional re'ister o3 its readers.
In the neBt cha&ter I 1ill treat the s*2)ect o3 ho1 the *se o3 time reversal can 3acilitate the
creation o3 some emotive e33ects that can e33ectivel4 hel& endorse the narratives9 overall
&*r&ose.
?/

Chapter 2
Writing to Entertain.
A Cogniti(e Poetic
2
Anal$sis o" Emoti(e E""ects And &ime 'e(ersal.
In m4 neBt li3e I 1ant to live m4 li3e 2ac(1ards. Po* start o*t dead and 'et that o*t o3 the 1a4. Then 4o* 1a(e
*& in an old &eo&le9s home 3eelin' 2etter ever4 da4. Po* 'et (ic(ed o*t 3or 2ein' too health4, 'o collect 4o*r
&ension, and then 1hen 4o* start 1or(, 4o* 'et a 'old 1atch and a &art4 on 4o*r 3irst da4. Po* 1or( 3or 0
4ears *ntil 4o*9re 4o*n' eno*'h to en)o4 4o*r retirement. Po* &art4, drin( alcohol, and are 'enerall4
&romisc*o*s, then 4o* are read4 3or hi'h school. Po* then 'o to &rimar4 school, 4o* 2ecome a (id, 4o* &la4.
Po* have no res&onsi2ilities, 4o* 2ecome a 2a24 *ntil 4o* are 2orn. 7nd then 4o* s&end 4o*r last " months
3loatin' in l*B*rio*s s&a$li(e conditions 1ith central heatin' and room service on ta&, lar'er F*arters ever4 da4
and then <oilaW Po* 3inish o33 as an or'asmW I rest m4 case.
6%4 NeBt Li3e 8ac(1ards,: 24 Wood4 7llen
Thro*'h the st*d4 o3 time reversal in vario*s teBts it has 2ecome clear to me that this
&artic*lar narrative strate'4 o&ens *& man4 &ossi2ilities 3or emotive e33ects. These are most
nota2l4 seen in the *se o3 h*mor and in the creation o3 a 3eelin' o3 *nease or *ncanniness
thro*'h the disr*&tion o3 the esta2lished eB&erience o3 the 1orld. This cha&ter re&resents a
co'nitive &oetic anal4sis o3 some o3 the emotive e33ects that can res*lt 3rom time reversal
2ased on the stories st*died.
In Times Arrow all emotive e33ects can 2e said to s*&&ort the conve4ance o3 a social critiF*e,
2*t some critics have ar'*ed that instead the4 triviali;e the serio*s s*2)ect o3 the Holoca*st. I
"
+o'nitive .oetics is the st*d4 o3 the interaction 2et1een &ro&erties o3 the h*man mind and &ro&erties o3 literar4
teBts. Th*s a co'nitive &oetic anal4sis lin(s &s4cholo'ic &rocesses to lin'*istic constr*cts. 6+o'nitive &oetics
C=E sees literat*re C=E as a s&eci3ic 3orm o3 ever4da4 h*man eB&erience and es&eciall4 co'nition that is
'ro*nded in o*r 'eneral co'nitive ca&acities 3or ma(in' sense o3 the 1orld: CGavins and Steen #E
??

1ill consider ho1 these e33ects, and es&eciall4 the *se o3 h*mor, a33ect and can 2e seen as
com&romisin' to the novel9s theme.
3umor
H*mor is *sed in Times Arrow& amon' other means, to introd*ce the reader to the narrator9s
stran'e &erce&tion o3 time. Ever4da4 events 2ecome laden 1ith h*moristic ener'4 as the4 are
de&icted in reverse, 67t the end o3 the da4, 2e3ore m4 co33ee, in I 'o. 7nd there it is alread4,
that h*miliatin' warm smell. I lo1er m4 &ants and ma(e 1ith the ma'ic handle. S*ddenl4 it9s
all there, com&lete 1ith toilet &a&er, 1hich 4o* *se *& and de3tl4 1ind 2ac( on to the roll.:
C#A$#"E. The ta2oo act o3 'oin' to the 2athroom is s*ddenl4 a so*rce o3 h*mor, d*e to the
a2s*rdit4 o3 de&ictin' it in reverse. The reader can en)o4 the 'rati3ication o3 seein' 1hat is
reall4 'oin' on and solvin' the &*;;le 24 a&&l4in' the condition o3 time reversal to the
&rocess. 7ccordin' to -eroen <andaele the t1o necessar4 in'redients 3or comed4, incongruity
and superiority& are th*s &resent. The reader &erceives an incon'r*o*sness in o2servin' that
the smell o3 de3ecation &recedes the act. The4 then eB&lain this incon'r*it4 24 ta(in' time
reversal into acco*nt, as the conteBt o3 this &artic*lar novel reF*ires. 7s a res*lt o3 havin'
crac(ed the code o3 the messa'e, a 3eelin' o3 s*&eriorit4
#0
arises and mi'ht ma(e the reader
la*'h. Similarl4, a dialo'*e 2et1een doctor and &atient is s*ddenl4 an a2s*rdit4 o3
incon'r*o*s re&lies and F*estions,
9I9m no1 'oin' to as( 4o* some F*estions.9
SNo.9
SSlee&in' o(a4? 7n4 di'estive &ro2lems?9
#0
The s*&eriorit4 that <andaele, amon' others, deems necessar4 3or h*moristic e33ect co*ld 2e directed to1ards
a character in the conteBt o3 the )o(e Chere So*l 1ho does not *nderstand that time is reversedE or the decoder9s
o1n &ast as the4 have trans'ressed 3rom 2e1ilderment to intelli'ence. Thomas Ho22es theoreti;ed this alread4
in the seventeenth$cent*r4 24 claimin' that 6the &assion o3 la*'hter is nothin' else 2*t sudden glory arisin' 3rom
some s*dden conce&tion o3 some eminenc4 in o*rselves, 24 com&arison 1ith the in3irmit4 o3 others, or 1ith o*r
o1n 3ormerl4: CRoec(elein ?E.
?

SI9ll 2e ei'ht4$one in -an*ar4.9
S7nd 4o*9re =1hat?9
SI don9t 3eel m4sel3.9
SWell, 1hat seems to 2e the &ro2lem?9 C?>E
Readin' the dialo'*e 3rom to& to 2ottom is the eB&ected 1a4 o3 inter&retin' it. 8*t this res*lts
incomm*nicative and a2s*rd. Readin' the dialo'*e 3rom 2ottom to to& 1o*ld normall4 seem
a2s*rd, 2*t here &roves comm*nicative. The 3irst readin' co*ld &rod*ce la*'hter merel4 d*e
to its a2s*rdit4, 2*t reco'ni;in' the dialo'*e as incon'r*o*s does not in itsel3 '*arantee a
h*moro*s res&onse. On the other hand, 1hen read 1ithin the 3rame1or( o3 reversed time, the
incon'r*it4 is solved and a 3eelin' o3 s*&eriorit4 is added 1hich ens*res some h*morin' o3
the reader. S*&eriorit4 there3ore also arises 3rom 3eelin' incl*ded in the a*thor9s &la43*l
eB&eriment o3 lettin' time r*n in reverse. 7s o&&osed to the reader, So*l is sim&l4 con3*sed
24 most o3 1hat he eB&eriences thro*'h Tod Friendl4. This adds to the comed4 thro*'h a
3eelin' o3 s*&eriorit4 over the narrator, as the reader has (no1led'e that So*l lac(s. 7nd it is
2ased on this that the reader can reco'ni;e that 1hich the narrator in3ers incorrectl4. This
o&ens a 'a& 2et1een re&resentations and realit4 1hich allo1s 3or a h*moristic emotional
e33ect.
He ta(es to4s 3rom children, on the street. He does. The (id 1ill 2e standin' there, 1ith 3l*stered mother, 1ith 2i'
dad. Tod9ll come *&. The to4, the sF*ea(4 d*c( or 1hatever, 1ill 2e o33ered to him 24 the smilin' child. Tod ta(es
it. 7nd 2ac(s a1a4, 1ith 1hat I 2elieve is called a shiteatin' 'rin. The child9s 3ace t*rns 2lan(, or closes. 8oth to4
and smile are 'one, he ta(es 2oth to4 and smile. Then he heads 3or the store, to cash it in. For 1hat? 7 co*&le o3
2*c(s. +an 4o* 2elieve this '*4? He9ll ta(e cand4 3rom a 2a24, i3 there9s 3i3t4 cents in it 3or him. C//$/?E
7mis 2*ilds *& his )o(e almost li(e a stand$*& comedian 1o*ld. The lan'*a'e is ver4 oral,
characteri;ed 24 short sentences and *tterances desi'ned to convince the reader, 6He does:,
and 24 the *se o3 &ersonal commentar4 made in a con3idential tone, 6+an 4o* 2elieve this
?>

'*4?:. I am tem&ted to call these comments emotive si'nals. The4 2oth si'nal that the
narrator eB&ects the reader to s4m&athi;e 1ith his 3r*stration, and at the same time that the
im&lied a*thor 1ishes to create a h*moristic e33ect.
7mis &eda'o'icall4 allo1s the readers to 3amiliari;e 1ith his narrative strate'4 24 lettin'
them decode the meanin' 2ehind these h*moristic &ara'ra&hs. The eB&erience o3 2ein'
h*mored is a &ositive rein3orcement that stim*lates contin*ed readin', and 7mis needs the
reader9s 3*ll attention as 1ell as emotional involvement to conve4 his messa'e. The overall
&*r&ose o3 the 2oo( is certainl4 not to am*se the reader, 2*t rather to conve4 a ver4 serio*s
messa'e o3 ho1 crimes s*ch as those committed 24 Na;i doctors co*ld ta(e &lace. 7nd 7mis
*ses, amon' other emotive e33ects, h*mor in his de&iction o3 evil. 7t a 3irst 'lance this ma4
seem t1isted, 2*t it is also reminiscent o3 the novel9s th1arted chronolo'4 1hich can interact
1ith h*mor in 2itter sarcasm and &iercin' social critiF*e. Th*s time reversal and the *se o3
h*mor 2oth serve to em&hasi;e the &erversion o3 Na;i ideolo'4.
Even tho*'h Times Arrow 3or the most &art directs its ethical scr*tin4 to1ards Na;i 1ar
crimes, as&ects o3 ever4da4 h*man interaction are also critici;ed, and the critiF*e is at times
made thro*'h the *se o3 h*mor. The social hierarch4 o3 earl4 t1entieth$cent*r4 German4 that
3acilitated the Na;i &ersec*tion o3 &eo&le 3rom lo1er social strata, re&resents a horri3ic
eBam&le o3 the o*tcome o3 *neF*al distri2*tion o3 &o1er 2et1een 'ro*&s o3 &eo&le. The same
he'emonic &o1er str*ct*re is to 2e 3o*nd in other social relations, s*ch as those 2et1een
doctors and &atients, &arents and their children as 1ell as h*s2ands and 1ives. The di33erent
relationshi&s 2et1een men and 1omen are 'iven m*ch em&hasis in the novel, and 7mis is at
times meas*red in his criticall4 laden comments thro*'h the voice o3 the narrator. Tod9s
relationshi&s start 1ith the 2rea( *& and end 1ith the co*rtshi&, a realit4 1hich con3*ses So*l
?@

1hen contem&latin' interaction 2et1een the seBes, :I have noticed, in the &ast, o3 co*rse, that
most conversations 1o*ld ma(e m*ch 2etter sense i3 4o* ran them 2ac(1ards. 8*t 1ith this
man$1oman st*33, 4o* co*ld r*n them an4 1a4 4o* li(ed N and still 'et no 3*rther 3or1ard.:
C@0E. Here the h*mor lies in the commentar4 So*l *nintentionall4 ma(es on the real
relationshi& 2et1een men and 1omen. 8*t So*l9s meditations on his realit4 are *s*all4 not
immediatel4 a&&lica2le to our realit4, a 3act 1hich at times ma(es his statements 2itterl4
ironic. Earl4 in the novel So*l is a&&alled 24 the doctor9s relationshi& to &atients 1ho are
&rostit*tes as the4 end *& in 1orse &h4sical condition a3ter the doctor9s visit than the4 1ere
2e3ore. 8*t 1hen the4 meet 1ith their &im&s, all 2eaten *& and &enn4less, the4 2ecome
restit*ted. So*l comments 1itho*t 2ein' a1are o3 the a2s*rdit4 o3 his remar(, 6Where 1o*ld
the &oor 'irls 2e 1itho*t their &im&s, 1ho sho1er mone4 on them and as( 3or nothin' in
ret*rn?: C?"E. The im&lied a*thor sarcasticall4 comments on the im2alance o3 &o1er in a real
1orld relationshi& thro*'h So*l9s voice. 7t the same time 2oth eBam&les o3 commentar4 are
sincerel4 stated 24 So*l as ne'ative remar(s in sit*ations 1here he disa&&roves o3 Tod9s
2ehavior. 8*t the4 reach a ne1 level o3 social criticism 1hen comm*nicated to a reader 1ho
(no1s that time is reversed and 1ho can there3ore 3*ll4 a&&reciate the iron4. The im&lied
a*thor can *se So*l9s incorrect &erce&tion o3 the 1orld to comm*nicate a social critiF*e to the
reader as an additional la4er o3 the narrative. Th*s time reversal allo1s 3or a ne1 t1ist to
comment on im&ortant as&ects o3 societ4. 7nd even tho*'h these im2alanced relationshi&s
have 2een &ointed o*t inn*mera2le times 2e3ore, 7mis9 *se o3 time reversal re&resents an
emotionall4 e33ective 1a4 to descri2e the s*2altern.
7s sho1n in the eBam&les a2ove, h*mor de&ends on a 3eelin' in the reci&ient o3 sharin'
intelli'ence 1ith the emitter, and this 2ond can 2e stren'thened 24 the &resence o3 a 3i'*re
that does not. In Times Arrow the a*thor and the reader share common 'ro*nd that the
?!

narrator is not a1are o3, and his reiterated stat*s as the 2e1ildered endears him to the reader
##
.
We reco'ni;e this as a t4&ical 3eat*re o3 the narrator, and this reco'nition can also serve as a
2asis 3or h*moristic e33ect. EBa''eration can also easil4 &rod*ce h*mor, and 7mis eB&lores
2oth strate'ies as he ties a closer 2ond 2et1een the narrator and the reader earl4 in the novel,
I &*;;le a lot, i3 the tr*th 2e (no1n. In 3act I9ve had to concl*de that I am 'enerall4 rather slo1 on the *&ta(e.
.ossi2l4 even s*2normal, or mildl4 a*tistic. It ma4 ver4 1ell 2e that I9m not &la4in' 1ith a 3*ll dec(. The cards
1on9t add *& 3or meR the 1orld 1on9t start ma(in' sense. C?!E
The ridic*le is e33ective 2eca*se it is sel3$in3licted on the narrator9s &art and 2eca*se it is
h4&er2olic. He re&eatedl4 ma(es the same statement in di33erent choices o3 1ords. So*ls sa4s
that he puzzles and is 6slo1 on the *&ta(e:, 6s*2normal:, 6mildl4 a*tistic:, 6not &la4in' 1ith
a 3*ll dec(: and that 6the cards 1on9t add *&: 3or him and 6the 1orld 1on9t start ma(in'
sense:. The meta&hors he *ses to eB&ress his odd &erce&tion o3 the 1orld start o*t as one
1ord meta&hors that are 1idel4 *sed, s*ch as puzzle, 2*t end *& eB&lorin' the realm o3 card
&la4 in 1hole &hrases that are less commonl4 *sed li(e descri2in' himsel3 as someone for
whom the cards will not add up. The 3*rther 1e 'et into the )o(e the less readil4 availa2le is
the decodin' o3 the *tterances. In this it resem2les the 3amo*s monolo'*e o3 -ohn +leese in
the %ont4 .4thon s(etch 6The .et Sho&: C+leese and +ha&manE, 1here the &ossi2le 1a4s o3
eB&ressin' that a &arrot has died are eB&lored. -ames Wood sa4s this is ver4 8ritish as 1ell
t4&ical o3 7mis9 1ritin' and lin(s it to his Mic(ensian ins&iration,
7mis *ses eBa''eration and re&etition, as Mic(ens does, li(e a rh4me, li(e a 2eat. His 7merican in3l*ences have
not a33ected this ver4 En'lish st4le N this de2atin' room, 2ro12eatin', almost &arliamentar4 rhetoric C=E So he
2e'ins sentences 1ith the same o&enin' 1ords, he re&eats &hrases, he sF*ee;es a s*2)ect 3or its &*n'ent comic
essences.C6The Literar4 li&: ?E
##
+3. .helan9s term onding unreliaility, 6The Ethics and 7esthetics: #?
?A

Even tho*'h the &la43*lness o3 eBa''eration is int*itivel4 com&rehensi2le, it is interestin'
3rom a co'nitive &oint o3 vie1 that develo&in' sim&le semantic constr*cts into more
com&licated ones, 2oth in leBical densit4 and s4ntactical com&leBit4, can e33ect h*mor in
itsel3. The illoc*tionar4 3orce
#/
sta4s the same, so the reader (no1s the res*lt o3 decodin' the
messa'es, 2*t nevertheless seems to dra1 &leas*re 3rom the act o3 com&licated semantic
deci&herment. The reader is &rovided 1ith in3ormation 1ithin a de3ined 3rame1or( 1hich
leads them to inter&retations that 1o*ld 2e m*ch less accessi2le o*tside this conteBt. The4
3eel a shared (no1led'e 1ith the im&lied a*thor and s*&erior to their 3ormer sel3. The
&leas*re o3 readin' a novel 1here time, one o3 realit49s most 3iBed 3eat*res, is reversed can
&erha&s 2e acco*nted 3or in a similar manner. The reader is co'nitivel4 tri''ered 24 havin' to
&rocess the in3ormation 'iven 24 reversin' the order o3 events in order to *nderstand all levels
o3 the narrative.
7mis is 1ell (no1n 3or his lin'*istic s(ills. -ames Wood 1rites in his revie1 o3 Times
Arrow that 6%artin 7mis is a 2etter 1riter than he is a novelist. He &addles in character,
s&lashes in the 1orld, 2*t immerses himsel3 in 1aves o3 lan'*a'e. Lan'*a'e is his real
ener'iser, his distraction, his 3atal +leo&atra: CWood, 6Slo*chin': #E. 7nd it is &erha&s
&assa'es s*ch as the a2ove that com&licate the readin' o3 Times Arrow0 Some critics have
3elt that the stor49s &*r&ose is to entertain and not to de&ict the dar(est &arts o3 h*man histor4
and &s4che. %4 vie1, ho1ever, is that most o3 the h*mor in Times Arrow is )*sti3ied. 7s a
&eda'o'ical strate'4 to introd*ce time reversal to the reader earl4 in the 2oo(, it is as
a&&ro&riate as it is later in the novel 1here it is *sed more 2itin'l4 to hi'hli'ht ethicall4
re&roacha2le relations 2et1een &eo&le. The incon'r*it4 1ith the real 1orld that res*lts 3rom
#/
-. L. 7*stin distin'*ishes 2et1een three senses o3 an4 *tterance. 7n *tterance9s illoc*tionar4 3orce is the
intention 2ehind the 1ords. Th*s t1o *tterances consistin' o3 di33erent 1ords mi'ht have the same illoc*tionar4
3orce or intended meanin'.
?"

So*l9s &ers&ective t*rns 3rom &rod*cin' la*'hter to &rod*cin' stron' *nease and sic(ness in
the reader 1hen Odilo9s &ast as a Na;i doctor is revealed. From m4 3irst readin' o3 Times
Arrow I have never 2een *ns*re o3 ho1 to react to this develo&ment, and 2elo1 I 1ill sho1
ho1 3ollo1in' the reci&e 3or h*mor to &rod*ce terror in the reader, is 2oth advanta'eo*s to
his motive and co*ra'eo*s o3 7mis.
.uspense and Curiosit$
The &leas*re o3 h*mor and am*sement is easil4 'ras&ed and acce&ted as a reason to en)o4
1or(s o3 art. The &leas*re o3 *nease and s*s&ense, ho1ever, seems co*nterint*itive.
Nevertheless, all 3iction to4s 1ith the reader9s antici&ation o3 1hat is to come and c*riosit4
a2o*t the &ast to a 'reater or lesser de'ree. Within a controlled settin' readers ha&&il4 allo1
the &rovocation o3 emotions li(e terror, re&*'nance and s*s&ense. %eir Stern2er' 1rites
a2o*t ho1 the a*thor can 1ithhold in3ormation and create 'a&s in the reader9s (no1led'e
a2o*t the 3ictional 3*t*re and 3ictional &ast. This 1o*ld &rod*ce suspense and curiosity,
res&ectivel4, in the readerR emotive e33ects desi'ned to ens*re contin*ed readin'. In narratives
o3 a2sol*te time reversal the real$time chronolo'4 is inverted and the events chronolo'icall4
3*rther into the 3*t*re are told 2e3ore those o3 the chronolo'ical &ast. In other 1ords, the
tem&oral movement o3 the tale is co*nter to the direction o3 real$time. The creation o3
s*s&ense can th*s 2e said to relate to events 2elon'in' in the chronolo'ical &ast, 1hile
c*riosit4 can 2e said to concern in3ormation 'a&s relatin' to the 3*t*re and the &ast.
Stern2er'9s terminolo'4 is in m4 vie1 ver4 *se3*l, 2*t can easil4 2ecome con3*sin' 1hen
dealin' 1ith narratives o3 reversed time. Nevertheless, I 1ill attem&t to sho1 ho1 an a*thor
o3 a narrative 1here time is reversed ma(es *se o3 these t1o narratolo'ical strate'ies as
eBam&les o3 emotive e33ects.
0

In Times Arrow the 'reat m4ster4 that ma(es most readers 1ant to contin*e readin', is the
in3ormation 'a& shared 24 the narrator and the readers a2o*t the doctor9s &ast misdeeds. This
in3ormation 'a& is hinted at in the 3ollo1in',
Time no1 &assed *ntrac(a2l4, 3or it 1as 'iven over to str*''le, 1ith the 2ed li(e a tra& or a &it, covered in nets,
and the sense o3 startin' o*t on a terri2le )o*rne4, to1ards a terri2le secret. What did the secret have to do 1ith?
Him, 1ith him, the 1orst man in the 1orst &lace at the 1orst time. C#/E
Initiall4 the doctor9s crime is onl4 hinted at and l*r(s in the 2ac('ro*nd materiali;ed in the
3orm o3 scar4 male 3i'*res in 1hite 3roc(s and 2lac( 2oots, or 2a2ies as in this &assa'e,
6Rather as I 3eared the4 1o*ld, 2a2ies have started sho1in' *& in Tod9s dreams. The49ve
sho1n *&. Or, at least, one o3 them has. Nothin' 'r*esome ha&&ens, and I am co&in' 3ine
1ith it so 3ar.: C>?$>E The 3inal 1ords 6so 3ar: are smaller *nits that si'nal a 1arnin' to the
reader and tri''er a 3eelin' o3 s*s&ense a2o*t 1hat mi'ht come 3*rther on in the narrative.
Mreams t4&icall4 mirror these &ast actions in the novel and create 1hat I 3eel I m*st de3ine as
suspense, even tho*'h it relates to actions in the character9s &ast, 2eca*se the4 2elon' later in
the narrative.
1uriosity is the term 1hich is *s*all4 lin(ed to the &ast o3 a character, the time 1hich
&recedes the narrative and that the narrative does not cover directl4. Learnin' a2o*t a
character9s &ast is a 1a4 to modi34 the reader9s reactions to the character9s actions 2eca*se
&ast eB&eriences motivate and eB&lain later 2ehavior. The narrator &resents the reader 1ith
cl*es to com&lete their &ict*re o3 the character, and 2ased on the 2*ildin' im&ression the4
have o3 the character the4 ma(e their )*d'ement. .helan 1rites, 6-*d'ements are the means
24 1hich the di33erent levels o3 comm*nication 'et o&ened *&, and &ro'ression 'overns the
arc o3 the a*thorial a*dience9s eB&erience o3 these vario*s dimensions 3rom a narrative9s
#

2e'innin' thro*'h its endin'.: C6Ethics and 7esthetics: ?E +*riosit4 is the drivin' 3orce
2ehind the 'atherin' o3 in3ormation on the 2asis o3 1hich the reader ma(es her )*d'ements,
and concomitantl4 re&resents a t4&e o3 narrative progression0
23
In the case o3 Times Arrow
c*riosit4 co*ld 2e identi3ied in the relationshi& the reader has to the d4in' Tod Friendl4. He is
the 3irst im&ression 1e 'et o3 the com&leB identit4 o3 the &rota'onist, a character that is
3reF*entl4 altered thro*'ho*t the tale d*e to his chan'in' names and s*rro*ndin's as 1ell as
his reversed a'in'. 7s the reader starts 3ormin' a h4&othesis a2o*t the doctor havin' 2een
&art o3 Na;i medical eB&eriments, the F*estion immediatel4 &resents itsel3 o3 ho1 he can live
1ith the (no1led'e o3 1hat he has done? What t4&e o3 conscience does the doctor have? We
'et some cl*es thro*'h So*l a2o*t the doctor9s 3eelin's to1ards his &ast,
He certainl4 co*ldn9t 'ive t1o shits a2o*t the <ietnam War. C=E There is another 1ar comin'. Oh, 4es, 1e do
(no1 that. 7 2i' 1ar, a 1orld 1ar, 1hich 1ill roll thro*'h villa'es. C=E There9s eBactl4 t1ent4$3ive 4ears to 'o
2e3ore it starts. C=E For Tod is hi'hl4 sensitive to this material. It a33ects him li(e a smell, li(e a chime. Too late=
There is the same (ind o3 tri''er 1hen he hears that other lan'*a'e.C=E 7 third thin' ma(es the tri''er sli&, nail$
cli&&in'. It9s the odo*r the sallo1 rinds 'ive o33, as the4 coo( and crac(le in the 3ire=C=E C>AE.
The reader and So*l 2oth have an *r'e to (no1 ho1 to )*d'e the d4in' doctor, 2*t the4 are
hindered in this F*est 24 havin' his li3e9s tale told 2ac(1ards, 6I can9t tell N and I need to
(no1 N 1hether Tod is (ind. Or ho1 *n(ind.: C//E. The F*estion is, ho1 *n(ind is Tod? 7nd
is he *ltimatel4 3*ll4 res&onsi2le 3or his horrendo*s actions? 8*t as the narrative advances 1e
are 'iven cl*es a2o*t the &rota'onist9s &ast, and as o*r c*riosit4 is movin' closer to 2ein'
satis3ied 1e 3eel more con3ident a2o*t o*r emotional and intellect*al assessment o3 his
character.
#?
+3. .helan9s 2oo( cha&ter 6Narrative &ro'ression: in !arrative )ynamics4 %ssays on time& plot& closure& and
frames.
/

4nease and 3orror
Mid his e4es deceive him, or had his hair t*rned in the do;en 4ears o3 his li3e 3rom 1hite to iron$'ra4 *nder its concealin'
d4e? Was the net1or( o3 1rin(les on his 3ace 2ecomin' less &rono*nced? Was his s(in healthier and 3irmer, 1ith even a
to*ch o3 r*dd4 1inter color? He co*ld not tell. He (ne1 that he no lon'er stoo&ed and that his &h4sical condition had
im&roved since the earl4 da4s o3 his li3e. S+an it 2e$ ?9 he tho*'ht to himsel3, or, rather, scarcel4 dared to thin(.
CFit;'erald, 6The +*rio*s +ase o3 8en)amin 8*tton: ##E
9Good LordW9 he said alo*d. The &rocess 1as contin*in'. There 1as no do*2t o3 it N he loo(ed no1 li(e a man o3 thirt4.
Instead o3 2ein' deli'hted, he 1as *neas4 N he 1as 'ro1in' 4o*n'er. C#"E
Unease and horror are emotive e33ects that are related to the creation o3 c*riosit4 and
s*s&ense. Not (no1in' the o*tcome or motivational 3orce 2ehind a sit*ation and vacilatin'
2et1een &ossi2le res*lts can 2e nerve 1rec(in', also 1hen eB&erienced thro*'h 3iction. The
'othic 'enre has made 3reF*ent *se o3 this, and the short stor4 6The +*rio*s +ase o3
8en)amin 8*tton: is an eBam&le o3 a narrative, that ar'*a2l4 2elon's to the 'enre, 1here time
reversal &rod*ces a stron' sense o3 *nease. Time is onl4 reversed in the &h4sical a'in' o3 the
&rota'onist, 8en)amin 8*tton, 1ho is 2orn as an old man and dies a ne1 2orn 2a24 some
sevent4 4ears later. Havin' to live one9s li3e in the o&&osite direction o3 the rest o3 man(ind is
a 3ate 3e1 1o*ld 2e envio*s o3, and this &lot *nderstanda2l4 allo1s 3or the creation o3 m*ch
emotive e33ect. Times Arrow does not 2elon' to the 'othic 'enre, 2*t the reversal o3 time
3antasticall4 alters a 3*ndamental 3actor in o*r eBistence 1hich is *nsettlin' in m*ch the same
1a4. The th1arted vie1 on realit4 that is ca*sed 24 time reversal and that o2str*cts the
narrator9s *nderstandin' o3 the 1orld, sei;es at a &oint in the novel to 2e a so*rce o3 h*mor.
What starts as a sli'ht *nease ends *& ca*sin' *tter horror, an emotive e33ect that &la4s a ver4
im&ortant &art in the conve4ance o3 the novel9s leitmoti3.
?

Little eB&erience 1ith horror in narratives is needed to (no1 that nothin' creates the 3eelin'
as e33ectivel4 as the t*rnin' o3 an ass*med &ositive 3orce into a ne'ative and threatenin' one.
So*l9s once *ntainted &ers&ective, that 1as a so*rce o3 h*mor and reco'nition, t*rns into a
&erverse 1orld vie1 that demonstrates the &overt4 o3 Na;i ideolo'4 remar(a2l4 1ell. .art
t1o and three o3 the novel are 3*ll o3 So*l9s misinter&retations o3 events. 8*t the h*mor that
in &art one 1o*ld 3reF*entl4 res*lt 3rom this t*rns to *nease 1hen the reader9s 3eelin' o3
s*&eriorit4 Cres*ltin' 3rom solvin' an incon'r*it4E disa&&ears. The reader is &rovided 1ith
eBam&les o3 s*ch illo'ical reasonin' that no real sol*tion is &ossi2le, and the monstrosities are
o3 s*ch &ro&ortions that no 3eelin' o3 s*&eriorit4 can arise. The doctor is 2ac( in E*ro&e and
his role as an accom&lice in the Holoca*st is descri2ed in detail.
Thence to the +ham2er, 1here the 2odies 1ere stac(ed care3*ll4 and, in m4 vie1, co*nter$int*itivel4, 1ith 2a2ies
and children at the 2ase o3 the &ile, then the 1omen and the elderl4, and then the men. It 1as m4 st*22orn 2elie3
that it 1o*ld 2e 2etter the other 1a4 ro*nd, 2eca*se the little ones s*rel4 ris(ed in)*r4 *nder the &ress o3 na(ed
1ei'ht. 8*t it 1or(ed. C=EThere 1as *s*all4 a lon' 1ait 1hile the 'as 1as invisi2l4 introd*ced 24 the ventilation
'rilles. C=E I al1a4s 3elt a 'or'eo*s relie3 at the moment o3 the 3irst stirrin'. C#/"E
The reader is *sed to time reversal as &art o3 the conditions o3 readin' the stor4 24 the time
the doctor9s atrocio*s crimes are revealed. We also (no1 the real histor4, the realit4 2ehind
the 3iction, 2*t are still shoc(ed 24 the &ara'ra&hs that dare reverse the tr*th. Incon'r*it4 is
ver4 &resent in the reader 1hen &rocessin' this in3ormation. The 3eelin' that arises 1hen 1e
consider the im&lications o3 So*l contem&latin' historical 3acts in reverse can 2e descri2ed as
nothin' less than *tter horror. The narrator o&enl4 admits his &artici&ation in the 'assin' o3
&risoners and even reveals his immediate intellect*al reaction 24 callin' the &ositionin' o3 the
4o*n'est at the 2ottom o3 the &ile o3 cor&ses counter5intuitive. His concern 3or the 2a2ies and
children 1ho 6ris(ed in)*r4: is so incon'r*o*s 1ith the tr*e nat*re o3 his crime that the reader
is le3t 'as&in' 3or air. The &ara'ra&h is so a*dacio*sl4 com&iled, 3orcin' the reader to 2e

emotionall4 involved 24 descri2in' the &er&etrator9s 3eelin's and lo'ical reasonin' 1hile
committin' an act o3 immense cr*elt4. The cherr4 on the s*ndae is o3 co*rse the last sentence
1here the narrator descri2es his &h4sical reaction to the &rocess. His 6'or'eo*s relie3:
indicates that he considers the misdeed heroic and 2ea*ti3*l, and co*ld not 2e more *n3ittin'
and incon'r*o*s 1ith the reader9s 3eelin' o3 re&*'nance and condemnation.
In the 673ter1ord: o3 Times Arrow, 7mis mentions a &assa'e 3rom D*rt <onne'*t9s
-laughterhouse 6 as a so*rce o3 'reat ins&iration. The &ara'ra&h in F*estion occ*rs at a &oint
1here the &rota'onist 8ill4 .il'rim, a3ter havin' cele2rated his da*'hter9s 1eddin', once
a'ain 2ecomes *nst*c( in time.
#
8*t in this &artic*lar scene the seF*ence o3 time is reversed
and he 1atches 6a movie a2o*t 7merican 2om2ers in the Second World War and the 'allant
men 1ho 3le1 them: C>?E. -*st as 7mis aims to shoc( the reader 24 descri2in' a tra'ed4 as a
miracle, <onne'*t tones do1n the cr*elt4 o3 1ar in his &assa'e 24 si'nalin' control and
harmon4. He calls the 3i'htin' men 6'allant: and th*s &re&ares the reader 3or com3orta2le 1ar
'lamo*r in the *&comin' seF*ence.
The 3ormation 3le1 2ac(1ards over a German cit4 that 1as in 3lames. The 2om2ers o&ened their 2om2 2a4 doors,
eBerted a mirac*lo*s ma'netism 1hich shr*n( the 3ires, 'athered them into c4lindrical steel containers, and li3ted
the containers into the 2ellies o3 the &lanes. The containers 1ere stored neatl4 in rac(s. C>?E
The a2s*rd iron4 o3 narratin' a 2om2in' as controlled mendin' climaBes as the seF*ence ends
1ith German 3i'hters savin' the da4, 68*t there 1ere still a 3e1 1o*nded 7mericans, tho*'h,
and some o3 the 2om2ers 1ere in 2ad re&air. Over France, tho*'h, German 3i'hters came *&
a'ain, made ever4thin' and ever42od4 as 'ood as ne1: C>?$>E. The re&eated though si'nals
#
The &rota'onist o3 -laughterhouse 6 invol*ntaril4 )*m&s 2et1een the moments o3 time 1hich constit*te his
li3e, he 6has 'one to slee& a senile 1ido1er and a1a(ened on his 1eddin' da4. He has 1al(ed thro*'h a door in
#">> and come o*t another one in #"#: C<onne'*t #!E, and this condition is descri2ed in the novel as 2ein'
6*nst*c( in time:. Time does, ho1ever, move in a chronolo'ical direction 1hen a )*m& has 2een made, except in
the scene disc*ssed a2ove.
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to the reader to disarm i3 the4 1ere to have an4 o2)ections, and the 1hole &ro2lem o3 1ar3are
is &*t to rest 24 eB&lainin' ho1 the elements that had 'one into ma(in' the 2om2s are &*t
2ac( into the 'ro*nd as minerals 6so the4 1o*ld never h*rt an42od4 ever a'ain: Ci2id.E. I3 the
ridic*le 1as not made clear 24 this, the &rota'onist9s reaction serves as a reminder o3 iron4,
The 7merican 3liers t*rned in their *ni3orms, 2ecame hi'h school (ids. 7nd Hitler t*rned into a 2a24, 8ill4 .il'rim
s*&&osed. That 1asn9t in the movie. 8ill4 1as eBtra&olatin'. Ever42od4 t*rned into a 2a24, and all h*manit4,
1itho*t eBce&tion, cons&ired 2iolo'icall4 to &rod*ce t1o &er3ect &eo&le named 7dam and Eve, he s*&&osed. C>E
<onne'*t9s *se o3 time reversal is mar(ed 24 horror as 1ell as h*mor and 2oth emotive
e33ects are *tili;ed in order to conve4 a more com&leB messa'e. Whether that messa'e is
sim&l4 a mani3estation o3 anti$1ar sentiments or somethin' more so&histicated is not so
relevant to this disc*ssion o3 emotive e33ects and time reversal. The main ar'*ment to 2e
ded*ced 3rom this disc*ssion is that emotive e33ects can 2e made ver4 interestin' and
co'nitivel4 a&&ealin' 1ithin the 3rame1or( o3 reversed time. 7nd considered to'ether the4
can &rod*ce ne1 and creative strate'ies o3 comm*nication.
A Focus on Ethics
Stern2er'9s t1o 1a4s o3 1ithholdin' in3ormation seem harder to tell a&art 1hen considered in
relation to Times Arrow. 8oth are lin(ed to the &rota'onist9s &ast 2eca*se the narrative
moves 3rom death to 2irth. 8*t 1hat mar(s their di33erence is that s*s&ense seems to 2e
related to action and the o*tcome o3 sit*ations, 1hereas c*riosit4 seems more closel4 lin(ed
to the reader9s attit*de to1ards the character9s nat*re CcharacterE. Lisa H*nshine 1rites in
6Wh4 We Read Fiction: a2o*t the co'nitive thrill o3 eB&lainin' 6 &eo&le9s 2ehavior in terms
o3 their tho*'hts, 3eelin's, 2elie3s, and desires: C@E. I have alread4 commented on ho1
revelations a2o*t a character9s &ast 1ill contri2*te to the eB&lanation o3 actions and choices
@

made later in li3e, and 3orm a 2asis 3or the reader9s )*d'ement o3 the character. Th*s the
ethical dimension o3 the stor4 is lar'el4 a33ected 24 the creation o3 c*riosit4, as &ast events
eB&lain the character9s motives or reasons to act as the4 do.
H*nshine9s main &ost*lation is that 1e read 3iction to 'ive o*r co'nitive a2ilities a 'ood 1or(
o*t. The eBercise consists o3 co'nitive challen'es that o*r 2rains 'et a (ic( o*t o3 ta(in' on.
She ar'*es that an im&ortant co'nitive challen'e &resented to the reader is to read the 3ictional
characters9 minds Ci2id.E. %ind$readin' is a tool *sed to &redict the character9s 3*t*re actions
as 1ell as a 2asis 3or ass*m&tions made a2o*t motivations that *nderlie actions. H*nshine
sa4s this in3ormation seems co'nitivel4 attractive 2eca*se it has a val*e in real li3e and can 2e
*sed 1hen the reader en'a'es in social activities Ci2id.E. We read to learn a2o*t social
interaction to &redict other &eo&le9s 3*t*re actions, and to 2etter *nderstand their motivation
3or these actions.
#>
7 related ass*m&tion is o3 co*rse that 1e read to 2etter *nderstand o*r
o1n &atterns o3 2ehavior. In 3ictional narratives 1e are &resented 1ith a 'reat deal o3
in3ormation a2o*t the characters thro*'h direct descri&tions as 1ell as indirectl4 in
descri&tions o3 actions, s&eech and tho*'ht. 7ll this in3ormation is devo*red 24 the reader,
and *sed in a &rocess o3 h4&othesis 3ormation. The a*thor 1ill 2e &rone to ta(e advanta'e o3
this nat*rall4 3ormed interest in the reader and tease her 1ith in3ormation and tem&t her into
ma(in' h4&otheses that she later 1ill 2e lead to modi34 24 ne1 in3ormation. I 1ill not treat
the s*2)ect o3 the readin' &rocess and its motivational 3actors to a 'reater eBtent than the
disc*ssion in this &ara'ra&h. 8*t I need this theoretic 2ac('ro*nd 1hen descri2in' the
emotive e33ects that are 3acilitated 24 time reversal 2eca*se the4 are eBam&les o3 the co'nitive
challen'es that the reader is li(el4 to acce&t and th*s react to emotionall4.
#>
+3. .helan9s three (inds o3 narrative interest,6The Ethics and 7esthetics: ?
!

It is not di33ic*lt to see the &leas*re a reader derives 3rom readin' a h*moristic 3ictional
3ra'ment. It can even 2e &h4sicall4 visi2le, 2*t I ho&e to have to*ched on the com&licated
mental &rocesses that *nderlie the conve4ance o3 h*mor. The co'nitive challen'e is ta(en on
1ith 'reater ease 2eca*se the reader eB&ects the re1ard o3 la*'hter, so to *se h*mor earl4 on
in a 1or( o3 3iction stren'thens the motivation to (ee& on readin'. Times Arrow contains
h*moro*s &assa'es at an earl4 sta'e and mana'es to motivate the readers and ed*cate them in
the c*rio*s 1orld 1here time is reversed $ at the same time. The creation o3 s*s&ense is
similarl4 easil4 'ras&ed. The 1riter 1ithholds some in3ormation 1hich ma(es the readers 3eel
that somethin' is at sta(e, and th*s 1ant to contin*e the read to (no1 the o*tcome.
In Times Arrow, the conseF*ences are, to a 'reat eBtent, (no1n. It is the &ast and the ca*ses
3or the o*tcome that are eB&lored. Some s*s&ense is created 24 not statin' directl4 1hat the
&rota'onist has done to deserve a li3e in eBile, 2*t 1hen this has 2een 3*ll4 revealed the 3oc*s
o3 the reader is on the &rota'onist9s character. The emotional liason to the characters o3 a
1or( o3 3iction 1ill also ens*re the contin*ed read 2eca*se the reader 1ants to (no1 1hat the
3*t*re holds 3or the characters the4 have 3ormed a 2ond 1ith. The readin' o3 Times Arrow is
&erha&s also *nattractive to some 2eca*se the 2ond 3ormed 1ith the character is not one o3
increased s4m&ath4 2*t rather o3 increased anti&ath4. 7t the same time, the narrative moves
into the &ast, and there is no 3*t*re 3or the character, 1hom 1e meet at his death 2ed as an old
man. This ma(es the main co'nitive challen'e o3 readin' Times Arrow an ethical oneR the
assessment o3 the &rota'onist9s character.
I3 all the emotive e33ects descri2ed in this cha&ter are co'nitive challen'es that create
motivation to read, I 2elieve I have sho1n that the more com&leB mental &rocesses are
involved in the ethical )*d'ements that Times Arrow es&eciall4 demands 3rom the reader.
A

This ma(es the 'reatest co'nitive challen'e the inter&retation o3 the novel9s ethical 3orce.
7mis 1ants his readers to thin( a2o*t 1hat constit*tes 'ood and 2ad h*man 2ehavior. The
creation o3 horror is *sed &rovocativel4 to achieve this. 7nd the n*rt*rin' o3 the reader9s
c*riosit4 a2o*t the &rota'onist9s conscience and mental condition, as 1ell as to 3eed the
nat*ral need to read characters9 minds, is also related to the ethical )*d'ements the4 are
intended to ma(e. It seems terri2le, on one level, that a ver4 real and horrendo*s historical
event s*ch as the Holoca*st sho*ld 2e treated in a 1or( o3 3iction 3or intellect*al
entertainment, and time reversal is the novel9s most &rotr*din' 3eat*re. S*e <ice im&lies in
her 2oo( 6Holoca*st Fiction: that this narrative strate'4 act*all4 li2erates the stor4 3rom the
eB&ected &ositive 3oc*s that most narratives s*33er *nder. She sa4s that *nli(e other t4&es o3
3iction on the Holoca*st, s*ch as Thomas Deneall49s -chindlers .ist& Times Arrow does not
tr4 to 3ind 6a cr*m2 o3 com3ort in *niversal destr*ction: C<ice ?E, it is conseF*entl4 3ree to
de&ict the atrocities 1itho*t the traditional eB&ectations o3 3iction as emotionall4 com3ortin'
entertainment, 6it [time reversal] entails the loss o3 s*ch novelistic sta&les as s*s&ense,
choosin' one5s endin', constr*ctin' characters 1ith the &o1er to alter their 3ate, allo1in'
'ood to tri*m&h over evil, or even the clear identi3ication o3 s*ch moral cate'ories.: C<ice ?E
7mis can 2e acc*sed o3 *sin' h*mor to l*re the reader into his 3ictional environment, to
vivi34 the horrors o3 atrocio*s 1ar crimes, and sho1in' o33 his narrative s(ills 24 modi34in'
1hat is deemed one o3 realit49s constants. 8*t 24 sho1in' that ethical )*d'ement and insi'ht
into h*man 2ehavior is also entertainment to the 2rain, and that 7mis9 narrative somersa*lts
serve the &*r&ose o3 descri2in' h*man *nethical 2ehavior at its 1orst, I ho&e this cha&ter has
*nderlined the im&ortant role o3 3iction in (ee&in' histor4 alive.
"

Chapter 3:
Writing to epand the %oundaries o" normalit$
In the &arallel *niverse the la1s o3 &h4sics are s*s&ended.
What 'oes *& does not necessaril4 come do1nR a 2od4 at rest does not tend to sta4 at restR
and not ever4 action can 2e co*nted on to &rovo(e an eF*al and o&&osite reaction.
Time, too, is di33erent. It ma4 r*n in circles 3lo1 2ac(1ard, s(i& a2o*t 3rom no1 to then.
The ver4 arran'ement o3 molec*les is 3l*id, Ta2les can 2e cloc(s, 3aces, 3lo1ers. CDa4sen @E
7s this short eBcer&t 3rom the ina*'*ratin' &a'es o3 S*sanna Da4sen9s 'irl #nterrupted
s*''est, mental illness or im2alance can ca*se 'reat distortions in the &atient9s 1orld vie1.
73ter havin' 2een 3orced to s&end 4ears o3 her 4o*th in a mental hos&ital hersel3, Da4sen
&*2lished her memoirs o3 the time in the 3orm o3 a novel called 'irl #nterrupted0 Even tho*'h
the narrative strate'4 o3 lettin' time r*n in reverse is not *tili;ed in the novel, the &rota'onist
claims to eB&erience li3e 2ac(1ards at times, and lin(s the irre'*lar eB&erience o3 time to
mental im2alance. This cha&ter eB&lores the &s4cholo'ical 3*nction o3 time reversal. In short,
I 1ish to sho1 ho1 stories 1here time is reversed can 2e *sed to sho1 that the 1orld can 2e
eB&erienced in 1a4s radicall4 di33erent 3rom 1hat is &erceived as normal, and in sho1in' this
eB&and o*r vie1 o3 normalit4. The stories *nder scr*tin4 in m4 thesis demonstrate alternative
1orld vie1s in di33erent 1a4s. The4 can all 2e said to s*''est a &atholo'ical ori'in o3
alternate 1orld vie1s, and it seems tem&oral distortion tends to arise 3rom tra*matic
eB&eriences, 2*t it is also im&licit that the4 can 2e said to 2elon' 1ithin a ran'e o3 normalit4.
This 'ives the ethical im&lications o3 re&resentin' minds that eB&erience time 2ac(1ards
more im&ortance, 2eca*se the stories serve as 3air 1arnin's, and reminders, o3 the 3ra'ilit4 o3
the h*man mind as 1ell as the ethical res&onsi2ilit4 that lies im&licit in o*r interaction 1ith
>0

others. Time reversal can th*s *ltimatel4 2e lin(ed to the 'reater literar4 &ro)ect o3
*nderstandin' the eB&erience o3 others in order to dee&en o*r eB&erience o3 o*rselves.
The disc*ssion o3 the 3*nction o3 time reversal in de&ictin' the dama'ed h*man &s4che 1ill
move 3rom Times Arrow to a stor4 that has 4et to 2e descri2ed in detail, 6S&ie'el'eschichte:
24 Ilse 7ichin'er. I shall o33er a 3airl4 short inter&retative &resentation o3 the short stor4 in
order to conteBt*ali;e the &resent disc*ssion.
&he Ps$chological Function o" &ime 'e(ersal in Times Arrow.
The im&ortant ethical im&lications o3 the *se o3 time reversal in Times Arrow has 2een a
rec*rrent concern o3 this thesis. %4 concl*sion in +ha&ter #, that centered on this theme, 1as
that 24 r*nnin' time 2ac(1ards the 3oc*s is &laced on the horror o3 the crimes and the
a2s*rdit4 o3 leadin' a close to normal li3e a3ter havin' committed s*ch atrocities. Follo1in'
this ar'*ment the str*ct*re o3 reversed time is a choice made to ma(e a &oint, and th*s the
narrator, 1ho &erceives li3e in reverse thro*'h Tod Friendl49s 2od4, is )*st a tool *sed to tell
the stor4 in this manner. This ar'*mentative and almost &olitical *se o3 the 3antastic closel4
resem2les that o3 Latin 7merican ma'ical realists. 8*t the descri&tion o3 a mind 1ithin
another mind 1ho eB&eriences li3e in reverse ma4 2e inter&reted more literall4 than this. In
3act, Odilo Unverdor2en ma4 2e considered a case o3 1hat &s4cholo'ists call Missociative
Identit4 Misorder CMIME, a rare dia'nose 1here a tra*matic event in the &atient9s li3e leads
him, or her, to 3orm ne1 identities that do not share the tra*matic memories o3 the &ast in
order to co&e 1ith the eB&erience CSeli'man, Wal(er, Rosenhan.E. S*ch a &erce&tion o3 realit4
ma4 1ell incl*de time distortions similar to that 1hich Tod Friendl49s inner voice is
doc*mentin'.
>#

It 1o*ld 2e eBtremel4 *ncommon to s*33er 3rom the del*sion that time and so all actions are
&h4sicall4 r*nnin' 2ac(1ards, 2*t it is not im&ossi2le. The narrator 1ho eB&eriences li3e this
1a4 also seems s*r&rised 24 the 3act that movements ha&&en 2ac(1ards. 6Wait a min*te.
Wh4 am I 1al(in' ackwards into the ho*se? Wait. Is it d*s( comin', or is it da1n?: C#E.
His eB&ectations o3 2oth his 2od4 and the s*n9s motion sho1 that the narrator has some
eB&erience 1ith the &h4sical la1s o3 the 1orld as the reader (no1s it. This ma4 2e one o3 the
3irst cl*es to *nveilin' the identit4 o3 the narrator and the 3act that he is a &rod*ct o3 the 2od4
he thin(s o3 as his host.
The chan'in' *se o3 &ersonal &rono*ns thro*'ho*t the novel to re3er to the narrator and the
2od4 he is in s*''ests that the disorder is the res*lt o3 the crimes the doctor committed in
7*sch1it;. 7lso, the name ,nverdoren all*des to a chan'e a2o*t to ta(e &lace in the
doctor9s &ersonalit4. It is a3ter the tra*ma o3 havin' 62een to hell: C#/#E as the doctor carr4in'
the tem&orar4 name o3 Hamilton de So*;a eB&resses it, that his identit4 chan'es. It is 2eca*se
o3 this sin that he chan'es his name over and over a'ain and 3lees instead o3 3acin' the real
conseF*ences o3 his actions, a choice 1hich leads him into an *nreal state, 1here time is lost,
and 1here another voice a&&ears in his head. It sho*ld also 2e noticed that in the 2od4 o3
Odilo Unverdor2en, the narrator does not so o3ten s&ea( o3 Odilo9s actions or 3eelin's as
se&arate 3rom his o1n. He o3ten *ses the &rono*n # instead o3 he and reveals (no1led'e o3
their ha2its, 6I al1a4s 3elt a 'or'eo*s relie3 at the moment o3 the 3irst stirrin'.: C#/"E. This
s*''ests a shared memor4 2ase and a m*ch closer tie 2et1een the narrator and his host than
2e3ore.
.erha&s the reverse order o3 the narrator9s eB&erience o3 li3e sho*ld not 2e inter&reted too
literall4. There are even eBam&les o3 time r*nnin' 3or1ards Cor as most &eo&le &erceive itE
>/

to1ards the end o3 the novel. This is seen in a s&eech renderin' 1here all the sentences 3ollo1
each other in normal order, 69%*mm4? +hic(ens are alive. We catch them and 2*rn them N
and the49re deadW 8*t 4o* can9t eat chic(s. Not little 'ood chic(s. 8eca*se chic(s are 'ood.
Po* can )*st stro(e them and ever4thin'. 8*t 4o* can eat d*c(s. 8eca*se d*c(s are 3at9:
C#!#E. The di33erentiation made 24 Odilo N the child N 2et1een t1o t4&es o3 2irds, one o3
1hich is s*2ordinate to the other and can there3ore 2e dis&raised and even eaten, clearl4
3ore2odes his Na;i vie1s as an ad*lt. The d*c(s re&resent the &eo&le Na;i ideolo'4
considered s*&er3l*o*s and dis&osa2le in an ideal societ4 s*ch as -e1s, G4&sies,
homoseB*als, and the &h4sicall4 im&aired. The 3act that this conversation is rendered in its
correct direction is 4et another em&hasis in the novel o3 the 2ac(1ardness o3 Na;i 2elie3s. It
1o*ld also seem that the normal chronolo'4 im&lies that the doctor9s mind is more strictl4
2ac(1ards at the 2e'innin' o3 the novel and that this condition is loosened *& to1ards the
end. S&eech is initiall4 rendered com&letel4 2ac(1ards, as are actions, 69M*'. M*',S sa4s the
lad4 in the &harmac4: C#E, 2*t in the mid &art, 1hich constit*tes most o3 the novel, the
sentences are rendered correctl4 tho*'h in reversed order. This co*ld 2e done to ens*re the
comm*nication o3 sensi2le *tterances to the reader. The loosened ri'idit4 o3 time reversal
1hen eB&lorin' the 4ears &rior to 7*sch1it; and Schloss Hartheim mi'ht also s*''est that the
novel is a descri&tion o3 a d4in' man 1ho never came to terms 1ith his &ast actions, and tries
to admit to ever4thin' he has done. 8*t the eB&erience &roves too tra*matic to 2e relived in its
tr*e direction, th*s an additional mind is created 1ho misinter&rets the li3e o3 the doctor 24
relivin' it in reverse. It is onl4 shielded 24 childhoods innocence that realit4, as eBem&li3ied
24 a normal chronolo'4 in said dialo'*e, can occasionall4 a&&ear.
This inter&retation is &erha&s not as readil4 ass*med 24 the reader, 2eca*se a &atholo'i;ation
o3 the doctor co*ld 2e considered an a2sol*tion 3rom his sins. I 1ish to ar'*e that even tho*'h
>?

7mis most li(el4 meant to &atholo'i;e the doctor9s mind, the &*r&ose o3 1ritin' the novel
1as de3initel4 not to 'ive Na;i doctors a remission o3 sins. Let *s, 3or the sa(e o3 the
ar'*ment, sa4 that the narrator re&resents an alternative identit4 1ho a&&ears in the mind o3
Tod Friendl4 1hen he is close to d4in'. This identit4 does not immediatel4 share Tod9s
memories, 2*t has the 3*nction o3 3orcin' Tod to relive his li3e 2ac(1ards. I3 the doctor has
created an additional character 1ithin his o1n mind, it is &ossi2le that this is an eB&ression o3
re'ret and an attem&t at a 3inal catharsis. One9s inter&retation o3 the end o3 the 2oo( is cr*cial
to determine 1hether the &rocess o3 relivin' li3e 2ac(1ards can in 3act &rove cathartic.
I m*st ma(e one last e33ort to 2e l*cid, to 2e clear. What 3inall4 concerns me are F*estions o3 time, certain
d*rations. C=E There are no lar'er *nits o3 time. He has to act 1hile childhood is still here, 1hile ever4thin' is his
&la4mate$ incl*din' his ca$ca. He has to act 1hile childhood is still here 2e3ore some2od4 comes and ta(es it a1a4.
C=E 7nd I 1ithin, 1ho came at the 1ron' time N either too soon, or a3ter it 1as all too late. C#!/$#!?E
This &assa'e seems to indicate that 1hen So*l and Odilo have crossed the most dan'ero*s
straits o3 Tod9s memories, re&resented 24 his time as a Na;i doctor in 7*sch1it;, the
alternative identit4 dares to move closer to the real Tod in the com3ort o3 2ein' unverdoren,
or *ns&oilt, 24 the actions that at this &oint lie in a 3ictional 3*t*re. 8*t in 2rin'in' the t1o
&ersonalities to'ether the '*ilt4 conscience can reach the tra*mati;ed conscience, 1hich
allo1s him, even as a three 4ear old, to 2itterl4 re'ret his 3*t*re actions as a 'ro1n man in
7*sch1it;. In m4 vie1, the act the narrator &rom&ts him to do 61hile childhood is still here:
is to 3*ll4 acce&t and o1n *& to his misdeeds. His li3e has 2een relived 2ac(1ards, th*s the
inevita2le endin' is 2irth, 2*t the threat that lin'ers, 1hich is re&resented meta&horicall4 24
2irth, is act*all4 his death. The narrator attem&ts to cleanse the mind o3 the doctor m*ch in the
same 1a4 as 1o*ld a +atholic con3ession. This inter&retation co*ld have an im&act on the
reader9s relationshi& to the doctor. He is no1 not onl4 an a2*ser, 2*t the victim o3 his o1n
a2*se, 1hich res*lts 3rom the circ*mstances he 3inds himsel3 in com2ined 1ith his &ersonal
>

choices. He is 6the 1orst man in the 1orst &lace at the 1orst time: C#/E, and has not lived a
ha&&4 and sorro1less li3e in 7merica, 2*t has lived 1ith mental 2r*ises that have
contin*o*sl4 in)*red him. It is &ossi2le that the doctor is relivin' his o1n li3e as a s*rvival
mechanism. He co*ld 2e &*shin' the limits o3 his o1n mind 1hen he is a2o*t to die, in order
to re*nite the &ieces o3 a shattered identit4. The &s4cholo'ical 3*nction o3 time reversal, i3 in
3act a descri&tion o3 a mental s*rvival strate'4 resem2lin' MIM, th*s red*ces the real stor4
time in 1hich the 1hole novel ta(es &lace to the last 3e1 moments that Tod Friendl4 s&ends
on his death 2ed. None o3 this a2solves the doctor o3 ta(in' res&onsi2ilit4 3or his actions, on
the contrar4, a &art o3 him is tr4in' to 3orce him to admit 1hat he has 2een &art o3.
7nother im&ortant as&ect o3 the novel9s endin' is that there are indications that Odilo9s li3e is
2o*nd to 2e lived 3or1ard, or in the ri'ht direction. 6When Odilo closes his e4es I see an
arro1 3l4 N 2*t 1ron'l4. .oint$3irst. Oh, no, 2*t then= We9re a1a4 once more, over the
3ield.: C#!?E. This co*ld mean that the mental &rocess o3 reca&it*latin' one9s li3e m*st 2e
done in the ri'ht direction 3or the ca*salit4 to 2e correct and th*s the catharsis to 2e com&lete.
It co*ld also 2e inter&reted as a si'n o3 the ever hoverin' dan'er o3 man(ind committin' the
t4&e o3 horrors that Odilo ended *& doin'. This is ho1 7nn .arr4 inter&rets the end in her
essa4 6The +aes*ra o3 the Holoca*st in %artin 7mis9 Times Arrow and 8ernhard Schlin(9s
The "eader:, 6Time res*mes its 3or1ard direction, the tra'ed4 is a2o*t to *n3old once more.
The caes*ra as it is artic*lated in Time9s 7rro1 is 3orever imminent and the tra)ector4 o3
E*ro&ean histor4 is the &ossi2ilit4 o3 its rec*rrence.: C@E
The &ossi2ilit4 and dan'er o3 the rec*rrence o3 s*ch 2eastliness as that 1hich Odilo
Unverdor2en committed is &erha&s the main reason 3or treatin' the s*2)ect o3 Na;i 1ar
crimes in 3iction. 7s mentioned &revio*sl4, %artin 7mis has named readin' the 2oo( 6The
>>

Na;i Moctors: 24 &s4chiatrist Ro2ert -a4 Li3ton the main reason 1h4 he 1rote Times Arrow.
Mr. Li3ton 1rites in an article ada&tation o3 the 2oo(,
an ordinar4 &erson is ca&a2le o3 eBtreme evil. 8*t over the co*rse o3 committin' evil acts, an ordinar4 &erson
2ecomes somethin' di33erent. In a &rocess called 6do*2lin':, a ne1 sel3 ta(es sha&e that ada&ts to the evil
environment, and the evil acts 2ecome &art o3 that sel3. 7t this &oint, the &erson and his 2ehavior are an4thin' 2*t
2anal.
#@

Odilo Unverdor2en is not &artic*larl4 nice 2e3ore 6committin' evil acts:, 2*t he is not
&artic*larl4 malicio*s either and co*ld 1itho*t a do*2t 2e called 6ordinar4:. This is ver4
im&ortant to (ee& in mind 1hen considerin' the ethical im&act o3 the &s4cholo'ical 3*nction
o3 time reversal in the novel. Even tho*'h So*l9s eBistence mi'ht 2e seen as a si'n o3 mental
im2alance in the doctor, he does 24 no means &rove the doctor s&ecial or a2normal. I 2elieve
7mis needed to let the doctor re&resent an42od4 1ho, 24 not ta(in' heed, has let their cr*el
and *nem&athetic side ta(e over. So*l hel&s the reader 'et to (no1 the doctor, not *nderstand
or a'ree 1ith his actions. He 'ives the reader the role o3 a thera&ist or investi'ator, and
to'ether the4 tr4 to hel& *nravel the real identit4 o3 the doctor. The 3ollo1in' disc*ssion
3oc*ses on 1hat the reader learns o3 the doctor9s &s4che in res&ect to 1omen and seB*alit4,
and ho1 this relates to his misdeeds and attit*des in 'eneral.
Women
We are told that Tod Friendl4 treats 1omen as dis&osa2le o2)ects, and 1e hear his 1omen
com&lain a2o*t his lac( o3 a2ilit4 to connect emotionall4. Odilo Unverdor2en ho1ever, is
married and 1e are told that he, *nli(e the other Na;is in the concentration cam&, does not
to*ch the 'irls there,
#@
7 re3erence to Hannah 7rendt9s controversial 2oo( title 68analit4 o3 Evil:. She 1rote a2o*t the trial o3 7dol3
Eichmann and chose the title to em&hasi;e that the atrocities commited 24 German War criminals did not s&rin'
3rom an eBtrordinar4 so*rce o3 evil in a 3e1 men, 2*t a lin'erin' dan'er in all o3 h*manit4 CFieser and Mo1denE.
>@

I don9t 1ant to to*ch the 'irls9 2odies. 7s is 1ell (no1n, I 3ro1n on s*ch harassment. I don9t even 1ant to loo( at
them. The 2ald 'irls 1ith their enormo*s e4es.C=E I 'et on li(e a ho*se on 3ire 1ith the 'irls in the o33icers9
2ordello. No, I thin( it m*st have somethin' to do 1ith m4 1i3e. C#?0$#?#E
Ho1ever, there are also clear si'nals o3 Odilo eB&loitin' the 'irls in the cam&, 6The 2ald
1hores 'ive *s no mone4. We as( no F*estions. 8eca*se here there is no 1h4.: C#?E. This
incon'r*ence indicates that the narrator is either re&ortin' a chan'e in Odilo9s 2ehavior or
si'nalin' a s&lit in his identit4 here as 1ell. In other 1ords, he ma4 2e to*chin' the 'irls and
not 1antin' to admit it to himsel3. He is also re&ortedl4 s*r&rised 24 Herta9s reaction to1ards
his )o2, 6I also 'ot the distinct im&ression that Herta disa&&roves o3 the 1or( I am doin' here.
C=E Has someone 2een tellin' her 1hat I did to the 2ald 1hores?: C#0$##E. His choice o3
1ords 6'ot the distinct im&ression: ma(es Herta9s reaction seem irrational and con3o*ndin'
to him. The re3erence to 1hat he has done to 6the 2ald 1hores: can as easil4 &oint 2ac( at the
medical eB&eriments or 'assin' as at his in3idelit4. This is another am2i'*it4 that hints at a
mental distortion, as i3 his mind is &rocessin' events se&aratel4. The doctor9s dreams later in
li3e also indicate that he carries a '*ilt4 conscience 3or incidents that have to do 1ith the
im&risoned 1omen in the cam&,
Tod 3eat*res another (ind o3 dream in 1hich he is a 1oman. I9m the 1oman too, in his dream I am &artici&ant as
1ell as onloo(er. 7 man is near *s 1ith his 3ace averted, his sla2li(e 2ac( hal3 t*rned. He can harm *s, o3 co*rse.
8*t he can &rotect *s, i3 he li(es. On his &rotection 1e 'in'erl4 rel4. We have no choice 2*t to love him, nervo*sl4.
We also have no hair, 1hich is *n*s*al, 3or a 1oman. C@!E
The slaveli(e relationshi&, 1ith a hint o3 the Stoc(holm S4ndrome, 2et1een the &risoner and
her '*ard is re&resentative 3or man4 o3 the relationshi&s %en'ele had 1ith his &atients. He
treated 2oth 1omen and children 1ith lovin' care *ntil he 1o*ld s*ddenl4 in3lict serio*s
harm on them or (ill them in some medical eB&eriment. %en'ele 1as ar'*a2l4 more mentall4
>!

deran'ed than Odilo, and a novel &ortra4in' his mind 3rom 1ithin 1o*ld not send o*t the
same 1arnin' to h*manit4 as one &ortra4in' the &erversion o3 an ordinar4 doctor 1ho does
not alto'ether lac( em&ath4, 2*t sho1s si'ns o3 *ncom3orta2leness a2o*t his misdeeds.
Im&otenc4 also mar(s Odilo9s earl4 &eriod as a Na;i doctor and it 1o*ld not 2e im&ossi2le to
&ict*re that his initial res&onse to the )o2 as a Na;i doctor co*ld mani3est itsel3
&s4chosomaticall4 in im&otenc4. He is not eF*all4 at ease 1ith 2oth carin' 3or and m*tilatin'
his &atients as %en'ele seemed to 2e.
What is more, Odilo9s &o1er, and the &o1er o3 National Socialism in German4, is clearl4
s4m2oli;ed thro*'h his seB*al &er3ormance. 7nd as time moves 2ac(1ards and his seB*al
relationshi& 1ith Herta vanishes, the disem&o1erin' o3 Odilo as a 1hite, 7r4an, male doctor
is &aralleled 24 the restoration o3 the -e1s as citi;ens,
With ste& a3ter ste& the -e1s move 2lin(in' into the s*nli'ht. While I am 'rad*all4 declassed, moc(ed and s&*rned
24 all the li2erties o3 love. For eBam&le. 8lind and dea3 -e1s can no1 1ear arm2ands identi34in' their condition in
tra33ic. I no lon'er have a lo1er 2od4, an eBternal heart, in Herta9s scheme o3 thin's. I am c*t o33 at the 1aist 3or
ever. C#@?$#@E
His seB*al relationshi& to Herta also 2ears a criticism o3 the relationshi& 2et1een men and
1omen in 'eneral, eBem&li3ied 24 a revoltin' de&iction o3 the, sometimes, star( di33erences
2et1een co*rtshi& and marria'e. 6It9s ver4 s1eet. No1 that the 1eddin' nears, Odilo is
alto'ether 'entler. He has sto&&ed havin' tantr*ms. No lon'er is his chim&an;ee reF*ired to
do the ho*se1or( na(ed, and on all 3o*rs.: C#>"E The *se o3 the 1ord 6tantr*m: 2rin's
associations o3 a s&oilt child, and a stron' criticism o3 his a2*se o3 the &o1er that lies in
2elon'in' to the &h4sicall4 stron'er seB is ar'*a2l4 inherent in this.
>A

There is no do*2t that the reader9s *nderstandin' o3 the nat*re o3 the time reversal in Times
Arrow is ineBtrica2l4 lin(ed to the relationshi& the narrator and the man thro*'h 1hom he
sees the 1orld. This immediatel4 2rin's the inter&retative 1or( o3 the reader to a
&s4cholo'ical level. The 3*nction o3 So*l is d*al in that he 2oth allo1s 3or a creation o3
s*s&ense, and that he dee&ens the &s4cholo'ical eB&erience o3 enterin' the mind o3 a 1ar
criminal. The narrator ma4 ver4 1ell 2e a &rod*ct o3 the doctor9s mind and an inherent &art o3
his identit4 that has di33ic*lties acce&tin' 1hat he has done in the &ast, or he co*ld )*st 2e a
narrative tool that sho*ld not 2e inserted literall4 into the stor4. The F*estion is act*all4
1hether the concl*sion each reader mi'ht reach in re'ard to this a33ects the ethical
im&lications o3 the novel. This F*estion is indirectl4 raised 24 the critics o3 Holoca*st 3iction
and ties in 1ith the literar4 &ost$modernist interest in, and 3oc*s on, the minds o3 the
&er&etrators as o&&osed to the victims. I 1ill leave the 3*rther investi'ation o3 this to&ic to
someone else, 2*t m4 readin' leads me to 2elieve that the re&*'nance o3 the 1ar crimes
descri2ed in the novel is not mildened 24 indicatin' that the &er&etrator mi'ht, on some dee&
&s4cholo'ical level, re'ret his actions.
This 3*nction o3 time reversal, as descri2in' a state o3 mental im2alance, is not *ncommonl4
*sed. 8ill4 .il'rim in -laughterhouse 6 is considered mentall4 deran'ed, so is S*sanna
Da4sen in 'irl #nterrupted. 7nd 2oth the &rota'onist o3 6S&ie'el'eschichte: and 6<ia)e a la
Semilla: have s*33ered mental tra*ma, 1hich co*ld easil4 ti& the scale to1ards insanit4 on
some level. Ethicall4 ho1ever, there is a di33erence 2et1een the 3irst and second 'ro*&. 8ill4
.il'rim and S*sanna Da4sen are not acc*sed o3 m*rder in their stories, even tho*'h 8ill4
*sed to 2e a soldier and S*sanna Da4sen attem&ted to (ill hersel3. 8*t the &rota'onists o3
6S&ie'el'eschichte:, 6<ia)e a la Semilla: and Times Arrow have all ta(en the li3e o3 Cat leastE
one other h*man 2ein'. This is the reason 1h4 time is 2ein' reversed. Their crimes m*st 2e
>"

revealed. The stor4 I shall no1 eBamine, 6S&ie'el'eschichte:, di33ers mar(edl4 3rom 6<ia)e a
la Semilla: and Times Arrow in that the &rota'onist, '*ilt4 o3 ta(in' a li3e, is &laced
c*rio*sl4 close to the ethical center o3 the stor4. Where the rer*n o3 the li3e o3 Mon %arcial is
insti'ated 24 an old 2lac( man 1ith s*&ernat*ral &o1ers in 6<ia)e a la Semilla:, and the
&rota'onist himsel3 is &ortra4ed as a cr*el and dominant male leader 1ho onl4 sho1s re'ret
3or his actions at his death2ed, the &rota'onist o3 S&ie'el'eschichte seems hersel3 to have
t*rned the arro1 o3 time in order to correct her mista(es.
&ime re(ersal in Ilse Aichinger5s ).piegelgeschichte,
The 7*strian 1riter Ilse 7ichin'er 2ecame 3amo*s 1ith her stor4 6S&ie'el'eschichte: [#""]
in #">/ as it 1on her the acclaimed 6Gr*&&e !: a1ard. 6Gr*&&e !: 1as a 'ro*& o3
distin'*ished modern German 1riters 1ho chose a 1riter each 4ear to 2e decorated 1ith this
a1ard 3or innovative 1ritin' o3 literat*re in the German lan'*a'e. 7ichin'er9s short stor4
re&resented the van'*ard as it 3ollo1s the li3e o3 a 4o*n' 1oman 3rom her 2*rial to her 2irth
and is told in the voice o3 a second &erson sin'*lar narrator. This stor4 is treated eBtensivel4
in this cha&ter 2eca*se, in m4 vie1, the main reason 3or reversin' time in the stor4 is to add a
&s4cholo'ical de&th to it. The reader is st*c( 1ith the &rota'onist in a sel3$loathin', mental
+anossa Wal(. The *se o3 6d*:
#!
, you, and the 2ac(1ards chronolo'4 hei'htens the stor49s
3eel o3 &ersonal *neaseR an *ncann4 and an'st$ridden tone &ermeates, and &ersists thro*'ho*t,
the stor4.
Wenn einer dein 8ett a*s dem Saal schie2t, 1enn d* siehst, dass der Himmel 'rXn 1ird, *nd 1enn d* dem <i(ar
die Leichenrede ers&aren 1illst, so ist es Heit 3Xr dich, a*3;*stehen, leise, 1ie Dinder a*3stehen, 1enn am %or'en
Licht d*rch die LVden schimmert, heimlich, dass es die Sch1ester nicht sieht N *nd schnellW C7ichin'er, @?E
#!
+3. Gre2er, A/.
@0

When someone &*shes 4o*r 2ed o*t o3 the 1ard, 1hen 4o* see that the s(4 2ecomes 'reen, and 1hen 4o* 1o*ld
s&are the c*rate the 3*neral sermon, then it is time 3or 4o* to 'et *&, 'entl4, as children 'et *&, 1hen the mornin'
li'ht shimmers thro*'h the c*rtains, secretl4, so that the sister does not see it $ and F*ic(l4W C
#A
E
The 'reen color o3 the s(4 si'nals the altered version o3 realit4 that 1e are &resented 1ith in
this stor4 o3 a li3e in reverse. The earl4 introd*ction o3 children as s4m2ols o3 harmon4 and
innocence &re&ares the reader 3or 1hat is to comeR the do1n3all o3 the &rota'onist as a res*lt
o3 an ille'al a2ortion. The &roced*re is not &er3ormed *nder sanitar4 conditions and 1hat (ills
her seems to 2e an in3ection she 'ets as a res*lt o3 this. 8*t 1hat does not let her rest in &eace
is the 3act that she has (illed her child. The rec*rrin' s4m2ol o3 a 6Drans:, a 'arland or a
1reath, and other re3erences to +atholicism seem to a''ravate the &rota'onist9s crime.
The stor49s title means mirror story and si'nals that the stor4 re3lects another realit4. The
reader is th*s &re&ared to &rocess in3ormation meta&horicall4. This as(s a lot o3 the reader,
2*t it is not immediatel4 clear that 1hat com&licates the readin' is that the chronolo'4 o3
events is inverted. 7s in Times Arrow and 6<ia)e a la Semilla:, 7ichin'er *ses &h4siolo'ical
&rocesses in reverse to si'nal her alternative and darin' narrative mode,
8is %or'en sind die 1el(en 8lXten 3risch *nd schlieen sich ;* Dnos&en. Mie Nacht X2er 2lei2st d* allein, das
Dre*; ;1ischen den HVnden, *nd a*ch den Ta' X2er 1irst d* viel R*he ha2en. C@>E
84 mornin' the 3aded 2looms are 3resh and close themselves in 2*ds. Overni'ht 4o* remain alone, the cross
2et1een 4o*r hands, and thro*'h the da4 too 4o* 1ill have m*ch &eace.
The 3lo1ers are 3irst 1ithered, then 3resh and 3inall4 t*rn into 2*ds. This chronolo'4 has no
&arallel in the real 1orld and irrevoca2l4 alters the conditions *nder 1hich the stor4 is told.
#A
I have 3o*nd an En'lish translation o3 6S&ie'el'eschichte: 3rom 7manda W4nn, a &rivate &erson9s home&a'e
and *sed this, 2*t in some conteBts I &re3er m4 o1n translation.
@#

The stor4 also moves 3rom mornin' to ni'ht and then a&&roaches da4time. Time reversal can
hardl4 2e made an4 clearer than 24 reversin' these nat*ral &rocesses.
&he -ain E""ects o" &ime 'e(ersal
The &rota'onist is an *nmarried 1oman 1ho dies as a res*lt o3 havin' *nder'one an ille'al
a2ortion. The narrator is addressin' the &rota'onist and th*s narrates in the second &erson.
This ma(es the reader 3eel as i3 the narrator is addressin' them as 1ell as the &rota'onist.
Similar to the 1a4 the doctor in Times Arrow is mechanicall4 movin' 2ac(1ards thro*'h his
o1n li3e 1itho*t the a2ilit4 to chan'e his actions or F*estion the inverted chronolo'4, the
&eo&le 1ho a&&ear in 6S&ie'el'eschichte: seem to &la4 their roles invol*ntaril4 in the
re1indin' o3 the 3ilm that is the &rota'onist9s li3e. 7 3act that is em&hasi;ed 24 the narrator in
the s*2$cla*se o3 the 3ollo1in' sentence, 6Und ein 1eni' s&Vter 1erden sie dir das T*ch vom
Do&3 nehmen mXssen, o2 sie es 1ollen oder nicht.: C@@E C67nd a little later the4 1ill have to
ta(e the cloth 3rom 4o*r head, 1hether the4 1o*ld li(e to or not:E. There is no 3ree 1ill 1hen
the 3ilm o3 li3e, alread4 recorded, is sim&l4 &la4ed in reverse. 7 sense o3 inevita2le tra'ed4
see&s thro*'h the lines o3 the stor4, and meta&horic ima'es that relate to children are nota2l4
3reF*ent s*ch as in the 3ollo1in' eBam&les, 68evor es d*n(el 1ird *nd alle Dinder von den
StraenrVndern versch1*nden sind C...E: C@E C68e3ore it 2ecomes dar( and all the children
have vanished 3rom the street side:E, and 6Mer Wind ist (Xhl *nd vers&ielt, ein *nmXndi'es
Dind.: C@>E C6The 1ind is cool and tired 3rom &la4in', a rom&in' child.:E. These
vis*ali;ations o3 the 1orld as &antheisticall4 3illed 1ith the s&irit o3 children re&resent the
&rota'onist9s reason to relive her li3e. She is so ha*nted 24 her o1n actions that she ha*nts her
o1n li3e in reverse. The narrator is eB&licit a2o*t the &rota'onist havin' a reason to t*rn 2ac(
3rom death,
@/

H1ei (leine -*n'en am StraYenrand 1etten *m ihre Ehre. 72er der a*3 die Tram2ahn 'eset;t hat, 1ird verlieren.
M* hVttest ihn 1arnen (Znnen, a2er *m dieser Ehre 1illen ist noch (einer a*s dem Sar' 'estie'en.C@E T1o 4o*n'
2o4s at the street side 1a'er on their honor. 8*t the one 1ho has 2et on the tram 1ill lose. Po* co*ld have 1arned
him, 2*t no one 1o*ld have 4et clim2ed o*t o3 the co33in 3or this honor.
Somethin' im&ortant has 2ro*'ht the 1oman 6o*t o3 the co33in: and it is 6der 2linde S&ie'el:,
the 2lind mirror, that allo1s 3or this )o*rne4 and the im&ossi2le to 2e made &ossi2le,
Mie *nsch*ldi'en Dinder 1a'en5s nicht, sie 2ei den Heili'en ;* ver(la'en, *nd die sch*ldi'en 1a'en5s a*ch nicht.
72er d* $ d* 1a'st esW S%ach mir mein Dind 1ieder le2endi'W9 Mas hat noch (eine von der 7lten verlan't. 72er d*
verlan'st es. Mer S&ie'el 'i2t dir Dra3t. Mer 2linde S&ie'el mit den Flie'en3lec(en lVsst dich verlan'en, 1as noch
(eine verlan't hat. C=E in dem 2linden S&ie'el er3Xllt sie deine 8itte. C@AE The innocent children dare not com&lain
o3 it to the hol4 ones, and the '*ilt4 ones dare not either. 8*t 4o* $ 4o* dare itW [%a(e m4 child alive a'ainW[ That
no one has demanded o3 the old 1oman 2e3ore. 8*t 4o* demand it. The mirror 'ives 4o* stren'th. The 2lind mirror
1ith the 3l4 dirt lets 4o* demand, 1hat no one has demanded. C=E in the 2lind mirror, she 'rants 4o*r reF*est.
The mirror 3rom the old 1oman9s ho*se has 2een 2*rnt into the &rota'onists mind and serves
as her trans&ortation 2ac( in time and also the onl4 1a4 to attem&t to *ndo her misdeeds. It is
2lind, or 2ro(en, as her mind is 2ro(en, and it allo1s 3or the im&ossi2le, to *ndo the a2ortion,
in the same 1a4 as the &rota'onist9s mental im2alance allo1s 3or time to 2e reversed.
The a2ortion in itsel3 is not the onl4 o2)ect o3 the &rota'onist9s re'ret. The 4o*n' 2o4 1ho
1as the child9s 3ather is also to 2lame 3or the tra'ed4 and she re'rets havin' a seB*al
relationshi& 1ith him. In the &art o3 the stor4 1here the co*&le enters a ho*se near the 2each
thro*'h a 1indo1 the narrator sa4s, 6M* hast 'en*' 'e1eint. Nimm deinen Dran; ;*rXc(.
-et;t 1irst d* a*ch die HZ&3e 2ald 1ieder lZsen dXr3en. 7lles ist im S&ie'el: C!0E C6Po* have
cried eno*'h. Ta(e 4o*r 1reath 2ac(. Soon no1, 4o* 1ill 2e allo1ed to loosen 4o*r 2raids.
7ll is in the mirror:.E 7'ain the 1reath, or 'arland, is a s4m2ol o3 her innocence and her
@?

vir'init4. So are the 2raids. The 1reath a&&ears in the earl4 scenes o3 the stor4 as it is &laced
on her co33in 24 the 4o*n' man. The narrator sa4s that no1 she can ta(e it 2ac(, ta(e 2ac( the
innocence she 'ave him. The narrator is also ver4 honest a2o*t the 3act that this is all &ossi2le
solel4 2eca*se o3 the mirrorin' o3 events.
8*t 1hat has 2een done cannot reall4 2e *ndone, and nothin' can 2e chan'ed as she relives
her li3e. The *selessness o3 relivin' &ast actions is 2latant in that the ca*salit4 o3 all actions is
reversed. This is made es&eciall4 clear as 7ichin'er e33ectivel4 *nderlines the 3oc*s the stor4
sim*ltaneo*sl4 &laces on 2oth directions o3 time thro*'h the *se o3 oB4moronic sentences,
67m 7n3an' nimmt man 72schied: C@"E C6In the 2e'innin' 4o* sa4 'ood24e:E and as soon as
the &rota'onist tells her 2o43riend that she is carr4in' his child, he has 3or'otten it,
72er (a*m hat er9s 'esa't, hat er es a*ch ver'essen. Im S&ie'el sa't man alles, dass es ver'essen sei. Und (a*m
hast d* 'esa't, dass d* das Dind er1artest, hast d* es a*ch versch1ie'en. Mer S&ie'el s&ie'elt alles. C@"E 8*t
scarcel4 has he said it 2e3ore he has 3or'otten it. In the mirror one sa4s all, that it ma4 2e 3or'otten. 7nd scarcel4
have 4o* said, that 4o* eB&ect a child, 2e3ore 4o* have (e&t it a secret. The mirror re3lects all.
This is the tra'ed4 o3 the stor4. The r*les o3 the 'ame have chan'ed and real li3e9s a'ents are
&*&&ets 1itho*t volition 1hen contem&lated thro*'h the mirror. This is the main e33ect o3
time reversal on the theme, it hi'hli'hts that actions cannot 2e *ndone. The mental relivin' o3
e&isodes can also 2e inter&reted as an eBam&le o3 r*mination, or 6rec*rrin' tho*'hts a2o*t
C=E tra*ma: CSeli'man, Wal(er, Rosenhan. #"0E, th*s the a*thor descri2es a mental strate'4
o3 co&in' that can never remove the *n1anted tho*'hts.
%ost &h4sicists dra1 an inse&ara2le lin( 2et1een s&ace and time, and also in this stor4 is the
&assin' o3 time lin(ed to a movement in s&ace. The &rota'onist is on a )o*rne4 3rom 2*rial to
@

2irth, and this )o*rne4 3rom do1n3all to innocence is re3lected in her movements in s&ace. The
old 1oman 1ho &er3ormed the a2ortion lives 24 the har2or. The closer the &rota'onist is to
the har2or, the closer she is to her tra*ma. So, as she moves to1ards the moment in time
1hich ha*nts her, the moments o3 the a2ortion, she also a&&roaches the har2or. 8*t a3ter the
&roced*re, or reall4 2e3ore, she moves a1a4 3rom the har2or, the cit4 and 3inall4 also a1a4
3rom the sea. The cit4 re&resents the *ncleanliness o3 the old 1oman9s hands and ho*se. This
is 1hat ca*sed the in3ection. The road that too( her to the old 1oman9s ho*se and the dirt
'oes 24 the sea 6Es 'i2t da einen We', der an den Dohlenla'ern vor2ei ;*r See 3Xhrt.: C@"E
C6There is a &ath there, that leads &ast the coal$4ards to the sea.:E The ho*se in 1hich she 'ot
&re'nant is close to the sea, and the 2each is 1here she 3ell in love and th*s a &lace o3 dan'er
and carelessness, 6Schnell, eh ihr an der See seid, die *nvorsichti' machtW: C@"E C6U*ic(l4,
2e3ore 4o* are at the sea that ma(es carelessW:E This )o*rne4, 2ac(1ards in time, 3rom death
to 2irth, 3rom the cit4 to the co*ntr4side and 3rom sea to land re&resents a road to innocenceR
to the *ndoin' o3 1hat is done. 8*t as the end o3 the )o*rne4 is 'ettin' closer, it is clear that
she 1ill have to live it 3or1ards a'ain. She cannot esca&e her destin4 24 livin' her li3e in
reverse. Interestin'l4 eno*'h, this endin' is ver4 similar to the endin' o3 Times Arrow. Wh4
does time have to 'o 3or1ards a'ain? It is di33ic*lt 3or the reader to (no1 ho1 to inter&ret the
inverted chronolo'4 o3 the stor4, 2*t it seems as tho*'h the a*thor 1ants *s to F*estion the
chronolo'4 o3 events, or time as 1e (no1 it, 6<om Ha3en he*len die Schi33e. H*r 723ahrt
oder ;*r 7n(*n3t? Wer soll das 1issen?: C@@E C6From the har2or the shi&s 1ail. To arrive or
to de&art? Who sho*ld (no1?:E
&he Protagonist5s Eperience o" 6i"e in 'e(erse
7n im&ortant F*estion is 1hether the &rota'onist is conscio*s o3 her 3ate, or 3*t*re, as she
moves 2ac(1ards in time. Moes she esca&e the tra*mati;in' memories as she moves &ast the
@>

time o3 the a2ortion? On the one hand, the &rota'onist9s '*ilt4 conscience seems to 2e
&ermanent thro*'ho*t the stor4. On the other hand, all the in3ormation 1e 'et is 3iltered
thro*'h the near omniscient narrator. 7n im&ortant lin( to the memor4 o3 the a2ortion is the
so*nd o3 the shi&s 3rom the har2or. The shi&s9 ho1lin' is a s4m2ol o3 the &rota'onist9s
sorro1 and the4 remind her o3 her sin,
Und die Schi33e he*len, 1ohin d* immer 'ehst, die he*len X2erall. Und die Schmer;en schXtteln dich, a2er d*
dar3st nicht schreien. Mie Schi33e dXr3en he*len, a2er d* dar3st nicht schreien. C@!E
7nd the shi&s 1ail, 1herever 4o* 'o, the4 1ail ever41here. 7nd the &ain sha(es 4o*, 2*t 4o* ma4 not cr4 o*t. The
shi&s ma4 ho1l, 2*t 4o* ma4 not cr4 o*t.
Here the narrator sa4s that the so*nds o3 the shi&s 3ollo1 her 1herever she 'oes and this is a
re3erence to the stor49s 3*t*re, a time 1hich the disco*rse has alread4 covered. This 3its as a
re3erence to the time a3ter she has had the 2a24 removed, 2*t the shi&s seemin'l4 ha*nt the
&rota'onist even as she moves past the a2ortion. -*st li(e Odilo Unverdor2en can 3eel re'ret
a2o*t his 3*t*re actions 1hen he is a child, the &rota'onist o3 6S&ie'el'eschichte: is ha*nted
24 her '*ilt into the da4s o3 s*&&osed innocence,
da seid ihr an der See *nd sieht die 1eien 8oote 1ie Fra'en an der Gren;e e*res 8lic(s, C=E Was 3lXstern die in
ihren hellen Ha*2en? 9Mas ist der Todes(am&39W Mie lasst n*r reden. C@"E
there 4o* 2oth are 24 the sea and 4o* see the 1hite 2oats li(e F*estions on the ed'e o3 4o*r 'a;e, C=EWhat do the4
1his&er in their 2ri'ht hoods? SThis is the death$throes.9 -*st tal(.
The voices o3 the 2oats co*ld 2e seen as re3erences to 1hat she 1ill do in the 3*t*re 2*t still
carries as &art o3 a '*ilt4 conscience on her )o*rne4 2ac( in time. The4 co*ld also &oint to an
*n(no1n 3*t*re as 1arnin's. The4 are &erha&s the 1arnin' si'nals that the 4o*n' 1oman did
not &a4 attention to, and th*s the reason 3or her do1n3all. 8*t there are other si'ns that the
&rota'onist carries her memories 3rom the 3*t*re into her &ast, 6Sei r*hi'W Er 1ei nicht, dass
@@

d* 2ei der 7lten schon 'e1esen 2ist, er (ann es a*ch nicht 1issen, er 1ei nichts von dem
S&ie'el: C@"E C68e F*ietW He (no1s not, that 4o* have alread4 2een to the old 1oman, he
cannot (no1 it, he (no1s nothin' o3 the mirror.:E It is hard to sa4, ho1ever, i3 it is the
&rota'onist 1ho moves 2ac(1ards in time and still remem2ers the 3*t*re, or i3 she, li(e all the
other &eo&le in the mirrored 1orld, moves 2ac(1ards in time 3or'ettin' all that the stor4 has
alread4 told. It is &ossi2le that the reader is 'iven all the in3ormation 2ased onl4 on the
narrator9s (no1led'e. This o&ens *& a melancholic &ers&ective on li3e as all that is lived is
lost 2eca*se it lies in a 3*t*re 3rom 1hich the &rota'onist moves 3*rther and 3*rther a1a4.
&he Pathos o" &raged$ and &ime 'e(ersal
What all the stories o3 reversed time to some eBtent sho1 is that time reversal o&ens *& an
emotionall4 *niF*e &ossi2ilit4 to loo( at all that is 2ea*ti3*l and 'ained in li3e 24 &ortra4in' it
as 2ein' lost. The love the 4o*n' man har2ors 3or the 3emale &rota'onist seems 'en*ine
eno*'h as his sorro1 24 her death2ed is evident. Their 3irst enco*nter, 3ollo1in' the stor49s
disco*rse, is their 3are1ell, a moment o3 little emotional involvement, 67m 7n3an' nimmt
man 72schied. Ehe man miteinander 1eiter'eht, m*ss man sich an den .lan(en *m den
leeren 8a*&lat; 3Xr immer trennen: C@"E C67t the 2e'innin' one ta(es leave. 8e3ore 4o* 'o
ahead 1ith one another, 4o* m*st &art 3or ever at the 3ence 24 the em&t4 2*ildin' site.:E This
is the time o3 com&lications in their relationshi& as 1ell as in the readin' o3 the stor4. 8*t the
com&lications dra1 the reader emotionall4 into their love stor4 and its tra'ed4, so 1hen the
co*&le has moved 3rom their 3inal 'ood24e thro*'h their *nre3lective love ma(in' and
moments o3 earl4 in3at*ation, the reader is entan'led in s*ch a 1a4 that 1hen the disco*rse
de&icts the last meetin' 2et1een the t1o, 1hich reall4 is their 3irst enco*nter in the stor4, a lot
is at sta(e. 6Mie H*(*n3t ist vor2ei: C!#E C6The 3*t*re has &assed:E 7nd all the 3*t*re the4
@!

no1 move a1a4 3rom as i3 it never ha&&ened is lost, )*st as their love reall4 is lost, 2eca*se o3
the termination o3 an *n1anted &re'nanc4, in the stor49s real time.
Mrei Ta'e s&Vter 1a't er nicht mehr, den 7rm *m deine Sch*ltern ;* le'en. Wieder drei Ta'e s&Vter 3ra't er dich,
1ie d* heit, *nd d* 3ra'st ihn. N*n 1isst ihr voneinander nicht einmal mehr die Namen. Und ihr 3ra't a*ch nicht
mehr. Es ist schZner so. Seid ihr nicht ;*m Geheimnis 'e1orden? C!#E Three da4s later he dares no more to &*t his
arm aro*nd 4o*r sho*lders. Three da4s a3ter this he as(s 4o* 1hat 4o*r name is, and 4o* as( him. No1 4o* don9t
even (no1 each other5s names. 7nd 4o* as( nothin' more. It is 2etter so. Have 4o* not 2ecome a secret?
The e33ect is &oetic and saddenin' 1hile com&l4in' 1ith the eB&ected *nha&&4 end o3
tra'ed4R there is mani3estl4 no esca&in' their se&aration as it is reall4 their meetin',
Ein Ta' 1ird (ommen, da siehst d* ihn ;*m ersten mal. Und er sieht dich. H*m erstenmal, das heit, Nie 1ieder.
72er erschrec(t nichtW Ihr mXsst nicht voneinander 72schied nehmen, das ha2t ihr lVn'st 'etan. Wie '*t es ist, dass
ihr es schon 'etan ha2tW
Es 1ird ein Her2stta' sein, voller Er1art*n' dara*3, dass alle FrXchte 1ieder 8lXten 1erden, 1ie er schon ist, der
Her2st, mit diesem hellen Ra*ch *nd mit dem Schatten, die 1ie S&litter ;1ischen den Schritten lie'en, dass d* die
FXYe daran ;erschneiden (Znntest, dass d* darX2er 3Vllst, 1enn d* *m \&3el a*3 den %ar(t 'eschic(t 2ist, d* 3Vllst
vor Ho33n*n' *nd vor FrZhlich(eit. Ein )*n'er %ann (ommt dir ;* Hil3e. Er hat die -ac(e n*r lose *m'e1or3en
*nd lVchelt *nd dreht die %Xt;e *nd 1eiY (ein Wort ;* sa'en. 72er ihr seid sehr 3rZhlich in diesem let;ten Licht.
M* dan(st ihm *nd 1ir3st ein 1eni' den Do&3 ;*rXc(, *nd da lZsen sich die a*3'estec(ten HZ&3e *nd 3allen hera2.
]7ch6, sa't er, ]'ehst d* nicht noch ;*r Sch*le?6 Er dreht sich *m *nd 'eht *nd &3ei3t ein Lied. So trennt ihr e*ch,
ohne einander n*r noch einmal an;*scha*en, 'an; ohne Schmer; *nd ohne es ;* 1issen, dass ihr e*ch trennt. C!#$
!/E
7 da4 1ill come 1hen 4o* see him 3or the 3irst time. 7nd he sees 4o*. For the 3irst time, that is to sa4, never a'ain.
8*t 3ear not. Po* m*st not ta(e leave o3 one another, that 4o* have done lon' a'o. Ho1 'ood it is, that 4o* have
alread4 done it.
It 1ill 2e an a*t*mn da4, 3*ll o3 eB&ectation, that all the 3r*its 1ill a'ain 2ecome 2looms, li(e it al1a4s is, the 3all,
1ith this 2ri'ht smo(e and 1ith the shado1s that li(e s&linters lie 2et1een one5s ste&s, so that 4o* co*ld c*t 4o*r
3eet on them, that 4o* co*ld 3all over then, 1hen 4o* are sent 3or a&&les to the mar(et, 4o* 3all 3or ho&e and 3or
ha&&iness. 7 4o*n' man comes to 4o*r aid. He has thro1n his )ac(et loosel4 aro*nd him and smiles and t1ists his
ca& and (no1s not a 1ord to sa4. 8*t 4o* are ver4 ha&&4 in this last li'ht. Po* than( him and thro1 4o*r head
@A

2ac( a little, and then the &inned$*& 2raids loosen and 3all do1n. [7h,[ he sa4s, [aren5t 4o* still in school?[ He
t*rns himsel3 aro*nd and 'oes and 1histles a t*ne. So 4o* &art 3rom each other, 1itho*t even another loo( at each
other, entirel4 1itho*t &ain and 1itho*t (no1in' that 4o* are &artin' 3rom each other.
Th*s reversin' the chronolo'4 o3 the love stor4, sho1in' the stor4 in a mirror, allo1s 3or a
ne1 &ers&ective on an old tra'ed4 that s*r&rises the reader and ma(es the stor4 come alive.
The ethical em&hasis that time reversal re&resents in S&ie'el'eschichte is as im&ortant as in
Times Arrow. 8oth &rota'onists have committed some t4&e o3 crime, 2*t it is m*ch clearer
that the &rota'onist in 6S&ie'el'eschichte: re'rets her actions and that this is the reason 1h4
she is relivin' her li3e in reverse,
%ach mir mein Dind 1ieder le2endi'WC=E Und da erschric(t die 7lte. Und in dem 'roen Schrec(en, in dem
2linden S&ie'el er3Xllt sie deine 8itte. Sie 1eit nicht, 1as sie t*t, doch in dem 2linden S&ie'el 'elin't es ihr. C@AE
%a(e m4 child alive a'ainW C=E7nd that terri3ies the old 1oman. 7nd in her 'reat terror, in the 2lind mirror, she
'rants 4o*r reF*est. She (no1s not, 1hat she does, 2*t in the 2lind mirror it s*cceeds.
84 ma(in' the old 1oman insert the child and not remove it, ta(e a1a4 the in3ection and not
ca*se it, the tr*e chronolo'4 o3 these events have a 'reater im&act. It is m*ch li(e the *se o3
time reversal in similar sit*ations in Times Arrow. The reader (no1s that this is not 1hat
reall4 ha&&ened and also (no1s that the &rota'onist is 3leein' in vain. 8*t 3or the stor4 to end
in tra'ed4, as its messa'e is a tra'ic one on more than one level, time m*st t*rn to1ards the
end. The dead 1oman cannot esca&e her actions 24 2ein' 'ranted re3*'e in the reversal o3
time and the 1arm em2race o3 never havin' eBisted. She m*st 1al( her chosen &ath a'ain.
Es ist der Ta' deiner Ge2*rt. M* (ommst ;*r Welt *nd schlV'st die 7*'en a*3 *nd schliet sie 1ieder vor dem
star(en Licht. Mas Licht 1Vrmt dir die Glieder, d* re'st dich in der Sonne, d* 2ist da, d* le2st. C!E It is the da4 o3
@"

4o*r 2irth. Po* come into the 1orld and o&en 4o*r e4es and sh*t them a'ain 2eca*se o3 the stron' li'ht. The li'ht
1arms 4o*r lim2s, 4o* stretch 4o*rsel3 in the s*n, 4o* are there, 4o* live.
The tone in this &ara'ra&h is &ositive and 3*ll o3 ho&e. The reader is invited to 2elieve some
sort o3 clos*re has 2een achieved. The 3alse com3ort o3 the ill*sion is similar to that 1hich
mental strate'ies o3 s*&&ression, s*ch as MIM, create in the &rota'onists, and 2oth the reader
and the &rota'onist m*st 2e a1a(ened to s(ies that are not green. The a*thor sets a tra& 3or
the reader9s emotions and the 3inal sentences o3 the stor4 3eel li(e a cold sho1er o3 con3*sion
and *nease, 6Mein <ater 2e*'t sich *2er dich. 9Es ist ;* Ende9 sa'en die hinter dir , 9sie ist
tot9 StillW Lass sie redenW: C!E C6Po*r 3ather 2ends over 4o*. SIt is the end,9 the4 sa4 2ehind
4o*, SShe is dead.9 U*ietW Let them [^her] tal(W:E 8*t the translation co*ld 2e misleadin', as
the 3inal sentence is am2i'*o*s in German. The &ersonal &rono*n sie co*ld re3er to her as
1ell as them. I3 the 3inal sentence and demand is translated into 6U*ietW Let her tal(W: Cm4
em&hasisE the im&ortance is &laced on hearin' 1hat the &rota'onist has to sa4. We are invited
to hear her tho*'hts and 3eelin's and to (no1 her stor4. The ethical dimension co*ld, 3rom
this &oint o3 de&art*re, 2e eB&lored even 3*rther and I also 2elieve a 3eminist readin' o3 the
stor4 co*ld 2e 3r*it3*l. +atholicism ma(es the &rota'onist *na2le to acce&t her actions, and
her actions are necessar4 2eca*se the societ4 she lives in 1ill not acce&t the 2irth o3 an
ille'itimate child. In addition to this, the 4o*n' man 1hom she loves, insists on their
relationshi& 2ein' seB*al,6<on da a2 drVn't er dich, mit ihm hinein;*'ehen: C!0E C6From
then on he *r'es 4o* to 'o 1ith him inside.:E and is th*s the *ltimate ca*se o3 her do1n3all.
In 6S&ie'el'eschichte: time reversal allo1s 3or the re3lection o3 a 4o*n' 'irl9s tro*2led and
re&entant mind. It is a narrative tool to 2rin' her 2ac( to li3e and relive her stor4 1ithin the
distorted 3rame1or( 1hich serves as a meta&hor 3or her mentall4 a'itated condition. She can
th*s ha*nt hersel3 and retrace the ori'ins o3 her do1n3all to indicate 2et1een 1hom the 2lame
!0

1o*ld 2e divided. 8oth the societ4 that 1ill not acce&t her &re'nanc4, the dirt4 old 1oman
1ho 'oes thro*'h 1ith the a2ortion *nder *nsanitar4 conditions, and the 4o*n' man 1ho
*shers her into 2ed are *nder attac(, and time reversal lets them 2e critici;ed 1hile the
&rota'onist retraces her o1n ste&s in re&entance. This is 1hat &*shes her so close to the
ethical center o3 the stor4. 7nd as o&&osed to Odilo Unverdor2en or Mon %arcial, she does
not have the same &ossi2ilit4 o3 choosin' 1hether to ta(e the 3et*s9 li3e.
7n o2vio*s e33ect o3 time reversal, also in this stor4, is the &ainsta(in' e33ort it demands o3
the reader. 84 tiltin' the 1orld sli'htl4 the reader has to 3oc*s on re&ositionin' the ima'e the4
decode at all times. In her #"@ essa4 67*3r*3 ;*m %isstra*en: 7ichin'er 1rites,
Uns sel2st mXssen 1ir misstra*en. Mer Dlarheit *nserer 72sichten, der Tie3e *nserer Gedan(en, der GXte *nserer
TatenW Unserer ei'enen Wahrha3ti'(eit mXssen 1ir misstra*enW CHermann and Th*ms /AE We have to dis2elieve
o*rselves. The clarit4 o3 o*r motives, the de&th o3 o*r tho*'hts, the 'oodness o3 o*r deedsW We have to dis2elieve
o*r o1n veracit4W CHa*sho3er #E
The recentl4 overthro1n Na;i German4 l*r(s in the 2ac('ro*nd o3 this comment. Ho1 co*ld
1e tr*st o*rselves as h*man 2ein's a3ter havin' created Cor to some eBtent acce&ted the
creation o3E s*ch an a2omination? Time is one o3 li3e9s s*&&osed constants that 1e ta(e 3or
'ranted, 2*t 7ichin'er sa4s 1e sho*ld not tr*st o*r &erce&tions or the concl*sions 1e 2ase on
them. 84 2rea(in' one o3 narratives9, and nat*re9s, *ns&o(en a'reements, that time is
*nidirectional, in the stor4 i3 not in the disco*rse, 7ichin'er 3orces *s to dis2elieve o*rselves.
She 3orces the reader to &a4 a lot more attention to their &erce&tions and 2e more critical
to1ards them.
Ro2ert Mes)arlais9 1or( on the conce&t o3 eB&erience amon' the homeless mentall4 ill in
8oston also s*''ests that 1e sho*ld not ta(e 1hat 1e &erceive to 2e the onl4 1a4 o3 3ilterin'
!#

the 1orld. He critici;es the eBtensive *se o3 the conce&t o3 experience as the mold in 1hich
h*man 2ein's sha&e the e&isodes o3 their lives. He ar'*es that a lot o3 str*ct*re is needed in
order to store 1hat 4o* live thro*'h as eB&eriences, 1hich act*all4 share man4 common traits
1ith 1hat 1e de3ine as narratives. 7nd accordin' to Mes)arlais even time can 2e severel4
distorted 24 livin' o*tside the normal 2o*ndaries o3 societ4, 6The e&isodic F*alit4 o3 shelter
li3e, 1here 4o* need to live one da4 at a time and not 'et ahead o3 4o*rsel3 and 1here no2od4
does an4thin', 3iBes time as a di33*se and s&oradic order.: CA">E He claims the harshness o3
realit4 *shers man4 o3 the homeless mentall4 ill o*t o3 s4nc 1ith time as it is most commonl4
&erceived, 6Since one 1a4 to sto& thin(in' a2o*t the cold or other distractions is to ste& o*t o3
the 3lo1 o3 time, the acme o3 this &redilection is the &*rs*it o3 timelessness.: CA"@E He re3ers
to these &eo&le 1ith distorted &erce&tions o3 time and s*ccession o3 events not as
eB&eriencin' individ*als, 2*t rather as &eo&le 1ho are struggling along.
The tem&oral order o3 eB&erience, involvin' as it does a c*m*lative la4erin' o3 events that 2*ilds to a 1hole 'reater
than its &arts, &roceeds alon' narrative lines o3 an 7ristotelian 2ent. The 'ist o3 eB&erience is that it 'oes 2e4ond
the sit*ation at hand. The tem&oral order o3 str*''lin' alon', in contrast, involves a s*ccession o3 en'a'ements,
1hich can incl*de a constant 2*t &*rel4 e&isodic *n3oldin' o3 events. CA"!E
So*l9s &erce&tion o3 events is mar(ed 24 2ein' e&isodic in the sense that he is not es&eciall4
a&t at lin(in' events into a 'reater narrative. Th*s he does not 3*ll4 eB&erience, 2*t is rather
str*''lin' alon'. The reader, on the other hand, is meant to eB&erience 2ased on the
in3ormation So*l 'ives them, and eB&erience is onl4 &ossi2le 2eca*se the4 can 3*ll4
*nderstand the im&lications o3 the in3ormation 'iven 2ased on their a2ilit4 to mentall4 reverse
the reversal o3 time.
It is a 3ascinatin' notion that a literar4 1or( can 2rin' the sane into the minds o3 the insane,
and not onl4 &ortra4 distortion, 2*t *se distorted &ict*res to e33ect the restoration o3 an ima'e
!/

o3 the 1orld more closel4 resem2lin' that in the mind o3 the reader. 8*t can narratives ever
&rovide *s 1ith an eB&erience that reall4 resem2les that o3 another h*man 2ein'? Mes)arlais
addresses this F*estion, sa4in' that 6The inter&enetration o3 narrative and eB&erience has
'ro1n stron'er in correlation 1ith the &redominance o3 literat*re in the lives o3 the ed*cated.:
CAA"E So, the more 1e s*2)ect o*r minds to narratives, the more 1e inter&ret li3e as i3
consistin' o3 narratives. Mes)arlais con3irms this 6The &resent state o3 the art is that 1e can
onl4 'ras& o*r lives thro*'h narrative: CI2id.E, 2*t he adds to the idea 24 sa4in' 6tho*'h 3e1
F*estion to 1hat de'ree this inesca&a2le 3act a&&lies o*tside the modern West: CI2id.E. He
raises an interestin' &oint here, 2eca*se even tho*'h m4 narratives are dra1n 3rom 2oth the
E*ro&ean and 7merican continents, the Western 2ac('ro*nd on 1hich the4 &er3orm their
shado1$&la4 is *nmista(a2le. The stron'est non$Western im&*lse lies in the 73rican and
Indi'eno*s as&ects o3 7le)o +ar&entier9s c*lt*ral 2ac('ro*nd. There3ore eBtensive research
on 3iction o3 time reversal 3rom c*lt*res 2e4ond the sco&e o3 this thesis 1ill ho&e3*ll4 2e
eBec*ted.
!?

Conclusion
What does time re(ersal do0
The ans1er is that time reversal can do a n*m2er o3 thin's. In the co*rse o3 this thesis, I have
sho1ed ho1 s*ch a chan'e in the 'eneral 3rame1or( o3 a stor4 constit*tes a co'nitive
challen'e 1hich ena2les the *se o3 emotive e33ects, s*ch as h*mor or terror, as 1ell as to
enrich the ethical and &s4cholo'ical dimensions o3 the stor4 in a 1a4 normal chronolo'4
1o*ld not. 8*t I also 2elieve this strate'4 can add an in3inite n*m2er o3 ne1 ideas to a stor4.
In this sense I 2elieve I have onl4 covered some o3 1hat time reversal can do. 7dmittedl4, the
restricted n*m2er o3 narratives that I have 3o*nd 1here time reversal is em&lo4ed limits the
&ossi2ilities some1hat, 2*t, in theor4, an alteration in the esta2lished 3rame1or( o3 narratives
o3 this (ind o&ens *& co*ntless &ossi2ilities. Ho1ever, there mi'ht 2e a 'ood reason as to 1h4
3e1 a*thors have set o*t on s*ch an endeavor. In the 3ollo1in' I 1ill eB&lore those reasons as
1ell as to s*m *& the main res*lts o3 m4 investi'ation.
I have &ointed o*t three main e33ects o3 time reversal in this st*d4. On the macro level I have
identi3ied that the ethical dimension o3 a teBt is em&hasi;ed thro*'h time reversal 2eca*se the
chan'e in the str*ct*ral 3rame1or( o3 the narrative directs the 3oc*s in the stor4 onto ca*se
and th*s is active in &lacin' '*ilt. 7s a techniF*e 3or de3amiliari;ation, time reversal is also
an e33ective means to an ethical or &olitical end. Times Arrow is an eBcellent eBam&le o3 ho1
time reversal rene1s the reader9s 3eelin' o3 re&*lsion 3rom some o3 the horri3ic 1ar crimes o3
Na;i German4. Even tho*'h 1e have heard a2o*t these atrocities man4 times 2e3ore, the4 are
vivi3ied thro*'h the narrative strate'4 o3 time reversal 2eca*se the reader has to rearran'e the
&ieces o3 the narrative &*;;le to match realit4 thro*'h a heart2rea(in' co'nitive challen'e.
The 'eni*s o3 this is that it s*cceeds in ma(in' an old stor4 come alive a'ain. There3ore it is
!

ver4 interestin' that &recisel4 the ethical dimension o3 Times Arrow has 2een de2ated to s*ch
an eBtent, and that the F*estion has 2een raised as to 1hether 3iction treatin' historical events
sho*ld 2e allo1ed to distort realit4 in this 1a4. Literar4 scholars sho*ld (no1 2etter than to
*nderestimate the monotono*s e33ect o3 re&etition, and the retellin' o3 a historical 2enchmar(
as im&ortant as the Holoca*st ma4 3ade in e33ect, terri34in'l4 eno*'h, i3 ne1 3orms o3
descri&tion are not eB&lored. O3 co*rse ver4 traditional narrative 3orms can still have a 'reat
im&act on an a*dience, 2*t to ens*re e33ect on as man4 &eo&le as &ossi2le I o&&ose the
censorin' o3 innovative 3iction on historical events. Even tho*'h the reversal o3 time in
Times Arrow can 2e descri2ed as an e33ect meant to entertain its a*dience, the meanin' o3
entertainment m*st here 2e 1idened to incl*de an4 emotive e33ect, 'ood or 2ad, &leasant or
&ain3*l, and th*s entertainment can have a stron' ethical im&act.
This 2rin's *s to the micro level o3 1hat time reversal can do to a stor4. The chan'e in the
inter&retative 3rame1or(, 1hich the reversal o3 time entails, o&ens *& ne1 &ossi2ilities 3or
a33ectin' the reader emotionall4. I have sho1n that the e33ect o3 h*mor, mostl4 related to the
a2s*rdness o3 reversed &rocesses, is easil4 em&lo4ed. Even tho*'h m4 disc*ssion em&hasi;es
the increased co'nitive load that time reversal re&resents, I also &ost*late that the mind en)o4s
an4 co'nitive challen'e, so that even codes that mi'ht lead to more ne'ative emotional
res&onses are readil4 crac(ed. EBam&les o3 this 1o*ld 2e the creation o3 s*s&ense and even
horror or re&*lsion. These 6ne'ative: emotive e33ects are 3o*nd in all o3 the stories o3 this
st*d4, and are &erha&s the most 3reF*entl4 *sed emotive e33ect in stories o3 reversed time.
The introd*ctor4 F*ote to +ha&ter T1o is Wood4 7llen9s
#"
short &oetic narrative 6%4 NeBt
Li3e 8ac(1ards:. He ima'ines this direction o3 li3e as hi'hl4 &re3era2le to li3e9s act*al
#"
7llen9s teBt is 2ased on Gero'e +arlin9s comed4 1here he also ma(es a &oint o*t o3 li3e 2ein' 2etter i3 it 1as
lived 2ac(1ards.
!>

chronolo'4. %ovin' 3rom old a'e into health4 ad*lthood, 3rom the 1orries o3 an ad*lt to the
care3ree da4s o3 childhood, 67nd then 4o* s&end 4o*r last " months 3loatin' in l*B*rio*s s&a$
li(e conditions 1ith central heatin' and room service on ta&, lar'er F*arters ever4 da4 and
then <oilaW Po* 3inish o33 as an or'asmW: CFtd. in +hatman, ?#E This eBtremel4 &ositive vie1
o3 li3e 2ac(1ards is not &revalent in the stories I have st*died. The4 seem more emotionall4
ne'ativel4 inclined. This res*lts &erha&s 3rom that livin' li3e 3rom old a'e to 2irth can also
re&resent a 'r*esome, 2*t all*sive, &arallel to li3e9s normal direction. The ro22in' o3 memor4,
as 3o*nd in 6S&ie'el'eschichte:, and the constant loss o3 com&anions, as eB&erienced 24
8en)amin 8*tton, re3lects the tra'ed4 o3 1hat man4 elderl4 eB&erience in their last 4ears o3
li3e. The horror that arises in the reader as Na;i 1ar crimes in 7*sch1it; are reversed and
narrated as 'lorio*s sessions o3 revivi3ication have an immediate emotional and intellect*all4
challen'in' im&act. In this disc*ssion it has 2een 3reF*entl4 visi2le ho1 the ethical dimension
and emotive e33ect o3 time reversal have &roved to tie to'ether on several levels.
The reader9s attit*de to1ards the &rota'onist clearl4 indicate his or her ethical assessment.
For instance, the 3eelin' o3 tra'ed4 is 'reatest 1hen the &rota'onist is close to the stor49s
ethical center. Even tho*'h Mon %arcial, o3 6<ia)e a la semilla:, loses all o3 his &o1er as he
re'resses into adolescence and childhood, the 3eelin' o3 tra'ed4 is hindered 24 the cl*es o3 his
*nethical cond*ct. 7nd more im&ortantl4 Cread 1ith a +hristian c*lt*ral 2ac('ro*ndE he does
not reall4 re'ret the choices he has made. Th*s s4m&ath4 m*st 2e considered a &rereF*isite
3or tra'ed4. We s4m&athi;e more readil4 1ith the &rota'onist o3 6S&ie'el'eschichte:, and
there3ore the tra'ed4 o3 the narrative is dee&ened. The s4m&ath4 1e 3eel is &artl4 d*e to her
3eelin's o3 stron' re'ret concernin' her 2ehavior, 1hich to some eBtent can 2e descri2ed as
*nethical. 8*t it is also lin(ed to the 3act that she is &ortra4ed as a victim o3 *n3ort*nate
circ*mstances, and this ma(es *s )*d'e her 2ehavior less strictl4. The ethical scr*tin4 o3 the
!@

teBt is directed to1ards the societ4 that ca*ses the &rota'onist9s miser4. This readin' o3 the
stor4 sho1s ho1 the emotive e33ects o3 time reversal are *sed to hi'hli'ht the teBt9s ethical
and &olitical dimension.
7 third as&ect o3 1hat time reversal has &roved itsel3 a2le to add to a stor4, is the creation o3
an alternative &ers&ective on the 1orld. The &s4cholo'ical dimension o3 the stories is 'iven
m*ch em&hasis as the reader is 3orced to 3oc*s on ho1 the &rota'onists can &ossi2l4
eB&erience time 2ac(1ards. When I read these stories I s&ent a lot o3 ener'4 modi34in' m4
h4&othesis as to the ori'ins o3 the th1arted tem&oral &ers&ective o3 the &rota'onists, and I am
still not necessaril4 set on one inter&retation. I 2elieve the strate'4 is *sed to sho1 that the
h*man &s4che is mallea2le, and that all choices have conseF*ences, on others as 1ell as
o*rselves. One inter&retation o3 6S&ie'el'eschichte: and Times Arrow is that 2oth
&rota'onists have tro*2le co&in' 1ith the conseF*ences o3 their choices, and th*s create a
mental esca&e ro*te 1hich consists o3 eB&eriencin' the 1orld 2ac(1ards. 7 rec*rrin' theme
th*s seems to 2e the s*2)ect o3 choice and 3ree 1ill. So*l is stri&&ed o3 &o1er over the 2od4 in
1hich he resides as an *nderlinin' contrast to the main messa'e o3 ever4one havin' to o1n
*& to their actions. Onl4 in a 2ac(1ards 1orld can an4one 2e eBc*sed o3 this res&onsi2ilit4.
Times Arrow is a clean c*t eBam&le o3 time reversal9s a2ilit4 to &lace '*ilt irrevoca2l4 24
lettin' a Na;i 1ar criminal heal -e1s in the 'as cham2ers o3 a concentration cam&. The reader
2rin's the historical 3acts o3 the Holoca*st into the read and the reader, even tho*'h the
inversion o3 chronolo'4 has 2een em&hasi;ed re&eatedl4 thro*'ho*t the teBt, is shoc(ed 24
the &erversion o3 invertin' mass m*rder. The &lacin' o3 '*ilt in 6S&ie'el'eschichte: is more
com&leB, as time reversal is *sed to *nderline ho1 the &rota'onist 2laims onl4 hersel3 and
1ishes her crime to 2e *ndone, 2*t the stor4 indicates that other 3i'*res are &erha&s eF*all4
!!

'*ilt4. 7ll stories o3 reversed time share the trait that the reader has to consider 2oth
directions o3 time sim*ltaneo*sl4 1hile &rocessin' the narration
/0
.
The *se o3 3antastical elements to comm*nicate &olitical or ethical ideas a2o*t the real 1orld
has &roven to 2e ver4 e33icient, somethin' 1hich has 2een 3*ll4 eB&loited in ma'ical realism.
Reader9s are &erha&s ca*'ht o33 '*ard 24 the lin( 2et1een the 3antastical and the real, and can
th*s 2e more easil4 emotionall4 and intellect*all4 involved in the stor4. Time reversal
constit*tes chan'in' one o3 realit49s constants and is immediatel4 illo'ical and there3ore
3antastical. .h4sicist Ste&hen Ha1(in' 1rites a2o*t the reversal o3 time9s direction in a
sit*ation 1here the *niverse is contractin', not eB&andin'. He to4s 1ith the idea that all
movements m*st 2e done 2ac(1ards in this scenario, and he admits that, at one &oint, even he
tho*'ht that this 1o*ld 2e tr*e. 7ll &rocesses in &h4sics can 2e reversed, 2*t the conce&t o3
time is tric(4 2eca*se it onl4 ma(es sense to tal( o3 in a conteBt o3 matter movin' in s&ace.
7nd *nder these circ*mstances the la1s o3 thermod4namics are also ta(in' e33ect. The second
la1 o3 thermod4namics destro4s the &ossi2ilit4 o3 time reversal as descri2ed in the novels
*nder scr*tin4 here. This la1 states that 6in an4 closed s4stem disorder, or entro&4, al1a4s
increases 1ith time: CHa1(in', #@#E. This means that even i3 the *niverse 1ere to contract
the 62ac(1ards: movement o3 all the &articles 1o*ld not 3ollo1 the same &attern as the4 did
in the &rocess o3 eB&ansion. 7n ima'e o3 ill*stration co*ld 2e a 'lass o3 1ine 1hich shatters
on the 3loor tiles. I3 'ravit4 1as to 2e reversed the 2ro(en &ieces 1o*ld not retract into a 'lass
3illed 1ith 1ine, the 2ro(en 'lass and 1ine 1o*ld sim&l4 rain *&1ards. I do not 1ant to d1ell
on the im&ossi2ilit4 o3 time movin' 2ac(1ards, 2*t I 1ant to &oint o*t that this ma(es it 3air
to ass*me that the reason to create this alternative vie1 o3 the 1orld is to comment on the
1orld as 1e (no1 it. 7nd there3ore a 'eneral concl*sion that can 2e dra1n 3rom m4
disc*ssion o3 the di33erent as&ects o3 1hat time reversal can add to a stor4, is that its di33erent
/0
+3. Gre2er !/.
!A

3*nctions all seem to 2e lin(ed to the ethical dimension o3 the teBts. 7ll the stories treat
misdeeds 24 the hands o3 the &rota'onists, and even tho*'h time reversal can create emotive
e33ects and &s4cholo'ical de&th, the main 3oc*s is on the ethical )*d'ement 1hich the im&lied
a*thor and reader &ass on the characters. It ma4 seem over sim&le, 2*t the same leitmoti3
seems to &ermeate the 2od4 o3 teBts that I have st*died, 1hat is done cannot 2e *ndone.
7ctions cannot 2e reversed, and this is ironicall4 em&hasi;ed in the li2eratin' conteBt o3
3iction 24 doin' &recisel4 this.
Mes&ite his &ositive revie1 o3 Times Arrow& Se4mo*r +hatman is not alto'ether &ositive to
the *se o3 time reversal in 3iction. He 1rites that 6Even 3or narratolo'ists,
2ac(1ardism^anton4mi;in' is do*2tless a minor 2li& on the screen, an eBtreme (ind o3
anachron4 stretched to its lo'ical concl*sion. +learl4, stron' thematic motivation is reF*ired
to )*sti34 its *se.: C>/E This is certainl4 tr*e in relation 1ith Times Arrow and
6S&ie'el'eschichte:, that 2oth have o2vio*s reasons 3or choosin' s*ch a tem&oral dis)*nction.
The lac( o3 6stron' themative motivation: in 6<ia)e a la semilla:, on the other hand, seems to
indicate that this is not reall4 a reF*irement 3or em&lo4in' time reversal. In the ma'ical
conteBt o3 +olonial Latin 7merica time reversal sets the mood 3or the tellin' o3 a stor4 to a
'reater eBtent than it &re&ares the reader 3or the conve4ance o3 a &artic*lar messa'e. Sim&l4
24 not carr4in' as strict demands 3or lo'ic and rationalit4 as eB&ressions o3 traditional
Western c*lt*re do, this stor4 allo1s 3or a 1ea(er artic*lation o3 themes. The 3act that it
3orms &art o3 a Latin 7merican conteBt co*ld 2e (e4 to *nderstand this di33erence, and the
reason 1h4 the strate'4 is &erha&s more easil4 *sed here co*ld 2e that there is a stron'
in3l*ence o3 non$Western c*lt*res that have a less restrictive vie1 on the s*&ernat*ral. 7n
additional an'le o3 3*rther investi'ation o3 time reversal in 3iction 1o*ld th*s 2e to com&are
!"

its *sa'e in di33erent c*lt*ral conteBts a tas( &erha&s eF*all4 interestin' to anthro&olo'ists as
narratolo'ists.
7s a contrast to +hatman9s concl*sion on the 3*t*re o3 time reversal, Eri(a Gre2er 2elieves
1e have onl4 seen the 2e'innin' o3 the *se o3 this narrative techniF*e, as it latel4 has 2een
eB&erimented 1ith in vario*s s&ectac*lar movies 6*nd 1erden sicherlich, nachdem die Idee
n*n in der .o&(*lt*r an'e(ommen ist, 1eiter F*rore machen.:C!#E C6$and 1ill s*rel4, no1
that the idea has reached .o& +*lt*re, contin*e to ca*se 3*rore: Cm4 translationEE. -an 7l2er,
Henri( S(ov Nielsen, 8rian Richardson and Ste3an Iversen have recentl4 o&ened *& a 1e2
reso*rce, )ictionary of ,nnatural !arratology, on the &a'es o3 the Universit4 o3 7arh*s
1here the4 list t4&es o3 63ictional narratives that transcend or violate the 2o*ndaries o3
conventional realism. It a33irms the distinctive nat*re o3 3iction, identi3ies nonmimetic as&ects
o3 ostensi2l4 realistic teBts, and 'ravitates to1ard *n*s*al and eB&erimental 1or(s that re)ect
the conventions o3 mimetic and nat*ral narrative:. This 1o*ld also s*''est that the interest in
alternative narrative strate'ies s*ch as time reversal is on the rise. %4 disc*ssion o3 1hat time
reversal can do has lead me to 2elieve that a*thors can and sho*ld em&lo4 this techniF*e,
2eca*se it constit*tes tiltin' the reader9s 1orld sli'htl4, and even tho*'h it *ndenia2l4 entails
a co'nitive challen'e, the challen'e is 1hat ma(es readin' these stories &artic*larl4
interestin'. 7nd this all la4s the 'ro*nd 3or maBim*m im&act on the reader, 1hich a'ain can
serve ethical and &olitical &*r&oses.
A0

Appendi
'etronarrated "iction
/#
7etrayal, C.la4E Harold .inter, U.D., #"!A
1ounter51lock World, CNovelE .hili& D. Mic(, US7, #"@!
6Ho1 to Tal( to Po*r %other:, CShort stor4E Lorrie %oore, US7, #"A>
Memento, CFilmE +hristo&her Nolan, US7, /000
Memento Mori, CShort stor4E +hristo&her Nolan, US7,
6%4 NeBt Li3e 8ac(1ards:, CShort teBtE Wood4 7llen, US7,
6<o;vra_`enie aor2a: CThe Ret*rn o3 +hor2E, <ladimir Na2o(ov, R*ssia, #"/>
6Sla*'hterho*se Five:, CNovelE D*rt <onne'*t, US7, #"@"
6S&ie'el'eschichte: CStor4 in a mirrorE, CShort stor4E Ilse 7ichin'er, 7*stria, #""
-tastny (onec CHa&&4 EndE, CFilmE Oldrich Li&s(4, +;ech Re&*2lic, #"@A
Times Arrow, CNovelE %artin 7mis, U.D., #""#
The 1onfessions of Max Tivoli, CNovelE 7ndre1 Sean Greer, US7, /00
6The +*rio*s +ase o3 8en)amin 8*tton:, CShort stor4E F. Scott Fit;'erald, US7, #"//
The "oer 7ride, CNovelE %ar'aret 7t1ood, +anada, #""?
6<ia)e a la semilla: C-o*rne4 8ac( to the So*rceE, CShort stor4E 7le)o +ar&entier, +*2a, #">A
/#
This list contains all 3ictional narratives that I (no1 o3 that co*ld 2elon' to the cate'or4 retronarration as Eri(a
Gre2er *ses the term.
A#

A/

!i%liograph$
.rimar4 teBts,
7ichin'er, Ilse. 6S&ie'el'eschichte: in )er 'efesselte, Fran(3*rt 7m %ain, Fischer Taschen2*ch <erla', .rint.
#""#
7ldrid'e, %a*rice. 6S&ie'el'eschichte. 7 Lin'*istic 7nal4sis.: #"A., /@,/ C#"AAE, #"$#@@, .rint.
7mis, %artin. 673ter1ord: Times Arrow, London,<inta'e 8oo(s, .rint. /00?
7mis, %artin. Times Arrow, London,<inta'e 8oo(s, .rint. /00?
+ar&entier, 7le)o. 'uerra del tiempo y otros relatos. %GBico M. F., Lector*m, .rint. /00#
+onrad, -ose&h. 6The Secret Sharer, an e&isode 3rom the coast:, London, .en'*in, .rint. #"">
+leese, -ohn, and Graham +ha&man. 6The .et Sho&: Monty 8ythons *lying 1ircus, E&isode
A, Ne1 Por(, 7bE Television Net1or(s, Ne1 <ideo Gro*&. M<M, #"""
Me OnJs, Harriet. 6-o*rne4 8ac( to the So*rce.: The +xford 7ook of .atin American -hort -tories, ed. Ro2erto
Gon;Ile; EchevarrJa, Ne1 Por(, OB3ord U., .rint. #"""
Mic(, .hili& D. 1ounter 1lock World. Ne1 Por(, <inta'e 8oo(s, .rint. /00/
Mic(, .hili& D. 6Po*r 7&&ointment Will 8e Pesterda4:, The %ye of The -iyl and +ther 1lassic -tories0 The
1ollected -hort -tories of 8hilip (0 )ick0 $ol0 6, Ne1 Por(, +itadel .ress, .rint. #"A!
Fit;'erald, F. Scott. 6The +*rio*s +ase o3 8en)amin 8*tton.: The 1urious 1ase of
7enjamin 7utton and -ix +ther -tories, Gran'emo*th, .en'*in +lassics, .rint. /00A
Greer, 7ndre1 Sean. The 1onfessions of Max Tivoli, London, Fa2er and Fa2er, .rint. /00
Da4sen, S*sanna. 'irl #nterrupted. Ne1 Por(, <inta'e 8oo(s, .rint. #""
.inter, Harold. 7etrayal, London, Fa2er and Fa2er, .rint. #""#
<onne'*t, D*rt. -laughterhouse 6 or The 1hildrens 1rusade, London, Random Ho*se <inta'e
8oo(s, .rint. /000
A?

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