A Discussion of the Genre, Historicity,

Date, and Authorship of the Acts of

the Apostles
By Christopher Price
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: THE GENRE OF ACTS3
I. Acts as Ancient Historiogra!
II. Acts as Scrit"re
III. Acts as Ancient Biogra#!
I$. Acts as Ancient No%e&
$. Conc&"sion
CHAPTER ': THE HISTORICIT( OF ACTS.')
I. T#e C#a&&enge Face* +! Ancient ,riters
II. E-a.ining t#e Case /or 0een*ence
III. An A&ternati%e to 0een*ence
I$. S"..ar!
CHAPTER 3: THE 0ATE OF ACTS12
I. A&&"sions to L"3e4Acts
II. Pa"&5s Letters ,i*esrea* +! t#e Secon* Cent"r!
III. A%oi*ing Anac#ronis.s
I$. T#e ,estern Te-t o/ Acts
$. Conc&"sion
CHAPTER 2: THE A6THOR OF THE ACTS7)
I. T#e ,e Passages o/ Acts as E%i*ence o/ A"t#oria& Particiation
II. O+8ections to A"t#oria& Particiation
III. A**itiona& Interna& E%i*ence o/ A"t#ors#i
I$. E-terna& E%i*ence o/ A"t#ors#i
$. Conc&"sion
CHAPTER 1: 0I0 L69E 6SE :OSEPH6S5 ANTI;6ITIES111
I. A Con%incing Consens"s Against 0een*ence
II. E-a.ining t#e Case /or 0een*ence
III. An A&ternati%e to 0een*ence
I$. S"..ar!
CHAPTER <: CONCL6SIONS... 1''
BIBLIOGRAPH(..1'2
'
3
CHAPTER 1: THE GENRE OF ACTS
=T#e /irst >"a&i/ication /or 8"*ging an! iece o/ ?or3.ans#i /ro. a
cor3scre? to a cat#e*ra& is to 3no? ?#at it is @ ?#at it ?as inten*e* to *o
an* #o? it is .eant to +e "se*.A
C.S. Le?isB Pre/ace to Paradise Lost
,#at is t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&esC It is a ?ritingB a narrati%eB to +e s"re. B"t
?#at 3in*C T#is >"estion is one o/ genre. Genres =are socia& con%entions t#at
ro%i*e conte-t"a& .eaning /or t#e s.a&&er "nits o/ &ang"age an* te-t t#e!
enc&ose. T#e origina& signi/icance t#at a &iterar! te-t #a* /or +ot# a"t#or an*
rea*er is tie* to t#e genre o/ t#e te-tB so t#at t#e .eaning o/ t#e art is *een*ent
"on t#e .eaning o/ t#e ?#o&e.A
1
In ot#er ?or*sB a"t#ors ?rite accor*ing to a set
o/ con%entions an* e-ectations #e&* +! ?riters an* a"*iences a+o"t *i//erent
t!es o/ &iterat"re. To ?rite accor*ing to a artic"&ar genre ?as to co.."nicate
seci/ic intentions an* to i.+"e !o"r ?or3 ?it# certain .eaning.
Is t#e >"estion o/ genre i.ortantC (esB it is. =I*enti/ication o/ a ?or35s
genre . . . ai*s "s in its interretation.A
'
Genre =is ?i*e&! ac3no?&e*ge* as one o/
t#e 3e! con%entions g"i*ing +ot# t#e co.osition an* t#e interretation o/
?ritings. Genre /or.s a 3in* o/ Dcontract5 or agree.entB o/ten "nso3en or
"n?rittenB or e%en "nconscio"sB +et?een t#e a"t#or an* a rea*erB +! ?#ic# t#e
a"t#or sets o"t to ?rite accor*ing to a ?#o&e set o/ e-ectations an* con%entionsB
an* ?e agree to rea* or to interret t#e ?or3 "sing t#e sa.e con%entionsB gi%ing
"s an initia& i*ea o/ ?#at ?e .ig#t e-ect to /in*.A
3
9no?&e*ge o/ genres ?as ?i*esrea* in t#e &iterate He&&enistic ?or&* in
?#ic# Acts ?as ?ritten. As Pro/. Ric#ar* B"rri*ge states in #is +oo3B What Are
the Gospels?B =EaFn a?areness o/ genre an* its con%entions ?as ?i*esrea* in t#e
ancient ?or&* t#ro"g# e&e.entar! sc#oo&ingB artic"&ar in its "se o/ r#etorica&
e-ercises an* .ora&istic stories o/ t#e #eroes.A
2

Beca"se o/ t#e i.ortance o/ genre c&assi/icationB sc#o&ars #a%e si&&e*
."c# in3 e-&oring t#e genre o/ Acts an* t#e .a8orit! #as conc&"*e* t#at Acts is
o/ t#e genre o/ t#e ancient #istor!B a&so 3no?n as ancient #istoriogra#!.
1
In t#is
c#ater I 8oin t#e *isc"ssion +! .a3ing a re&i.inar! case /or Acts +eing
c&assi/ie* as ancient #istoriogra#! an* t#en e%a&"ate t#e ot#er can*i*atesB
co.aring an* contrasting t#eir s"ita+i&it! ?it# t#at o/ #istoriogra#!.
1
0a%i* E. A"neB The New Testament in Its Literary EnvironmentB age 13.
'
A.R. CrossB GGenres o/ t#e Ne? Testa.entBG in Dictionary of New Testament
Bac!ro"ndB e*s. Craig E%ans an* Stan&e! E. PorterB age 2)'.
3
Ric#ar* B"rri*geB #o"r Gospels$ %ne &es"sB age 1.
2
Ric#ar* B"rri*geB What Are the GospelsB age <H.
1
:o#n B. Po&#i&&B ActsB age 2'.
2
I. Acts as Ancient Historiography
Ancient #istories =are %e#ic&es /or narrating e%ents ?ort#! o/ recor*. . . .
Historians E F treate* e%ents t#at act"a&&! #aene* an* eo&e ?#o rea&&! &i%e*I
t#e! #a* #istorica& stories ?ort# te&&ing.A
<
Pro/essor L"3e T. :o#nson e-&ains
?#! #e conc&"*es t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as atte.ting to ?rite #istor!:
J1K His ro&og"e te&&s "s t#at #e is ?riting an =or*er&! acco"nt.A
Historians o/ #is age "se* s"c# &ang"age to *escri+e t#eir ?or3. He
re/ers as ?e&& to ora& an* ?ritten so"rcesI #e 3ne? ot#ers #a* ?ritten
narrati%es +e/ore #i.. He #a* so"rcesI t#ere/oreB #e regar*e* t#e.
as s"c#B an* #e "se* t#e. critica&&!. J'K He tries to re&ate #is stor! to
t#e +roa*er #istorica& conte-t. He *oes t#is /irst +! ro%i*ing
c#rono&ogica& re/erences /or i%ota& e%ents Jsee L"3e 1:1I ':14'I 3:14
'I Acts 17:1'K. In a**itionB #e i*enti/ies o?er +&ocs an* go%erning
agentsB not on&! in Pa&estine JActs 17:1'41LK. J3K A+o%e a&&B L"3e
#as t#e #istorian5s instinct /or c#rono&og! an* ca"sa&it!I #e .a3es
connections +et?een e%entsB so t#at a t#rea* o/ "rose r"ns t#ro"g#
#is narrati%e.
L
:oe& Green ro%i*es a**itiona& si.i&arities +et?een Acts an* #istoriogra#!.
L"3e5s t?o %o&".es e%ince a n".+er o/ ot#er attri+"tes co..on in
Greco4Ro.an #istoriogra#! @ /or e-a.&e a genea&ogica& recor*
JL3. 3:'34'7KI t#e "se o/ .ea& scenes as occasions /or instr"ction Jas
in Greco4Ro.an s!.osiaKI tra%e& narrati%esI seec#esI &ettersI an*
*ra.atic eiso*esB s"c# as :es"s5 re8ection at NaMaret# J2.1<43)K an*
Pa"&5s stor.! %o!age an* s#i?rec3 JActs 'L.14'7.12K. F"rt#er in
c#aracteriMing #is ?or3 as a narrati%e Jdie!esisKB L"3e >"a&i/ies #is
ro8ect as a &ong narrati%e o/ .an! e%entsB /or ?#ic# t#e c#ie/
rotot!es ?ere t#e #istoriogra#ica& ?ritings o/ Hero*ot"s an*
T#"c!*i*es.
7
Fina&&!B ,i&&en %an 6nni3 *eter.ine* t#at t#ere ?ere ten +asic /eat"res t#at
c#aracteriMe* t#e ?ritings o/ Greco4Ro.an #istorians: 1K c#oosing a no+&e toicI
'K c#oosing a toic t#at ?o"&* +e "se/"& to t#e a"*ienceI 3K in*een*ence an*
i.artia&it!I 2K a ?e&& str"ct"re* narrati%eB esecia&&! at t#e +eginning an* t#e en*I
<
A"neB op' cit'B age LH.
L
L"3e T. :o#nsonB The Writin!s of the New TestamentB age ')).
7
:oe& B. GreenB =Interna& Reetition in L"3e4ActsBA in (istory$ Literat"re and
)ociety in the Boo of ActsB age '7<.
1
1K co&&ection o/ rearator! .ateria&I <K se&ection an* %ariet! in resentation o/ t#e
in/or.ationI LK correct *isosition an* or*ering o/ t#e narrati%eI 7K &i%e&iness in
t#e narrationI HK .o*eration o/ t#e toogra#ica& *etai&sI an* 1)K co.osition o/
seec#es ?e&& s"ite* to t#e orator an* sit"ation. Frenc# Ne? Testa.ent sc#o&ar
0anie& Narg"erat conc&"*es =t#at L"3e /o&&o?s eig#t o/ t#e ten r"&es.A
H
R"&es 1
an* 3 ?ere e-cetions e-&aine* +! =t#e seci/icit! o/ L"3e5s ro8ectA
1)
an* are
.ore si.i&ar to :e?is# #istorica& ?ritings. T#"sB L"3e see.s great&! in/&"ence*
+! Greco4Ro.an #istoriogra#! +"t #is s"+8ect4.atter an* agen*a are .ore a3in
to :e?is# #istoriogra#!.
11

On its /aceB t#ere/oreB t#e a"t#or o/ Acts aears to +e conscio"s&! ?riting
in t#e genre o/ ancient #istoriogra#!. A&t#o"g# not ?it#o"t +ias or t#eo&ogica&
/oc"sB t#e genre o/ Acts in*icates t#e a"t#or5s intent to recor* an* *escri+e
#istorica& e%ents +ase* on t#e a%ai&a+&e so"rces.
II. Acts as Scripture
So.e sc#o&ars +e&ie%e t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts sa? #i.se&/ as ?riting
scrit"reI a**ing to t#e stor! o/ t#e O&* Testa.ent.
1'
E%en #ereB t#o"g#B
roonents o/ t#e t#eor! see Acts as in/&"ence* +! t#e =#istorica&A +oo3s o/ t#e
O&* Testa.entB s"c# as 1 an* ' 9ings an* 1 an* ' Sa."e&. T#is t#eor! #as ."c#
to co..en* it. =EOF"r a"t#or concei%e* o/ #is ?or3 as t#e contin"ation o/ t#e
LOO Et#e Gree3 trans&ation o/ t#e O&* Testa.ent co..on in t#e ti.e o/ ActsF.
His *e&i+erate co.osition in Set"aginta& Gree3 an* t#e con%iction t#at #is stor!
?as t#e /"&/i&&.ent o/ t#e ro.ises o/ t#e OT i.&! t#at as a contin"ationB L"3e4
Acts reresents sacre* narrati%e.A
13
T#e ret"rn o/ t#e gi/t o/ ro#ec!B t#e
centra&it! o/ :er"sa&e. to #is narrati%es Jas t#e *estination o/ t#e gose& in L"3e
an* t#e origin o/ t#e gose& in ActsKB an* t#e .oti/ o/ /"&/i&&.entB a&so in*icate t#at
t#e a"t#or sees #i.se&/ as co.&eting t#e O&* Testa.ent stor!.
12
T#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts .a! #a%e seen #i.se&/ as a**ing to scrit"reB
#o?e%erB *oes not .ean t#at #e ?as not ?riting "n*er t#e in/&"ence o/ t#e
H
0anie& Narg"eratB The #irst *hristian (istorianB age 1<.
1)
I+id.
11
Pro/essor 0a%i* Ba&c# a&so .a3es a strong case /or +ot# L"3e an* Acts +eing
ancient #istoriogra#! +! co.aring t#e. ?it# 0ion!si"s5 ,oman Anti-"ities.
Ba&c#B 0a%i*B =T#e Genre o/ L"3e4ActsBA )W&T JFa&& 1HH)KB ages 141H.
1'
:aco+ :er%e&&B =T#e /"t"re o/ t#e PastBA in (istory Literat"re and )ociety in the
Boo of ActsB e*. Ben ,it#eringtonB ages 1)34'7.
13
0arr!& ,. Pa&.erB =Acts an* t#e Ancient Historica& Nonogra#BA in The Boo of
Acts in its Ancient Literary )ettin!B e*s. Br"ce ,. ,inter an* An*re? 0. C&ar3eB
age 1L.
12
,. ,ar* Gas>"eB =A Fr"it/"& Fie&*B Recent St"*! o/ t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&esBA
Interpretations 2'.)2 J1HH7KB ages 11H4').
<
con%entions o/ ancient #istoriogra#!. In essenceB L"3e ?as ?riting =sa&%ation
#istor!A @ t#e stor! o/ Go* +ringing sa&%ation to t#e ?or&* t#ro"g# t#e nation o/
Israe& an* t#en t#ro"g# :es"s an* t#e C#"rc# @ in/&"ence* +! t#e #istorica&
con%entions o/ #is *a!. ,#en t#is /oc"s is consi*ere* in &ig#t o/ Acts5 genre o/
#istoriogra#!B ?e .a! #a%e t#e +est e-&anation o/ t#e intentions o/ t#e a"t#or o/
Acts. T#o"g# Acts s#ares .an! o/ t#e /eat"res co..on to t#e Greco4Ro.an
#istoriansB it is so.e?#at "ni>"e in t#at its a"t#or *oes not *escri+e #i.se&/ in an!
*etai& in #is +oo3s. Instea*B #is /oc"s is on reco"nting t#e sa&%ation #istor! +eg"n
in t#e O&* Testa.ent an* /"&/i&&e* in t#e e%ents a+o"t ?#ic# #e ?rites.
11

A**itiona&&!B ?#i&e ot#er #istorians Je%en a :e?is# one &i3e :ose#"sK s#o? so.e
reser%ation a+o"t .irac&esB L"3e *oes not. Ho? co"&* #e i/ #e is ?riting a+o"t
Go*5s sa&%ation #istor!C
1<

Accor*ing&!B t#e i*ea t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts %ie?e* #i.se&/ as ?riting a
contin"ation o/ t#e O&* Testa.ent *oes not co"nt against t#e i*ea t#at #e ?as
?riting accor*ing to t#e genre o/ #istoriogra#!B +"t it *oes s#e* &ig#t on #is intent
an* e-&ains so.e o/ t#e %ariances ?it# ot#er #istoriogra#!.
III. Acts as Ancient iography
Anot#er t#eor! is t#at Acts is a /or. o/ ancient +iogra#!. T#e .ost
ro.inent roonent o/ t#is t#eor! is C.H. Ta&+ert. Ta&+ert initia&&! .a*e #is case
in #is +oo3B What is a Gospel? The Genre of the *anonical Gospels. Biogra#!B
&i3e ancient #istoriogra#!B inten*s to i.art #istorica& in/or.ation a+o"t ancient
/ig"res. Ho?e%erB t#e /oc"s is narro?erB s"c# as t#e &i/e o/ a /a.o"s erson. T#is
c#aracteristic ?o"&* see. to rec&"*e ActsB gi%en its /oc"s on ."&ti&e c#aracters.
Ta&+ertB #o?e%erB arg"es t#at Acts is a3in to a =s"ccession narrati%eBA ?#ic# #e
e-&ains ?as a ?riting t#at /o&&o?e* " a +iogra#! an* *escri+e* t#e /o&&o?ers
o/B or .o%e.ent +irt#e* +!B t#e /ig"re /eat"re* in t#e +iogra#!.
1L
T#is t#eor! #as
t#e a*%antage o/ e-&aining t#e genre o/ Acts in &ig#t o/ t#e genre o/ L"3eB ?#ic#
.ore sc#o&ars are ?i&&ing to see as +iogra#!.
Nost sc#o&arsB #o?e%erB are "ncon%ince* +! Ta&+ert5s c&assi/ication an*
note t#at s"c# =s"ccession narrati%esA are ."c# s#orter t#an Acts an* #a%e &itt&e
narration. Pro/essor A"ne +e&ie%es t#at L"3e an* Acts are +est e-&aine* as
#istoriogra#! an* notes t#at Ta&+ert5s #raseB =s"ccession narrati%eBA is =an
inaroriate *escrition o/ +rie/ &ists o/ st"*ents or s"ccessors.A
17
In ot#er ?or*sB
=s"ccession narrati%esA ?ere .ore a3in to *escriti%e &ists rat#er t#an narrati%es.
11
Pa&.erB op' cit'B age 111.
1<
I+id'B ages 113411.
1L
C.H. Ta&+ertB ActsB ages 143.
17
A"neB op' cit'B age LH.
L
For e-a.&eB Ta&+ert oints to a /e? +rie/ aragra#s in Laerti"s5 ?ritings as
e-a.&es o/ t#ese s"ccession narrati%es. Here is one s"c# aragra#:
His *isci&es ?ere Sei"si"s o/ At#ensB Oenocrates o/ C#a&ce*onB
Aristot&e o/ Stagira. . . .B an* .an! ot#ersB a.ong t#e. t?o ?o.enB
Last#eneia o/ Nantinea an* A-iot#ea o/ P#i&i"s. . . . So.e sa! t#at
T#eo#rast"s too atten*e* #is &ect"res. C#a.ae&eon a**s H!er*ies
t#e orator an* L!c"rg"sB an* in t#is Po&e.o agrees. Sa+in"s .a3es
0e.ostenes #is "i&B >"oting . . . Nnesistrat"s o/ T#asos as #is
a"t#orit!. An* it is not i.ro+a+&e.
1H
ActsB on t#e ot#er #an*B is o+%io"s&! an e-ten*e* narrati%e. =T#e narrati%e
"nit! o/ L"3e4Acts is /ar greater t#an t#e se>"entia& &i%es o/ t#e in*i%i*"a& /ig"res
o/ t#e #i&oso#ica& sc#oo&s..A
')
In*ee*B i/ an!t#ingB Acts is a ric#er narrati%e
t#an t#e Gose& o/ L"3e. O+%io"s&!B t#ere is no co.arison +et?een s"c#
s"ccession &ists an* t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es. Gi%en t#e +roa* range o/ s"+8ects
co%ere* in Acts an* t#e si.i&arities o/ Acts ?it# ancient #istoriogra#!B t#e +etter
e-&anation re.ains t#at t#e genre o/ Acts is ancient #istoriogra#!.
I!. Acts as Ancient No"e#
T#e notion t#at Acts is ancient /ictionB or an =ancient no%e&BA #as +een
a*%ance* +! Ric#ar* Per%o in #is +oo3 Profit with Deli!ht.
'1
T#is genre in%o&%e*
t#e ?riting o/ /ictitio"s narrati%es inten*e* to entertain an* er#as e*i/! t#e
rea*er. For a %ariet! o/ reasonsB #o?e%erB &ea*ing L"3an sc#o&ars #a%e re8ecte*
#is arg".ents.
''

A. T#e Pre/aces
T#e re/aces o/ L"3e an* Acts are strong e%i*ence t#at t#eir a"t#or
inten*e* to ?rite #istor!B not /iction. As Pro/essor Gas>"e notesB =t#e .a8orit! o/
interreters ?o"&* Econc&"*eF t#at #is re/ace in*icates #e #as #istorica&
1H
Dio!' Laert' 3.2<42LB as cite* +! 0a%i* L. Ba&c#B =T#e Genre o/ L"3e4ActsBA
)W&TB $o&. 33 JFa&& 1HH)KB age L.
')
Gregor! Ster&ingB (istory and )elf Definition$ &osephos$ L"e.Acts$ and
Apolo!etic (istori!raphyB age 31H
'1
T#is genre is a&so re/erre* to as =ancient ro.ance.A
''
)ee$ e'!'B 0a%i* A. A"neB The New Testament in Its Literary EnvironmentI F.F.
Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesI Ben ,it#eringtonB A )ocio ,hetorical
*ommentary on the Acts of the ApostlesI :o#n Po&#i&&B ActsI Stan&e! PorterB Pa"l in
Acts/ ,i&&ia. F. Brosen*B IIB =T#e Neans o/ A+sent En*sBA in (istory$ Literat"re
and )ociety in the Boo of Acts.
7
retensions.A
'3
T#o"g#t not a&& ancient ?ritings #a* re/acesB .an! *i*. T#e! are
/o"n* in .an! *i//erent genres an* signa& t#e intent o/ t#e ?riterB an* t#ere/ore t#e
genre o/ t#e ?or3. T#e re/aces o/ L"3e4Acts s#o? an o+%io"s intent to ?rite
#istor!:
'2
Inas."c# as .an! #a%e "n*erta3en to co.i&e an acco"nt o/ t#e
t#ings acco.&is#e* a.ong "sB 8"st as t#e! ?ere #an*e* *o?n to "s
+! t#ose ?#o /ro. t#e +eginning ?ere e!e?itnesses an* ser%ants o/
t#e ?or*B it see.e* /itting /or .e as ?e&&B #a%ing in%estigate*
e%er!t#ing care/"&&! /ro. t#e +eginningB to ?rite it o"t /or !o" in
consec"ti%e or*erB .ost e-ce&&ent T#eo#i&"sI so t#at !o" .a! 3no?
t#e e-act tr"t# a+o"t t#e t#ings !o" #a%e +een ta"g#t.
L"3e 1:1.
T#e /irst acco"nt I co.ose*B T#eo#i&"sB a+o"t a&& t#at :es"s +egan
to *o an* teac#B "nti& t#e *a! ?#en He ?as ta3en " to #ea%enB a/ter
He #a* +! t#e Ho&! Sirit gi%en or*ers to t#e aost&es ?#o. He #a*
c#osen.
Acts 1:1.
T#ese assages certain&! s"ggest t#at t#e a"t#or is atte.ting to ?rite
#istor!. He re/ers to =e!e?itnessesA as so"rces o/ in/or.ation. He ?rites a+o"t
in/or.ation +eing =#an*e* *o?n.A He ?rites o/ in%estigating e%er!t#ing
=care/"&&!.A He is "tting #is ?riting in t#e /or. o/ a =narrati%eBA "sing t#e sa.e
ter. t#at 0ion!si"s "ses in #is Ro.an Anti>"ities to *escri+e #is o?n ?or3.
Ro.. Ant. '.27.1. Per#as .ost i.ortantB #e states t#at #is "rose /or ?riting is
t#at #is rea*er ?i&& 3no? =t#e e-act tr"t#A a+o"t t#e s"+8ect. In s#ortB e%er!t#ing
'3
Gas>"eB op' cit'B age 11H.
'2
Lo%e*a! A&e-an*er #as arg"e* t#at rat#er t#an +eing t!ica& o/ ancient
#istoriogra#!B t#e re/aces o/ L"3e4Acts are e-a.&es o/ tec#nica& re/acesB s"c#
as .ig#t +e in a .e*ica& treatise o/ t#e ti.e. Nan! sc#o&ars #a%e +een con%ince*
+! A&e-an*er t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts .a! #a%e +een in/&"ence* +! tec#nica&
treatisesB +"t sti&& see it as an e-a.&e o/ ancient #istoriogra#!. Lo%e*a!
A&e-an*erB =L"3ePs re/ace in t#e conte-t o/ Gree3 re/ace4?ritingBA Nov"m
testament"mB '7 no 1 :a 1H7<B ages 274L2. As as3e* +! one re%ie?erB =,#at
?o"&* a re/ace &oo3 &i3e i/ so.eone /ro. t#e inter.e*iate socioc"&t"ra& strat".
J?#o a&so ?or3e* ?it#in t#e scienti/ic tra*ition an* ?as /a.i&iar ?it# its
&iterat"reK ?ante* to ?rite #istoriogra#!CA 0o"g&as F. H"//.anB =Re%ie?BA
&o"rnal of the Evan!elical Theolo!ical )ocietyB 2).1 J1HHLK.
H
a+o"t t#e re/ace s"ggests t#at t#e a"t#or inten*e* to ?rite #istor!B not narrate
/ictitio"s stories.
'1
T#is is t#e ?a! t#e ancients t#o"g#t #istor! s#o"&* +e ?ritten. In #is
secon*4cent"r! ?or3B T#e ,a! to ,rite Histor!B L"cian o/ Sa.osata ?rites:
=Facts ."st not +e care&ess&! "t toget#erB +"t t#e #istorian ."st ?or3 ?it# great
&a+or an* o/ten at great tro"+&e .a3e in>"ir!B re/era+&! +eing #i.se&/ resent an
e!e?itnessB /ai&ing t#atB #e ."st re&! on t#ose ?#o are incorr"ti+&eB an* #a%e no
+ias /ro. assion or re8"*iceB to a** or to *i.inis# an!t#ing.A ;"o.o*o 2L.
T#e a"t#or o/ Acts see.s a?are o/ t#is .a-i. an* e-&ains t#at ?#i&e #e #i.se&/
is not an e!e?itness /or .atters re&ate* in t#e Gose& o/ L"3eB #is in/or.ation is
*eri%e* /ro. t#e.. Nota+&!B L"cian an* Acts5 a"t#or "se t#e sa.e Gree3 ?or* /or
=e!e?itness.A Regar*ing .a3ing note o/ t#e e//ort "t into ?riting t#eir
resecti%e #istoriesB t#e a"t#or o/ ' Nacca+ees re/ers to t#e =&a+o"r o/ .a3ing t#is
*igestBA :ose#"s re/ers to gro?ing ?ear! an* t#e *i//ic"&t! o/ trans&ating into
Gree3B an* L"3e re/ers to =care/"&&! in%estigatingA a&& t#ings JL3. 1:3K.
T#e re/erence in t#e Gose&5s re/ace to t#e a"t#or5s /orer"nners a&so
in%ites co.arison to ancient #istoriogra#!. =It is c"sto.ar! in ancient
#istoriogra#! to gi%e a critica& e%a&"ation o/ t#e ot#er #istoriansB t#e
re*ecessorsB ?#o #a* *ea&t ?it# t#e sa.e #istor! as t#e #istorian in >"estion.A
'<

T#e re/ace o/ 0 1acca+eesB /or e-a.&eB sa!s o/ #is re*ecessor Jan* one o/ #is
so"rcesKB =I ?as str"c3 +! t#e .ass o/ statistics an* t#e *i//ic"&t! ?#ic# t#e +"&3
o/ t#e .ateria&s ca"ses to t#ose ?is#ing to gras t#e narrati%es o/ t#is #istor!.A SoB
#e s"..ariMe* an* reor*ere* t#e .ateria&. 0 1ac' ':'34'1. :ose#"s is .ore
critica& o/ #is re*ecessorsB c&ai.ing t#at #e ?rote +eca"se ot#ers #a* =er%erte*
t#e tr"t#A o/ t#e ?ar +et?een t#e :e?s an* t#e Ro.ans. Ant' 1.2. His re/ace to
&ewish War is si.i&ar&! critica&. War 1:14'. In #is re/ace to ,oman Anti-"itiesB
0ion!si"s ironica&&! notes ?it# *isaro%a& ot#er #istorians ?#o ?ere critica& o/
ot#er #istoriansB a&t#o"g# #e goes on to .ention t#at so.e #istorians ?ere
=care&ess an* in*o&entA in co.i&ing t#eir =narrati%es.A
T#e a"t#or o/ t#e L"3e4Acts *oes so.et#ing si.i&arB noting t#at ot#ers
#a* ?ritten acco"nts +e/ore #i. an* t#at #e ?as going to o//er #is o?n
contri+"tion +eca"se #e ?ante* to ?rite an =or*er&! acco"nt.A A&t#o"g# t#e
criticis. @ i/ an! @ o/ ear&ier ?ritings is .i&*B L"3e *isting"is#es #is acco"nt
/ro. t#e.. A&& to&*B t#e a"t#or o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e an* Acts ?or3s in =a&&
t#e cr"cia& ointsA ?e ?o"&* e-ect /ro. a re/ace to ancient #istoriogra#!.
'L
'1
T#e "se o/ a re/ace in a secon* ?or3 to re&ate +ac3 to an ear&ier re/ace in a
re%io"s ?or3 is not "nco..on /or ancient ?or3s o/ #istor! Je'!'B t#e #istories o/
0io*r"s Sic"&"sK.
'<
:er%e&&B op' cit'B age 11H.
'L
Ste%e NasonB &oseph"s and the New TestamentB age '12.
1)
Per%o arg"esB #o?e%erB t#at t#e re/aces are irre&e%ant to t#e iss"e o/ genre
an* t#at t#e a"t#or .ig#t #a%e +een tr!ing to si."&ate #istorica& intent:
Pre/aces ?ere #ig#&! con%entiona&. Co.osition o/ t#e. .a! #a%e
+een ta"g#t in sc#oo&. T#eir c&ai.s ?o"&* +e t#e o+8ect o/ aro*!.
Not on&! #istorians +"t .e*ica& ?ritersB astro&ogersB *rea.
interretersB an* no%e&ists .a*e "se o/ s"c# .ar3s o/ er"*ition. T#e
"se o/ t#e re/ace *oes not sett&e t#e >"estion o/ genreB /or s"c#
*e%ices co"&* +e e.&o!e* +! no%e&ists to create %erisi.i&it"*e.
'7

T#e notion t#at re/aces are irre&e%ant to t#e iss"e o/ genreB #o?e%erB is not
ers"asi%e. ,#i&e it is tr"e t#at t#ere ?ere re/aces in %ario"s genresB it is a&so
tr"e t#at eac# genre #a* c#aracteristics t#at *isting"is#e* it /ro. t#e ot#er genres.
T#ose ancient no%e&s ?it# re/aces #a* re/aces t#at in*icate* t#at t#e ?ritings
?ere no%e&s. T#ose ?or3s o/ ancient #istoriogra#! ?it# re/aces #a* re/aces
t#at in*icate* t#at t#e ?ritings ?ere #istoriogra#!.
Per%o5s s"ggestion t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts co"&* #a%e +een atte.ting to
=create %erisi.i&it"*eA is &i3e?ise "ners"asi%e. He ro%i*es a /ootnote
s"ose*&! s"orting t#is ointB so I c#ec3e* it e-ecting to /in* e-a.&es o/
ancient no%e&s t#at #a* re/aces t#at reten*e* to +e ?riting #istoriogra#!. I
/o"n* no e-a.&es. T#e /ootnote si.&! re/ers t#e rea*er to a &ater art o/ #is
+oo3 t#at a&so ro%i*es no e-a.&es.
T#e on&! re/erences to no%e& re/aces in Per%o5s *isc"ssion are in an ear&ier
/ootnote to #is assertion t#at .an! *i//erent genres "se re/aces. O/ co"rse t#is is
not in *is"te. T#e arg".ent is not t#at Acts #as a re/aceB +"t t#at it #as a re/ace
t#at in*icates #istorica& intent. A re%ie? o/ Per%o5s re/erences to no%e& re/aces
act"a&&! a**s ?eig#t against #is arg".ent.
'H
T#e re/erence* no%e& re/aces *o not
atte.t to si."&ate #istoriogra#!. In /actB t#e! in*icate to t#e rea*er t#at #e is
rea*ing a no%e&.
To ta3e one o/ Per%o5s e-a.&es @ t#e re/ace o/ Long"s5 Daphnis and
*hloe @ =Et#e a"t#or5sF ai. ?as to .a3e a %er+a& e>"i%a&ent o/ a ainting #e sa?
in Les+osB an* t#at is ?#at #e #as *one 4 s"..one* " a Go&*en Age o/
innocence in ?#ic# #is #ero an* #eroine can #a%e a*%ent"res an* ne%er get
#"rt.A
3)
T#is "rose is c&ear&! state* in #is re/ace.
31
T#ere is no atte.t to
ren*er t#is an aarent #istorica& acco"nt. Noreo%erB t#e re/ace o/ Daphnis and
*hloe signa&s its genre =+! reeate* "se o/ t#e 3e! ter.B erosB =assionate &o%eBA
'7
Per%oB op' cit'B age 1.
'H
Per%oB op' cit'B age 122B n. ''.
3)
=Pastora& @ T?o 0i.ensions or T#reeCBA
#tt:QQ???.arsons*.co."3Qastora&.# Jaccesse* Ari& '2B '))1K.
31
Long"sB =T#e Pastora&s or t#e Lo%es o/ 0a#nis an* C#&oeBA
#tt:QQ???.!or3".caQinarQ&ong"sR*a#nis.*/ Jaccesse* Ari& '2B '))1K.
11
an* its cognatesB s"c# as erotiosB =ro.antic.A
3'
In ot#er ?or*sB e%er!t#ing in t#is
re/ace a&erts t#e rea*er to t#e /act #e is rea*ing a no%e&B not #istor!.
To ta3e anot#er o/ Per%o5s e-a.&es @ L"cian5s Tr"e (istory @ =L"cian
states in t#e Pre/ace JS1:'K t#at e%er!t#ing in #is stor! is a D.ore or &ess co.ica&
aro*! o/ one or anot#er o/ t#e oetsB #istoriansB an* #i&oso#ers o/ o&*B ?#o
#a%e ?ritten ."c# t#at s.ac3s o/ .irac&es an* /a+&es.5A
33
AgainB no atte.t is
.a*e to ass o// t#is ?riting as #istor!. In*ee*B L"cian @ e%er t#e satirist @ states
t#at #is s"+8ect =is t#ings I #a%e neit#er seen nor e-erience* nor #ear* te&& o/
/ro. an!+o*! e&seI t#ingsB ?#at is .oreB t#at *o not in /act e-ist an* co"&* not
e%er e-ist at a&&. So .! rea*ers ."st not +e&ie%e a ?or* I sa!.A
32
He a&so ?arns
#is rea*ers t#at #e is =going to te&& !o" t#e +iggest &ies !o" e%er #ear*I an* t#is is
t#e on&! tr"e state.ent in t#e ?#o&e +oo3.A
31
In an! e%entB it is >"estiona+&e
?#et#er t#is ?or3 is acc"rate&! c&assi/ie* as an ancient no%e&. A&t#o"g# it is
inc&"*e* in Rear*on5s *ollected Ancient Gree NovelsB #e conce*es its re&ation to
t#e genre .a! +e =ten"o"s.A
As Per%o5s o?n e-a.&es *e.onstrateB ?#en t#e a"t#ors o/ ancient no%e&s
"se* re/aces t#e! aear to +e can*i* a+o"t t#eir goa&s. B"t no e&e.ent o/ t#e
ancient no%e& is #inte* at in eit#er o/ L"3e5s re/aces. =L"3e *oes not s"ggest in
eit#er L"3e 1:142 or Acts 1:14' t#at #e sees it as #is essentia& tas3 to gi%e &eas"reB
to entertainB to e*i/!B or e%en in t#e .ain to enco"rage certain %irt"es.A
3<
Instea*B
L"3e te&&s "s #is ai. is to ?rite acc"rate #istor! t#at is +ase* on in/or.ation
ro%i*e* +! e!e?itness testi.onies. S"c# #istorica& re/aces =are not /o"n* in
ancient no%e&s.A
3L
In s".B t#e re/aces ?ritten +! t#e a"t#or o/ Acts are strong e%i*ence t#at
#e inten*s to ?rite #istorica& acco"nts rat#er t#an /ictitio"s narrati%es.
B. T#e En*ing o/ Acts
Anot#er /eat"re o/ Acts t#at co"nts against it +eing an ancient no%e& is its
a+r"t en*ing. Per%o notes t#at one o/ t#e *e/ining c#aracteristics o/ t#e ancient
no%e& is t#at its o"tco.e is re*icta+&e an* co.&ete.
37
Ot#er sc#o&ars agree.
3H

3'
Co&&ecte* Ancient No%e&sB e*. B.P. Rea*r*onB age '7H n. 1.
33
S.C. Fre*eric3sB =L"cian5s Tr"e (istory as SFBA Science Fiction St"*ies No. 7B
$o&. 3B Narc# 1HL<B a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.*ea"?.e*"Qs/sQ+ac3iss"esQ7Q/re*eric3s7art.#t. Jaccesse* Ari& '2B
'))1K.
32
Co&&ecte* Ancient No%e&sB op' cit'B age <''.
31
I+id'B age <').
3<
,it#eringtonB op' cit'B age 11.
3L
PorterB op' cit'B age 1< JGPer%o ."st .ini.iMe . . . t#e #istorica& re/aceB
+eca"se they are not fo"nd in ancient novels'2K Je.#asis a**e*K.
37
Per%oB op' cit'B ages 2741).
1'
B"t Acts #as an!t#ing +"t a re*icta+&eB co.&ete en*ing. In*ee*B t#e en*ing o/
Acts #as raise* >"estions /or t?o t#o"san* !ears:
It is t#e a+r"t en*ing o/ Acts t#at is .ost tro"+&ing. Ancient
no%e&s te&& t#e ta&e o/ a #ero or #eroineB o/ten +ot#B /o&&o?ing t#e.
t#ro"g# a*%ent"re an* .isa*%ent"re "nti& t#e! are re"nite*B .arrie*B
an* D&i%ing #ai&! e%er a/ter.5 $i&&ains are cat"re* an* "nis#e*B
orac&es /"&/i&&e*B t#e %irt"o"s re?ar*e*. T#ere are no &oose en*s.
Acts /o&&o?s Pa"& J&ea%ing Peter /orgottenTK t#ro"g# t#ic3 an* t#inB
reco"nting reac#ingsB +eatingsB arrestB tria&B %o!ageB s#i?rec3B an*
e%ent"a& arri%a& at Ro.e. An* t#en stos. I/ t#e genre o/ Acts is t#at
o/ t#e ancient no%e&B t#e en* o/ Acts is "nt#in3a+&e: T#ere are no
ara&&e&s to t#e en*ing.
2)

To e.#asiMe t#is oint ?e can e-a.ine t#e aocr!#a& ActsB ?#ic# c&ear&!
contain /ictiona& e&e.ents. T#e Acts of Pa"lB t#e Acts of PeterB t#e Acts of
ThomasB an* t#e Acts of Andrew a&& narrate t#e *eat#s o/ t#eir &ea*ing c#aracters.
T#e Acts of Pa"l narrates Pa"&5s 8"*icia& sentence an* e-ec"tion in *etai&. J1).1K.
T#e Acts of Peter &i3e?ise narrates t#e sentencing an* e-ec"tion o/ Peter. J3L42)K.
Nero &a!s ro.inent ro&es in +ot# acco"ntsB +"t in t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es Nero
*oes not e%en .a3e an aearance. Noreo%erB ?#at #aene* to PeterC Or
:a.esC An* ?#at a+o"t Pa"&C B! t#e ti.e Acts ?as &i3e&! ?rittenB a&& t#ree o/
t#ese /ig"res ?ere *ea*. (et Acts narrates not#ing o/ t#eir /ates.
T#e /ai&"re to narrate Pa"&5s /ate is esecia&&! g&aring +eca"se #e is t#e #ero
o/ t#e secon* #a&/ o/ t#e +oo3. Ne%ert#e&essB Pa"& is &e/t in Ro.e a?aiting tria&
Jan* t#"s in *anger o/ #is &i/e or a+o"t to +e set /reeK. T#is is /ar /ro. ?#at ?e
?o"&* e-ect /ro. an ancient no%e&. B"t i/ Acts is a #istor! o/ t#e rogress o/ t#e
gose& /ro. :er"sa&e. to Ro.eB it is not s"rrising as ancient #istoriogra#!.
C. P"rorte* Inacc"racies
One reason Per%o conc&"*es t#at Acts is not #istoriogra#! is t#at #e
+e&ie%es Acts is too /"&& o/ inacc"racies. B"t as Per%o can*i*&! a*.itsB #e si.&!
ass".es rat#er t#an *e.onstrates t#at Acts is re&ete ?it# #istorica& inacc"racies.
21
3H
:. Lee NagnessB =Senas an* A+senceBA )emeia )t"dies J1H7<KB age 2' J=In
genera&B t#e ro.ances ac#ie%e /"&& *isc&os"re.AK an* To.as HaggB Narrative
Techni-"e in Ancient Gree ,omancesB age 31) J1HL1K J*escri+ing t#e 3e!
c#aracteristics o/ ancient ro.ances asB =EtF#e straig#t/or?ar* .o*e o/ narrati%e . . .
a +eginning a+ ovoB a &inear s"ccession o/ e%entsB an* a *e/inite en*.AK.
2)
Brosen*B op' cit'B age 312.
21
Per%oB op' cit'B age 1 JGI *o not see3 to *e.onstrate once again t#e resence o/
#istorica& ro+&e.s in Acts.GK.
13
To Per%oB t#e .ost i.ortant o/ t#ese inacc"racies aears to +e L"3e5s s"ose*
t#eo&ogica& con/&ict ?it# Pa"&5s &etters.
2'
I *ea& ?it# t#ese .ore seci/ica&&! +e&o?B
+"t /or no? it s"//icient to note t#at #istoriogra#! ?it# inacc"racies is sti&&
#istoriogra#!. As Pro/essor Ba&c# notes in #is artic&e on t#e genre o/ L"3e4ActsB
Per%o con/"ses .o*ern #istor! ?it# ancient. =Per%o #as no?#ere serio"s&! t#e
/or.B contentB or /"nction o/ ancient #istoriogra#!. He constant&! contrasts
no%e&s ?it# #istor!B +"t t#e &atter is #is o?n reconstr"ction.A
23
Anot#er sc#o&ar
"ts it t#is ?a!:
In s"ose*&! esta+&is#ing t#e *i//ic"&t! in seeing Acts as #istor!B
Per%o +egins +! ointing o"t ?#at #e sees as t#e #istorica&
inacc"racies in Acts. He aarent&! *oes not recogniMe t#at #e #as
.o%e* o"tsi*e o/ t#e /or.4critica& e-a.ination in ?#ic# #e "rorts
to engage. He #as .o%e* to criteria t#at #a%e &itt&eB i/ an!B +earing at
t#is stage o/ *isc"ssion on ?#et#er t#e +oo3 o/ Acts isB or is notB a
#istorica& acco"nt. T#e ossi+&e e-&anations /or t#e s"ose*
#istorica& /&a?s in Acts are se%era&. For e-a.&eB L"3e co"&* +e a
#istorian +"t a +a* oneB e%en a %er! +a* one. T#ere ?ere .an! in
t#e ancient ?or&*B +"t si.&! +eca"se t#e! ?ere +a* #istorians *oes
not .ean t#at t#e! ?ere t#ere/ore ?riting no%e&s. T#e! ?ere si.&!
engaging in +a* #istor! ?riting.
22
Accor*ing&!B e%en i/ Per%o5s e%a&"ation o/ t#e acc"rac! o/ Acts #a* .eritB it
*oes not co"nt against c&assi/!ing Acts as #istoriogra#!. Noreo%erB as *isc"sse*
in *etai& +e&o?B Acts act"a&&! /ares ?e&& ?#en %ie?e* as a #istorica& acco"nt.
0. ,riting to Entertain
Per#as t#e .ost i.ortant oint Per%o a*%ances is t#at Acts ?as ?ritten to
entertain its rea*ers. Beca"se t#e centra& "rose o/ ancient no%e&s ?as to
entertainB Per%o +e&ie%es t#is /eat"re o/ Acts .a3es #is case. T#is arg".entB
#o?e%erB /ai&s to a*e>"ate&! coe ?it# t#ree /acts: 1K t#e .ost entertaining
/eat"res o/ Acts Per%o oints to are #istorica& e%ents con/ir.e* +! ot#er so"rcesI
'K ancient #istoriogra#! ?as a&so ?ritten to entertainI an*B 3K t#e entertaining
e&e.ents o/ Acts in re&ation to ot#er e&e.ents are /ar /ro. t#e +a&ance /o"n* in
ancient no%e&s.
Per%o #e&/"&&! inc&"*es a ta+&e o/ t#e =entertainingA e%ents t#at
"rorte*&! s#o? t#at Acts ?as ?ritten to entertain. It inc&"*es Pa"&5s +eing
2'
I+id.
23
Ba&c#B op' cit'B age 1).
22
PorterB op' cit'B age 1L.
12
arreste*B +eatenB an* s#i?rec3e*. B"tB Pa"& con/ir.s t#ese e%ents in #is o?n
?ritings:
I #a%e ?or3e* ."c# #ar*erB +een in rison .ore /re>"ent&!B +een
/&ogge* .ore se%ere&!B an* +een e-ose* to *eat# again an* again.
Fi%e ti.es I recei%e* /ro. t#e :e?s t#e /ort! &as#es .in"s one.
T#ree ti.es I ?as +eaten ?it# ro*sB once I ?as stone*B t#ree ti.es I
?as s#i?rec3e*B I sent a nig#t an* a *a! in t#e oen seaB I #a%e
+een constant&! on t#e .o%e. I #a%e +een in *anger /ro. ri%ersB in
*anger /ro. +an*itsB in *anger /ro. .! o?n co"ntr!.enB in *anger
/ro. Genti&esI in *anger in t#e cit!B in *anger in t#e co"ntr!B in
*anger at seaI an* in *anger /ro. /a&se +rot#ers. I #a%e &a+ore* an*
toi&e* an* #a%e o/ten gone ?it#o"t s&eeI I #a%e 3no?n #"nger an*
t#irst an* #a%e o/ten gone ?it#o"t /oo*I I #a%e +een co&* an* na3e*.
In 0a.asc"s t#e go%ernor "n*er 9ing Aretas #a* t#e cit! o/ t#e
0a.ascenes g"ar*e* in or*er to arrest .e. B"t I ?as &o?ere* in a
+as3et /ro. a ?in*o? in t#e ?a&& an* s&ie* t#ro"g# #is #an*s.
' Corint#ians 11:'3433.
In 8"st one assage Pa"& con/ir.s t#at #e ?as i.risone* on .an!
occasionsB t#at #e ?as #!sica&&! "nis#e* +! Ro.an a"t#oritiesB t#at #e ?as
#!sica&&! "nis#e* +! :e?is# a"t#oritiesB t#at #e ?as s#i?rec3e*B an* t#at #e
en*"re* .an! a*%ent"res *"ring #is tra%e&s. Per#as .ost instr"cti%e is t#at Pa"&
con/ir.s L"3e5s rat#er /antastic acco"nt o/ Pa"& escaing /ro. 0a.asc"s +!
+eing &o?ere* *o?n t#ro"g# t#e ?a&& in a +as3et. I/ not con/ir.e* +! Pa"&B t#is
eiso*e .ig#t +e seen as /ree creation e%i*encing t#at Acts is a no%e& inten*e* to
entertain. Fort"nate&! t#is eiso*e @ as ?it# .ost o/ t#e e-citing e&e.ents in Acts
regar*ing Pa"& @ is con/ir.e* +! Pa"& #i.se&/.
Ne%ert#e&essB Per%o arg"es t#at it is not .ere&! t#e e-istence o/ e-citing
eiso*es t#at ro%es Acts is /ictionB +"t t#e ?a! #e ?ea%es t#e. toget#er to create
an e-citing narrati%e. T#is arg".ent is "ners"asi%e. Beca"se t#e a"t#or o/ Acts
#as s"ccess/"&&! str"ng toget#er se%era& tr"e eiso*es ?e ."st conc&"*e t#at #e is
?riting /ictionC Is t#is not +etter constr"e* as e%i*ence o/ #istorica& intentC
T#e entertaining e&e.ents o/ Acts can +e e-&aine* .ore rea*i&! +!
recogniMing t#at t#is ?as one o/ t#e c#aracteristics o/ t#e genre o/ ancient
#istoriogra#!.
21
=Historians o/ t#e erio* ?ere a&so o+&igate* to .a3e t#eir
narrati%es e-citing an* D*e&ig#t/"&.5A
2<
In #is (ow to Write (istoryB L"cian note*
t#at #istorians s#o"&* ?rite =?#at ?i&& interest an* instr"ctA t#eir a"*ience. S 13
21
CrossB op' cit'B age 2)2 JGETF#e ai. to e*i/! an* entertain ?as +! no .eans
ec"&iar to no%e&s.GK.
2<
Nason$ op' cit'B age '<2.
11
Je.#asis a**e*K. T#e a"t#or o/ 0 1acca+ees te&&s #is a"*ience t#at #e ?as
?riting =to ro%i*e /or t#e entertain.ent o/ t#ose ?#o rea* /or &eas"reB t#e
con%enience o/ st"*ents ?#o ."st co..it t#e /acts to .e.or!B an* t#e ro/it o/
e%en t#e cas"a& rea*ers.A 0 1ac' ':'1. Pro/essor Soar*s oints to a**itiona&
e-a.&es o/ s"c# #istoriogra#! t#at Per%o o%er&oo3s or *o?n&a!s:
ESFc#o&ars #a%e &ong recogniMe* t#at one o/ t#e goa&s o/ ancient
#istorians ?as to &ease t#eir rea*ers. . . . T#e resence o/
entertaining or &easing e&e.ents in an ancient ?or3 *oes not
a"to.atica&&! .ean t#at it is not #istor!. (et Per%o ta3es t#is
osition. He is a+&e to *o so &arge&! +! ignoring t#is c#aracteristic in
ancient #istoriogra#!@/or e-a.&eB it is re.ar3a+&e t#at ?#i&e
Per%o .entions T#"c!*i*es Jon&!TK /i%e ti.es in #is st"*!B #e
co.&ete&! ignores Hero*ot"sB =T#e Fat#er o/ Histor!BA ?#o ?rites
in a &i%e&!B engagingB entertainingB an* e%en /antastic .anner@not
"n&i3e t#e a"t#or o/ Acts. Si.i&ar&!B Per%o re/ers se%era& ti.es to
L"cian o/ Sa.osata an* Oeno#on o/ E#es"sB +"t #e +rings
0ion!sis o/ Ha&icarnass"s into t#e st"*! on&! t?iceI Po&!+i"sB onceI
an* Sa&&"sB t#ree ti.es. Nan!@er#as .ost or a&&@t#e co..on
c#aracteristics Per%o i*enti/ie* +et?een Acts an* t#e ancient no%e&
.a! +e &ocate* in t#ese ancient #istorians ?#o. Per%o +asica&&!
ignores.
2L
Fina&&!B ?#en one co.ares t#e entertaining arts o/ Acts to t#e rest o/ t#e
narrati%eB it +eco.es c&ear t#at t#o"g# its a"t#or ?ante* to entertainB ot#er
"roses an* /eat"res @ s"c# as seec#esB e%ange&is.B an* re/erence to scrit"res
@ re*o.inate. As Pro/essor Brosen* notesB =E?F#i&e Acts *oes in*ee* entertain
an* in/or.B t#e ancient no%e&s o//er a ro/itQ*e&ig#t ratio ?eig#e* ."c# .ore in
/a%or o/ *e&ig#t t#an *oes Acts.A
27
T#is ratio /a%ors t#e entertainingQ#istorica&
+a&ance /o"n* in ancient #istoriogra#!B not ancient no%e&s.
In conc&"sionB none o/ t#e e-citing eiso*es or t#e /act t#at Acts ?as
?ritten to +e entertaining .eans it is a no%e& as oose* to #istoriogra#!.
E. T#e Aocr!#a& Acts
Per%o atte.ts to .a3e ."c# o/ t#e /act t#at &aterB aocr!#a& ActsB s"c# as
t#e Acts of Peter an* t#e Acts of Pa"lB are /iction. Beca"se Acts is &iterari&! re&ate*
to t#ese &ater *oc".entsB Acts too s"ose*&! is /iction. T#e .ost o+%io"s
ro+&e. ?it# t#is arg".ent is t#e ca"sa& /&o?. T#e &ater aocr!#a& Acts are
2L
Narion L. Soar*sB &o"rnal of the American Academy of ,eli!ion 17.' JS"..er
1HH)KB ages 3)L41).
27
Brosen*B op' cit'B age 312.
1<
e.+e&&is#.ents er#as enco"rage* +! t#e origina& Acts an* t#e gose&s. T#e!
can te&& "s not#ingB #o?e%erB o/ t#e intent o/ t#e a"t#or o/ Acts. (o" cannot assess
t#e genre o/ t#e origina& +! si.&! e>"ating it ?it# so.e &aterB *eri%ati%e ?ritings:
T#e circ"&ar an* anac#ronistic nat"re o/ t#is arg".ent is .ani/est.
He "ses te-ts t#at are se&/4e%i*ent&! *eri%ati%e in or*er to assess t#e
ri.ar! so"rce. Ho?e%erB t#ese &ater /icti%e interretations o/
scenes /ro. canonica& Acts cannot +e "se* to assess t#e &iterar! or
#istorica& *i.ensions o/ Acts itse&/. T#is is con/ir.e* +! t#e
treat.ent o/ canonica& Acts e%en +! c&assicists ?#o consi*er
Aocr!#a& Acts to /a&& ?it#in t#e ancient no%e& tra*ition. For
e-a.&eB Hagg ass".es canonica& Acts is a *i//erent sort o/
&iterat"re t#an t#e Aocr!#a& Acts o/ Pa"&B ?#ic# #e sees as a t!e
o/ ancient no%e&.
2H
A**itiona&&!B as *isc"sse* in .ore *etai& +e&o?B t?o o/ t#e .ain *i//erences
+et?een Acts an* t#e Aoc!#a& Acts are t#e &ac3 o/ a satis/!ing en*ing an* t#e
a+sence o/ ro.ance. Bot# o/ t#ese /eat"res @ ?#ic# are /o"n* in t#e Aocr!#a&
Acts @ are t!ica& o/ ancient no%e&s. T#eir resence in t#e Aocr!#a& Acts an*
a+sence /ro. Acts /"rt#er "n*er.ines Per%o5s oint.
Fina&&!B t#ere ?ere &ater C#ristian ?ritersB s"c# as E"se+i"sB ?#o arg"a+&!
?as in/&"ence* +! Acts ?#en ?riting #is ecc&esiastica& #istor!. B! /oc"sing on t#e
aocr!#a& ActsB Per%o #as s3e?e* #is ana&!sis.
Accor*ing&!B Per%o5s re&iance on t#ese &ater aocr!#a& ?ritings is not
#e&/"& in *eter.ining t#e genre o/ Acts itse&/.
F. T#e Seec#es o/ Acts
Nost sc#o&ars #a%e note* t#at t#e "se o/ seec#es in Acts is si.i&ar to t#at
o/ ot#er #istorians Jt#o"g# ActsB +eing &arge&! a+o"t .issionar! e//ortsB #as a
greater roortion o/ t#e.K. Per%o re8ects t#e i*ea t#at t#e seec#es in Acts
in*icate t#at its genre is ancient #istoriogra#! an* arg"es t#at =t#e "se o/
seec#es *oes not esta+&is# t#e genre.A
1)
T#e on&! *istinctions Per%o atte.ts to
.a3e is t#at t#at t#e seec#es in Acts are =L"can co.ositionsA an* t#at t#ere
?ere no =.issionar! a**resses in T#"c!*i*es.A
11
Neit#er oint is con%incing.
A&t#o"g# it is tr"e t#at t#e &ang"age o/ t#e seec#es in Acts is si.i&ar to t#e
rest o/ t#e +oo3B t#e signi/icance o/ t#is s#o"&* not +e .isconstr"e*. No ancient
#istorian ?rote %er+ati. transcrits o/ seec#es. T#e Gree3 #istorian T#"c!*i*es
2H
PorterB op' cit'B age 1L.
1)
Per%oB op' cit'B age L<.
11
I+id. A**itiona&&!B T#"c!ci*i*es is o/ten seen as setting t#e +ar /or ancient
#istoriogra#!.
1L
state* t#atB ?#en ?riting seec#esB t#e #istorian s#o"&* recor* t#e. =o/ co"rse
a*#ering as c&ose&! as ossi+&e to t#e genera& sense o/ ?#at ?as act"a&&! sai*.A
(istory of the Peloponnesian WarB 1.''.1. T#o"g# T#"c!*i*es +e&ie%e* t#at it
?as t#e #istorian5s *"t! to tr! an* reort t#e sense o/ ?#at ?as act"a&&! sai*B #e
rea&iMe* t#at not#ing .ore t#an a ara#rase ?as ossi+&e in ancient ti.es.
Ancient #istorians co"&* not a%oi* "sing t#eir o?n st!&e an* &ang"age ?#en
reorting seec#es.
1'

Per%o5s secon* oint @ t#at T#"c!*i*es *i* not ?rite .issionar! seec#es @
is irre&e%ant. T#"c!*i*es *i* not ?rite a #istor! o/ an e%ange&istic re&igio"s
.o%e.ent. Certain&! Per%o o//ers no e%i*ence t#at .issionar! seec#es ?ere
t!ica& o/ ancient no%e&s. T#o"g# c&ai.ing t#at t#e nat"re o/ t#e seec#es in Acts
cannot +e "se* as a g"i*e to genre #e goes on to c&ai. t#at ancient no%e&s =ro%i*e
."c# .ore con%incing an* "se/"& ara&&e&s to t#e contents an* &iterar! /"nction o/
t#e seec#es in Acts t#an ?i&& #istories.A
13
T#is assertion is not +ac3e* " +!
con%incing e%i*ence. Rat#erB as Pro/essor Bosen* recogniMe*B =EPer%oF scarce&!
ro%i*es an! e-a.&esB an* *oes not a**ress t#e ."c# +roa*er "se o/ seec#es in
Acts in co.arison to t#e no%e&s.A
12
C&ear&!B t#ere/oreB t#e seec#es o/ Acts are .ore a3in to t#e #istoriogra#!
genre t#an #istorica& /iction.
G. T#e A+sence o/ Ro.ance
I/ Acts is inten*e* to +e an ancient no%e& it is strange t#at t#ere is no
ro.ance in it. Ro.ance ?as an i.ortantB e%en *e/iningB art o/ ancient no%e&s
an* =EtF#e a+sence o/ EitF is a signi/icant o.ission.A
11
A&t#o"g# Acts /eat"res so.e
?o.enB it contains no #int o/ ro.ance. Not e%en Prisci&&a an* A>"i&a are *eicte*
in an!t#ing aroac#ing ro.antic or a*%ent"ro"s scene. E%en Pa"&B t#e =#eroA o/
t#e secon* #a&/ o/ ActsB is *istinct&! ro.antica&&! "nin%o&%e*.
It co"&* +e arg"e* t#at Acts5 a"*ience ?o"&* not +e intereste* in ro.ance.
B"t t#is is .ore ass".e* t#an *e.onstrate*. =6&ti.ate&!B t#ere is too ."c# in t#is
1'
O/ co"rseB t#ere ?ere so.e ancient #istorians ?#o ?ere /ree ?it# t#eir
co.ositionB +"t t#is #ar*&! #e&s Per%oPs oint. L"3e .ig#t si.&! +e one o/
t#ose #istorians ?#o "se* a /reer #an* in #is seec#es t#an so.e ot#ers. B"t t#e
e%i*ence s"ggests not. As I conc&"*e #ere
J#tt:QQc#ristianca*re.orgQ.e.+erRcontri+QcRacts.#t.&KB L"3e aears to #a%e
/o&&o?e* t#e at# o/ t#e ancient #istorian ?#o trie* to recor* t#e sense o/ ?#at
?as act"a&&! sai*.
13
Per%oB op' cit'B age L<.
12
Brosen*B op' cit'B age 312.
11
I+id.
17
reasoning t#at #as to +e gi%en a?a! to t#e a"*ience. It ?i&& see. easier to .an!
?#o ?eig# Per%o5s case to conc&"*e t#at Acts co.."nicates to its rea*ers "sing a
*i//erent genre /ro. t#e ancient no%e& rat#er t#an t#at genre .in"s .ost o/ its
8"ic! arts.A
1<
T#e +etter e-&anation is t#at Acts *oes not inc&"*e ro.ance
+eca"se Acts is not an ancient no%e&.
F"rt#erB t#e a+sence o/ an! #int o/ ro.ance /ro. Acts is a&& t#e .ore te&&ing
in &ig#t o/ its resence in t#e aocr!#a& Acts. Far /ro. ro%ing a C#ristian &ac3
o/ interest in t#e c#aracteristics o/ t#e ancient no%e&B t#e aocr!#a& Acts ro%e t#e
oosite. =Nan! o/ t#e .oti/s o/ t#e He&&enistic ro.ance rec"r in t#e C#ristian
aocr!#a& acts.A
1L
Per#as t#e .ost te&&ing e-a.&e is /o"n* in t#e Acts of Pa"lB
?#ic# narrates t#e &ig#t o/ t#e !o"ng %irgin T#ec&a. T#is stor! is ?#at ?e .ig#t
e-ect /ro. a C#ristianiMe* %ersion o/ t#e ro.ance no%e&. As Ric#ar* Ba"3#a.
e-&ains:
T#e stor! o/ T#ec&a is o/ secia& interest +eca"se it is t#e on&! art o/
t#e Acts of Pa"l in ?#ic# a c#aracter ot#er t#an Pa"& ta3es centre4
stage an* +eca"se it +ears a %er! c&ose re&ations#i to t#e t#e.es o/
t#e Gree3 no%e&s t#at te&& t#e stor! o/ t?o &o%ers Js"c# as C#ariton5s
*haereas and *allirhoeB an* Oene#on5s EphesiacaK. . . . T#ec&aB
&i3e t#e #eroines o/ t#e no%e&sB is a +ea"ti/"& !o"ng gir& ?#o
reser%es #er c#astit! an* re.ains /ait#/"& to #er +e&o%e* t#ro"g#
tria&s an* *angers in ?#ic# s#e co.es c&ose to *eat# +"t e-eriences
*i%ine *e&i%erance. T#a.!ris an* A&e-an*er are "n?ante* s"itors
s"c# as aear in t#e no%e&s. 6n&i3e t#e #eroines o/ t#e no%e&sB o/
co"rseB T#ec&a5s c#astit! is not te.orar!B +"t er.anentB an*
reresents #er tota& *e%otion to Go*. B"t #er *e%otion to Go* is a&so
*e%otion to #is aost&e Pa"&B an* t#e a"t#or *oes not #esitate to
*eict t#is *e%otion in ter.s ?#ic#B ?#i&e not inten*e* to +e se-"a&B
ara&&e& t#e erotic Jc/. At#e 741)B 1741HK. As in t#e case o/ t#e #eroes
an* #eroines o/ t#e no%e&sB t#e &ot art&! t"rns on t#e searation o/
Pa"& an* T#ec&aB #er searc# /or an* re"nion ?it# #i. JAt#e '14'1B
2)421K. T#ec&a5s o//er to c"t #er #air s#ort in or*er to /o&&o? Pa"&
?#ere #e goes an* #er a*otion o/ .a&e *ress ?#en s#e tra%e&s in
searc# o/ Pa"& Erese.+&eF t#e no%e&istic t#e.e o/ a ?o.an tra%e&ing
in .a&e *isg"ise to escae *etection. T#e ?ea&t#! "er4c&ass
circ&es in ?#ic# t#e stor! ta3es &aceB inc&"*ing t#e #istorica& /ig"re
o/ t#e e.eror5s re&ati%e T!r#aenaB are a&so consonant ?it# t#e
c#aracter o/ t#e Gree3 no%e&s. It see.s c&ear t#at t#e stor! o/ T#ec&a
1<
Soar*sB op' cit'B ages 3)L41).
1L
E*gar :. Goo*see*B A (istory of Early *hristian Literat"reB re%ise* an*
en&arge* +! Ro+ert N. GrantB age <2.
1H
#as +een *irect&! .o*e&e* on t#e t#e.es o/ t#e Gree3 erotic
no%e&. . . .
17
SoB t#ere are c&ear no%e&istic e&e.ents o/ ro.anceB +"t a*ate* /or its C#ristian
.essage an* a"*ience. T#ere are ot#er e-a.&es:
U T#e Acts of &ohn inc&"*es a stor! a+o"t t#e io"s 0r"isiana +eing
ro.antica&&! "rs"e* +! =a .essenger o/ Satan.A S#e ?as so io"s s#e #a* e%en
=searate* #erse&/A /ro. #er #"s+an* /or a ti.e. A/ter s#e *ie*B t#e =.essenger o/
SatanA *e/i&e* #er corse.
U In t#e Acts of PeterB t#e .art!r*o. o/ Peter5s ?i/e is *escri+e*B e%en
reco"nting t#e &ast ?or*s o/ Peter to #is ?i/e.
U In t#e Acts of ThomasB a 3ing5s *a"g#ter is getting .arrie*. At t#e
?e**ingB T#o.as sings a .!stica& +ri*a& song an* ers"a*es t#e +ri*e an* groo.
to reno"nce .arriage. T#ere is a&so a si*e stor! o/ a /&"te4gir& ?#o o+%io"s&!
+eco.es in/at"ate* ?it# T#o.as. A/ter #is songB s#e ?as =gaMing an* &oo3ing
earnest&! "on #i.A an* =&o%e* #i. ?e&&.A
U In t#e Acts of AndrewB it is &en*ing ai* to a ?o.an in *istress t#at &an*s
An*re? on a cross. Na-i.i&&a is t#e ?i/e o/ t#e rocons"& o/ Greece. Fo&&o?ing
#er con%ersion +! An*re?B Na-i.i&&a ?ants to escae /ro. #er #"s+an* an*
An*re? enco"rages #er to *o so. ,#en s#e is s"ccess/"& in &ea%ing #i.B t#e
rocons"& #as An*re? cr"ci/ie*. Na-i.i&&a sa? to it t#at An*re? recei%e* a
roer +"ria&.
,#i&e it is tr"e t#at t#ese =ro.ancesA are *i//erent t#an t#e agan ones in
t#at t#e e.#asis is o/ten on a+stinence e%en ?it#in .arriageB t#e si.i&arities
re.ain. ,o.en in *istress or *i//ic"&t sit"ations are /o&&o?e* t#ro"g# "nti&
reso&"tion o/ t#eir &ig#t. As note* +! Goo*see* an* GrantB t#is C#ristian /iction
?as =%a&"a+&e as a s"+stit"te /or t#e ro.ances c"rrent a.ong Gree3s an* Ro.ans.
It is so.eti.es s"ose* t#at t#ese ro.ances ?ere c#aracteriMe* +! ?#at ?e
s#o"&* ca&& ornogra#!B +"t genera&&! sea3ing t#e! ?ere rat#er e*i/!ing
narrati%es o/ &o%e an* a*%ent"re. T#e e.#asis "t on se- in t#eir C#ristian
co"nterarts is rat#er .ore i.ressi%eB in site o/ @ an* art&! +eca"se o/ @ t#e
ent#"sias. o/ t#e #eroes an* #eroines /or asceticis..A
1H
T#at t#e ro.antic
/eat"res o/ ancient /iction are so co..on in t#e aocr!#a& Acts +"t a+sent /ro.
Acts itse&/ is te&&ing. It co"nts #ea%i&! against Acts +eing an ancient no%e&.

H. Conc&"sion
T#e e&e.ents o/ Acts t#at Per%o i*enti/ies as *e.onstrating #istorica&
/iction /ai& to ers"a*e +eca"se t#e! are a&so c#aracteristic o/ #istoriogra#!.
Noreo%erB Per%o /ai&s to a*e>"ate&! e-&ain /eat"res o/ Acts t#at ?ere "n3no?n in
17
Ric#ar* Ba"3#a.B =T#e Acts o/ Pa"& as a Se>"e& to ActsBA in The Boo of Acts
in its Ancient Literary )ettin!B ages 13143<.
1H
Goo*see* an* GrantB op' cit'B age <2.
')
t#e ancient no%e&B s"c# as t#e #istorica& re/aceB t#e a+r"t en*ingB an* t#e
a+"n*ance o/ seec#es. Nor *oes #is t#eor! a*e>"ate&! e-&ain t#e a+sence o/
signi/icant e&e.ents o/ t#e ancient no%e&B s"c# as ro.ance en* t#e erotic.
!. Su$$ary
A/ter re%ie?ing t#e otentia&&! a&ica+&e genresB Acts stan*s o"t as a ?or3
o/ ancient #istor!. T#o"g# #e %ie?e* #i.se&/ as contin"ing t#e #istorica& ?or3 o/
recor*ing Go*5s "n/o&*ing &an o/ sa&%ationB t#e goa& o/ t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as to
?rite a+o"t rea& eo&e an* rea& e%ents. As Pro/essor A"ne conc&"*esB =L"3e4Acts
is o"&ar Dgenera& #istor!5 ?ritten +! an a.ate"r He&&enistic #istorian ?it#
cre*entia&s in Gree3 r#etoric.A
<)
CHAPTER %: THE HISTORICIT& OF THE ACTS OF THE APOST'ES
I. The Cha##enges Face( )y Ancient *riters

T#e a"t#or o/ Acts /ace* a ro+&e. co..on a.ong ancient ?riters: a &ac3
o/ recor*s an* in/or.ation. 6n&i3e to*a!B t#ere ?ere no @ or %er! /e? @ re/erence
+oo3sB enc!c&oe*iasB or te-t+oo3s a%ai&a+&e. As /or geogra#!B =e-act an*
*etai&e* geogra#ica& 3no?&e*ge on t#e +asis o/ .as an* acc"rate *escritions o/
&aces ?as &i.ite* to a %er! tin! e&ite o/ so&*iersB o&iticians an* sc#o&arsB an*
e%en ?it# t#e.B ersona& 3no?&e*ge o/ a &ace ?as irre&acea+&e.A
<1
Nas or
ot#er reso"rces t#at ?ere a%ai&a+&e ?ere o/ten ?i&*&! inacc"rate. E%en e*"cate*
?riters ?it# connections to t#e areas t#e! ?ere ?riting a+o"t o/ten *e.onstrate*
i.er/ect geogra#ic or o&itica& 3no?&e*ge. =T#at e%en e*"cate* :e?s #a* &itt&e
in/or.ation a+o"t t#e geogra#! o/ Pa&estine is c&ear /ro. t#e i.aginar!
*escrition o/ :"*ea an* :er"sa&e. in t#e Letter o/ Aristeas or t#at o/ t#e Ho&!
Cit! +! Pse"*o4Hecatae"sI ?e can res"ose t#at e%en P#i&o #a* on&! a %ag"e
3no?&e*ge o/ :er"sa&e.B t#e Te.&e an* t#e Ho&! Lan*B t#o"g# #e *i* %isit it
once in #is &i/e.A
<'

Ot#er?ise ?e&&4regar*e* #istorians an* geogra#ers got a &ot ?rongB
esecia&&! a+o"t :"*ea.
ETFo Stra+o5s acco"nt o/ Pa&estineB ?#ic# #as a great .an! errors in
itB an* to t#e con/"se* re.ar3s o/ P&in! t#e E&*erB ?#o co.&ete&!
."**&e* " #is so"rces. Tacit"sB tooB #a* on&! %er! inacc"rate i*eas
<)
A"neB op' cit'B age LL.
<1
Nartin Henge&B =T#e Geogra#! o/ Pa&estine in ActsBA in The Boo of Acts in its
#irst *ent"ry )ettin!$ age 31.
<'
Henge&B op' cit'B age 'H.
'1
o/ t#e geogra#ica& re&ations#i o/ Sa.aria an* Ga&i&ee ?it#in t#e
ro%ince o/ :"*aea. E%en Pto&e.!B ?#o so"g#t to gi%e e-act
&ocations o/ &aces in Pa&estine ?it# in*ications o/ &ongit"*e an*
&atit"*eB .a3es serio"s .ista3es: #is .ention o/ I*".eaeaB ?#ic#
&ies ?e&& to t#e ?est o/ t#e :or*an5 is an anac#ronis. in t#e secon*
cent"r! A0 an* #is &ocation o/ Se+aste an* GaMa in :"*aeaB in
contrast to :oaB As#3e&on . . . is a&so .is&ea*ing.
<3
T#e ro+&e. /or ancient ?riters ?as not &i.ite* to geogra#!. T#ere ?as a
*iMM!ing *i%ersit! o/ go%ern.ents an* o//icia&s t#ro"g#o"t t#e Ro.an E.ire.
T#ere ?ere ro%incesI so.e contro&&e* +! t#e Senate an* so.e contro&&e* +! t#e
E.eror. Tit&es o/ t#e go%ernors o/ t#ese ro%inces %arie* J/or e-a.&esB
Procons"&B Pre/ectB an* Proc"ratorK. A**ing to t#e *i%ersit! ?as t#e /act t#at
.an! areas "n*er Ro.an contro& ?ere not ro%inces at a&&B +"t c&ient 3ing*o.s.
9ing Hero*5s reign o%er Pa&estine is an e-a.&e. A/ter #is *eat#B #is 3ing*o.
?as s&it "B ?it# Ro.e e%ent"a&&! ass".ing *irect contro& o%er :"*ea an*
Hero*5s son +eco.ing Tetrarc# o%er Ga&i&ee. Beca"se c&ient 3ing*o.s ?ere gi%en
a /reer #an* in t#eir interna& a*.inistrationB tit&es an* o//ices ?ere not "ni/or..
T#ere ?ere a&so a %ariet! o/ cities. At t#e to ?ere t#e coloniae civi"m
romanor"mB co&onies o/ Ro.an citiMens @ .ost&! .i&itar! %eterans. T#en t#ere
?ere t#e oppida civi"m romanor"mB to?ns o/ Ro.an citiMens. A ste &o?er ?ere
=LatinA to?ns ?#ere t#e Ro.an /ranc#ise ?as ?it#in reac#. Ot#er citiesB so.e
ro.inentB ?ere =/ree citiesA an* go%erne* t#eir o?n interna& a//airs.
T#ere ?ere *i//erences in t#e cit! go%ern.entsB *een*ing on t#e t!e o/
cit!B its geogra#ic &ocation an* its c"&t"re. Cities in t#e eastern Ne*iterranean
esecia&&! =s#o? ."c# .ore %ariet! in t#eir &oca& go%ern.entB +eca"se t#e! co"&*
3ee o&*er /or.s o/ ."nicia& organiMation rat#er t#an i.itate Ro.e.A
<2
E%en in
:er"sa&e.B a cit! "n*er *irect Ro.an contro&B t#e San#e*rin @ a gro" o/ :e?is#
re&igio"s &ea*ers @ ?as gi%en a ro.inent ro&e in go%erning asects o/ t#e cit!.
A**ing to t#e con/"sion ?as t#e e%er c#anging nat"re o/ go%ern.ent in t#e
Ro.an E.ire. =ETF#e tit&es so.eti.es *i* not re.ain t#e sa.e /or an! great
&engt# o/ ti.eI a ro%ince .ig#t ass /ro. senatoria& go%ern.ent to
a*.inistration +! a *irect reresentati%e o/ t#e e.erorB an* ?o"&* t#en +e
go%erne* no &onger +! a rocons"& +"t +! an i.eria& &egate 3le!at"s pro
praetore4'A
<1
Cities .ig#t ac#ie%e t#eir Ro.an /ranc#ise. Pro%inces .a! +e s&it
". C&ient 3ing*o.s .a! +e s&it " ?it# *i//erent arts +eing r"&e* in *i//erent
?a!s. For e-a.&eB Pa&estine a/ter t#e reign o/ 9ing Hero* ?as s&it into a
<3
I+id'B ages 'H43).
<2
E%erett Ferg"sonB Bac!ro"nds of Early *hristianityB ages 3H421. I re&ie* on
ages 37421 o/ Bac!ro"nds /or ."c# o/ t#e +ac3gro"n* in/or.ation in t#is
aragra#.
<1
F.F. Br"ceB The New Testament Doc"mentsB age 7'.
''
Ro.an Pro%ince r"&e* +! a Pre/ect an* to Ga&i&eeB r"&e* +! a Tetrarc# Jas a c&ient
3ingK.
O+%io"s&!B 3eeing onese&/ 3no?&e*gea+&e a+o"t so .an! *i//erent arts o/
t#e Ro.an E.ire o%er an! erio* o/ ti.e ?o"&* #a%e +een an a&.ost
ins"r.o"nta+&e c#a&&enge. ,#en it ca.e to 3no?&e*ge a+o"t ?#ere or*inar!
eo&e ?ereB ?#at t#e! ?ere *oingB an* ?#! t#e! ?ere *oing itB t#e ro+&e. ?as
e%en greater. Persona& articiation an*Qor e-ce&&ent so"rces ?ere o/ten t#e on&!
?a!s to get s"c# *etai&s rig#t.
II. Fa$i#iarity +ith ,e+ish Custo$s- Geography- an( the Te$p#e
0esite t#e c#a&&enges /ace* +! ancient #istoriansB Acts *e.onstrates
/a.i&iarit! ?it# %arie* :e?is# c"sto.s an* +e&ie/sB inc&"*ing .an! re&ate* to t#e
Te.&e. Nota+&!B t#e Te.&e ?as *estro!e* in L) A0B an* t#e re&ate* ractices
an* rit"a&s e-ting"is#e*. As a res"&tB ?it#o"t goo* so"rcesB recise 3no?&e*ge o/
c"sto.s associate* ?it# t#e Te.&e ?as #ar* to co.e +! a/ter L) A0.
1. P"ri/ication $o?
=T#ere/ore *o t#is t#at ?e te&& !o". ,e #a%e /o"r .en ?#o are "n*er a
%o?I ta3e t#e. an* "ri/! !o"rse&/ a&ong ?it# t#e.B an* a! t#eir e-enses in
or*er t#at t#e! .a! s#a%e t#eir #ea*sI an* a&& ?i&& 3no? t#at t#ere is not#ing to t#e
t#ings ?#ic# t#e! #a%e +een to&* a+o"t !o"B +"t t#at !o" !o"rse&/ a&so ?a&3
or*er&!B 3eeing t#e La?.

B"t concerning t#e Genti&es ?#o #a%e +e&ie%e*B ?e
?roteB #a%ing *eci*e* t#at t#e! s#o"&* a+stain /ro. .eat sacri/ice* to i*o&s an*
/ro. +&oo* an* /ro. ?#at is strang&e* an* /ro. /ornication.A Acts '1:'34'1.
T#is rit"a& is *escri+e* in t#e O&* Testa.ent +! N".+ers <. T#at its
ractice contin"e* in t#e secon*4te.&e erio* is atteste* +! :ose#"s. Ant'
1H.<.1B SS 'H34H2.
'. T#e Co"rt o/ t#e Genti&es
=An* ?#en t#e se%en *a!s ?ere a&.ost o%erB t#e :e?s /ro. AsiaB "on
seeing #i. in t#e te.&eB +egan to stir " a&& t#e ."&tit"*e an* &ai* #an*s on #i.B
cr!ing o"tB Nen o/ Israe&B co.e to o"r ai*T T#is is t#e .an ?#o reac#es to a&&
.en e%er!?#ere against o"r eo&eB an* t#e La?B an* t#is &aceI an* +esi*es #e
#as e%en +ro"g#t Gree3s into t#e te.&e an* #as *e/i&e* t#is #o&! &ace.A Acts
'1:'L4'7.
T#is assage correct&! *escri+es t#e Co"rt o/ t#e Genti&es as +eing t#e &i.it
o/ assage /or Genti&es. B& 1.1H2I <.1'2/I Ant. 11.21LI Ap' '.1)3/I P#i&oB Le! ad
Gai '1'.
3. Against t#e La? an* P"nis#a+&e +! 0eat#
=T#en a&& t#e cit! ?as ro%o3e*B an* t#e eo&e r"s#e* toget#erB an*
ta3ing #o&* o/ Pa"& t#e! *ragge* #i. o"t o/ t#e te.&eB an* i..e*iate&! t#e *oors
'3
?ere s#"t. ,#i&e t#e! ?ere see3ing to 3i&& #i.B a reort ca.e " to t#e
co..an*er o/ t#e Ro.an co#ort t#at a&& :er"sa&e. ?as in con/"sionA Acts '1:3)4
31 V =An* #e e%en trie* to *esecrate t#e te.&eI an* t#en ?e arreste* #i.. An*
?e ?ante* to 8"*ge #i. accor*ing to o"r o?n La?.A Acts '2:<.
T#e ena&t! /or +ringing a Genti&e into t#e Te.&e ?as *eat#.
Transgressors ?ere to +e i..e*iate&! re.o%e* to +e e-ec"te* so as not to *e/i&e
t#e Te.&e. Ant' 17.3). T#is is a&so con/ir.e* +! inscrition e%i*ence.
<<

2. Stes into t#e Te.&e
=An* ?#en #e got to t#e stairsB it so #aene* t#at #e ?as carrie* +! t#e
so&*iers +eca"se o/ t#e %io&ence o/ t#e .o+I /or t#e ."&tit"*e o/ t#e eo&e 3et
/o&&o?ing +e#in*B cr!ing o"tB DA?a! ?it# #i.T5 An* as Pa"& ?as a+o"t to +e
+ro"g#t into t#e +arrac3sB #e sai* to t#e co..an*erB DNa! I sa! so.et#ing to
!o"C5 An* #e sai*B D0o !o" 3no? Gree3C T#en !o" are not t#e Eg!tian ?#o
so.e ti.e ago stirre* " a re%o&t an* &e* t#e /o"r t#o"san* .en o/ t#e Assassins
o"t into t#e ?i&*ernessC5A Acts '1:31437.
T#is assage acc"rate&! *eicts t#e stes at t#e :er"sa&e. Te.&e. Acts is
a&so correct t#at t#ere ?as a re+e& at t#is ti.e 3no?n as t#e Eg!tian.
1. Pra!er in t#e Si-t# Ho"r
=An* on t#e ne-t *a!B as t#e! ?ere on t#eir ?a!B an* aroac#ing t#e cit!B
Peter ?ent " on t#e #o"seto a+o"t t#e si-t# #o"r to ra!.A Acts 1):H.
T#e ti.e o/ ra!er is con/ir.e* +! ra++inic tra*ition. Pesach. 1.1B +"t is
not .entione* in Anti-"ities.
<. 0escrition o/ t#e Te.&e
As Pro/essor Henge& notesB L"3e5s =*escrition o/ t#e te.&e rese.+&es
ra++inic tra*itionBA not :ose#"s. 6n&i3e :ose#"sB =L"3e . . . ne%er .a3es a
*istinction +et?een t#e inner sanct"ar! an* t#e Co"rt o/ t#e genti&es. T#e! are a&&
sea3ing on&! a+o"t t#e one iepovB t#e rea& Te.&e. T#is is in so.e ?a! in
accor*ance ?it# ra++inic ter.ino&og!B ?#ic# .a3es a s#ar *istinction +et?een
t#e sanct"ar! roer an* t#e o"ter co"rt!ar*B t#e Te.&e .o"ntB ?#ic# is not
ca&&e* sanct"ar!.A
<L
L. T#e Location o/ t#e Ro.an Co..an*er
=An* a&& t#e cit! ?as aro"se*B an* t#e eo&e r"s#e* toget#erI an* ta3ing
#o&* o/ Pa"&B t#e! *ragge* #i. o"t o/ t#e te.&eI an* i..e*iate&! t#e *oors ?ere
s#"t. An* ?#i&e t#e! ?ere see3ing to 3i&& #i.B a reort ca.e " to t#e co..an*er
o/ t#e ,oman co#ort t#at a&& :er"sa&e. ?as in con/"sion. An* at once #e too3
<<
#tt:QQ???.a+".n+.caQco"rsesQNTIntroQi.agesQ,arnSign.#t.
<L
Henge&B Between &es"s and Pa"lB age 1)3.
'2
a&ong some so&*iers an* cent"rionsB an* ran *o?n to t#e.I an* ?#en t#e! sa? t#e
co..an*er an* t#e so&*iersB t#e! stoe* +eating Pa"&.. Acts '1:3)43'.
$erse 31 correct&! *escri+es #o? t#e Ro.an co..an*ant co"&* interce*e
in a ti.e&! .anner +eca"se t#e Ro.an +arrac3s ?ere on a #ig#er &e%e& an*
connecte* +! stairs to t#e Te.&e site. &ewish War 1.'2'41.
7. Priest&! 0"ties Se&ecte* +! Lot
=No? it ca.e a+o"tB ?#i&e #e ?as er/or.ing #is riest&! ser%ice +e/ore
Go* in t#e aointe* or*er o/ #is *i%isionB accor*ing to t#e c"sto. o/ t#e riest&!
o//iceB #e ?as c#osen +! &ot to enter t#e te.&e o/ t#e Lor* an* +"rn incense.A
L"3e 1:74H.
In /actB riest&! *"ties ?ere assigne* +! &ot. T#is is not .entione* +!
:ose#"s an* is ot#er?ise 3no?n to "s on&! t#ro"g# t#e Nis#na#. 5oma 'B 142I
Tamid 1B 'I 'B 1I 3B 1I T' 5oma 1B 1).
H. Ti.e o/ Pra!er at t#e Te.&e
=Peter an* :o#n ?ere going " to t#e te.&e at t#e nint# #o"rB t#e #o"r o/
ra!er.A Acts 3:1.
=T#e seci/ic re/erence to t#e ti.e o/ ra!er at t#e nint# #o"r oints to a
recise 3no?&e*ge o/ :e?is# c"sto.s in t#e Te.&e. T#is ?as t#e ti.e o/ t#e
tamid sacri/iceB in t#e a/ternoonB ?#ic# ?as conc&"*e* ?it# an incense o//ering
an* t#e riest&! +&essing.A
<7
)ee m' Pes. 1:1 an* Ant. 12.<1.
1). A La.e Nan at t#e Bea"ti/"& Gate
=An* a .an ?#o #a* +een &a.e /ro. #is .ot#er5s ?o.+ ?as +eing
carrie* a&ongB ?#o. t#e! "se* to set *o?n e%er! *a! at t#e gate o/ t#e te.&e
?#ic# is ca&&e* Bea"ti/"&B in or*er to +eg a&.s o/ t#ose ?#o ?ere entering t#e
te.&e.A Acts 3:'.
Once again Acts *e.onstrates /a.i&iarit! ?it# :e?is# c"sto.s. A &a.e
.an ?as not er.itte* to /"&&! articiate in Te.&e ?ors#i. m' )ha+. <:7.
11. So&o.on5s Portico
=,#i&e #e ?as c&inging to Peter an* :o#nB a&& t#e eo&e ran toget#er to
t#e. at t#e so4ca&&e* ortico o/ So&o.onB /"&& o/ a.aMe.ent.A Acts 3:11.
T#e ortico is a&so atteste* in*een*ent&! +! :o#n 1):'3.
1'. A Sa++at# 0a!5s :o"rne!
=T#en t#e! ret"rne* to :er"sa&e. /ro. t#e .o"nt ca&&e* O&i%etB ?#ic# is
near :er"sa&e.B a Sa++at# *a!5s 8o"rne! a?a!.A Acts 1:1'.
T#e re/erence to a =Sa++at# *a!5s 8o"rne!A /ro. :er"sa&e. to t#e .o"nt o/
O&i%etB s#o?s acc"rate 3no?&e*ge o/ :e?is# c"sto.s. =T#e *istance o/ t#eir ?a&3
<7
I+id'B age 2'.
'1
a DSa++at# *a!5s ?a&3B5 ?#ic# ?as t#e &ongest *istance one co"&* ?a&3 ?it#o"t
+rea3ing t#e Sa++at#. T#e ra++inic tra*ition set t#is at 'B))) c"+itsB i.e.B a+o"t
t#ree4/o"rt#s o/ a .i&e.A
<H
As Henge& notesB =EtF#e ter. Da sa++at# *a!5s 8o"rne!5B
?#ic# aears on&! #ere in t#e Ne? Testa.entB res"oses an a.aMing&! inti.ate
3no?&e*geW/or a Gree3Wo/ :e?is# c"sto.s.A
L)

13. Fie&* o/ B&oo*
=An* it +eca.e 3no?n to a&& ?#o ?ere &i%ing in :er"sa&e.I so t#at in t#eir
o?n &ang"age t#at /ie&* ?as ca&&e* Ha3e&*a.aB t#at isB Fie&* o/ B&oo*.A Acts 1:1H.
=Ha3e&*a.aA is an Ara.aic ?or* acc"rate&! trans&ate* as =/ie&* o/
+&oo*.A
L1
T#is &ace an* na.e ?as a&so 3no?n +! Natt#e? J'L:7K.
12. 0a%i*5s To.+
=Bret#renB I .a! con/i*ent&! sa! to !o" regar*ing t#e atriarc# 0a%i* t#at
#e +ot# *ie* an* ?as +"rie*B an* #is to.+ is ?it# "s to t#is *a!.A Acts ':'H.
T#e to.+ o/ 0a%i* is .entione* in Ne#. 3:1<. Its contin"ing %eneration in
t#e ti.e o/ :es"s is atteste* +! :ose#"s. Ant' L:'3H//.
III. Fa$i#iarity +ith Other Geography an( Cu#ture
A&t#o"g# Acts sen*s a signi/icant a.o"nt o/ its narrati%e *isc"ssing
Pa&estineB it a&so /o&&o?s Pa"& an* ot#ers to .an! &aces in t#e Ro.an E.ire.
Again an* again t#e a"t#or o/ Acts *e.onstrates acc"rate 3no?&e*ge a+o"t t#e
geogra#! an* c"&t"re o/ t#e &aces Pa"& tra%e&e*.
1. A Nat"ra& Crossing
=SoB +eing sent o"t +! t#e Ho&! SiritB t#e! ?ent *o?n to Se&e"cia an*
/ro. t#ere t#e! sai&e* to C!r"s. ,#en t#e! reac#e* Sa&a.isB t#e! +egan to
roc&ai. t#e ?or* o/ Go* in t#e s!nagog"es o/ t#e :e?sI an* t#e! a&so #a* :o#n
as t#eir #e&er.A Acts 13:241.
T#e a"t#or #as Pa"& crossing t#e sea /ro. Se&e"cia to C!r"sB ?#ic# ?as a
nat"ra& crossing ointB as note* +! Stra+oB Geo!raphy L.1.7 an* Po&!+i"sB (istory
1.17.2.
'. T#e Ri%er Port Perga
<H
Po&#i&&B op' cit'B age 77.
L)
Henge&B op' cit'B age 2<.
L1
Po&#i&&B op' cit'B age H1.
'<
=No? Pa"& an* #is co.anions "t o"t to sea /ro. Pa#os an* ca.e to
Perga in Pa.#!&iaI +"t :o#n &e/t t#e. an* ret"rne* to :er"sa&e..A Acts 13:13.
=T#e te-t na.es PergaB a ri%er4ortB an* er#as t#e *irect *estination o/ a
s#i crossing /ro. C!r"sB ?#ereas a coaster ?o"&* #a%e ca&&e* on&! at t#e coasta&
#ar+o"r to?n o/ Atta&ia.A
L'

3. T#e Pisi*ian Antioc#
=B"t going on /ro. PergaB t#e! arri%e* at Pisi*ian Antioc#B an* on t#e
Sa++at# *a! t#e! ?ent into t#e s!nagog"e an* sat *o?n.A Acts 13:12.
A&t#o"g# t#e cit! ?as a art o/ P#r!giaB not Pisi*ianB L"3e is correct in
re/erring to =Pisi*ian Antioc#.A Stra+o a&so recogniMe* t#e connection to Pisi*ian.
1'.<.2 an* 1'.7.12. Noreo%erB +eca"se o/ t#e con/ir.e* resence o/ a co&on! o/
:e?s in Pisi*ianB t#e resence o/ a s!nagog"e is a&so &i3e&!.
2. Iconi". Not in L!conia
=ETF#e! +eca.e a?are o/ it an* /&e* to t#e cities o/ L!caoniaB L!stra an*
0er+eB an* t#e s"rro"n*ing region.A Acts 12:<.
=T#e i.&ication is t#at Iconi". ?as not in L!caonia. As it ?as a /rontier
to?n +et?een P#r!gia an* L!caoniaB an* co..on&! s#are* t#e /ort"nes o/ t#e
&atter regionB it is /re>"ent&! ca&&e* a L!caonian cit! +! ancient ?riters Je.g.B
CiceroB #am. 11.2.'I P&in!B N( 1.'1K. B"t strict&! it is in P#r!gia.A
L3
T#is is
con/ir.e* +! Oeno#onB Ana+.1.'.1HB Hiera-B Acta I"stini an* C!rianB Ep. L1.L.
1. Coasting Port /or Coasting $esse&
=,#en t#e! #a* so3en t#e ?or* in PergaB t#e! ?ent *o?n to Atta&ia.A
Acts 12:'1.
)ee oint No. ' a+o%e. A&t#o"g# Perga is a ortB it is on&! a ri%er4ort. To
catc# a =coasterA /or tra%e& in t#e Ne*iterraneanB t#e! #a* to go to t#e sea ort o/
Atta&ia.
<. 0er+e to L!stra
=Pa"& ca.e a&so to 0er+e an* to L!stra. An* a *isci&e ?as t#ereB na.e*
Ti.ot#!B t#e son o/ a :e?is# ?o.an ?#o ?as a +e&ie%erB +"t #is /at#er ?as a
Gree3.A Acts 1<:1.
Acts &ists in correct or*er t#e o%er&an* aroac# to L!stra /ro. t#e Ci&ician
Gates.
L2

L. L!stra an* Iconi".
L'
He.erB op' cit'B age 1)H.
L3
Br"ceB op' cit'B age 31H.
L2
He.erB op' cit'B age 111.
'L
=EAFn* ETi.ot#!F ?as ?e&& so3en o/ +! t#e +ret#ren ?#o ?ere in L!stra
an* Iconi"..A Acts 1<:'.
=L!stra an* Iconi". ?ere re&ati%e&! c&oseB a&t#o"g# +e&onging to *i//erent
8"ris*ictionsB ?#ereas 0er+e is no? 3no?n to #a%e +een .ore *istant t#an ?as
s"ose* ?#en it ?as ?rong&! &ace* at Xostra or G"*e&isin. It is t#"s nat"ra& t#at
Ti.ot#!B i/ a nati%e o/ L!straB ?as 3no?n to t#ese t?o c#"rc#es rat#er t#an in
0er+e.A
L1

7. Troas
=EAFn* assing +! N!siaB t#e! ca.e *o?n to Troas.A Acts 1<:7.
Not on&! is t#e geogra#! correctB +"t t#e "se o/ t#e na.e =TroasA itse&/ is
an interesting acc"rac!. =T#e "se o/ t#e na.e TroasB /or.er&! A&e-an*riaB is
c#aracteristic o/ /irst cent"r! "sageB a/ter A"g"st"s .a*e t#e cit! a co&on!
/or.a&&! *esignate* DCo&onia A"g"sta Troa*ensi".5 or DCo&onia A"g"sta
Troas.5A
L<

H. Sa.ot#race
=So "tting o"t to sea /ro. TroasB ?e ran a straig#t co"rse to Sa.ot#raceB
an* on t#e *a! /o&&o?ing to Neao&isIA Acts 1<:11.
=Sa.ot#race ?as a consic"o"s sai&or5s &an*.ar3B *o.inate* +! a 1)))
/oot .o"ntain.A
LL
A**itiona&&!B L"3e "ses t#e tec#nica& na"tica& ter. =anageinBA
?#ic# #e a&so "ses in 13:13 J&itera&&!B =#a%ing +een carrie* " Eonto t#e #ig#
seaFAK.
1). A.#io&is an* Ao&&onia
=No? ?#en t#e! #a* tra%e&e* t#ro"g# A.#io&is an* Ao&&oniaB t#e!
ca.e to T#essa&onica. . . .A Acts 1L:1.
HereB Acts acc"rate&! &aces t#ese t?o cities as stations on t#e Egnatian
,a! /ro. P#i&ii to T#essa&onica.
L7
It is &i3e&! t#at t#e a"t#or a&so gets t#e
*istances correct. =T#e .ention o/ A.#io&is an* o/ Ao&&onia s#o"&* ro+a+&!
+e ta3en to i.&! t#at t#eses ?ere &ace ?#ere t#e tra%e&ers sent s"ccessi%e
nig#tsB *i%i*ing t#e 8o"rne! to T#essa&onica into t#ree stages o/ a+o"t 3)B 'LB an*
31 .i&es.A
LH

11. A S!nagog"e in T#essa&onica
=ETF#e! ca.e to T#essa&onicaB ?#ere t#ere ?as a s!nagog"e o/ t#e :e?s.A
Acts 1L:1.
L1
I+id'B age 11'.
L<
I+id'B age 1LH.
LL
He.erB op' cit'B age 113.
L7
I+id'B age 1)7. )ee also Br"ceB op' cit'B 3<7.
LH
He.erB op' cit'B age 111.
'7
Inscrition e%i*ence s"orts t#e conc&"sion t#at a s!nagog"e e-iste* in
T#essa&onica.
7)

1'. T#e L!caonian Lang"age in L!stra
=,#en t#e cro?*s sa? ?#at Pa"& #a* *oneB t#e! raise* t#eir %oiceB sa!ing
in t#e L!caonian &ang"ageB DT#e go*s #a%e +eco.e &i3e .en an* #a%e co.e *o?n
to "s.5A Acts 12:11.
$erse 11 sa!s t#e L!caonian &ang"age is so3en in L!stra. Ho?e%erB t#e
"se o/ nati%e &ang"ages ?as rat#er rare in "r+an He&&eniMe* societ!. Ne%ert#e&essB
Acts is correct t#at in L!stra t#e! *i* in /act sea3 t#eir nati%e &ang"age. T#is ?as
aarent&! not ?i*e&! 3no?n. T#ere is on&! one ot#er re/erence to t#is &ang"age
in a&& ?ritings *isco%ere* " to t#e resent *a!. It ?o"&* re>"ire a erson ?#o ?as
%er! /a.i&iar ?it# seci/ic &oca& in/or.ation on L!stra to +e a?are o/ t#is *etai&.
13. T#e Gangites O"tsi*e P#i&ii
=An* on t#e Sa++at# *a! ?e ?ent o"tsi*e t#e gate to a ri%ersi*eB ?#ere ?e
?ere s"osing t#at t#ere ?o"&* +e a &ace o/ ra!erI an* ?e sat *o?n an* +egan
sea3ing to t#e ?o.en ?#o #a* asse.+&e*.A Acts 1<:13.
T#e Gangites Ri%er .atc#es t#is *escrition an* is o"tsi*e o/ P#i&ii.
12. P#i&ii a Ro.an Co&on!
Acts correct&! &ists P#i&ii as a Ro.an co&on!B an* its seaort is roer&!
gi%en as Nea Po&is. Acts 1<:1'. Con/ir.ation o/ t#ese /acts range /ro. ancient
?ritings an* inscritions to ancient coins.
11. Fe? :e?s in P#i&ii
Acts in*icates t#at t#ere ?ere too /e? :e?s to /or. a s!nagog"e in P#i&ii.
Acts 1<:13. T#is is #ig#&! ro+a+&e. Gi%en t#at P#i&ii ?as a co&on! rat#er t#an
a center o/ co..erce or tra*eB t#ere ?ere &i3e&! /e? :e?s.
1<. T#e 0!e Tra*e in T#!atira
=A ?o.an na.e* L!*iaB /ro. t#e cit! o/ T#!atiraB a se&&er o/ "r&e
/a+ricsB a ?ors#ier o/ Go*B ?as &isteningI an* t#e Lor* oene* #er #eart to
reson* to t#e t#ings so3en +! Pa"&.A Acts 1<:12.
T#e cit! o/ T#!atira is in%o&%e* in t#e *!e tra*e. Arc#aeo&ogists #a%e
/o"n* L inscritions in t#e cit! t#at re/er to it.
1L. T#e Correct Or*er o/ AssosB Nit!&eneB C#iosB Sa.osB an* Ni&et"s
=B"t ?eB going a#ea* to t#e s#iB set sai& /or AssosB inten*ing /ro. t#ere to
ta3e Pa"& on +oar*I /or so #e #a* arrange* itB inten*ing #i.se&/ to go +! &an*. An*
?#en #e .et "s at AssosB ?e too3 #i. on +oar* an* ca.e to Nit!&ene. Sai&ing
7)
Cor"s Inscrition I"*aicar".B <H3.
'H
/ro. t#ereB ?e arri%e* t#e /o&&o?ing *a! oosite C#iosI an* t#e ne-t *a! ?e
crosse* o%er to Sa.osI an* t#e *a! /o&&o?ing ?e ca.e to Ni&et"s. For Pa"& #a*
*eci*e* to sai& ast E#es"s so t#at #e ?o"&* not #a%e to sen* ti.e in AsiaI /or
#e ?as #"rr!ing to +e in :er"sa&e.B i/ ossi+&eB on t#e *a! o/ Pentecost.A Acts
'):1341<.
In %erse 12411B t#e a"t#or &ists s.a&& cities in t#e correct or*er in ?#ic#
t#e! ?o"&* #a%e +een enco"ntere* on s"c# a tri.
17. OrganiMation o/ t#e Ni&itar! G"ar*
=,#en #e #a* seiMe* #i.B #e "t #i. in risonB *e&i%ering #i. to /o"r
s>"a*s o/ so&*iers to g"ar* #i.B inten*ing a/ter t#e Passo%er to +ring #i. o"t
+e/ore t#e eo&e.A Acts 1':2.
Gi%es correct in/or.ation on t#e *etai&s o/ a Ro.an .i&itar! g"ar*.
$egeti"sB de ,e militari 3.7.
1H. T#e Aian ,a!
=An* t#e +ret#renB ?#en t#e! #ear* a+o"t "sB ca.e /ro. t#ere as /ar as t#e
Nar3et o/ Ai"s an* T#ree Inns to .eet "sI an* ?#en Pa"& sa? t#e.B #e t#an3e*
Go* an* too3 co"rage.A Acts '7:11.
T#is %erse correct&! &ists t#e Aii For". Jt#e Nar3et o/ Ai"sK an* Tres
Ta+ernae Jt#e T#ree InnsK as stos on t#e Aian ,a!. T#e! are 3)421 .i&es
so"t#east o/ Ro.e. T#e Aii For". is t#e .ar3et&ace o/ Ai"s an* is a .ar3et
to?n so"t# o/ Ro.e a&ong t#e Aian ,a!. HoraceB )at. 113. Tres Ta+ernae is
=T#e Tree Ta%ernsA ?#ic# ?as a station on t#e Aian ,a! 33 .i&es so"t# o/
Ro.e. Bot# are .entione* +! CiceroB Att. '.1).
'). At#ens
Acts 1L:1<432B gi%es a %i%i* *escrition o/ &i/e in At#ens t#at .atc#es t#e
3no?&e*ge o+taine* /ro. arc#aeo&ogica& *isco%eries an* ot#er Gree3 ?riters.
L"3e .entions At#ens in re&ation to t#e StoicsB t#e a&tar to an "n3no?n go* Js"c#
a&tars are con/ir.e* +! Pa"saniasB 1.1.2 an* 0iogenes Laerti"sB 6ita Philos.
1.11)KB an* #e gi%es t#e correct tit&e /or a .e.+er o/ t#e Areoag"s J%erse 32K.
L"3e a&so reorts Pa"&5s seec# as >"oting t?o Gree3 #i&oso#ers JEi.eni*es
an* Arat"sK in %erse '7. Arat"s ?as a Stoic #i&oso#er /ro. So&i near Pa"&5s
#o.eto?n o/ Tars"sB t#ere/ore .a3ing it #ig#&! &a"si+&e t#at Pa"& ?as /a.i&iar
?it# #is ?or3. L"3e a&so #as t#e At#enians ca&& Pa"& an =i*&e +a++&erBA ?#ic# is a
=?or* o/ c#aracteristica&&! At#enian s&ang.A
71

'1. An O** Gro"ing o/ He&&eniMe* Go*s
=An* t#e! +egan ca&&ing Barna+asB Xe"sB an* Pa"&B Her.esB +eca"se #e
?as t#e c#ie/ sea3er. . . .A Acts 12:1'//.
71
He+erB op' cit'B age 11L.
3)
T#e Gree3 na.es Xe"s an* Her.es are #e&&eniMe* %ersions o/ t#e &oca& c"&t.
T#ere is arc#eo&ogica& e%i*ence /ro. L!stra s#o?ing t#at t#e gro"ing o/ Xe"s
an* Her.es ?as "ni>"e to t#is region. T#e inscritions ?ere "+&is#e* an*
*isc"sse* in ,.N. Ca&*er5sB =A C"&t o/ t#e Ho.ona*esBA *, '2 J1H1)KB ages L<4
71. F"rt#erB t#ese assages reco"nt #o? t#e &oca&s starte* ?ors#iing Pa"& an*
Barna+as as i/ t#e! ?ere t#e go*s Her.es an* Xe"s. T#is /its ?e&& ?it# t#eir
re&igio"s +e&ie/s a+o"t t#ose t?o go*s. As Pro/essor He.er ?rites:
T#e stor! na.e* aroriate go*s. A stat"ette o/ Her.es an* an
eag&eB +ir* o/ Xe"sB #a%e +een /o"n* near L!straI t#e t?o go*s are
co"&e* in an inscrition /ro. t#e genera& regionI on a sc"&t"re*
re&ie/B ?e can see #o? eo&e &oca&&! ict"re* t#ese *i%initiesB
ro"n*4/ace* an* so&e.nB ?it# &ong #air an* /&o?ing +ear*sB a
searc#ing gaMe an* t#e rig#t #an* #e&* ro.inent&! across t#e c#est.
S"c# a Xe"s &oo3s "nco..on&! &i3e o"r i.age o/ a ?an*ering
C#ristian #o&! .an: in t#ese re&ie/sB ?eB tooB can sense t#e e&"si%e
/eat"res o/ Pa"& or Barna+as.
7'
''. ,ors#i o/ Arte.is
Acts 1H:'2421B associates t#e ?ors#i o/ Arte.is ?it# t#e cit! o/ E#es"s.
T#is #as +een ro%en +! n".ero"s inscritions "nco%ere* in t#e r"ins o/ E#es"s.
I!. Fa$i#iarity +ith Po#itica# an( Re#igious 'ea(ers
,#et#er *isc"ssing :"*eaB Ga&i&eeB or so.e Ro.an ro%ince or /ree cit!B
t#e a"t#or o/ Acts acc"rate&! *escri+es t#e tit&es an* ositions o/ .an! *i//erent
o&itica& an* re&igio"s &ea*ers.
1. Annas as Hig# Priest A/ter For.a& 0eosition
=EAFn* Annas t#e #ig# riest ?as t#ereB an* Caia#as an* :o#n an*
A&e-an*erB an* a&& ?#o ?ere o/ #ig#4riest&! *escent.A Acts 2:<.
=Annas is ict"re* as contin"ing to #a%e great restige an* to +ear t#e tit&e
#ig# riest a/ter #is /or.a& *eosition +! t#e Ro.ans an* t#e aoint.ent o/
Caia#as.A
73
J:ose#"sB Ant. 17.'.'.32431I ').H.1.1H7K.

'. C!r"s R"&e* +! a Procons"& Na.e* ;"int"s Sergi"s Pa"&&"s
7'
Ro+in L. Fo-B The 7na"thori8ed 6ersionB age 1)).
73
He.erB op' cit'B age 1)7.
31
Acts 13:LB correct&! sa!s t#at C!r"s ?as r"&e* +! a rocons"& ?#en Pa"&
%isite*. T#is #as +een con/ir.e* +! s"+stantia& inscrition e%i*ence.
72
T#ere is inscrition e%i*ence t#at ;"int"s Sergi"s Pa"&&"s ?as in*ee* t#e
rocons"& o/ C!r"s "n*er t#e reign o/ C&a"*i"s.
71

3. S!nagog"e in Corint#
Acts 17:24LB reorts t#at Pa"& ta"g#t in a s!nagog"e in Corint#. T#ere is
e%i*ence t#at Corint# #a* a s!nagog"e at t#is ti.e.
7<

2. Ac#aia ?as R"&e* +! a Procons"&
L"3e 3no?s t#at Ac#aia ?as r"&e* +! a rocons"& *"ring t#is ti.e erio*.
Ac#aia ?as r"&e* +! a rocons"& /ro. 'L BC to 11 A0B an* t#en again a/ter 22
A0. Acts 17:1'. It a&so aears &i3e&! t#at L"3e correct&! i*enti/ies Ga&&io as t#e
rocons"& Jas %eri/ie* +! an inscritionK.
7L

1. T#e C#ie/ Nan o/ Na&ta
=No? in t#e co"ntr! s"rro"n*ing t#at &ace ?ere t#e &an*s +e&onging to t#e
c#ie/ .an o/ t#e is&an*.A Acts '7:L.
T#e "ni>"e #rase @ =c#ie/ .anA @ "se* /or t#e &ea*er o/ Na&ta #as +een
con/ir.e* +! t#e *isco%er! o/ inscritions in t#e area.
<. Sa**"cees as Oonents o/ Pa"&
=B"t ercei%ing t#at one gro" ?ere Sa**"cees an* t#e ot#er P#ariseesB
Pa"& +egan cr!ing o"t in t#e Co"nci&B DBret#renB I a. a P#ariseeB a son o/
P#ariseesI I a. on tria& /or t#e #oe an* res"rrection o/ t#e *ea*T5 As #e sai* t#isB
t#ere occ"rre* a *issension +et?een t#e P#arisees an* Sa**"ceesB an* t#e
asse.+&! ?as *i%i*e*. For t#e Sa**"cees sa! t#at t#ere is no res"rrectionB nor an
ange&B nor a siritB +"t t#e P#arisees ac3no?&e*ge t#e. a&&. An* t#ere occ"rre* a
great "roarI an* so.e o/ t#e scri+es o/ t#e P#arisaic art! stoo* " an* +egan to
arg"e #eate*&!B sa!ingB D,e /in* not#ing ?rong ?it# t#is .anI s"ose a sirit or
an ange& #as so3en to #i.C5 An* as a great *issension ?as *e%e&oingB t#e
co..an*er ?as a/rai* Pa"& ?o"&* +e torn to ieces +! t#e. an* or*ere* t#e
troos to go *o?n an* ta3e #i. a?a! /ro. t#e. +! /orceB an* +ring #i. into t#e
+arrac3s.A Acts '3:<41).
Acts ortra!s t#e Sa**"cees as t#e .ain oonents o/ Pa"&. T#e Sa**"cees
?ere +asica&&! e-tinct +! t#e .i**&e o/ t#e 'n*4cent"r! so it is "n&i3e&! t#at
72
T.B. Nit/or*B The Inscriptions of 9o"rionB age 1<H.
71
Inscriptiones Graecae ad ,es ,omanaspertinentes Je*. R. CagnatB I4I$B 1H114
12KB section 3.H31B as cite* +! F.F. Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesB age 'HL.
7<
FitM.!erB op' cit'B age <'<.
7L
Br"ceB op' cit'B age 3H1.
3'
so.eone ?riting 1)) !ears a/ter t#e e%ent ?o"&* create t#e. as Pa"&5s oonents.
It is .ore &i3e&! t#at t#e P#arisees @ ?#ose Ra++inic *escen*ents ?ere sti&& in
contest ?it# C#ristians @ ?o"&* +e cast as t#e %i&&ains. A&soB Acts is correct a+o"t
t#e Sa**"cees5 *is+e&ie/ in t#e res"rrection.
L. Fe&i-
Acts '3:'2B #as Fe&i- as r"&er in t#e correct ti.e /ra.e. Tacit"sB (ist. 1.H.
7. Po&itarc#s in T#essa&onica
Acts 1L:14HB "ses t#e ter. =o&itarc#sA /or a +oar* o/ .agistrates in
T#essa&onica. Recent arc#aeo&ogica& *isco%eries o/ inscritions in t#e area near
T#essa&onica #a%e /o"n* t#e ter. =o&itarc#A an* ro%en L"3e to +e correct. No
&ess t#an eig#teen inscritions /ro. 1)) BC to ')) A0 re/er to t#e o&itarc#s o/
T#essa&onica.
77

H. Beroea
=T#e +ret#ren i..e*iate&! sent Pa"& an* Si&as a?a! +! nig#t to BeroeaB
an* ?#en t#e! arri%e*B t#e! ?ent into t#e s!nagog"e o/ t#e :e?s.A Acts 1L:1).
Accor*ing to Co&in He.erB =Beroea is a s"ita+&e i..e*iate re/"ge as a
&ace o// t#e .a8or ?est?ar* ro"teB t#e $ia Egnatia.A
7H

1). Procons"&s an* Go%ernors
Acts correct&! an* consistent&! *i//erentiates +et?een t#e Ro.an r"&ers o/
senatoria& ro%inces /ro. t#e Ro.an r"&ers o/ i.eria& ro%inces or .inor
ro%inces. T#e /or.er are rocons"&s JActs 13:LI 17:'I 1H:37K ?#ereas t#e &atter
are go%ernors JL3. ':'I 3:1I Acts '3:'2I '<:3)K.
H)

!. Fa$i#iarity +ith Other Historica# E"ents
Acts a&so correct&! narrates ot#er #istorica& e%ents.
1. Fa.ine

=
One o/ t#e. na.e* Aga+"s stoo* " an* +egan to in*icate +! t#e Sirit
t#at t#ere ?o"&* certain&! +e a great /a.ine a&& o%er t#e ?or&*. An* t#is too3 &ace
in t#e reign o/ C&a"*i"s.A Acts 11:'7.
T#ere is s"+stantia& con/ir.ation o/ ?i*esrea* /a.ines in t#e Ro.an
E.ire *"ring t#e reign o/ C&a"*i"s. =T#e reign o/ C&a"*i"s ?as in /act .ar3e*
+! a &ong series o/ cro /ai&"res in %ario"s arts o/ t#e e.ire@in :"*eaB in Ro.eB
77
E.0. B"rtonB GT#e Po&itarc#sBG A&T ' J17H7KB gs. 1H74<3'.
7H
He.erB op' cit'B ages 11141<.
H)
Br"ceB op' cit'B ages 3143'B citing H.:. NasonB =T#e Ro.an Go%ern.ent in
Gree3 So"rcesBA Phoeni: '2 J1HL)KB ages 11)41H.
33
in Eg!tB an* in Greece. T#e :"*ean /a.ine see.s to #a%e ta3en &ace *"ring t#e
roc"rators#i o/ Ti+eri"s A&e-an*er JA.0. 2<427KB an* Eg!tian *oc".ents
re%ea& a .a8or /a.ine t#ere in A.0. 2142< *"e to /&oo*ing.A
H1

'. E-"&sion o/ t#e :e?s
=An* #e /o"n* a :e? na.e* A>"i&aB a nati%e o/ Pont"sB #a%ing recent&!
co.e /ro. Ita&! ?it# #is ?i/e Prisci&&aB +eca"se C&a"*i"s #a* co..an*e* a&& t#e
:e?s to &ea%e Ro.e.A Acts 17:'.
T#e e-"&sion o/ t#e :e?s /ro. Ro.e is con/ir.e* +! t#e Ro.an a"t#or
S"etoni"s in #is Life of *la"di"sB '1.2. He recor*s t#at /o&&o?ing a *ist"r+ance at
t#e instigation o/ =C#rist"sBA t#e E.eror C&a"*i"s e-e&&e* t#e :e?s /ro. Ro.e.
T#"sB not on&! is t#e /act o/ t#e e-"&sion con/ir.e* +! in*een*ent acco"ntB so is
t#e ti.ing an* t#e r"&er in%o&%e*.
3. Pa"& t#e Tent.a3er
=EAFn* +eca"se #e ?as o/ t#e sa.e tra*eB #e sta!e* ?it# t#e. an* t#e!
?ere ?or3ingB /or +! tra*e t#e! ?ere tent4.a3ers.A Acts 17:3.
=Pa"&5s tra*eB i/ "n*erstoo* as t#at o/ Dtent.a3erB5 is interesting&!
aroriate to #is Ci&ician origin.A
H'
T#e .ateria& =ci&ici".BA a c&ot# o/ ?o%en
goat #airB ?as a stan*ar* .ateria& "se* in t#e creation o/ tents. Nota+&!B =ci&ici".
originate* in an* ?as na.e* /or Pa"&5s nati%e ro%ince o/ Ci&icia.A
H3

!I. Fa$i#iarity +ith Ro$an Citi/enship an( 'ega# Syste$
To a re.ar3a+&e *egreeB Acts narrates Pa"&5s in%o&%e.ent in t#e Ro.an
&ega& s!ste. Jinc&"*ing &oca& s!ste.sK. It *isc"sses #is citiMens#i as a Ro.an an*
its i.&icationsB as ?e&& as narrating se%era& act"a& &ega& rocee*ings +e/ore
Ro.an an* &oca& o//icia&s. T#e .ost signi/icant o/ t#ese are:
U Acts 1<:1<42) JarrestB tria&B an* re&ease in P#i&iiK
U Acts 17:1'41L J+e/ore Ga&&io in Corint#K
U Acts 1H:1L4'):1 J*ist"r+ance an* asse.+&! in E#es"sK
U Acts '1:'<4'':3) J:er"sa&e. riotK
U Acts '3:114'2:'L JPa"& +e/ore Fe&i-K
U Acts '2:'L4'<:3' J+e/ore Fest"s an* aea&ing to Ro.eK
H1
Po&#i&&B op' cit'B age 'L1.
H'
He.erB op' cit'B age 11H.
H3
Po&#i&&B op' cit'B age 373.
32
Regar*ing Pa"&5s arrest an* tria& in P#i&iiB S#er?in4,#ite notes t#at =t#e
roce*"re /o&&o?e* at P#i&ii is in goo* or*er . . .A
H2
Brian Ras3eB in #is
e-ce&&ent ?or3B Pa"l in ,oman *"stody$ The Boo of Acts in its #irst *ent"ry
)ettin!B agrees an* *etai&s t#e acc"rac! o/ t#e acco"ntB inc&"*ing t#e re/erence to
Pa"& as a ser%ant o/ t#e =Nost Hig# Go*BA ?#ic# ?as a agan ter. o/ten "se* to
*escri+e =Xe"s or ot#er agan *eities.A
H1
T#e #rase t#at =t#e cro?* 8oine* in t#e
attac3A is nota+&e +eca"se it *oes not *escri+e a riot or state o/ con/"sion as in
Acts 1H JE#es"sK an* Acts '1 J:er"sa&e.K. T#e attac3 in t#is case ?as a &ega&
one. T#e cro?*5s articiation ?as or*er&! an* art o/ t#e s!ste.. =T#e c#aracter
o/ t#e D8oining in5 e-resse* +! t#e sun@ co.o"n* ."st in*icate a *egree o/
artic"&ateness an* or*er&iness in 3eeing ?it# +ot# t#e 8"*icia& content an* t#e
c#aracter o/ t#e r#etor5s resentation o/ t#e case.A
H<
T#is ractice #as +een
con/ir.e* +! ot#er ancient so"rces. F"rt#erB t#e striing o/ t#e gar.entsB +eating
?it# ro*sB +eing cast into t#e =inner risonBA an* +eing &ace* in stoc3s are &i3e&!
"nis#.ents gi%en t#e conte-t.
HL
Fina&&!B t#e /ear ?it# ?#ic# t#e a"t#orities react
"on &earning t#at Pa"& an* Si&as ?ere Ro.ans is entire&! aroriate /or t#e ti.e
erio*.
,#en ?e co.e to t#e e%ents in E#es"sB t#e acc"rac! contin"es. =T#e
e%i*ence o/ Acts not on&! agrees in genera& ?it# t#e ci%ic sit"ation in Asia Ninor
in t#e /irst an* ear&! secon* cent"ries A.0.B +"t /a&&s into &ace in t#e ear&ier rat#er
t#an t#e &ater #ase o/ *e%e&o.ent. . . . T#e a"t#or o/ Acts is %er! ?e&& in/or.e*
a+o"t t#e /iner oints o/ ."nicia& instit"tions at E#es"s.A
H7
T#e acc"rac!
inc&"*es t#e arrest +! t#e cit! .agistrates an* t#eir o&ice instea* o/ Ro.an
a"t#orities an* so&*iersB t#e *e+ating o/ ci%ic o&ic! +! an asse.+&!B an* t#e
ro.inence accor*e* to t#e to?n c&er3.
As /or t#e ot#er o//icia& rocee*ingsB S#er?in4,#ite notes:
It is si.i&ar ?it# t#e narrati%e o/ Pa"&5s 8"*icia& e-eriences +e/ore
t#e tri+"na&s o/ Ga&&ioB Fe&i-B an* Fest"s. As *oc".ents t#ese
narrati%es +e&ong to t#e sa.e #istorica& series as t#e recor* o/
ro%incia& an* i.eria& tria&s in eigra#ica& an* &iterar! so"rces o/
t#e /irst an* ear&! secon*4cent"ries A.0. T#e! stan* c&osest o/ a&&
er#as to t#e ?e&&43no?n Acts o/ t#e Pagan Nart!rsB +"t are
.ar3e*&! s"erior to t#ese in c&arit! an* acc"rac! o/ *etai&. T#e
tria&s in Acts +e&ong "n.ista3a+&!B as #as +een s#o?n at e-tre.e
H2
A.N. S#er?in4,#iteB ,oman Law and )ociety in the New TestamentB age 7'.
H1
I+id'B age 11<.
H<
I+id'B age 1''.
HL
I+id'B ages 1'14'L.
H7
S#er?in4,#iteB op' cit'B 7'B 72B 7L.
31
&engt# a+o%eB to a artic"&ar #ase in t#e #istor! o/ Ro.an
ro%incia& 8"ris*iction.
HH
T#e a"t#or o/ Acts not on&! acc"rate&! narrates %ario"s asects o/ t#e
Ro.an &ega& s!ste.sB #e &aces t#e. in t#e rig#t ti.e erio* an* conte-t.
!II. Acts an( the Pau#ine Epist#es
Nan! o/ t#e e%ents an* ersons in Acts are con/ir.e* +! t#e Pa"&ine
eist&es. T#e s". o/ t#ese agree.entsB an* t#e /act t#at Acts *oes not "se Pa"&5s
&etters as so"rce .ateria&B s#o?s t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ossesse* a ric# a.o"nt o/
acc"rate in/or.ation a+o"t Pa"&5s ost4con%ersion &i/e an* acti%ities.
A. Corre&ationB Con/ir.ation an* Co#erence
Acts seci/ica&&! &ists an* *isc"sses acc"rate&! Pa"&5s co.anions an* cities
in ?#ic# #e .inistere*. T#ere are a&so agree.ents o/ #ig# seci/icit!B s"c# as
?#en an* ?#ere Pa"& .et certain co.anions. T#ere are *etai&s a+o"t ?#en an*
?#ere Pa"& ?as tra%e&ing t#at s#o? strong agree.ent an* consistenc!.
1. Pa"& ?as a :e?
Pa"& ?as a :e?. P#i&. 3:1 J=O/ t#e stoc3 o/ Israe&B o/ t#e tri+e o/ Ben8a.inB a
He+re? o/ t#e He+re?sAK.
'. Pa"& ?as a P#arisee
Pa"& ?as a P#arisee. Acts '3:< J=B"t ?#en Pa"& ercei%e* t#at one art
?ere Sa**"cees an* t#e ot#er P#ariseesB #e crie* o"t in t#e co"nci&B =Nen an*
+ret#renB I a. a P#ariseeB t#e son o/ a P#ariseeI concerning t#e #oe an*
res"rrection o/ t#e *ea* I a. +eing 8"*ge*.AK an* P#i&. 3:1 J=I .ore so:
circ".cise* t#e eig#t# *a!B o/ t#e stoc3 o/ Israe&B o/ t#e tri+e o/ Ben8a.inB a
He+re? o/ t#e He+re?sI concerning t#e &a?B a P#arisee.AK.
3. Pa"&5s He+re? Na.e an* t#e Tri+e o/ Ben8a.in
Acts 13:'1 J=An* a/ter?ar* t#e! as3e* /or a 3ingB so Go* ga%e t#e. Sa"&
t#e son o/ 9is#B a .an o/ t#e tri+e o/ Ben8a.inB /or /ort! !ears.AK an* P#i&. 3:1
HH
I+id'B age 1'1.
3<
J=circ".cise* t#e eig#t# *a!B o/ t#e stoc3 o/ Israe&B o/ t#e tri+e o/ Ben8a.inB a
He+re? o/ t#e He+re?sB concerning t#e &a?B a P#ariseeAK.
T#is is ?#at Co&in He.er ca&&s =a c&assic instance o/ "n*esigne*
coinci*ence.A
1))
Basica&&!B Pa"&5s He+re? na.e @ Sa"& @ is 3no?n on&! /ro. Acts.
Pa"&5s tri+e is 3no?n on&! /ro. P#i&iians. T#e coinci*ence is t#at =Sa"&A ?as a
.ore co..on na.e in t#e re&ati%e&! s.a&& tri+e o/ Ben8a.inB ?#o co"nte*
Israe&5s /irst 3ing as a .e.+er o/ t#eir o?n tri+e.
2. Pa"& Engage* in Hars# Persec"tion Against t#e Ear&! C#ristian No%e.ent
Pa"&B +e/ore +eco.ing a C#ristianB ?as an o//icia& ?#o engage* in
ersec"tion targete* at C#ristians. Pa"&5s ersec"tion o/ t#e ear&! c#"rc# is
*escri+e* in .an! &aces in Acts JL:17B <)I H:143I '<:H41'I '':141B L47B ')K as ?e&&
as in Pa"&5s eist&es JGa&. 1:13B '3I P#i&. 3:<. )ee also 1 Ti.. 1:134'1K.
1. Pa"& Con%erts to C#ristianit! A/ter Persec"ting C#ristians
A/ter an enco"nter ?it# t#e risen C#ristB Pa"& con%erts to C#ristianit!. His
con%ersion is reco"nte* in .an! &aces in Acts JH:141HI '':<41<I '<:1'417K as ?e&&
as Pa"&5s "n*is"te* eist&es. JGa&. 1I 1 Cor. 11:74HK.
<. T#e Se>"ence o/ C#rist5s Aearance to Pa"&
Bot# Acts an* 1 Corint#ians &ace t#e aearance o/ t#e risen C#rist to Pa"&
a/ter aearance to t#e *isci&es. Acts '':<411B '<:1341H an* 1 Cor. 11:74H.
L. Pa"&5s Con%ersion ?as re&ate* geogra#ica&&! to 0a.asc"s
Pa"&5s con%ersion occ"rre* ?it#in geogra#ic ro-i.it! to 0a.asc"s. Acts
H:'B '':<B '<:17 an* Ga&. 1:1L.
7. Pa"& Ca&&e* to a Genti&e Nission
Pa"& recei%e* a secia& ca&& to con*"ct a .inistr! to t#e Genti&es. Acts H:11B
13:'<B '':'1 an* Ro. 1:1 J=t#ro"g# ?#o. ?e #a%e recei%e* grace an*
aost&es#i /or o+e*ience to t#e /ait# a.ong a&& nations /or #is na.eAK an* Ga&.
':'B L.
H. Pa"& Ha* an Initia& Ninistr! in 0a.asc"s
1))
He.erB op' cit'B age 173.
3L
Pa"& con*"cte* an initia& C#ristian .inistr! in 0a.asc"s a/ter #is
con%ersion. E-&icit in Acts H:')B '' J=I..e*iate&! #e reac#e* t#e C#rist in t#e
s!nagog"esB t#at He is t#e Son o/ Go*. . . . B"t Pa"& increase* a&& t#e .ore in
strengt#B an* con/o"n*e* t#e :e?s ?#o *?e&t in 0a.asc"sB ro%ing t#at t#is :es"s
is t#e C#rist.AK an* i.&ie* +! Ga&. 1:1L J=nor *i* I go " to :er"sa&e. to t#ose
?#o ?ere aost&es +e/ore .eI +"t I ?ent to Ara+iaB an* ret"rne* again to
0a.asc"sAK an* esecia&&! ' Cor. 11:3'433B ?#ic# in*icates t#at #e #a* a&rea*!
generate* a s"+stantia& &e%e& o/ #osti&it! +! #is acti%ities in 0a.asc"s.
1). Pa"&5s 0ra.atic Escae /ro. 0a.asc"s
Pa"& *ra.atica&&! escae* an atte.t to are#en* #i. in 0a.asc"s +!
+eing &o?ere* +! #is *isci&es t#ro"g# t#e cit! ?a&& in a +as3et.
Acts H:'24'1 J=B"t t#eir &ot +eca.e 3no?n to Sa"&. An* t#e! ?atc#e* t#e
gates *a! an* nig#tB to 3i&& #i.. T#en t#e *isci&es too3 #i. +! nig#t an* &et #i.
*o?n t#ro"g# t#e ?a&& in a &arge +as3etAK an* ' Cor. 11:33 J=In 0a.asc"sB t#e
go%ernorB "n*er Aretas t#e 3ingB ?as g"ar*ing t#e cit! o/ t#e 0a.ascenes ?it# a
garrisonB *esiring to are#en* .eI +"t I ?as &et *o?n in a +as3et t#ro"g# a
?in*o? in t#e ?a&&B an* escae* /ro. #is #an*s.AK.
11. Pa"& Tra%e&s /ro. 0a.asc"s To :er"sa&e.
Pa"& tra%e&e* /ro. 0a.asc"s to :er"sa&e. seci/ica&&! inten*ing to .eet
?it# t#e &ea*ers o/ t#e C#"rc#. A&t#o"g# Acts sa!s t#at Pa"& ?as +ro"g#t to t#e
=aost&esA ?#ereas Pa"& seci/ica&&! states #e .et on&! Peter an* :a.esB Acts
co"&* si.&! +e ?rongB e-aggeratingB si.&i/!ingB or treating Peter as a
reresentati%e o/ =t#e aost&es.A In an! e%entB t#e ti.ingB geogra#!B an* occasion
are t#e sa.e. Acts an* Ga&atians s"ggest t#at it is an e-ten*e* %isit. Acts H:'<4'H
an* Ga&. 1:1741H.
1'. Pa"& Tra%e&s /ro. :er"sa&e. to S!ria
A/ter .eeting an* reac#ing in :er"sa&e.B +ot# Acts an* Ga&atians reort
t#at Pa"& &e/t t#at cit! an* rocee*e* to S!ria.
Acts H:3) J=An* #e so3e +o&*&! in t#e na.e o/ t#e Lor* :es"s an*
*is"te* against t#e He&&enistsB +"t t#e! atte.te* to 3i&& #i.. ,#en t#e +ret#ren
/o"n* o"t t#e! +ro"g#t #i. *o?n to Caesarea an* sent #i. o"t to Tars"s.AK an*
Ga&. 1:'1 J=B"t I sa? none o/ t#e ot#er aost&es e-cet :a.esB t#e Lor*5s +rot#er. .
. . A/ter?ar* I ?ent into t#e regions o/ S!ria an* Ci&iciaAK.
13. Pa"&5s Secon* $isit to :er"sa&e.
37
T#is corre&ation *een*s on accetance o/ t#e ear&! So"t#ern Ga&atian $ie?
J=SG$AKB ?#ere Acts 11 Y Ga&. '. Beca"se t#is "n*erstan*ing is *is"te* +! .an!
sc#o&arsB on&! a co"&e o/ t#e e-a.&es re>"ire accetance o/ t#e SG$. I #a%e
e-&icit&! i*enti/ie* t#e.. T#e SG$ is *isc"sse* in .ore *etai& in t#e section on
L"3an a"t#ors#i.
Acts 11:'743) J=T#en one o/ t#e.B na.e* Aga+"sB stoo* " an* s#o?e* +!
t#e Sirit t#at t#ere ?as going to +e a great /a.ine t#ro"g#o"t a&& t#e ?or&*B ?#ic#
a&so #aene* in t#e *a!s o/ C&a"*i"s Caesar. T#en t#e *isci&esB eac# accor*ing
to #is a+i&it!B *eter.ine* to sen* re&ie/ to t#e +ret#ren *?e&&ing in :"*ea. T#is t#e!
a&so *i*B an* sent to t#e e&*ers +! t#e #an*s o/ Barna+as an* Sa"&.AK an* Ga&. ':1
J=T#en a/ter /o"rteen !ears I ?ent " again to :er"sa&e. ?it# Barna+asB an* a&so
too3 Tit"s ?it# .e.AK.
12. Pa"& Goes to :er"sa&e. +! Re%e&ation
T#is is anot#er SG$ corre&ation. It e.#asiMes t#at in Acts a ro#et
anno"nces t#at t#ere ?i&& +e a /a.ineB so Pa"& ta3es re&ie/ to t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc#.
In Ga&atiansB Pa"& notes t#at #e ?ent " to :er"sa&e. +! =re%e&ationA an* &ater
notes t#at ?#en #e &e/tB :a.es as3e* #i. to =re.e.+er t#e oor.A
Acts 11:'7 J=T#en one o/ t#e.B na.e* Aga+"sB stoo* " an* s#o?e* +!
t#e Sirit t#at t#ere ?as going to +e a great /a.ine t#ro"g#o"t a&& t#e ?or&*B ?#ic#
a&so #aene* in t#e *a!s o/ C&a"*i"s Caesar.AK an* Ga&. ':' J=An* I ?ent " +!
re%e&ationB an* co.."nicate* to t#e. t#at gose& ?#ic# I reac# a.ong t#e
Genti&esB +"t ri%ate&! to t#ose ?#o ?ere o/ re"tationB &est +! an! .eans I .ig#t
r"nB or #a* r"nB in %ain.AK.
11. Pa"&5s Re&ations#i ?it# Barna+as
Bot# Acts an* Pa"& reort t#e c&ose association o/ Pa"& an* Barna+asB an*
t#eir 8oint e//orts a.ong t#e Genti&es in Antioc#.
Acts 11:3) J=T#is t#e! a&so *i*B an* sent it to t#e e&*ers +! t#e #an*s o/
Barna+as an* Sa"&.AK an* Ga& ':1 J=T#en a/ter an inter%a& o/ /o"rteen !ears I ?ent
" again to :er"sa&e. ?it# Barna+asB ta3ing Tit"s a&ong a&soAKB Ga&. ':H J=an*
recogniMing t#e grace t#at #a* +een gi%en to .eB :a.es an* Ce#as an* :o#nB ?#o
?ere re"te* to +e i&&arsB ga%e to .e an* Barna+as t#e rig#t #an* o/ /e&&o?s#iB
so t#at ?e .ig#t go to t#e Genti&es an* t#e! to t#e circ".cise*AK an*B Ga&. ':11
J=B"t ?#en Peter #a* co.e to Antioc#B I ?it#stoo* #i. to #is /aceB +eca"se #e
?as to +e +&a.e* . . . e%en Barna+as ?as carrie* a?a! ?it# t#eir #!ocris!AK.
1<. Pa"&5s Ene.ies Stone* Hi. Prior to His ,riting ' Corint#ians
3H
Acts an* ' Corint#ians reort t#at Pa"& ?as stone* +! #is ene.ies. Acts
12:1H J=B"t :e?s ca.e /ro. Antioc# an* Iconi".B an* #a%ing ?on o%er t#e
cro?*sB t#e! stone* Pa"& an* *ragge* #i. o"t o/ t#e cit!B s"osing #i. to +e
*ea*AK an* ' Cor. 11:'1 J=T#ree ti.es I ?as +eaten ?it# ro*sB once I ?as stone*B
t#ree ti.es I ?as s#i?rec3e*B a nig#t an* a *a! I #a%e sent in t#e *eeAK. T#e
genera&&! accete* reconstr"cte* c#rono&og! o/ Pa"&5s acti%ities &aces t#e stoning
*escri+e* in Acts rior to ' Corint#ians.
1L. :"sti/ication +! Fait#
Acts ortra!s Pa"& as teac#ing a *octrine o/ sa&%ation /ro. t#e &a? t#ro"g#
/ait# in t#e risen C#rist @ %er! si.i&ar to Pa"&5s teac#ings in #is &etters.
Acts 13:3743H J=T#ere/ore &et it +e 3no?n to !o"B +ret#renB t#at t#ro"g#
Hi. /orgi%eness o/ sins is roc&ai.e* to !o"B an* +! Hi. e%er!one ?#o +e&ie%es
is 8"sti/ie* /ro. a&& t#ings /ro. ?#ic# !o" co"&* not +e 8"sti/ie* +! t#e &a? o/
Noses.AK an* Ga&. 1:< J=I .ar%e& t#at !o" are t"rning a?a! so soon /ro. Hi. ?#o
ca&&e* !o" in t#e grace o/ C#rist to a *i//erent gose&AKI ':1< J=3no?ing t#at a .an
is not 8"sti/ie* +! t#e ?or3s o/ t#e &a? +"t +! /ait# in :es"s C#ristB e%en ?e #a%e
+e&ie%e* in C#rist :es"s t#at ?e .ig#t +e 8"sti/ie* +! /ait# in C#rist an* not +! t#e
?or3s o/ t#e &a?I /or +! t#e ?or3s o/ t#e &a? no /&es# s#a&& +e 8"sti/ie*.AK.
17. 0escrition o/ :es"s5 Cr"ci/i-ion as Being Nai&e* to a Tree
In a re/erence to 0e"t. '1:''4'3B Acts #as Pa"& "sing an "nco..on
*escrition o/ :es"s5 cr"ci/i-ion as +eing on a =treeA rat#er t#an a cross. In
Ga&atiansB Pa"& "ses t#e sa.e #rase to *escri+e :es"s5 cr"ci/i-ion.
Acts 13:'H J=No? ?#en t#e! #a* /"&/i&&e* a&& t#at ?as ?ritten concerning
Hi.B t#e! too3 Hi. *o?n /ro. t#e tree an* &ai* #i. in a to.+.AK an* Ga&. 3:13
J=C#rist #as re*ee.e* "s /ro. t#e c"rse o/ t#e &a?B #a%ing +eco.e a c"rse /or "sB
/or it is ?rittenB DC"rse* is e%er!one ?#o #angs on a tree5AK.
1H. Pa"&5s Oosition to Pro.oting Circ".cision
Accor*ing to Acts an* Pa"&5s eist&esB Pa"& ?as strong&! oose* to t#ose
see3ing to enco"rage or re>"ire Genti&e C#ristians to +e circ".cise*. Bot# so"rces
a&so recor* t#at t#ere ?as a ro4circ".cision art! t#at ca.e /ro. :er"sa&e. to
teac# t#e Genti&e C#ristians to accet circ".cision.
Acts 11:1B 1 J=An* certain .en ca.e *o?n /ro. :"*ea an* ta"g#t t#e
+ret#renB D6n&ess !o" are circ".cise* accor*ing to t#e c"sto. o/ NosesB !o"
cannot +e sa%e*5. . . B"t so.e o/ t#e sect o/ t#e P#arisees ?#o +e&ie%e* rose "
sa!ingB DIt is necessar! to circ".cise t#e.B an* to co..an* t#e. to 3ee t#e &a?
o/ Noses.5AK an* Ga&. ':1' J=/or +e/ore certain .en ca.e /ro. :a.esB #e ?o"&*
2)
eat ?it# t#e Genti&esI +"t ?#en t#e! ca.eB #e ?it#*re? an* searate* #i.se&/B
/earing t#ose ?#o ?ere o/ t#e circ".cisionAKI 1:'4< J=In*ee*B IB Pa"&B sa! to !o"
t#at i/ !o" +eco.e circ".cise*B C#rist ?i&& ro/it !o" not#ing. An* I testi/! again
to e%er! .an ?#o +eco.es circ".cise* t#at #e is a *e+tor to 3ee t#e ?#o&e &a?.
(o" #a%e +eco.e estrange* /ro. C#ristB !o" ?#o atte.t to +e 8"sti/ie* +! &a?I
!o" #a%e /a&&en /ro. grace. For ?e t#ro"g# t#e Sirit eager&! ?ait /or t#e #oe o/
rig#teo"sness +! /ait#. For in C#rist :es"s neit#er circ".cision nor "ncirc".cision
a%ai&s an!t#ingB +"t /ait# ?or3ing t#ro"g# &o%e.AKI <:1'411 J=As .an! as *esire to
.a3e a goo* s#o?ing in t#e /&es#B t#ese tr! to co.e& !o" to +e circ".cise*B on&!
t#at t#e! .a! not s"//er ersec"tion /or t#e cross o/ C#rist. For not e%en t#ose
?#o are circ".cise* 3ee t#e &a?B +"t t#e! *esire to #a%e !o" circ".cise* t#at
t#e! .a! g&or! in !o"r /&es#. B"t Go* /or+i* t#at I s#o"&* g&or! e-cet in t#e
cross o/ o"r Lor* :es"s C#ristB +"t ?#ic# t#e ?or&* #as +een cr"ci/ie* to .eB an* I
to t#e ?or&*. For in C#rist :es"s neit#er circ".cision nor "ncirc".cision a%ai&s
an!t#ingB +"t a ne? creation.AK.
'). 0isco"rage.ent o/ Certain Practices to Genti&e C#ristians
In ActsB t#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci& sent a &etter to t#e Genti&e C#"rc#es
*isco"raging t#e. /ro. eating /oo* sacri/ice* to i*o&s an* instr"cting t#e. to
re/rain /ro. se-"a& i..ora&it!B ?#i&e recogniMing t#eir genera& /ree*o. /ro.
ot#er O&* Testa.ent restrictions. In Pa"&5s &ettersB #e *isco"rage* Genti&e
C#ristians /ro. eating =t#ings o&&"te* +! i*o&sA an* /ro. =se-"a& i..ora&it!A
a&t#o"g# #e recogniMe* t#eir genera& /ree*o. /ro. ot#er O&* Testa.ent
restrictions.
Acts 11:') J=+"t t#at ?e ?rite to t#e. to a+stain /ro. t#ings o&&"te* +!
i*o&sB /ro. se-"a& i..ora&it!B /ro. t#ings strang&e*B an* /ro. +&oo*AKB 'H J=t#at
!o" a+stain /ro. t#ings o//ere* to i*o&sB /ro. +&oo*B /ro. t#ings strang&e*B an*
/ro. se-"a& i..ora&it!AK an* 1 Cor. 7:1413 J=T#ere/ore concerning t#e eating o/
t#ings o//ere* to i*o&sB ?e 3no? t#at an i*o& is not#ing. . . . T#ere/ore i/ /oo*
.a3es .! +rot#er st".+&eB I ?i&& ne%er again eat .eatAKI 1):1743) J=Are not t#ose
?#o eat o/ t#e sacri/ices arta3ers o/ t#e a&tarC I *o not ?ant !o" to #a%e
/e&&o?s#i ?it# *e.onsAKI 1 Cor. 1:1 J=It is act"a&&! reorte* t#at t#ere is se-"a&
i..ora&it! a.ong !o"B an* s"c# se-"a& i..ora&it! as is not e%en na.e* a.ong
t#e Genti&esAKI <:1'4') J=No? t#e +o*! is not /or se-"a& i..ora&it! +"t /or t#e
Lor*B an* t#e Lor* /or t#e +o*!. . . . F&ee se-"a& i..ora&it!AK.
'1. Ti.ot#!B Co.anion o/ Pa"&
Ti.ot#! ?as a co.anion o/ Pa"& *"ring #is .inistr! to t#e Genti&es. Acts
1<:1I 1L:12411I 17:1I 1H:''I '):2B an* Ro.. 1<:'1 J=Ti.ot#! .! /e&&o? ?or3er
greets !o"B an* so *o L"ci"s an* :ason an* SosiaterB .! 3ins.enAKI 1 Cor. 2:1LI
1<:1)I ' Cor. 1:1B 1HI P#i&. 1:1I ':1HI Co&. 1:1.
21
''. Pa"&5s F&e-i+i&it!
A&t#o"g# a*a.ant&! oose* to re>"iring circ".cisionB Acts reort t#at
Pa"& circ".cise* Ti.ot#! @ one o/ #is co?or3ers @ /its ?e&& ?it# #is .otto t#at #e
?o"&* +e =a&& t#ings to a&& eo&e.A Noreo%erB *esite #is e.#asis on /ree*o.
/ro. t#e &a?B #e ?as ?i&&ing to +e %er! :e?is#.
Acts 1<:3 J=Pa"& ?ante* to #a%e #i. go on ?it# #i.. An* #e too3 #i. an*
circ".cise* #i. +eca"se o/ t#e :e?s ?#o ?ere in t#at regionB /or t#e! a&& 3ne?
t#at #is /at#er ?as Gree3.AK an* Acts '1:'34'2 J=T#ere/ore *o ?#at ?e te&& !o":
,e #a%e /o"r .en ?#o #a%e ta3en a %o?. Ta3e t#e. an* +e "ri/ie* ?it# t#e.B
an* a! t#eir e-enses so t#at t#e! .a! s#a%e t#eir #ea*sB an* t#at a&& .a! 3no?
t#at t#ose t#ings o/ ?#ic# t#e! ?ere in/or.e* concerning !o" are not#ingB +"t t#at
!o" !o"rse&/ a&so ?a&3 or*er&! an* 3ee t#e &a?.AK an* 1 Cor. H:1H4'' J=For
t#o"g# I a. /ree /ro. a&& .enB I #a%e .a*e .!se&/ a ser%ant to a&&B t#at I .ig#t
?in t#e .oreI an* to t#e :e?s I +eca.e as a :e?B t#at I .ig#t ?in :e?sI to t#ose
?#o are "n*er t#e &a?B as "n*er t#e &a?B t#at I .ig#t ?in t#ose ?#o are "n*er t#e
&a?I to t#ose ?#o are ?it#o"t &a?B as ?it#o"t &a? Jnot +eing ?it#o"t &a? to?ar*
Go*B +"t "n*er &a? to?ar* C#ristKB t#at I .ig#t ?in t#ose ?#o are ?it#o"t &a?I to
t#e ?ea3 I +eca.e as ?ea3B t#at I .ig#t ?in t#e ?ea3. I #a%e +eco.e a&& t#ings to
a&& .enB t#at I .ig#t +! a&& .eans sa%e so.e. No? t#is I *o /or t#e gose&5s sa3eB
t#at I .a! +e arta3er o/ it ?it# !o".AK.
'3. Pa"&5s Association ,it# t#e P#i&iian C#"rc#
Acts an* Pa"& agree t#at #e #a* a &ongstan*ing an* i.ortant re&ations#i
?it# t#e C#ristian C#"rc# in P#i&ii. Acts 1<:1'42) JPa"&5s .inistr! t#ereQPa"&
an* Si&as i.risone* t#ereK an* P#i&. 1:1 J=For !o"r /e&&o?s#i in t#e gose& /ro.
t#e /irst *a! "nti& no?AK.
'2. Pa"& Beaten ?it# Ro*s
Acts an* ' Corint#ians reort t#at Pa"& s"//ere* +eating +! ro*s. Acts
1<:''4'3 J=T#en t#e ."&tit"*e rose " toget#er against t#e.I an* t#e .agistrates
tore o// t#eir c&ot#es an* co..an*e* t#e. to +e +eaten ?it# ro*s. An* ?#en t#e!
#a* &ai* .an! stries on t#e.B t#e! t#re? t#e. into rison.AK an* ' Cor. 11:'1
J=T#ree ti.es I ?as +eaten ?it# ro*sI once I ?as stone*I t#ree ti.es I ?as
s#i?rec3e*I a nig#t an* a *a! I #a%e +een in t#e *ee.AK.
'1. Pa"& an* Co.anions Persec"te* in P#i&ii
2'
Acts5 acco"nt t#at Pa"& ?as #!sica&&! ersec"te* ?#i&e .inistering in
P#i&ii is con/ir.e* +! 1 T#essa&onians. E%en Acts5 "se o/ t#e &"ra& J=t#e! #a*
&ai* .an! stries on t#e.AK is con/ir.e* J=?e #a* s"//ere*AK.
Acts 1<:''4'3 J=T#en t#e ."&tit"*e rose " toget#er against t#e.I an* t#e
.agistrates tore o// t#eir c&ot#es an* co..an*e* t#e. to +e +eaten ?it# ro*s.
An* ?#en t#e! #a* &ai* .an! stries on t#e.B t#e! t#re? t#e. into risonB
co..an*ing t#e 8ai&er 3ee t#e. sec"re&!.AK an* 1 T#ess. ':' J=B"t e%en a/ter ?e
#a* s"//ere* +e/ore an* ?ere site/"&&! treate* at P#i&iiB as !o" 3no?B ?e ?ere
+o&* in o"r Go* to sea3 to !o" t#e gose& o/ Go* in s"c# con/&ict.AK.
'<. Pa"& an* Si&%an"s5 Letter to T#essa&onica
Acts recor*s t#at Si&asQSi&%an"s ?as a c&ose co.anion o/ Pa"& ?#o
.inistere* in an* s"//ere* ?it# t#e T#essa&onian C#"rc#B ?#ereas Pa"&5s t?o
&etters to t#e c#"rc# in T#essa&onica are t#e on&! ones t#at inc&"*e Si&asQSi&%an"s
as an a"t#or. Acts 1< V 1L an* 1 V ' T#ess.
'L. A>"i&aQPrisci&&a Connecte* ?it# Corint#
Bot# Acts an* 1 Corint#ians in*icate t#at A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a #a* an
i.ortant connection ?it# Corint#B an* #a* &i3e&! *?e&t t#ere at one ti.e.
Acts 17:14' J=A/ter t#isB Pa"& &e/t At#ens an* ?ent to Corint#. An* #e
/o"n* a certain :e? na.e* A>"i&aB +orn in Pont"sB ?#o #a* recent&! co.e /ro.
Ita&! ?it# #is ?i/e Prisci&&a J+eca"se C&a"*i"s #a* co..an*e* a&& t#e :e?s to
*eart /ro. Ro.eKI an* #e ca.e to t#e..AK an* 1 Cor. 1<:1H J=T#e c#"rc#es o/
Asia greet !o". A>"i&a an* Prisa greet !o" #earti&! in t#e Lor*B ?it# t#e c#"rc#
t#at is in t#eir #o"se.AK.
'7. Ti.ot#! Ret"rns to Pa"& in Corint#
Acts reorts t#at Ti.ot#! ret"rne* /ro. Nace*onia an* re8oine* Pa"& in
Corint#. T#is is con/ir.e* +! Pa"& in 1 T#ess.
Acts 17:1 J=A/ter t#ese t#ings Pa"& *earte* /ro. At#ens an* ?ent to
Corint#. . . . ,#en Si&as an* Ti.ot#! #a* co.e /ro. Nace*oniaB Pa"& ?as
constraine* +! t#e SiritB an* testi/ie* to t#e :e?s t#at :es"s is t#e C#rist.AK an* 1
T#ess. 3:< J=B"t no? t#at Ti.ot#! #as co.e to "s /ro. !o"B an* +ro"g#t "s goo*
ne?s o/ !o"r /ait# an* &o%eB an* t#at !o" a&?a!s #a%e goo* re.e.+rance o/ "sB
great&! *esiring to see "sB as ?e a&so to see !o". . . .AK.
'H. Si&as V Ti.ot#! ,it# Pa"& /or First Preac#ing in Corint#
23
Bot# Acts an* ' Corint#ians reort t#at Pa"& #a* t#e sa.e co.anions
?#en #e /irst reac#e* in Corint#. T#is is an i.ortant agree.ent gi%en t#at +ot#
Pa"&5s &etters an* Acts #a%e Pa"& ?or3ing ?it# a *i%erse n".+er o/ co.anions in
a *i%erse n".+er o/ &aces.
Acts 17:1 J=A/ter t#ese t#ings Pa"& *earte* /ro. At#ens an* ?ent to
Corint#. . . . ,#en Si&as an* Ti.ot#! #a* co.e /ro. Nace*oniaB Pa"& ?as
constraine* +! t#e SiritB an* testi/ie* to t#e :e?s t#at :es"s is t#e C#rist.AK an* '
Cor. 1:1H J=For t#e Son o/ Go*B :es"s C#ristB ?#o ?as reac#e* a.ong !o" +!
"s@+! .eB Si&%an"s an* Ti.ot#!@?as not (es an* NoB +"t in Hi. ?as (es.AK.
F"rt#er.oreB t#is is atteste* +! =i.&ication in 1 an* ' T#essa&oniansB since +ot#
are ?ritten as /ro. Pa"&B Si&%an"s an* Ti.ot#!.A
1)1

3). Cenc#rea V P#oe+e
Acts recor*s t#at Pa"& "n*er?ent a :e?is# rit"a& in Cenc#reaB ?#ereas
Ro.ans s"ggests t#at Pa"& in*ee* #a* a re&ations#i ?it# t#at cit! an* its
C#ristians. Acts 17:17 J=He #a* #is #air c"t o// at Cenc#reaB /or #e #a* ta3en a
%o?.AK an* Ro.. 1<:1 J=I co..en* to !o" P#oe+e o"r sisterB ?#o is a ser%ant o/
t#e c#"rc# in Cenc#rea. . . . =K.
Once againB t#e corre&ation is tangentia&B +"t rea&. It is not so.et#ing t#at
oints in an! ?a! to &iterar! *een*ence.
31. Pa"& Lea%es A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a in E#es"s
Acts5 reort t#at Pa"& &e/t Prisci&&a an* A>"i&a in E#es"s is con/ir.e* +! 1
Corint#iansB ?ritten /ro. E#es"sB ?#ic# reorts t#at A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a #oste* a
#o"se c#"rc# t#ere.
Acts 17:1H J=So Pa"& sti&& re.aine* a goo* ?#i&e. T#en #e too3 &ea%e o/ t#e
+ret#ren an* sai&e* /or S!riaB an* Prisci&&a an* A>"i&a ?ere ?it# #i.. He #a* #is
#air c"t o// at Cenc#reaB /or #e #a* ta3en a %o?. An* #e ca.e to E#es"sB an* &e/t
t#e. t#ereI +"t #e #i.se&/ entere* t#e s!nagog"e an* reasone* ?it# t#e :e?s.AK
an* 1 Cor. 1<:1H J=T#e c#"rc#es o/ Asia greet !o". A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a greet !o"
#earti&! in t#e Lor*B ?it# t#e c#"rc# t#at is in t#eir #o"se.AK.
3'. Ao&&osB A>"i&aB an* Prisci&&a
Pa"&5s re&ations#i ?it# Ao&&os is con/ir.e*B as ?e&& as Ao&&os5
re&ations#i ?it# Corint#.
1)1
0a%i* ,en#a.B GActs an* t#e Pa"&ine Cor"s II. Pa"&ine Para&&e&sBG in The
Boo of Acts in its Literary )ettin!B e*. Br"ce 0. ,interB An*re? 0. C&ar3eB age
'21.
22
Acts 17:'L J=No? a certain :e? na.e* Ao&&osB +orn at A&e-an*riaB an
e&o>"ent .an an* .ig#t! in t#e Scrit"reB ca.e to E#es"s. T#is .an #a* +een
instr"cte* in t#e ?a! o/ t#e Lor*I an* +eing /er%ent in siritB #e so3e an* ta"g#t
acc"rate&! t#e t#ings o/ t#e Lor*B t#o"g# #e 3ne? on&! t#e +atis. o/ :o#n. So #e
+egan to sea3 +o&*&! in t#e S!nagog"e. ,#en A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a #ear* #i.B
t#e! too3 #i. asi*e an* e-&aine* to #i. t#e ?a! o/ Go* .ore acc"rate&!. An*
?#en #e *esire* to cross to Ac#aiaB t#e +ret#ren ?roteB e-#orting t#e *isci&es to
recei%e #i. an* ?#en #e arri%e* great&! #e&e* t#ose ?#o +e&ie%e* t#ro"g# graceB
/or #e %igoro"s&! re/"te* t#e :e?s "+&ic&!B s#o?ing /ro. t#e Scrit"res t#at :es"s
is t#e C#rist.AK an* 1 Cor. 1:1' J=No? I sa! t#isB t#at eac# o/ !o" sa!sB DI a. o/
Pa"&B5 or DI a. o/ Ao&&os5 or DI a. o/ Ce#asB5 or DI a. o/ C#rist5=KI 3:< J=I
&ante*B Ao&&os ?atere*B +"t Go* ga%e t#e increaseAKI 2:< J=No? t#ese t#ingsB
+ret#renB I #a%e /ig"rati%e&! trans/erre* to .!se&/ an* Ao&&os /or !o"r sa3esB t#at
!o" .a! &earn in "s not to t#in3 +e!on* ?#at is ?rittenB t#at none o/ !o" .a! +e
"//e* " on +e#a&/ o/ one against t#e ot#erAK.
33. Sen*ing o/ Ti.ot#! an* Erast"s into Nace*onia
Co&in He.er e-&ains t#is corre&ation in%o&%ing t?o o/ Pa"&5s co.anionsB
Ti.ot#! an* Erast"s:
Pa"&5s sen*ing o/ Ti.ot#! an* Erast"s into Nace*onia is to +e
&ace* near t#e en* o/ #is E#esian resi*ence Jc. 1'411K. T#e
Corint#ian correson*ence gi%es e%i*ence /or a re%io"s %isit o/
Ti.ot#! to Corint# /ro. E#es"s J1 Cor. 2:1LI 1<:1)K an* a&so o/
Tit"s J' Cor. 7:<I 1':17K as ?e&& as t#e =ain/"&A %isit o/ Pa"& #i.se&/
J' Cor. ':1K. T#e resent .ission to Nace*onia is an a*%ance o/
Pa"&5s rogress t#ere to .eet Tit"s J' Cor. ':13KB /ro. ?#o. #e
an-io"s&! a?aite* ne?s in Corint#.
1)'
Acts 1H:'' ?it# 1 Cor. 2:1LI 1<:1)B ' Cor. ':13I 7:<I 1':17.
32. E#esian Riots
Acts reorts a riot concerning Pa"& in E#es"sB ?#ic# a&igns ?it# t#e
tri+"&ations Pa"&5s Corint#ian correson*ence .entions ?#i&e #e ?as in E#es"s.
Acts 1H:'3421 an* 1 Cor. 11:3' J=I/B in t#e .anner o/ .enB I #a%e /o"g#t
?it# +easts at E#es"sB ?#at a*%antage is it to .eCAK an* ' Cor. 1:741) J=For ?e
*o not ?ant !o" to +e ignorantB +ret#renB o/ o"r tro"+&e ?#ic# ca.e to "s in Asia:
t#at ?e ?ere +"r*ene* +e!on* .eas"reB a+o%e strengt#B so t#at ?e *esaire* e%en
o/ &i/e. (esB ?e #a* t#e sentence o/ *eat# in o"rse&%esB t#at ?e s#o"&* not tr"st in
1)'
He.erB op' cit'B age 177.
21
o"rse&%es +"t in Go* ?#o raises t#e *ea*B ?#o *e&i%ere* "s /ro. so great a *eat#B
an* *oes *e&i%er "sI in ?#o. ?e tr"st t#at He ?i&& sti&& *e&i%er "s.AK.
31. Aristarc#"sB T#essa&onian Co.anion o/ Pa"&
Acts seci/ica&&! .entions Aristarc#"s as a co.anion o/ Pa"& an*
i*enti/ies #i. as a T#essa&onian. Pa"&5s o?n correson*ence con/ir.s t#at #e #a*
a co.anion na.e* Aristarc#"s.
Acts 1H:'H J=So t#e ?#o&e cit! ?as /i&&e* ?it# con/"sion an* r"s#e* into
t#e t#eater ?it# one accor*B #a%ing seiMe* Gai"s an* Aristarc#"sB Nace*oniansB
Pa"&5s tra%e& co.anionsAKI '):2 J=An* Soater o/ Baroea acco.anie* #i. to
Asia@a&so Aristarc#"s an* Sec"n*"s o/ t#e T#essa&oniansB an* Gai"s o/ 0er+eB an*
Ti.ot#!B an* T!c#ic"s an* Tro#i."s o/ Asia.AKI 'L:' J=So entering a s#i o/
A*ra.!tti".B ?e "t to seaB .eaning to sai& a&ong t#e coasts o/ Asia. Aristarc#"sB
a Nace*onian o/ T#essa&onicaB ?as ?it# "sAK an* Co&. 2:1) J=Aristarc#"s .!
/e&&o? risoner greets !o"B ?it# Nar3 t#e co"sin o/ Barna+as Ja+o"t ?#o. !o"
recei%e* instr"ctions: i/ #e co.es to !o"B ?e&co.e #i.K.AK an* P&.. '2
J=Ea#rasB .! /e&&o? risoner in C#rist :es"sB greets !o"B as *o Nar3B
Aristarc#"sB 0e.asB L"3eB .! /e&&o? &a+orersAK.
3<. Tra%e& T#ro"g# Nace*onia
Acts '):1 an* ' Cor. ':1'413 *isc"ss Pa"&5s tra%e&s t#ro"g# Nace*oniaB
?#ic# is in accor* ?it# #is tra%e& &ans t#at ?ere &ai* o"t in Acts 1H:'1 an* 1 Cor.
1<:1.
Acts '):1 J=A/ter t#e "roar #a* cease*B Pa"& ca&&e* t#e *isci&es to #i.B
e.+race* t#e.B an* *earte* to go to Nace*onia.AK an* ' Cor. ':1'413
J=F"rt#er.oreB ?#en I ca.e to Troas to reac# C#rist5s gose&B an* a *oor ?as
oene* to .e +! t#e Lor*B I #a* no rest in .! siritB +eca"se I *i* not /in* Tit"s
.! +rot#erB +"t ta3ing .! &ea%e o/ t#e.B I *earte* /or Nace*onia.AK.
Acts 1H:'1 J=,#en t#ese t#ings ?ere acco.&is#e*B Pa"& "rose* in t#e
SiritB ?#en #e #a* asse* t#ro"g# Nace*onia an* Ac#aiaB to go to :er"sa&e.B
sa!ingB DA/ter I #a%e +een t#ereB I ."st a&so see Ro.e5AK an* 1 Cor. 1<:1 J=No? I
?i&& co.e to !o" ?#en I ass t#ro"g# Nace*onia J/or I a. assing t#ro"g#
Nace*oniaKAK.
3L. Pa"& Tra%e&s to Greece
Acts recor*s t#at Pa"& tra%e&e* /ro. Nace*onia to GreeceB 8"st as Pa"&
state* #is intentions ?ere in 1 Corint#ians.
Acts '):' J=No? ?#en #e #a* gone o%er t#at region an* enco"rage* t#e.
?it# .an! ?or*sB #e ca.e to Greece.AK an* 1 Cor. 1<:3 J=An* ?#en I co.eB
2<
?#o.e%er !o" aro%e +! !o"r &ettersB I ?i&& sen* to +ear !o"r gi/t to
:er"sa&e..AK.
37. Pa"&5s 0eart"re to :er"sa&e.
Acts recor*s t#at Pa"& tra%e&e* to Greece an* sent t#ree .ont#s t#ereB
?#ic# accor*s ?it# #is state* intention in ' Corint#ians to sen* t#e ?inter in
Corint#.
Acts '):3 J=He ca.e to GreeceB an* sta!e* t#ree .ont#s. An* ?#en t#e
:e?s &otte* against #i. as #e ?as a+o"t to sai& to S!riaB #e *eci*e* to ret"rn
t#ro"g# Nace*onia.AK an* 1 Cor. 1<:1 J=B"t I ?i&& co.e to !o" a/ter I go t#ro"g#
Nace*oniaB /or I a. going t#ro"g# Nace*oniaI an* er#as I ?i&& sta! ?it# !o"B
or e%en sen* t#e ?interB so t#at !o" .a! sen* .e on .! ?a! ?#ere%er I .a!
go.AK.
3H. SoatarQSosiater Jt#e Nace*onianK
Acts reorts t#at Soater o/ Beroea Ja Nace*onian cit!K tra%e&e* ?it# Pa"&.
T#is is con/ir.e* +! Pa"&5s o?n &etters ?#ic# reco"nt t#e resence o/ #is
co.anion Sosiater Ja .ore /or.a& %ersion o/ t#e na.eKB ?#o Pa"& a&so in*icates
is a Nace*onian.
Acts '):2 J=An* Soater o/ Barea acco.anie* #i. to Asia@a&so
Aristarc#"s an* Sec"n*"s o/ t#e T#essa&oniansB an* Gai"s o/ 0er+eB an* Ti.ot#!B
an* T!c#ic"s an* Tro#i."s o/ Asia.AK an* Ro.. 1<:'1 J=Ti.ot#!B .! /e&&o?
?or3erB an* L"ci"sB :asonB an* SosiaterB .! 3ins.enB greet !o".AK an* ' Cor. H:2
J=Lest i/ so.e Nace*onians co.e ?it# .e an* /in* !o" "nreare* ?e Jnot to
.ention !o"K s#o"&* +e as#a.e* o/ t#is con/i*ent +oasting.AK.
2). T!c#ic"sB Co.anion o/ Pa"&
Acts .entions T!c#ic"s as a co.anion o/ Pa"& ?#o ?as /ro. Asia an*
tra%e&e* ?it# #i. to Nace*onia. As *isc"sse* a+o%eB it a&so .entions Aristarc#"s
as a co.anion o/ Pa"& on t#e sa.e 8o"rne!B t#o"g# Aristarc#"s ?as /ro.
T#essa&onica. Pa"&5s &etters a&so *isc"ss a co.anion o/ Pa"& na.e* T!c#ic"s.
Acts '):2 J=EHFe *eci*e* to ret"rn t#ro"g# Nace*onia. An* Soater o/
Berea acco.anie* #i. to Asia@a&so Aristarc#"s an* Sec"n*"s o/ t#e
T#essa&oniansB an* Gai"s o/ 0er+eB an* Ti.ot#!B an* T!c#ic"s an* Tro#i."s o/
Asia.AK an* E#. <:'1 J=B"t t#at !o" a&so .a! 3no? .! a//airs an* #o? I a.
*oingB T!c#ic"sB a +e&o%e* +rot#er an* /ait#/"& .inister in t#e Lor*B ?i&& .a3e a&&
t#ings 3no?n to !o"I ?#o. I #a%e sent to !o" /or t#is %er! "rose. . .AK an* Co&.
2:L41) J=T!c#ic"sB ?#o is a +e&o%e* +rot#erB a /ait#/"& .inisterB an* a /e&&o?
ser%ant in t#e Lor*B ?i&& te&& !o" a&& t#e ne?s a+o"t .e. I a. sen*ing #i. to !o"
2L
/or t#is %er! "roseB t#at #e .a! 3no? !o"r circ".stances an* co./ort !o"r
#eartsB ?it# Onesi."sB a /ait#/"& an* +e&o%e* +rot#erB ?#o is one o/ !o".
Aristarc#"s .! /e&&o? risoner greets !o"B ?it# Nar3B t#e co"sin o/
Barna+as. . . .AK.
21. Ninistr! in Troas
Acts an* Pa"&5s &etters reort t#at #e .inistere* an* tra%e&e* t#ro"g# Troas.
Acts 1<:74HB '):<41' an* ' Cor. ':1'413.
2'. Pa"&5s S"//ering at E#es"s
Acts reorts t#at Pa"& s"//ere* ersec"tion in E#es"s. T#is is con/ir.e* +!
"n*is"te* Pa"&ines.
Acts '):1H J=An* ?#en t#e! #a* co.e to #i.B #e sai* to t#e.: D(o" 3no?B
/ro. t#e /irst *a! t#at I ca.e to AsiaB in ?#at .anner I a&?a!s &i%e* a.ong !o"B
ser%ing t#e Lor* ?it# a&& #".i&it!B ?it# .an! tears an* tria&s ?#ic# #aene* to
.e +! t#e &otting o/ t#e :e?s. . . .5AK an* 1 Cor. 11:3' J=I/B in t#e .anner o/ .enB
I #a%e /o"g#t ?it# +easts at E#es"sB ?#at a*%antage is it to .eC I/ t#e *ea* *o
not riseB DLet "s eat an* *rin3B /or to.orro? ?e *ie.5AK an* Ro.. H411.
23. Oonents Ar*ent /or t#e La?
Acts an* Ga&atians agree t#at t#ere ?ere .an! :e?is# C#ristians in
:er"sa&e. ?#o ?ere Mea&o"s /or t#e &a?.
Acts '1:') J=An* ?#en t#e! #ear* itB t#e! g&ori/ie* t#e Lor*. An* t#e! sai*
to #i.B D(o" seeB +rot#erB #o? .an! .!ria*s o/ :e?s t#ere are ?#o #a%e +e&ie%e*B
an* t#e! are a&& Mea&o"s /or t#e &a?I +"t t#e! #a%e +een in/or.e* a+o"t !o" t#at
!o" teac# a&& t#e :e?s ?#o are a.ong t#e Genti&es to /orsa3e NosesB sa!ing t#at
t#e! o"g#t not to circ".cise t#eir c#i&*ren nor to ?a&3 accor*ing to t#e c"sto.s.AK
an* Ga&atians.
22. Si&as V Ti.ot#! &e/t in Nace*onia
Acts reorts t#at on one o/ Pa"&5s 8o"rne!sB #e &e/t Ti.ot#! +e#in* ?#en #e
*earte* /ro. Nace*onia. T#is is con/ir.e* +! 1 T#ess.
Acts 1L:12411 J=T#en i..e*iate&! t#e +ret#ren sent Pa"& a?a!B to go to t#e
seaI +"t +ot# Si&as an* Ti.ot#! re.aine* t#ere.AK an* 1 T#ess. 3:14< J=T#ere/oreB
?#en ?e co"&* no &onger en*"re itB ?e t#o"g#t it goo* to +e &e/t in At#ens a&oneB
an* sent Ti.ot#!B o"r +rot#er an* .inister o/ Go*B an* o"r /e&&o? &a+orer in t#e
gose& o/ C#ristB to esta+&is# !o" an* enco"rage !o" concerning !o"r /ait#B t#at no
one s#o"&* +e s#a3en +! t#ese a//&ictionsI /or !o" !o"rse&%es 3no? t#at ?e are
27
aointe* to t#is. For in /act #e to&* !o" +e/ore ?#en ?e ?ere ?it# !o" t#at ?e
?o"&* s"//er tri+"&ationsB 8"st as it #aene*B an* !o" 3no?. For t#is reasonB ?#en
I co"&* no &onger en*"re itB I sent to 3no? !o"r /ait#B &est +! so.e .eans t#e
te.ter #a* te.te* !o"B an* o"r &a+or .ig#t +e in %ain. B"t no? t#at Ti.ot#!
#as ret"rne* to "s /ro. !o"B an* +ro"g#t "s goo* ne?s o/ !o"r /ait# an* &o%eB an*
t#at !o" a&?a!s #a%e goo* re.e.+rance o/ "sB great&! *esiring to see "sB as ?e
a&so to see !o".AK.
21. T#e Co&&ection /or t#e :e?is# C#"rc#
Pa"& tra%e&e* to :er"sa&e. to *e&i%er a gi/t to t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc#.
Acts '2:1L J=No? a/ter .an! !earsB I ca.e to +ring a&.s an* o//erings to
.! nation.AK an* 1 Cor. 1<:142 J=No? concerning t#e co&&ection /or t#e saintsB as I
#a%e gi%en or*ers to t#e c#"rc#es o/ Ga&atiaB so !o" ."st *o a&so. . . An* ?#en I
co.eB ?#o.e%er !o" aro%e +! !o"r &etters I ?i&& sen* to +ear !o"r gi/t to
:er"sa&e.. . . . =K an* ' Cor. 7:1B HB 1< J=Co&&ection /or t#e :"*ean SaintsAK
J=Noreo%er +ret#renB ?e .a3e 3no?n to !o" t#e grace o/ Go* +esto?e* on t#e
c#"rc#es o/ Nace*onia: . . . . T#e! ?ere /ree&! ?i&&ingB i.&oring "s ?it# ."c#
"rgenc! t#at ?e ?o"&* recei%e t#e gi/t an* t#e /e&&o?s#i o/ t#e .inistering o/ t#e
saints. . . . For !o" 3no? t#e grace o/ !o"r Lor* :es"s C#ristB t#at t#o"g# He ?as
ric#B !et /or !o"r sa3es He +eca.e oorB t#at !o" t#ro"g# His o%ert! .ig#t
+eco.e ric#AK an* Ro.. 11:'14'7 J=B"t no? I a. going to :er"sa&e. to .inister
to t#e saints. For it &ease* t#ose /ro. Nace*onia an* Ac#aia to .a3e a certain
contri+"tion /or t#e oor a.ong t#e saints ?#o are in :er"sa&e.. It &ease* t#e.
in*ee*B an* t#e! are t#eir *e+tors. For i/ t#e Genti&es #a%e +een arta3ers o/ t#eir
sirit"a& t#ingsB t#eir *"t! is a&so to .inister to t#e. in .ateria& t#ings. T#ere/oreB
?#en I #a%e er/or.e* t#is an* #a%e sea&e* to t#e. t#is /r"itB I s#a&& go +! ?a! o/
!o" to Sain.AK.
2<. T#e Ro"te Ta3en +! Pa"& to :er"sa&e.
T#e ro"te Pa"& ta3es to get to :er"sa&e. ?it# t#e co&&ection is t#e sa.e in
Acts an* #is &etters.
Acts 1H:'1J=,#en t#ese t#ings ?ere acco.&is#e*B Pa"& "rose* in t#e
SiritB ?#en #e #a* asse* t#ro"g# Nace*onia an* Ac#aiaB to go to :er"sa&e.AKI
'2:1L J=No? a/ter .an! !ears I ca.e to +ring a&.s an* o//ering to .! nationAK
an* 1 Cor. 1<:347 J=An* ?#en I co.eB ?#o.e%er !o" aro%e +! !o"r &etters I
?i&& sen* to +ear !o"r gi/t to :er"sa&e.. B"t i/ it is /itting t#at I go a&soB t#e! ?i&&
go ?it# .e. No? I ?i&& co.e to !o" ?#en I ass t#ro"g# Nace*onia J/or I a.
assing t#ro"g# Nace*oniaK. B"t it .a! +e t#at I ?i&& re.ainB or e%en sen* t#e
?inter ?it# !o"B t#at !o" .a! sen* .e on .! 8o"rne!B ?#ere%er I go. For I *o not
2H
?is# to see !o" no? on t#e ?a!I +"t I #oe to sta! a ?#i&e ?it# !o"B i/ t#e Lor*
er.its.AK an* ' Cor. 7B H.
2L. I.rison.ent in Ro.e
Acts recor*s Pa"&5s i.rison.ent in Ro.eB ?#ic# .atc#es t#e conte-t o/
t#e =cati%it! eist&esBA ?#ic# ?ere ?ritten ?#i&e Pa"& ?as in Ro.e.
Acts '7:3)431 J=T#en Pa"& *?e&t t?o ?#o&e !ears in #is o?n rente* #o"se
an* recei%e* a&& ?#o ca.e to #i.B reac#ing t#e 3ing*o. o/ Go* an* teac#ing t#e
t#ings ?#ic# concern t#e Lor* :es"s C#rist ?it# a&& con/i*enceB no one /or+i**ing
#i..AK. T#e "n*is"te* P#i&iians an* P#i&e.on con/ir. t#at Pa"& ?as
i.risone* in s"c# a ?a! t#at a&so a&&o?e* #i. so.e .eas"re o/ /ree*o.B to
?rite &etters /or e-a.&e. Co&ossiansB ta3en as a"t#entic +! ?#at is &i3e&! a
.a8orit! o/ Ne? Testa.ent sc#o&arsB an* E#esians a&so s"ort s"c# a
circ".stance.
27. Secia& In/&"ence o/ :a.es in :er"sa&e. C#"rc#
Acts an* Ga&atians agree t#at :a.es #a* secia& in/&"ence an* ?as a &ea*er
in t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc#. T#e! a&so s"ggest t#at #is in/&"ence ?as resecte*
+e!on* :er"sa&e.. Acts 11:13 an* Ga&. 1:1HI ':1'I 1 Cor. 11:L.
2H. T#essa&onian C#ristians Persec"te* +! O?n Co"ntr!.en
Acts reort o/ t#e C#ristian con%erts in T#essa&onica +eing ersec"te* +!
t#eir o?n co"ntr!.en is con/ir.e* +! 1 T#essa&onians. Acts 1L:14H an* 1 T#ess.
':12 J=For !o"B +ret#renB +eca.e i.itators o/ t#e c#"rc#es o/ Go* ?#ic# are in
:"*ea in C#rist :es"s. For !o" a&so s"//ere* t#e sa.e t#ings /ro. !o"r o?n
co"ntr!.enB 8"st as t#e! *i* /ro. t#e :e?s.AK.
1). Ta+&e4Fe&&o?s#i Contro%ers! in t#e Ear&! C#"rc#
T#e ear&! c#"rc# en*"re* contro%ersies o%er ta+&e4/e&&o?s#i @ ?#et#er
:e?is# C#ristians s#o"&* eat ?it# Genti&e C#ristians. Signi/icant&!B +ot# Acts an*
Ga&atians agree t#at Peter #a* re%io"s&! engage* in ta+&e4/e&&o?s#i ?it# Genti&e
C#ristians.
Acts 11:3 J=An* ?#en Peter ca.e " to :er"sa&e.B t#ose o/ t#e
circ".cision conten*e* ?it# #i.B sa!ingB D(o" ?ent in to "ncirc".cise* .en an*
ate ?it# t#e.. B"t Peter e-&aine* it to t#e. in or*er /ro. t#e +eginningAK an*
Ga&. ':11412 JPeter &ases after re%io"s&! engaging in ta+&e4/e&&o?s#i ?it#
Genti&e C#ristiansK.
1)
11. :er"sa&e. C#"rc# ,e&co.es C#ristian Genti&es
Acts an* Pa"& agree t#at Genti&es ?ere accete* +! t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc#
as C#ristians ?it#o"t /irst con%erting to :"*ais.. Ga&atians ' an* Acts 11.
1'. Pa"&5s Ninistr! in At#ens
Bot# Acts an* Pa"& .ention #is .inistr! in At#ensB t#o"g# neit#er in*icates
t#at #e #a* ."c# s"ccess t#ere. 1 T#ess. 3:1 J=T#ere/ore ?#en ?e co"&* en*"re it
no &ongerB ?e t#o"g#t it +est to +e &e/t +e#in* at At#ens a&oneAK an* Acts 1L:114''
J=No? t#ose ?#o escorte* Pa"& +ro"g#t #i. as /ar as At#ensI an* recei%ing a
co..an* /or Si&as an* Ti.ot#! to co.e to #i. as soon as ossi+&eB t#e! &e/t.
No? ?#i&e Pa"& ?as ?aiting /or t#e. at At#ensB #is sirit ?as +eing ro%o3e*
?it#in #i. as #e ?as o+ser%ing t#e cit! /"&& o/ i*o&s.

So #e ?as reasoning in t#e
s!nagog"e ?it# t#e :e?s an* t#e Go*4/earing Genti&esB an* in t#e .ar3et &ace
e%er! *a! ?it# t#ose ?#o #aene* to +e resent. An* a&so so.e o/ t#e Eic"rean
an* Stoic #i&oso#ers ?ere con%ersing ?it# #i.. So.e ?ere sa!ingB D,#at
?o"&* t#is i*&e +a++&er ?is# to sa!C5 Ot#ersB DHe see.s to +e a roc&ai.er o/
strange *eitiesB544 +eca"se #e ?as reac#ing :es"s an* t#e res"rrection. An* t#e!
too3 #i. an* +ro"g#t #i. to t#e Areoag"sB sa!ingB DNa! ?e 3no? ?#at t#is ne?
teac#ing is ?#ic# !o" are roc&ai.ingC

For !o" are +ringing so.e strange t#ings
to o"r earsI so ?e ?ant to 3no? ?#at t#ese t#ings .ean.5 JNo? a&& t#e At#enians
an* t#e strangers %isiting t#ere "se* to sen* t#eir ti.e in not#ing ot#er t#an
te&&ing or #earing so.et#ing ne?.K So Pa"& stoo* in t#e .i*st o/ t#e Areoag"s
an* sai*B DNen o/ At#ensB I o+ser%e t#at !o" are %er! re&igio"s in a&& resects.5AK.
13. E#esian Ninistr!
Acts reorts t#at Pa"& #a* a %er! s"ccess/"& .inistr! in E#es"s. Acts
1H:1) J=T#is too3 &ace /or t?o !earsB so t#at a&& ?#o &i%e* in Asia #ear* t#e ?or*
o/ t#e Lor*B +ot# :e?s an* Gree3s.AK. Pa"& con/ir.s t#is in #is o?n &etters. 1 Cor.
1<:74H J=B"t I ?i&& re.ain in E#es"s "nti& PentecostI

/or a ?i*e *oor /or e//ecti%e
ser%ice #as oene* to .eB an* t#ere are .an! a*%ersaries.AK.
12. Erast"sB t#e Cit! Treas"rer
Acts 3no?s t#at Erast"s ?as a co.anion o/ Pa"&. Acts 1H:'' J=An*
#a%ing sent into Nace*onia t?o o/ t#ose ?#o .inistere* to #i.B Ti.ot#! an*
Erast"sB #e #i.se&/ sta!e* in Asia /or a ?#i&eAK ?it# Ro.. 1<:'3 J=Gai"sB #ost to
.e an* to t#e ?#o&e c#"rc#B greets !o". Erast"sB t#e cit! treas"rer greets !o"B an*
;"art"sB t#e +rot#er.AK.
11. Conc&"sion
11
In s".B t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as /a.i&iar ?it# Pa"&5s .issionar! acti%ities
an* co4?or3ers. In*ee*B #e see.s to #a%e 3no?n >"ite a &ot a+o"t ?#at Pa"&
?as *oingB ?#ere #e ?as goingB an* ?#o #e ?as *oing it ?it#. As Co&in
He.er conc&"*esB =EtF#e a"t#or o/ Acts is not %ag"e&! /a.i&iar ?it# t#e stor! o/
Pa"&B +"t #as a consi*era+&e a.o"nt o/ *etai&e* 3no?&e*geB a+o"t Pa"&5s
8o"rne!sB t#e c#"rc#es t#at #e /o"n*e* an* t#e eo&e #e ?or3e* ?it#.A
1)3

B. Acts 0i* Not 6se Pa"&5s Letters as So"rce Nateria&
T#e re%io"s section raises t#e >"estion o/ ?#et#er t#e a"t#or o/ Acts re&ie*
on Pa"&5s &etters in ?riting #is narrati%e. 0esite Acts5 e-tensi%e 3no?&e*ge o/
in/or.ation a+o"t Pa"&5s .inistr!B t#e %ast .a8orit! o/ sc#o&ars /ro. *i%erse
+ac3gro"n*s conc&"*e t#at #e *i* not "se Pa"&5s &etters as so"rce .ateria&.
1)2
T#e
arg".ents s"orting t#is conc&"sion are ers"asi%e.
FirstB t#e .anner o/ t#e "rorte* "se o/ Pa"&5s &etters +! t#e a"t#or o/
Acts ?o"&* +e inconsistent ?it# #o? #e "ses so"rces e&se?#ere. ,e #a%e a
trac3 recor* to e-a.ine @ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e. As Pa"& Barnett re.ar3sB ?e
#a%e =an o+8ecti%e .eans +! ?#ic# ?e can .eas"re L"3e5s "se o/ te-ts t#at
?ere at #is *isosa&.A
1)1
T#e res"&tC In #is Gose&B t#e a"t#or o/ Acts /ait#/"&&!
"se* t#e re4e-isting so"rces o/ Nar3 an* ; Jor Natt#e?K. T#o"g# t#e a"t#or
ten*s to s.oot# o"t t#e Gree3 an* c&ari/! so.e t#ings /or #is a"*ienceB ?#en
?e co.are t#e Gose& o/ L"3e to its so"rcesB t#e re&iance is o+%io"s.
=E,F#en assages in L"3e are set a&ongsi*e assages /ro. Nar3B L"3e ro%es
to #a%e +een a so+er an* care/"& scri+e.A
1)<
F"rt#erB L"3e *oes not scatter #is
so"rces t#ro"g#o"t #is te-t. He rero*"ces t#e. in &arge c#"n3s. =L"3e #as
ten*e* to insert t#is .ateria& in +&oc3s t#at reser%e t#e se>"ences o/ #is
so"rce.A
1)L
Is t#is ractice #o? t#e a"t#or s"ose*&! "se* Pa"&5s &etters in
ActsC Not at a&&. Accor*ing&!B =in %ie? o/ t#e consi*era+&e e%i*ence t#at L"3e
an* Acts are t?o %o&".es o/ one ?or3B t#e +"r*en o/ roo/ ."st +e on t#ose
?#o ?ant to s"ggest t#at L"3e c#ose to *ea& ?it# #is so"rce .ateria& Jor &ac3
t#ereo/K in Acts signi/icant&! *i//erent&! t#an #e *i* in #is Gose&.A
1)7

1)3
I+id'B age '1<.
1)2
He.erB op' cit'B age 3LL JIt is G?i*e&! accete*A t#at Acts =+etra!s no
3no?&e*ge o/ t#e Pa"&ine Eist&esGK.
1)1
&es"s and the ,ise of Early *hristianityB age ')H.
1)<
I+id.
1)L
:o#n No&&an*B L"e ;.<=0>B at ---i.
1)7
Ben ,it#eringtonB =E*iting t#e Goo* Ne?sBA in (istory$ Literat"re and )ociety
in the Boo of ActsB e*. Ben ,it#eringtonB age 32<.
1'
Secon*B t#e a"t#or o/ Acts /ai&s to re/er to or e.#asiMe i.ortant e%ents
.entione* in Pa"&5s &etters t#at ?o"&* #a%e +een re&e%ant to #is o?n e//orts. As
L"3e T. :o#nson notesB =L"3e E*oesF not te&& "s a great *ea& t#at #e co"&* #a%e to&*
"s i/ #e ?ere "sing Pa"&5s &etters@a+o"t t#e Ga&atian .issionB /or e-a.&eB or t#e
Corint#ian contro%ersies.A
1)H
It co"&* +e arg"e* t#at so.e o/ t#e o.issions in Acts
are e-&aine* +! t#e a"t#or5s *esire to a%oi* "tting t#e ear&! c#"rc# in a +a*
&ig#t. A&t#o"g# at /irst g&ance t#is arg".ent see.s ers"asi%eB it is c&ear /ro. t#e
Gose& o/ L"3e t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts can narrate t#e /ai&ings o/ :es"s5 *isci&esB
inc&"*ing :"*as5 +etra!a&B Peter5s *enia&B t#e *isci&es5 s&eeing instea* o/ ra!ingB
an* t#eir *is+e&ie/ a+o"t t#e res"rrection c"&.inating in :es"s te&&ing t?o o/ #is
/o&&o?ers t#at =O /oo&is# .en an* s&o? o/ #eart to +e&ie%e in a&& t#at t#e ro#ets
#a%e so3enTA
Acts a&so narrates so.e "n/&attering e%ents in t#e ear&! C#"rc# @ s"c# asB
t#e contro%ers! o%er circ".cisionB Pa"&5s *isagree.ent ?it# Barna+as o%er t#e
*is.issa& o/ :o#n Nar3B t#e *eceit o/ Ananias an* Sa#iraB t#e *isagree.ent
+et?een t#e He&&enists an* t#e He+re?s a+o"t caring /or ?i*o?sB an* t#e origina&
/ear an* *istr"st o/ t#e :er"sa&e. C#ristians to?ar*s Pa"&. T#"sB t#e notion t#at
Acts so"g#t to ortra! ear&! C#ristianit! ?it#o"t +&e.is# is .ista3en. In an!
e%entB t#ere are re&e%ant +"t "ncontro%ersia& *etai&s in Pa"&5s &etters ?#ic# are not
rero*"ce* in Acts Js"c# as Pa"&5s .inistr! in Ara+ia an* t#at Pa"& ?as o/ t#e tri+e
o/ Ben8a.inK. Accor*ing&!B t#e a+sence /ro. Acts o/ re&e%ant in/or.ation /o"n*
in Pa"&5s &etters s"ggests t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts *i* not "se t#ose &etters as so"rce
.ateria&.
T#ir*B on oints ?#ere Pa"&5s &etters an* Acts see. to o%er&aB t#ere are
*i//erences t#at rec&"*e &iterar! *een*ence. As state* +! Pro/. :o#nsonB =in t#e
&aces o/ o%er&a t#ere are so .an! oints o/ *iscreanc! t#at t#e #!ot#esis o/
in*een*ent in/or.ation rat#er t#an o/ &iterar! *een*ence see.s .ore &i3e&!.A
11)

Seci/ic e-a.&es are *isc"sse* +e&o? ?it# re/erences to t#e oints o/ agree.ent
note* a+o%e:
Z Regar*ing No. 1)B Acts attri+"tes t#e "rs"it o/ Pa"& in 0a.asc"s to
:e?is# &ea*ersB ?#ereas Pa"& .entions on&! 9ing Aretas.
Z Regar*ing No. 11B t#e *i//erences in Pa"&5s *escrition o/ #is
.eeting ?it# Pa"& an* :a.es in*icate t#at it is not a &iterar! so"rce
/or Acts5 *escrition o/ Pa"&5s /irst ost4con%ersion :er"sa&e. %isit.
Z Regar*ing No. 1'B Pa"& re/ers seci/ica&&! to Caesarea an* Tars"sB
?#ereas Ga&atians .ore +roa*&! .entions S!ria an* Ci&icia.
Z Regar*ing No. '7B Acts "ses t#e na.e =Prisci&&aA ?#ereas Pa"& "ses
t#e .ore /or.a& =Prisca.A
1)H
:o#nsonB The Acts of the ApostlesB ages 241.
11)
Id'
13
Z Regar*ing No. 3)B Acts5 "se o/ t#e ter. =Si&asA instea* o/
=Si&%an"sA in*icates t#at Pa"&5s &etters ?ere not t#e so"rce /or t#is
in/or.ation. Si&%an"s ?as i*enti/ie* +! t#at na.e in ' Corint#iansB
1 T#ess.B an* ' T#ess.
Z Regar*ing No. 2)B Acts "ses t#e &ess /or.a& =SoaterA ?#ereas Pa"&
"ses t#e /or.a& =Sosiater.A A&soB Pa"& re/ers to one o/ #is
co.anions +eing a Nace*onian ?#ereas Acts seci/ica&&! .entions
t#at co.anion +eing /ro. a cit! in Nace*onia.
Z Regar*ing No. 2<B t#e co&&ection /or t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc# &a!s a
.ore i.ortant art in Pa"&5s &etters t#an it *oes in Acts. Pa"&
.entions it in #is .ost in/&"entia& &ettersB inc&"*ing Ro.ans an* 1
Corint#ians. Acts on&! #as Pa"& .ention it in assing.
Z Regar*ing No. 11B Acts o.its re/erence to Erast"s as t#e cit!
treas"rer Jas #e is i*enti/ie* +! Pa"&K. T#is is note?ort#! gi%en
L"3e5s attention to tit&es e&se?#ere.

Fina&&!B an* er#as .ost i.ortantB t#e &ing"istic e%i*ence is *eci*e*&!
against an! re&iance +! Acts on Pa"&5s &etters. :o#n 9no-B ?#o #a* a strong
.oti%e to /in* e%i*ence o/ L"3an *een*ence on Pa"&5s &ettersB conce*es t#at t#ere
is none:
As a .atter o/ /actB in t#e a+sence o/ a*e>"ate e%i*ence o/ %er+a&
*een*ence Jan* t#isB it ?i&& +e agree*B ?e *o not #a%e in t#e case o/
ActsKB can t#ere e%er +eB in a sit"ation &i3e t#isB an! certaint! o/
*een*enc! at a&&C In*ee*B t#e &ac3 o/ %er+a& con/or.it! .a! #a%e
t#e e//ect o/ re%ersing t#e arg".ent. Can it +e s"ose* t#at L"3e
"se* t#e &etters o/ Pa"& as so"rces /or /acts or *ata +"t s"ccee*e* in
a%oi*ing Jor ?o"&* e%en #a%e trie* to a%oi*TK an! trace o/ t#eir
act"a& &ang"ageC In a ?or*B so i.ortant is %er+a& re.iniscence t#at
one is a&.ost 8"sti/ie* in sa!ing t#at in t#e a+sence o/ it e%er!
ossi+&e iece o/ e%i*ence o/ L"3e5s #a%ing "se* t#e &etters
increases t#e ro+a+i&it! t#at #e *i* not "se t#e.. T#e citing o/
e%i*enceB t#ere/oreB ten*s to *e/eat itse&/ an* to oint .ore an* .ore
to t#e conc&"sion t#at L"3e got #is *ata on Pa"&5s &i/e an* teac#ing
/ro. ot#er so"rces. . . . .
So /ar as t#e e%i*ence goesB t#enB I s#o"&* sa! t#at no con%incing
case can +e .a*e /or L"3e5s re&iance on t#e &etters o/ Pa"& or /or #is
3no?&e*ge o/ t#e. at a&&.
111
111
:o#n 9no-B GActs an* t#e Pa"&ine Letter Cor"sBG in )t"dies in L"e.ActsB e*.
Lean*er 9ec3B age '7'.
12
T#e e%i*ence *e.onstrates t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts *i* not "se Pa"&5s &etters
as so"rce .ateria& /or #is narrati%e. T#e i.&ications o/ t#is are signi/icant. It
*e.an*s a *i//erent e-&anation /or L"3e5s e-tensi%e an* acc"rate 3no?&e*ge
a+o"t t#e &i/e o/ Pa"&. L"3e #a* an incre*i+&e a.o"nt o/ in*een*ent +"t acc"rate
in/or.ation a+o"t ear&! C#ristianit!. F"rt#er.oreB t#e s"+8ects "on ?#ic# t#e
Pa"&ine cor"s an* Acts agree .a! +e *ee.e* a&& t#e .ore re&ia+&e. =I/ t?o
in*een*ent&! create* so"rces agree on a .atterB t#e re&ia+i&it! o/ eac# is
.eas"ra+&! en#ance*.A
11'

!III. Conc#usion
Ha%ing re%ie?e* Acts5 acc"rac! on %arie* s"+8ectsB ?e can no? 8"*ge ?#at
3in* o/ #istorian is its a"t#or. T#e e%i*ence s"ggests t#at ?e s#o"&* co.e to t#e
sa.e conc&"sion as Pro/. :o#nson:
Ho? re&ia+&e is L"3e as a #istorianC Ta3ing into acco"nt #is /i*e&it!
to t#e one so"rce ?e can c#ec3B #is genera& acc"rac! in .atters ?e
3no? a+o"t /ro. arc#aeo&ogica& or *oc".entar! so"rcesB an* t#e
o%era&& agree.ent +et?een #is *escrition o/ Pa"&5s .o%e.ents an*
t#e *escritions in t#e Pa"&ine &ettersB ?e conc&"*e t#at L"3e is
acc"rate in ?#at #e te&&s "s.
113
T#is is t#e sa.e conc&"sion as c&assica& #istorian A.N. S#er?in4,#ite:
=EAFn! atte.t to re8ect EActs5F +asic #istoricit! e%en in .atters o/ *etai& ."st
no? aear a+s"r*. Ro.an #istorians #a%e &ong ta3en it /or grante*.A
112
T#e
con/ir.e* acc"rac! o/ Acts on so .an! *etai&s is not ?it#o"t signi/icance /or
t#ose *etai&s /or ?#ic# ?e #a%e no in*een*ent e%i*ence. P"rs"ant to t#e &ong4
stan*ing .a-i. o/ t#e st"*! o/ #istor!B =EtF#e so"rce ?#ose acco"nt can +e
con/ir.e* +! re/erence to o"tsi*e a"t#orities in so.e o/ its arts can +e tr"ste* in
its entiret! i/ it is i.ossi+&e si.i&ar&! to con/ir. t#e entire te-t.A
111

CHAPTER 0: THE 1ATE OF THE ACTS OF THE APOST'ES
T#e >"estion o/ ?#en Acts ?as ?ritten #as /o"n* .an! ans?ers. On t#e
ear&! en* are t#ose ?#o *ate Acts to t#e ear&!4to4.i* <)s A0 +eca"se o/ t#e
a+r"t en*ing an* ot#er in*ications. On t#e &ate en* are t#ose ?#o *o not *ate
11'
Nart#a Ho?e&& an* ,a&ter Pre%enierB #rom ,elia+le )o"rce$ An Introd"ction to
(istorical 1ethodsB age L).
113
:o#nsonB The New Testament Writin!sB age ')1.
112
S#er?in4,#iteB op' cit'B age 17H.
111
Ho?e&& an* Pre%enierB op' cit'B age L).
11
Acts "nti& t#e ear&iest e-&icit re/erence to it &ater in t#e secon* cent"r!. T#e
e%i*enceB ta3en as a ?#o&eB s"orts a *ate so.e?#ere +et?een <' an* H) A.0.
I. A##usions to 'u2e3Acts
T#e ear&iest Acts co"&* #a%e +een ?ritten is esta+&is#e* +! t#e e%ents it
.entions. T#e narrati%e en*s ?it# Pa"& a&i%e in Ro.an c"sto*!. T#is &aces t#e
ear&iest ossi+&e *ate o/ a"t#ors#i aro"n* <' A0. As *isc"sse* +e&o?B t#e &atest
ossi+&e *ate is set +! t#e "se o/ Acts +! ot#er C#ristian a"t#ors. A&&"sions an*
re/erences to L"3e are a&so re&e%ant. T#ese attestations *e.onstrate t#at Acts
co"&* not #a%e +een ?ritten an! &ater t#an 1') A0.
A. Possi+&e Ear&! A&&"sions
T#ere are ossi+&e a&&"sions to t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es in 1 C&e.ent ':1B
J=gi%ing .ore g&a*&! t#an recei%ingAKB ?it# Acts '):31I 1 C&e.. ':' J=o"ring o"t
o/ t#e SiritAK ?it# Acts ':1LI Ignati"s5 Nagn. 1:1 J=to go *o?n to #is o?n &aceAK
?it# Acts 1:'1I S.!rn. 3:3 J:es"s =eating an* *rin3ingA ?it# #is *isci&es a/ter t#e
res"rrectionK ?it# Acts 1):2I Barna+as an* t#e 0i*ac#e JBarn. 1H:7 an* 0i*. 2:7B
=!o" s#a&& not sa! an!t#ing is !o"r o?nAK ?it# Acts 2:3'I an*B Po&!car J':1B
=8"*ge o/ t#e &i%ing an* t#e *ea*AK ?it# Acts 1):2'. T#ese si.i&aritiesB #o?e%erB
are on&! s"ggesti%e. So.e are not s"//icient&! *istinct an* ot#ers .a! +e trace* to
tra*itions co..on a.ong t#e c#"rc#es in*een*ent o/ t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es.
B. ' C&e.ent
' C&e.ent ?as &i3e&! ?ritten +et?een 1') an* 12) A0.
11<
It is not a &etterB
+"t a ser.on. T#e a"t#or o/ ' C&e.ent s#o?s #i.se&/ /a.i&iar ?it# t#e Gose& o/
L"3e.
11L

Co.are:
' C&e.ent 2:1: =An* it is not /itting t#at ?e s#o"&* /ear .enB +"t rat#er
Go*. For t#is reasonB i/ ?e s#o"&* *o s"c# E?ic3e*F t#ingsB t#e Lor* #at# sai*B
=E%en t#o"g# !e ?ere gat#ere* toget#er to .e in .! %er! +oso.B !et i/ !e ?ere
not to 3ee .! co..an*.entsB I ?o"&* cast !o" o//B an* sa! "nto !o"B 0eart
/ro. .eI I 3no? !o" not ?#ence !e areB !e ?or3ers o/ ini>"it!.A
?it#B
11<
C&a!ton N. :e//or*B ,eadin! the Apostolic #athersB age 1''.
11L
:e//or*B op' cit'B age 1'3.
1<
L"3e 13:'<4'L: =T#en !o" ?i&& +egin to sa!B D,e ate an* *ran3 in (o"r
resenceB an* (o" ta"g#t in o"r streets5I an* He ?i&& sa!B DI te&& !o"B I *o not 3no?
?#ere !o" are /ro.I *eart /ro. .eB a&& !o" e%i&*oers.5
Co.are:
' C&e. <:1: =B"t t#e Lor* sait#B No ser%ant can ser%e t?o .asters. I/ ?e
*esire to ser%e +ot# Go* an* .a..onB it is "nro/ita+&e /or "sA
?it#B
L"3e 1<:13: =No ser%ant can ser%e t?o .asters /or eit#er #e ?i&& #ate t#e
one an* &o%e t#e ot#erB or e&se #e ?i&& +e *e%ote* to one an* *esise t#e ot#er. (o"
cannot ser%e Go* an* ?ea&t#.A
Co.are:
' C&e.ent 13:2: =ForB ?#ene%er t#e! #ear /ro. "s t#at Go* sait#B =No
t#an3 #a%e !eB i/ !e &o%e t#e. ?#ic# &o%e !o"B +"t !e #a%e t#an3B i/ !e &o%e !o"r
ene.ies an* t#e. ?#ic# #ate !o"A @ ?#ene%er t#e! #ear t#ese ?or*sB t#e! .ar%e&
at t#e s"rassing .eas"re o/ t#eir goo*nessI +"t ?#en t#e! seeB t#at not on&! *o
?e not &o%e t#ose ?#o #ateB +"t t#at ?e &o%e not e%en t#ose ?#o &o%eB t#e! &a"g#
"s to scornB an* t#e na.e is +&as#e.e*.A
?it#B
L"3e <:3': =I/ !o" &o%e t#ose ?#o &o%e !o"B ?#at cre*it is that to !o"C For
e%en sinners &o%e t#ose ?#o &o%e t#en. . . . B"t &o%e !o"r ene.iesB an* *o goo*B
an* &en*B e-ecting not#ing in ret"rnI an* !o"r re?ar* ?i&& +e greatB an* !o" ?i&&
+e sons o/ t#e Nost Hig#I /or He Hi.se&/ is 3in* to "ngrate/"& an* e%i& men.A
Nota+&!B t#e #raseB =Go* sait#A is a co..on #rase "se* to re/er to t#e
citation o/ scrit"reB not ora& tra*ition. T#is in*icates a ?ritten so"rce.
117
T#o"g#
t?o o/ t#e t#ree assages are co..on to Natt#e? an* L"3eB ' C&e.ent /o&&o?s
t#e L"3an %ersion. L"3e 1<:13 is /ro. t#e secia& L"3an .ateria&B ?it# no 3no?n
co"nterart. T#e case /or *een*ence on t#e Gose& o/ L"3eB t#ere/oreB is
ers"asi%e. An*B gi%en co..on a"t#ors#iB Acts ?o"&* not +e too /ar re.o%e* in
ti.e. T#is is esecia&&! tr"e i/B as see.s &i3e&!B L"3e ?as ?ritten ?it# Acts in
.in*. In ot#er ?or*sB t#e! are one &iterar! "nit.
11H
117
E. Ear&e E&&isB The Gospel of L"eB age 3H.
11H
I *isc"ss t#e "nit! o/ L"3e4Acts in a ost on .! +&ogB
#tt:QQc#ristianca*re.+&ogsot.co.Q'))1Q)2Q"nit!4o/4&"3e4acts4.o*ern4
sc#o&ars#i.#t.&.
1L
C. :"stin Nart!r
:"stin Nart!r ?rote se%era& ao&ogetic ?or3s. Nost re&e%ant #ere is #is
#irst Apolo!yB ?ritten no &ater t#an 111 A0. T#ereinB #e ara#rases an* a&&"*es
to t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es.
1')

FirstB Acts 1:14H is ara#rase* +! Nart!r in #irst Apolo!y 1).1'.
Co.are:
T#e /irst acco"nt I co.ose*B T#eo#i&"sB a+o"t a&& t#at :es"s +egan
to *o an* teac#B "nti& t#e *a! ?#en He ?as ta3en " to #ea%enB a/ter
He #a* +! t#e Ho&! Sirit gi%en or*ers to t#e aost&es ?#o. He #a*
c#osen.

To t#ese He a&so resente* Hi.se&/ a&i%e a/ter His s"//eringB
+! .an! con%incing roo/sB aearing to t#e. o%er a erio* o/ /ort!
*a!s an* sea3ing o/ t#e t#ings concerning t#e 3ing*o. o/ Go*.
Gat#ering t#e. toget#erB He co..an*e* t#e. not to &ea%e
:er"sa&e.B +"t to ?ait /or ?#at t#e Fat#er #a* ro.ise*B =,#ic#BA
He sai*B =!o" #ear* o/ /ro. NeI /or :o#n +atiMe* ?it# ?aterB +"t
!o" ?i&& +e +atiMe* ?it# t#e Ho&! Sirit not .an! *a!s /ro. no?.A

So ?#en t#e! #a* co.e toget#erB t#e! ?ere as3ing Hi.B sa!ingB
=Lor*B is it at t#is ti.e (o" are restoring t#e 3ing*o. to Israe&CA

He
sai* to t#e.B =It is not /or !o" to 3no? ti.es or eoc#s ?#ic# t#e
Fat#er #as /i-e* +! His o?n a"t#orit!I +"t !o" ?i&& recei%e o?er
?#en t#e Ho&! Sirit #as co.e "on !o"I an* !o" s#a&& +e N!
?itnesses +ot# in :er"sa&e.B an* in a&& :"*ea an* Sa.ariaB an* e%en
to t#e re.otest art o/ t#e eart#.A An* a/ter He #a* sai* t#ese
t#ingsB He ?as &i/te* " ?#i&e t#e! ?ere &oo3ing onB an* a c&o"*
recei%e* Hi. o"t o/ t#eir sig#t.
Acts 1:14H.
?it#B
EAF/ter?ar*sB ?#en He #a* risen /ro. t#e *ea* an* aeare* to
t#e.B an* #a* ta"g#t t#e. to rea* t#e ro#ecies in ?#ic# a&& t#ese
t#ings ?ere /oreto&* as co.ing to assB an* ?#en t#e! #a* seen Hi.
ascen*ing into #ea%enB an* #a* +e&ie%e*B an* #a* recei%e* o?er
1')
T#e notion t#at Acts is *een*ent on :"stin Nart!r #as +een a*%ance* +! :.C.
O5Nei&&B +"t #is t#eor! #as not recei%e* accetance /ro. ot#er sc#o&ars.
17
sent t#ence +! Hi. "on t#e.B an* ?ent to e%er! race o/ .enB t#e!
ta"g#t t#ese t#ingsB an* ?ere ca&&e* aost&es.
First Ao&og! 1).1'.
Secon*B in First Ao&og! 3H.3B Nart!r re/ers to t#e aost&es as =i&&iterateB o/
no a+i&it! in sea3ingBA ?#ic# is si.i&ar to Acts5 *escrition o/ Peter an* :o#n at
2:13. T#e *escrition is "ni>"e an* +ot# "se t#e Gree3 ter. idiotes in t#eir
*escrition.
T#ir*B in #is Secon* Ao&og!B Nart!r .a! *e.onstrate an a?areness o/
Pa"&5s Areoag"s seec# an* #is re/erences to =t#e "n3no?n Go*A JActs 1L:'3K.
He too is a?are o/ t#e tri+"te ai* +! t#e Gree3s to a Go* ?#o is not 3no?n to
t#e.. Ho?e%erB Nart!r *oes not e-&icit&! associate t#is ?it# Pa"&5s seec#. T#e
"sage isB t#ere/oreB inconc&"si%e.
Fo"rt#B First Ao&og! 1).1 J=Go* *oes not nee* t#e .ateria& o//erings
?#ic# .en can gi%eB seeingB in*ee*B t#at He Hi.se&/ is t#e ro%i*er o/ a&& t#ings.AK
aears to +e +ase* on Acts 1L:'1 J=nor is He ser%e* +! #".an #an*sB as t#o"g#
He nee*e* an!t#ingB since He Hi.se&/ gi%es to a&& eo&e &i/e an* +reat# an* a&&
t#ingsAK.
T#e /irstB secon*B an* /o"rt# a&&"sions co.+ine* ers"asi%e&! *e.onstrate
:"stin Nart!r5s a?areness o/ Acts aro"n* 111 A0. ,#ereas Gose&4&i3e tra*itions
con%e!ing sa!ings or *ee*s o/ :es"s .ig#t sti&& +e tric3&ing *o?n t#ro"g# t#e
c#"rc#es %ia ora& tra*itionB e%i*ence o/ co.ara+&e in*een*ent tra*itions o/ ear&!
C#ristian #istor! is &ess aarent. It see.s "n&i3e&! s"c# ?as t#e case ?it# .ost
o/ t#e .ateria& in Acts. T#ere/oreB t#e si.i&arities +et?een :"stin Nart!r5s #irst
Apolo!y an* Acts is ro+a+&! t#e res"&t o/ Nart!r5s *een*ence on Acts.
0. Narcion
Narcion ?as a #eretic o/ t#e ear&! C#"rc#. In anot#er artic&e I ro%i*e
a**itiona& +ac3gro"n* o/ #is ?ritings an* signi/icance to ear&! C#ristian #istor!.
1'1
Aro"n* 13) A0B #e "se* a %ersion o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e t#at #e #a* ?#itt&e*
*o?n to #is &i3ing. T#is not on&! *e.onstrates t#e e-istence o/ t#e Gose& o/
L"3eB +"t in*icates t#e e-istence o/ t?o tra*itions +! t#at ti.e @ Narcion5s an* t#e
=ort#o*o-A %ersion. Gi%en Narcion5s re?or3ing o/ an e-isting %ersion o/ L"3eB it
."st #a%e +een ear&ier t#an 13) A0.
E. Conc&"sion
1'1
C#risto#er PriceB =NarcionB t#e CanonB t#e La?B an* t#e Historica& :es"sBA
#tt:QQ???.c#ristianorigins.co.Q.arcion.#t.&B accesse* on Ari& '2B '))1.
1H
A&t#o"g# :"stin Nart!r5s "se o/ Acts is #e&/"&B t#e .ost re&e%ant .ateria&
/or *ating Acts is ' C&e.ent an* Narcion. ' C&e.ent co"&* +e *ate* as ear&! as
1') A0. Narcion ."st #a%e "se* an e-isting %ersion o/ t#e Gose& already
esta+lished in the early ch"rches +! 13) A0. T#"sB a &ast ossi+&e *ate o/ 1') A0
is t#e .ost reasona+&e conc&"sion +ase* on t#e ear&iest e-terna& re/erences to
L"3e4Acts.
II. Pau#4s 'etters *i(esprea( )y the Secon( Century
B! t#e secon* cent"r!B Pa"&5s &etters #a* +een circ"&ate* a.ong
geogra#ica&&! *i%erse c#"rc#es. Not on&! is t#is re&e%ant to "n*erstan*ing Acts5
re&ations#i to Pa"&B it goes /ar in re+"tting t#e a&rea*! .argina& t#eor! t#at Acts @
as an ort#o*o- resonse to Narcion @ ?o"&* #a%e +een a/rai* to "se Pa"&5s &etters.
Certain&!B ot#er ort#o*o- C#ristian ?riters in t#e &ate /irst cent"r! an* ear&!
secon* cent"r! #a* no s"c# /ear @ t#e! "se* Pa"&5s &etters to a great e-tent.
Fina&&!B t#e a%ai&a+i&it! an* i.ortance o/ t#e Pa"&ine canon +! t#e secon* cent"r!
is re&e%ant to *ating Acts.
A. A&&"sions an* Citations +! Ear&! C#ristian ,riters
,#en *eter.ining ?#et#er an ear&! C#ristian ?riter re/erre* to one o/
Pa"&5s &ettersB ?e are on easier gro"n* t#an #"nting /or a&&"sions to t#e gose&s.
For .ost o/ Pa"&5s &ettersB it is "n*is"te* t#at t#e! ?ere ?ritten aro"n* t#e .i*4
/irst cent"r!. T#"sB t#ere is no *o"+t o/ t#eir e-istence an* it ren*ers irre&e%ant t#e
c&assic =c#ic3en4eggB ?#ic# ca.e /irstCA con"n*r".. F"rt#er.oreB t#o"g# t#ere
&i3e&! ?as an =ora& tra*itionA #ase o/ gose& .ateria& rior to t#eir +eing ?ritten
*o?nB t#e sa.e is "n&i3e&! /or Pa"&5s &etters. T#o"g# Pa"& "n*o"+te*&! "ses so.e
tra*itionsB +! /ar .ost o/ #is &etters ?ere /ree #an* ?ritings in resonse to seci/ic
sit"ations as t#e! arose a.ong t#e c#"rc#es. As a res"&tB it is &ess &i3e&! t#at
corre&ations are t#e res"&t o/ co..on ora& tra*ition. Fina&&!B e-&icit attri+"tion
?as not a reg"&ar ractice a.ong t#e Aosto&ic Fat#ers. ,e 3no? /ro. t#eir "se
o/ t#e O&* Testa.ent t#at t#e! ?o"&* o/ten ti.es >"ote or a&&"*e to a ?ritten
so"rce ?it#o"t i*enti/!ing ?#at t#e so"rce ?as or e%en t#at t#ere ?as a so"rce.
1. 1 C&e.ent JH1 A0K
Origin: Ro.e
0estination: Corint#
Letters Cite*: 1 Corint#iansB ' Corint#iansB Ga&atiansB an* Ro.ans
1 C&e.entB ?ritten +! a &ea*er Jor &ea*ersK in t#e Ro.an c#"rc# to t#e
Corint#ian c#"rc#B e-&icit&! re/ers to an* >"otes 1 Corint#iansB an* >"otes '
Corint#iansB Ga&atians an* Ro.ans. T#at t#e a"t#or o/ 1 C&e.ent is /a.i&iar ?it#
<)
Ro.ans is "ns"rrising. A/ter a&&B Pa"& ?rote t#at &etter to t#e Ro.an c#"rc#. B"t
3no?&e*ge o/ t#e &etters to t#e Corint#ians an* t#e Ga&atians is >"ite in/or.ati%e
+eca"se t#ose &etters ?ere not associate* ?it# Ro.e. Pa"& ?rote 1 Corint#ians
/ro. E#es"s J1 Cor. 1<:7K. A&t#o"g# Ga&atians is not so e-&icitB no t#eor! o/ its
origins attri+"tes its ro%ince to Ro.e. SoB at t#e %er! &eastB t#e /irst eist&e to t#e
Corint#ians an* t#e eist&e to t#e Ga&atians #a* circ"&ate* +e!on* t#eir c#"rc#es
o/ origin an* t#e c#"rc#es o/ t#eir *estination +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst cent"r!. It
a&so aears t#at C&e.ent res".es t#at t#e Corint#ians 3no? Pa"&5s Eist&e to t#e
Ro.ansB in*icating t#at it #a* circ"&ate* +e!on* its ro%ince. Fina&&!B t#e a"t#or5s
re&iance on 1 Corint#ians to #e& reso&%e a *is"te *e.onstrates t#e #ig# regar* in
?#ic# it ?as #e&*.
a. Citation o/ 1 Corint#ians
As in*icate* a+o%eB t#e a"t#or o/ C&e.ent e-&icit&! re/ers to one o/ Pa"&5s
&etters to t#e Corint#ians. ,#ic# &etter to t#e Corint#ians is .a*e c&ear +! #is
>"ote /ro. 1 Corint#ians ?#en e.#asiMing #is oint a+o"t a%oi*ing *i%ision in
t#e c#"rc#.
Ta3e " t#e eist&e o/ t#e +&esse* Pa"& t#e Aost&e. ,#at ?rote #e
/irst "nto !o" in t#e +eginning o/ t#e Gose&C O/ a tr"t# #e c#arge*
!o" in t#e Sirit concernin! himself and *ephas and Apollos$
+eca"se that even then ye had made parties. (et t#at .a3ing o/
arties +ro"g#t &ess sin "on !o"I /or !e ?ere artisans o/ Aost&es
t#at ?ere #ig#&! re"te*B an* o/ a .an aro%e* in t#eir sig#t.
1 C&e.ent 2L.
No? I .ean t#isB t#at eac# one o/ !o" is sa!ingB ?I am of Pa"l$2
and ?I of Apollos$2 and ?I of *ephas$2 and ?I of *hrist'2 Has
C#rist +een *i%i*e*C Pa"& ?as not cr"ci/ie* /or !o"B ?as #eC Or
?ere !o" +atiMe* in t#e na.e o/ Pa"&C I t#an3 Go* t#at I +atiMe*
none o/ !o" e-cet Cris"s an* Gai"sB so t#at no one ?o"&* sa! !o"
?ere +atiMe* in .! na.e.
1 Cor. 1:1'411.
+. Citation o/ ' Corint#ians
1 C&e.ent s#o?s /a.i&iarit! ?it# Pa"&5s reco"nting o/ #is tra%ai&s in '
Corint#ians.
O?ing to en%!B Pa"& a&so o+taine* t#e re?ar* o/ atient en*"ranceB
a/ter +eing se%en ti.es t#ro?n into cati%it!B co.e&&e* to /&eeB an*
stone*.
<1
1 C&e.ent 1:<.
Are t#e! ser%ants o/ C#ristC @ I sea3 as i/ insane @ I .ore soI in /ar
.ore &a+orsB in /ar .ore i.rison.entsB +eaten ti.es ?it#o"t
n".+erB o/ten in *anger o/ *eat#. Fi%e ti.es I recei%e* /ro. t#e
:e?s t#irt!4nine lashes. T#ree ti.es I ?as +eaten ?it# ro*sB once I
?as stone*B t#ree ti.es I ?as s#i?rec3e*B a nig#t an* a *a! I #a%e
sent in t#e *ee.
' Cor. 11:'34'1.
A&t#o"g# t#e Gree3 is not t#e sa.eB C&e.ent reco"nts Pa"&5s s"//eringB
inc&"*ing #is +eing i.risone* an* stone*. F"rt#erB t#ere =is t#e .assi%e /act o/
t#e &ist itse&/. T#e s"ggestion o/ s"c# a &ist ?o"&* a&.ost certain&! co.e /ro. a
reco&&ection o/ t#e &ist in II Corint#ians.A
1''
Accor*ing&!B t#o"g# a *irect &iterar!
contact is e&"si%eB it is &i3e&! t#at t#e a"t#or o/ 1 C&e.ent #a* rea* ' Corint#ians.
c. Citation o/ Ro.ans
T#e si.i&arities in t#e &ang"age an* t#e conte-t o/ 1 C&e.ent .a3e c&ear its
re&iance on t#e Eist&e to t#e Ro.ans.
I/ o"r .in* +e /i-e* t#ro"g# /ait# to?ar*s Go*I i/ ?e see3 o"t t#ose
t#ings ?#ic# are ?e&& &easing an* acceta+&e "nto Hi.I i/ ?e
acco.&is# s"c# t#ings as +esee. His /a"&t&ess ?i&&B an* /o&&o? t#e
?a! o/ tr"t#B castin! off from o"rselves all "nri!hteo"sness and
ini-"ity$ coveto"sness$ strifes$ mali!nities and deceits$ whisperin!s
and +ac+itin!s$ hatred of God$ pride and arro!ance$ vain!lory and
inhospitality' #or they that do these thin!s are hatef"l to God/ and
not only they that do them$ +"t they also that consent "nto them' For
t#e scrit"re sait#I B"t "nto t#e sinner sai* Go*B ,#ere/ore *ost
t#o" *ec&are Nine or*inancesB an* ta3est N! co%enant "on t#!
.o"t#C (et t#o" *i*st #ate instr"ctionB an* *i*st cast a?a! N!
?or*s +e#in* t#ee. I/ t#o" sa?est a t#ie/B t#o" *i*st 3ee co.an!
?it# #i.B an* ?it# t#e a*"&terers t#o" *i*st set t#! ortion. T#!
.o"t# ."&ti&ie* ?ic3e*nessB an* t#! tong"e ?o%e *eceit. T#o"
sattest an* sa3est against t#! +rot#erB an* against t#e son o/ t#!
.ot#er t#o" *i*st &a! a st".+&ing4+&oc3. T#ese t#ings t#o" #ast
*oneB an* I 3et si&ence. T#o" t#o"g#testB "nrig#teo"s .anB t#at I
s#o"&* +e &i3e "nto t#ee. I ?i&& con%ict t#eeB an* ?i&& set t#ee /ace to
/ace ?it# t#!se&/.
1''
A&+ert E. BarnettB Pa"l Becomes a Literary Infl"enceB ages H)4H1.
<'
1 C&e.ent 31.
An* 8"st as t#e! *i* not see /it to ac3no?&e*ge Go* an! &ongerB Go*
ga%e t#e. o%er to a *era%e* .in*B to *o t#ose t#ings ?#ic# are not
roerB +ein! filled with all "nri!hteo"sness$ wicedness$ !reed$
evil/ f"ll of envy$ m"rder$ strife$ deceit$ malice/ they are !ossips$
slanderers$ haters of God$ insolent$ arro!ant$ +oastf"l$ inventors of
evil$ diso+edient to parents$ witho"t "nderstandin!$ "ntr"stworthy$
"nlovin!$ "nmercif"lI an* a&t#o"g# t#e! 3no? t#e or*inance o/ Go*B
t#at t#ose ?#o ractice s"c# t#ings are ?ort#! o/ *eat#B t#e! not
on&! *o t#e sa.eB +"t a&so gi%e #eart! aro%a& to t#ose ?#o ractice
t#e..
Ro.. 1:'743'.
1 C&e.ent #as ta3en t#e &ist o/ %ices /ro. Pa"& an* a*ate* it so.e?#at /or
#is o?n "se an* ?it# #is o?n /&a%or. As Pro/essor Cor?in notes:
T#e cata&og o/ *e/ects in 1 C&e.ent 31:14< is str"ct"re* on t#at o/
Ro.an 1:'743'I C&e.ent si.&! restr"ct"res it accor*ing to #is
i*eas. San*ers c&ear&! *e.onstrate* t#e in*is"ta+&e *een*enceI A.
$ogt&e #as a&rea*! e-&aine* t#e c#ange o/ so.e ter.s o/ Ro.. as
re&ate* to C&e.ent5s conte-t. T#e /i*e&it! ?it# ?#ic# C&e.ent
/o&&o?s #ere t#e Pa"&ine te-t co.es /ro. t#e /act t#at t#e cata&og"es
o/ %ices reresente* t#e &iterar! genre o/ t#e in%ecti%es o/ t#e
*iatri+e5s reac#ers. In or*er to /o&&o? t#e *iatri+eB C&e.entB
t#ere/oreB *i* not #a%e to a+an*on Pa"&. He .ere&! e.#asiMes
t#ro"g# s&ig#t .o*i/ications t#e Gree3 an* Stoic c#aracter o/ t#e
Pa"&ine cata&og.
1'3
*. Citations o/ Ga&atians
T#ere are so.e "ni>"e oints o/ contact +et?een 1 C&e.ent an* t#e Eist&e
to t#e Ga&atians t#at strong&! s"ggest t#e a"t#or5s re&iance on Pa"&5s &etter. 1
C&e.ent 15s "se o/ t#e ter. =i&&arsA /or t#e Aost&es is stri3ing gi%en t#at t#e on&!
ot#er ?riting t#at "ses t#at ter. /or t#ose .en is t#e Eist&e to t#e Ga&atians. Ga&.
':H J=an* recogniMing t#e grace t#at #a* +een gi%en to .eB :a.es an* Ce#as an*
:o#nB ?#o ?ere re"te* to +e i&&arsB ga%e to .e an* Barna+as t#e rig#tAK.
A**itiona&&!B 1 C&e.ent i.itates t#e rat#er "ni>"e aroac# o/ sea3ing o/
C#rist +eing cr"ci/ie* in t#e resence o/ t#ose to ?#o. #e ?rites. Co.are Ga&.
3:1 J=(o" /oo&is# Ga&atiansB ?#o #as +e?itc#e* !o"B +e/ore ?#ose e!es :es"s
1'3
Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 23.
<3
C#rist ?as "+&ic&! ortra!e* as cr"ci/ie*CAK ?it# 1 C&e.. ':1 J=Content ?it# t#e
ro%ision ?#ic# Go* #a* .a*e /or !o"B an* care/"&&! atten*ing to His ?or*sB !o"
?ere in?ar*&! /i&&e* ?it# His *octrineB an* His s"//erings ?ere +e/ore !o"r
e!es.AK.
'. T#e Eist&es o/ Ignati"s J1)14111 A0K
Origin: Antioc# JIgnati"s5 #o.eto?nK
0estinations: E#es"sB NagnesiaB Tra&&esB Ro.eB P#i&a*e&#iaB an* S.!rna
Letters Cite*: 1 Corint#iansB E#esiansB Ga&atiansB P#i&iiansB Co&ossians
Jer#as 1 an* ' Ti.ot#! an* ot#ersK
T#o"g# Ignati"s ten*s not to i*enti/! #is so"rcesB O&* or Ne? Testa.entB
t#ere is no *o"+t t#at #e re/erre* to .an! o/ Pa"&5s &etters. Ignati"s5 citations to 1
Corint#ians are o%er?#e&.ing. A**itiona&&!B =E?Fe 3no? /ro. Ignati"s #i.se&/
t#at #e ?as ac>"ainte* ?it# .ore t#an one &etterB /or #e ?rites to t#e E#esian
c#"rc# J1'.'K t#at t#e aost&e Pa"& .entione* t#e. Din e%er! &etter.5A
1'2
Sc#o&ars
#a%e seen t#is re/erence not necessari&! to a&& t#e &etters ?#ic# .ention E#esians
Js"c# as 1 an* ' Ti.ot#!KB +"t as t#e =o&ite e-aggeration o/ Ignati"s to t#e
E#esiansA ?#ic# =is ta3en as /"rt#er e%i*ence t#at #e ?as /a.i&iar ?it# an ear&!
co&&ection o/ Pa"&5s &etters.A
1'1

It s#o"&* +e re.e.+ere* t#at Ignati"s ?as not ?riting /ro. #is Bis#o5s
o//ice in Antioc#B ?it# #is &i+rar! srea* o"t +e/ore #i.. Rat#erB #e ?rote ?#i&e
tra%e&ing @ in t#e c"sto*! o/ "n/rien*&! so&*iers @ to Ro.e to +eco.e a .art!r.
0"e to #is circ".stancesB Ignati"s5 a&&"sions ?ere +ase* on .e.or! rat#er t#an on
c&ose rea*ings.
1'<
As a res"&tB #is a&&"sions .a! +e =/ree an* ine-act.A
1'L

Ne%ert#e&essB .an! &iterar! contacts ?it# Pa"&5s &etters are o+%io"s. A&& to&*B
Ignati"s5 &etters *e.onstrates t#at at &east 1 Corint#iansB E#esiansB an* Ga&atiansB
Co&ossians an* P#i&iiansB ?ere ?i*e&! circ"&ating t#o"g# c#"rc#es "nre&ate* to
t#eir ro%ince +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst cent"r!.
a. Citations o/ 1 Corint#ians
T#e .ost o+%io"s re&iance +! Ignati"s is on Pa"&5s First Letter to t#e
Corint#ians. As Pro/. Cor?in notes:
Ignati"s #i.se&/ 3ne? +est 1 Corint#ians an* t#e gose& o/ Natt#e?B
?#ic# ?as t#e /a%orite i/ not t#e on&! gose& "se*. T#ese t?o o/ t#e
1'2
$irginia Cor?inB )t' I!nati"s and *hristianity in AntiochB age <L.
1'1
0anie& Ho//.anB =T#e A"t#orit! o/ Scrit"re an* Aosto&ic 0octrine in Ignati"s
o/ Antioc#BA &ET) 17Q1 JNarc# 1H71KB age L1.
1'<
Ho//.anB op' cit'B age L2.
1'L
BarnettB Pa"l Becomes a Literary Infl"enceB age 11'.
<2
Ne? Testa.ent +oo3s ro%i*e t#e &argest n".+er o/ *irect
>"otations in t#e &etters. Beca"se #is re/erences to 1 Corint#ians are
re&ati%e&! c&ear an* n".ero"sB t#e! .a3e "s a?are o/ #is /ree*o. in
ara#rasing an* in "sing a >"otation in c#ange* conte-t.
1'7
Si.i&ar&!B Ro+ert Grant conc&"*es t#at =EiFt is %er! c&ear t#at #e 3ne? 1
Corint#ians ractica&&! +! #eart. It ?o"&* aear t#at t#ere are not /e?er t#an
/ort! si- a&&"sions to it in #is &etters.A
1'H

Nota+&!B 1 Corint#ians ?as ?ritten /ro. E#es"s an* sent to Corint#. B"t
Ignati"s ?as t#e Bis#o o/ Antioc#. SoB +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst cent"r!B 1
Corint#ians #a* +een ?i*e&! circ"&ate*. Not on&! to Antioc#B +"t to Ro.e as ?e&&.
An*B &i3e&!B to t#e *estination c#"rc#es o/ Ignati"s5 o?n &etters.
Grant +egins #is ana&!sis ?it# Ignati"s5 &etter to t#e E#esians:
T#ere is &itt&e *o"+t a+o"t a assage &i3e t#is EE#. 1L:'417:1F:
,#! *o ?e foolishly perishB not recognising t#e gi/t
?#ic# t#e Lor* #as o/ a tr"t# sent to "sC Let .! sirit
+e co"nte* as not#ing /or t#e sa3e o/ t#e crossB ?#ic#
is a st".+&ing4+&oc3 to t#ose t#at *o not +e&ie%eB +"t to
"s salvation and life eternal. =Where is the wise man?
where the disp"ter?2 Where is the +oastin! of those
who are styled pr"dent?
Here Ignati"s is o+%io"s&! /o&&o?ing 1 Corint#ians 1:174') ?it#
re.ar3a+&e care.
13)

Co.are Ignati"s5 E#esians 1L ?it# t#e re&e%ant Pa"&ine assage:
For t#e ?or* o/ t#e cross is foolishness to those who are perishin!B
+"t to "s who are +ein! saved it is t#e o?er o/ Go*. For it is
?rittenB =I ?i&& *estro! t#e ?is*o. o/ t#e ?iseB an* t#e c&e%erness o/
t#e c&e%er I ?i&& set asi*e.A Where is the wise man? Where is the
scri+e? Where is the de+ater of this a!e? Has not Go* .a*e /oo&is#
t#e ?is*o. o/ t#e ?or&*C
1 Cor. 1:174').

1'7
Cor?inB op' cit'B age <<.
1'H
Ro+ert GrantB After the New TestamentB age 3H.
13)
I+id.
<1
Grant contin"es: =EHFe a&so >"otes iso&ate* #rases /ro. t#e eist&e@/or e-a.&eB
in Tra&&ians 1':3 an* in Ro.ans 1:1.A
131

I nee* !o"r &o%eB so t#at I .a! +e 8"*ge* ?ort#! o/ t#e &ot ?#ic# I
a. set to o+tainB D&est I +e /o"n* a casta?a!5 E1 Cor. H:'LF.
I +eco.e .ore o/ a *isci&e +eca"se o/ t#eir ?rong*oingB D+"t not +!
t#is a. I 8"sti/ie*5 E1 Cor. 2:2F.A
13'
Co.are ?it# Ignati"s:
=EAFn* ra! !e /or .e a&soB who need yo"r love in t#e .erc! o/ Go*B that I
may +e tho"!ht worthy of the lot to which I press forward to attain$ that I
may not +e fo"nd a castaway.A ETra&&ians 1':3F
=B"t I a. t#e more instr"cted +y their in@"ries Eto act as a *isci&e o/
C#ristFI =yet am I not there+y @"stified.A EJIgnati"s5K Ro.ans 1:1F
T#ere are .an! ot#er a&&"sionsB +"t t#ese are s"//icient to ro%e re&iance.
+. Citation o/ E#esians
Nan! sc#o&ars #a%e note* t#at in #is o?n &etter to t#e C#"rc# in E#es"sB
Ignati"s re&ies on Pa"&5s &etter to t#e E#esians. T#is conc&"sion is /acia&&!
ro+a+&e +eca"se Ignati"s e-&icit&! re/ers to Pa"&5s &etters ?#ic# *isc"ss t#e
E#esians. Ha%ing esta+&is#e* Ignati"s5s /a.i&iarit! ?it# Pa"&5s eist&e to t#e
E#esiansB t#e intro*"ctions to +ot# &etters are s"sicio"s&! si.i&ar. Pac3e* into
t#e /irst sentence o/ Ignati"s5 Letter to t#e E#esians an* Pa"&5s E#esians 1:34<
are t#e sa.e or si.i&ar Gree3 ter.s ?#en re/erring to :es"s an* Go* t#e Fat#erB
e.#asis on C#ristians +eing c#osen +! Go* +e/ore creationB arg"ing t#at t#e re4
creation ca&&ing ?as re&ate* to s#o?ing t#e G&or! o/ Go*B an* e.#asiMing t#at
t#is ?as a&& in accor*ance ?it# t#e ?i&& o/ t#e Fat#er.
T#e te-t o/ Ignati"s5 o?n &etter to t#e E#esians /"rt#er s"orts t#is oint:
EIFn t#e /o&&o?ing %ersesB Pa"& *e%e&os t#e t#e.e o/ t#e "nit! o/
C#ristians in C#rist. As /or Ignati"sB #e insists on t#is "nit!
t#ro"g#o"t #is &etter. It canB t#ere/oreB +e in/erre* t#atB in *ra/ting
t#e a**ress o/ #is &etterB t#e +is#o o/ Antioc# re.e.+ere* ?#at E#e
+e&ie%e*F Pa"& ?rote at t#e +eginning o/ t#e eist&e t#at #e sent to
t#is sa.e c#"rc# at E#es"s. . . . Ignati"s see.sB t#ere/oreB to +e
131
:e//or*B op' cit'B age 1''.
13'
Ro+ert GrantB op' cit'B age 3H.
<<
insire* +! t#e /irst sentences o/ t#e Pa"&ine eist&eI t#e resence o/
t#e sa.e ter.s i.&ies #is &iterar! *een*ence on Pa"&.
133

Accor*ing to Pro/. :e//or*B =t#ere is e%en so.e reason to +e&ie%e t#at t#e +is#o
constr"cte* #is ?or3 accor*ing to t#e /ra.e?or3 o/ t#e Ne? Testa.ent &etter to
E#es"s. In .an! resectsB it is ?it# +ot# t#e t#eo&og! an* t#e ?or3s o/ Pa"& t#at
?e /in* t#e 3e! to Ignati"s5 o?n t#eo&ogica& sec"&ation an* concern /or t#e
C#ristian &i/e.A
132

c. Citation o/ Ga&atians
T#ere are se%era& oints o/ contact +et?een Ignati"s5 &etters an* Pa"&5s
Eist&e to t#e Ga&atians. In #is &etter to t#e NagnesiansB Ignati"s ?arns against
=:"*aiMersA ."c# t#e sa.e as Pa"& *i* in #is &etter to t#e Ga&atians. Co.are
Nagn. 7:1 J=Be not *ecei%e* ?it# strange *octrinesB nor ?it# o&* /a+&esB ?#ic# are
"nro/ita+&e. For i/ ?e sti&& &i%e accor*ing to t#e :e?is# lawB ?e ac3no?&e*ge t#at
?e #a%e not recei%e* !raceAK ?it# Ga&. 1:2 J=(o" #a%e +een se%ere* /ro. C#ristB
!o" ?#o are see3ing to +e 8"sti/ie* +! lawI !o" #a%e /a&&en /ro. !race.AK. T#e
e.#asis on :e?is# &a? an* &osing grace is s"ggesti%eB t#o"g# not in an* o/ itse&/
*eter.inati%e. B"t co.are Ignati"s5 Ro.. L:' J=N! &"st #at# +een cr"ci/ie*B an*
t#ere is no /ire o/ .ateria& &onging in .eB +"t on&! ?ater &i%ing an* sea3ing in
.eB sa!ing ?it#in .eB Co.e to t#e Fat#er.AK ?it# Ga&. 1:'2 J=No? t#ose ?#o
+e&ong to C#rist :es"s #a%e cr"ci/ie* t#e /&es# ?it# its assions an* *esires.AK an*
Ga&. <:12 J=B"t .a! it ne%er +e t#at I ?o"&* +oastB e-cet in t#e cross o/ o"r Lor*
:es"s C#ristB t#ro"g# ?#ic# t#e ?or&* #as +een cr"ci/ie* to .eB an* I to t#e
?or&*.AK. Toget#erB t#ese in*icate *een*ence on Ga&atians.
*. Citation o/ P#i&iians
A/ter reciting so.e o/ t#e c#a&&enges #e #a* /ace*B Pa"& *ec&aresB =I can *o
a&& t#ings t#ro"g# Hi. ?#o strengt#ens .e.A P#i&iians 2:13. Si.i&ar&!B a/ter
reciting a &ist o/ #ar*s#isB Ignati"s *ec&aresB =T#o"g# t#is is *i//ic"&tB !et :es"s
C#ristB o"r tr"e Li/eB #as o?er to e//ect it.A S.!rn. 2:'.
Barnett ca&&s t#is a =rat#er c&ear ec#o o/ P#i&. 2:13A an* states:
T#e ro+a+i&it! t#at it in*icates &iterar! ac>"aintance is #eig#tene*
+! t#e /act t#at t#e state.ent /or.s t#e c&i.a- o/ an en".eration o/
t#e s"//ering Ignati"s #a* en*"re*. Bot# .en testi/! to t#eir
sirit"a& e.o?er.ent /or a&& tria&s t#ro"g# t#eir /e&&o?s#i ?it#
C#rist.
131
133
Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 1)<.
132
:e//or*sB op' cit'B age <L.
131
BarnettB Pa"l Becomes a Literary Infl"enceB age 1<2.
<L
T#ere is a&so a ossi+&e a&&"sion in S.!rn. 11:3 to P#i&. 3:11.
e. Citation o/ Co&ossians
Ignati"s5 Letter to t#e E#esians "ses t#e sa.e Gree3 ter.s as Pa"&5s &etters
to t#e Co&ossians to *escri+e a /e&&o? ser%ant.
As to .! /e&&o?4ser%ant B"rr#"sB !o"r *eacon in regar* to Go* an*
+&esse* in a&& t#ingsB I +eg t#at #e .a! contin"e &ongerB +ot# /or !o"r
#ono"r an* t#at o/ !o"r +is#o.
JIgnati"s5K E#esians ':1. )ee also P#i&a*. 2:1B an* S.!rn. 1':'.
E:F"st as !o" &earne* it /ro. Ea#rasB o"r +e&o%e* /e&&o? +on*4
ser%antB ?#o is a /ait#/"& ser%ant o/ C#rist on o"r +e#a&/B
Co&. 1:L
T#e re&iance is /ir.&! esta+&is#e*. As Pro/. BarnettB notes:
T#e ter. s"ndo"lo" occ"rs on&! in t#e Pa"&ine &etters on&! in Co&. 1:L
an* 2:L. In t#e one instance it is a&ie* to Ea#r"s an* in t#e
ot#er to T!c#ic"s. In eac# case pistos diaonos is a /"rt#er e&e.ent in
t#e c#aracteriMation. In t#e &etters o/ E#. ':1B P#i&a*. 2:1B an*
S.!rn. 1':'B eac# ti.e in connection ?it# s"ndo"lo". T#e "sage in
t#ese instances strong&! s"ggests ac>"aintance ?it# Co&ossians.
13<
3. T#e Eist&e o/ Barna+as J7)413) A0K
P&ace o/ Origin: A&e-an*ria
0estination: 6n3no?n
Letter Cite*: E#esians
T#o"g# t#e *ating o/ Barna+as is &ess sec"reB it stan*s as e%i*ence t#at +!
t#e ear&! secon* cent"r! t#e a"t#or o/ t#is eist&e ?as a?are o/ an* re&ie* on t#e
Eist&e to t#e E#esians as a"t#oritati%e instr"ction.
Co.are Barn. <:12+411 J=/or He Hi.se&/ ?as to +e .ani/este* in t#e /&es#
an* to *?e&& in "s. For a #o&! te.&e "nto t#e Lor*B .! +ret#renB is t#e a+o*e o/
o"r #eart.AK ?it# E#esians 3:1L J=so t#at C#rist .a! *?e&& in !o"r #earts t#ro"g#
/ait#AK an* E#esians ':')4'' J=C#rist :es"s Hi.se&/ +eing t#e corner stoneB in
?#o. t#e ?#o&e +"i&*ingB +eing /itte* toget#er is gro?ing into a #o&! te.&e in
13<
I+id'B age112.
<7
t#e Lor*I in ?#o. !o" a&so are +eing +"i&t toget#er into a *?e&&ing o/ Go* in t#e
Sirit.AK. T#o"g# t#e t#eo&og! o/ t#e +o*! +eing a *?e&&ing &ace @ te.&e @ /or
C#rist .a! not +e "ni>"e eno"g# to in*icate *irect *een*enceB t#e si.i&arities in
t#e Gree3 a** .ore ?eig#t. T#e Gree3 "se* /or =a+o*eA an* =*?e&&ing &aceA is
atoieterion. T#e Gree3 "se* /or =#o&! te.&eA is ha!ios naos. T#e Gree3 "se*
/or =#eartA is ardia. T#e correson*ence +et?een t#o"g#t an* &ang"age c&"stere*
in E#esians is ers"asi%e.
2. T#e Eist&e o/ Po&!car J1')413) A0K
Origin: S.!rna
0estination: P#i&ii
Letters Cite*: P#i&iiansB E#esiansB 1 an* ' Corint#iansB ' T#essa&oniansB
Ga&atiansB Ro.ansB 1 Ti.ot#! Jer#as ' Ti.ot#! an* Tit"sK
Po&!carB t#e Bis#o o/ S.!rna Jin Asia NinorK *e/inite&! 3ne? Pa"&5s
&etter to t#e P#i&iiansB as ?e&& as E#esiansB 1 an* ' Corint#iansB Ga&atiansB
Ro.ansB an* 1 Ti.ot#!B t#o"g# none o/ t#e. are re&ate* to S.!rna. Pro/essor
:e//or* agrees: =In e%i*ence a.ong Po&!car5s so"rces are t#e a"t#entic &etters o/
Pa"&B t#e so4ca&&e* Pastora& Eist&es J14' Ti.ot#! an* Tit"sKB 1 Peter an* 1
:o#n.A
13L
T#at Po&!car 8a.s so .an! re/erences to Pa"&5s eist&es into 8"st one
&etter is o?er/"& e%i*ence t#at t#e Pa"&ine cor"s ?as ?e&&4esta+&is#e* an*
?i*e&! circ"&ate* +! t#e ear&! secon* cent"r!.
a. Citation o/ P#i&iians
In #is &etter to t#e P#i&iiansB Po&!car e-&icit&! re/ers to Pa"&5s Eist&e to
t#e P#i&iians an* *e.onstrates 3no?&e*ge o/ its contents.
For neit#er IB nor an! ot#er s"c# oneB can co.e " to t#e ?is*o. o/
t#e +&esse* an* g&ori/ie* Pa"&. HeB ?#en a.ong !o"B acc"rate&! an*
stea*/ast&! ta"g#t t#e ?or* o/ tr"t# in t#e resence o/ t#ose ?#o
?ere t#en a&i%e. An* ?#en a+sent /ro. !o"B he wrote yo" a letterB
?#ic#B i/ !o" care/"&&! st"*!B !o" ?i&& /in* to +e t#e .eans o/
+"i&*ing !o" " in t#at /ait# ?#ic# #as +een gi%en !o"B an* ?#ic#B
+eing /o&&o?e* +! #oeB an* rece*e* +! &o%e to?ar*s Go*B an*
C#ristB an* o"r neig#+orB =is t#e .ot#er o/ "s a&&.A For i/ an! one +e
in?ar*&! ossesse* o/ t#ese gracesB #e #at# /"&/i&&e* t#e co..an* o/
rig#teo"snessB since #e t#at #at# &o%e is /ar /ro. a&& sin. JC#ater 3K.
+. Citation o/ 1 Corint#ians
13L
:e//or*B op' cit'B age 71.
<H
In P#i&iians 11:'B Po&!car .a3es an e-&icit re/erence to t#e teac#ings o/
1 Corint#ians: =D0o ?e not 3no? t#at t#e saints s#a&& 8"*ge t#e ?or&*C5 as Pa"&
teac#es.A Co.are ?it# 1 Cor. <:': =Or *o !o" not 3no? t#at t#e saints ?i&&
8"*ge t#e ?or&*CA T#ere can +e no *o"+tB t#ere/oreB t#at Po&!car an* t#e C#"rc#
o/ S.!rna #a* t#is &etter. It a&so s"ggests t#at t#e C#"rc# o/ P#i&iians 3ne? 1
Corint#ians as ?e&&.
c. Citations o/ ' Corint#ians
Co.are Po&!car5s P#i&iians ':' J=No? (e who raised him from the
dead will also raise "s'24 ?it# ' Cor. 2:12 J=3no?ing t#at (e who raised the Lord
&es"s will raise "sAK. T#e si.i&arities in t#e Gree3 are e%en .ore s"ggesti%e. '
Cor. 2:12 contains a&& o/ t#e ter.s resent in t#e correson*ing assage. =In
a**ition to t#e ?or*s Ao ev!eiras a&ie* to Go* as in Pa"&B t#e ai Ahmas is
re.ar3a+&e: it reca&&s c&ear&! ' Cor. an* co.e&s recognition o/ a &iterar!
contact.A
137
)ee also +e&o?B ?#ere *een*ence o/ P#i&. 2:1 on ' Cor. <:L Jan*Qor
Ro.an <:13K is s#o?n.
*. Citations o/ Ro.ans
Po&!car5s re/erence to t#e =ar.or o/ rig#teo"snessA a&so aears to +e
*een*ent on Pa"&. Pa"& "ses a si.i&ar #rase in Ro.. <:13 an* ' Cor. <:L
J=instr".ent o/ rig#teo"snessAK. In t#e Gree3B =instr".entA an* =ar.orA co.e
/ro. t#e sa.e Gree3 ?or* J=#o&onAK. Co.are Po&. 2:1B oplois ths diaios"nhs
?it# ' Cor. <:LB oplwn ths diaios"nhs. T#e si.i&arities in &ang"age ?o"&* not +e
s"//icient to c&ai. *een*enceB +"t #ere it is acco.anie* ?it# t#e intro*"ctor!
/or."&a =?e 3no? t#en.A T#is #raseB an* its si.i&ar =3no?ing t#atBA is .eant to
=intro*"ce a re/erence to a ?ritten *oc".ent.A
13H
T#"sB its "se @ co.+ine* ?it#
t#e si.i&arities ?it# Ro.ans @ in*icates t#at Po&!car re&ie* on Pa"&5s &etter to t#e
Ro.ans. F"rt#erB +eca"se t#e /or."&a on&! ?or3s i/ t#e recei%ing art! is a&so
a?are o/ t#e &etterB it a&so aears t#at t#e P#i&iian c#"rc# ?as in ossession o/
Pa"&5s &etter to t#e Ro.ans.
A**itiona& s"ort /or Po&!car5s 3no?&e*ge o/ Ro.ans is /o"n* in
Po&!car <:': =?e ."st a&& aear at t#e 8"*g.ent4seat o/ C#ristB an* ."st e%er!
one gi%e an acco"nt o/ #i.se&/.A T#is is %er! si.i&ar to Ro.ans 12:1)+B 1': =For
?e s#a&& a&& stan* +e/ore t#e 8"*g.ent seat o/ Go*. . . . So t#en eac# one o/ "s
s#a&& gi%e acco"nt o/ #i.se&/ to Go*.A T#e Gree3 is near&! i*entica&. For
e-a.&eB Ro.. 12:1): =pantes !ar parasthsome-a tw +hmati to" -eo"A (?it#
P#i&. <:': =pantas dei parasthnai tw +hmati to" *hristo"A. Nassa"- notes t#at
137
Nassa"-$ op' cit'B age 3<
13H
I+id'B age 31.
L)
Po&!car .a! #a%e c#ange* =garA to =*eiA "n*er t#e in/&"ence o/ ' Corint#iansB
?#ic# Po&!car a&so 3no?s.
e. Citation o/ Ga&atians
Po&!car5s P#i&iians 1:1: =9no?ing t#enB t#at =God is not mocedBA ?e
o"g#t to ?a&3 ?ort#! o/ His co..an*.ent an* g&or!.A Pa"& "ses t#e e-act sa.e
#rase in Ga&. <:L J=God is not mocedI /or ?#ate%er a .an so?sB t#is #e ?i&& a&so
rea.AK. Noreo%erB ?e #a%e Po&!car again signa&ing a citation +! t#e "se o/ t#e
#raseB =3no?ing t#en.A A**itiona& e%i*ence o/ &iterar! *een*ence is t#at =t#is
citation is /o"n* &itera&&! in Ga&. <.L E F in a si.i&ar conte-t ?#ic# in%ites "s to act
accor*ing to t#e &a? JGa&. 1:12K an* ?#ic# en".erates a series o/
rescritions.A
12)
Fina&&!B Ga&. <:L is t#e on&! &ace an!?#ere in t#e Ne?
Testa.ent t#at "ses t#e sa.e Gree3 %er+ /or =.oc3e* t#at Po&!car *oes:
=m"thri8etai:.A
/. Citations o/ E#esians
Co.are JPo&!car5sK P#i&iians 1:3 J=3no?ing t#at +y !race yo" are
savedB not thro"!h wors +"t +! t#e ?i&& o/ Go* t#ro"g# :es"s C#ristAK ?it#
E#esians ':14H J=e%en ?#en ?e ?ere *ea* in o"r transgressionsB .a*e "s a&i%e
toget#er ?it# C#rist J+y !race yo" have +een savedKB . . . #or +y !race yo" have
+een saved t#ro"g# /ait#I an* t#at not o/ !o"rse&%esB it is t#e gi/t o/ Go*I not as a
res"lt of worsB so t#at no one .a! +oastAK. Po&!car once again signa&s #is
*een*ence on an e-isting ?riting +! "sing t#e #rase =3no?ing t#at.A T#at t#e
?riting +eing re/erre* to is E#esians is %er! &i3e&!. Not on&! are t#e i*eas t#e
sa.e in t#e a+o%e4re/erence* %ersesB +"t so is t#e Gree3 /or =+! grace !o" #a%e
+een sa%e*A an* =not as a res"&t o/ ?or3s.A As Nassa"- notesB =EtF#is o+ser%ation
is s"//icient to a&&o? t#e assertion t#at Po&!car *een*s #ere on t#e te-t o/
E#.A
121
E%en soB .ore e%i*ence is a%ai&a+&e to "s. Co.are Po&!car5s 1':1 J=Be
!e angr!B an* sin notBA an*B =Let not t#e s"n go *o?n "on !o"r ?rat#.AK ?it#
E#. 2:'< J=Be angr!B an* !et *o not sinI *o not &et t#e s"n go *o?n on !o"r
anger.AK. Bot# Po&!car an* E#esians ara#rase* t?o *i//erent %erses an*
&in3e* t#e. toget#er to artic"&ate t#e sa.e senti.ent. T#"sB t#e case /or
Po&!car5s *een*ence on t#e Letter to t#e E#esians is strong. F"rt#er.oreB t#at
Po&!car "ses t#e #rase =3no?ing t#atA s"ggests t#at E#esians ?as 3no?n in #is
#o.e c#"rc# o/ S.!rnaB as ?e&& as t#e a"*ience o/ #is &etterB t#e C#"rc# in
P#i&ii.
g. Citation o/ 1 Ti.ot#!
12)
Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 3<.
121
%p' cit'B age 31.
L1
Co.are JPo&!car5sK P#i&iians 2:1 J=B"t t#e &o%e o/ .one! is t#e root o/
a&& e%i&s. . . . =K ?it# 1 Ti.. <:1) J=For t#e &o%e o/ .one! is t#e root o/ a&& e%i&.AK.
T#at t#is is not .ere&! a s#are* oinion is *e.onstrate* +! t#e /act t#at Po&!car
i..e*iate&! /o&&o?s t#e #rase ?it# anot#er one /ro. 1 Ti.ot#!. JPo&!car5sK
P#i&iians 2:1 J=Since ?e 3no? t#en Et#atF we have +ro"!ht nothin! into this
world and can tae nothin! of it eitherB &et "s ar. o"rse&%es ?it# t#e ar.or o/
rig#teo"sness an* &earn /irst to a*%ance in t#e co..an*.ent o/ t#e Lor*AK. As
.entione* a+o%eB t#e #rase =?e 3no? t#enA is an intro*"ction o/ a &iterar!
citation. Noreo%erB t#e assage +eing intro*"ce* >"otes %er+ati. .an! o/ t#e
ter.s in 1 Ti.. <:1) J=/or ?e +ro"g#t not#ing into t#e ?or&*B /or neit#er can ?e
carr! an!t#ing o"tAK.
#. Re/erences to ' T#essa&onians
Co.are ' T#essa&onians 11:342:
,e ."st a&?a!s gi%e t#an3s to Go* /or !o"B +rot#ers an* sistersB as
is rig#tB +eca"se !o"r /ait# is gro?ing a+"n*ant&!B an* t#e &o%e o/
e%er!one o/ !o" /or one anot#er is increasing. T#ere/ore ?e
o"rse&%es +oast o/ !o" a.ong t#e c#"rc#es o/ Go* /or !o"r
stea*/astness an* /ait# *"ring a&& !o"r ersec"tions an* t#e
a//&ictions t#at !o" are en*"ring.
?it# Po&!car5s P#i&iians 11:342:
B"t I #a%e neit#er seen nor #ear* o/ an! s"c# t#ing a.ong !o"B in
t#e .i*st o/ ?#o. t#e +&esse* Pa"& &a+o"re*B an* ?#o are
co..en*e* in t#e +eginning o/ #is Eist&e. For #e +oasts o/ !o" in
a&& t#ose C#"rc#es ?#ic# a&one t#en 3ne? t#e Lor*I +"t ?e Eo/
S.!rnaF #a* not !et 3no?n Hi.. . . . An* +e !e t#en .o*erate in
regar* to t#is .atterB an* G*o not co"nt s"c# as ene.iesBG +"t ca&&
t#e. +ac3 as s"//ering an* stra!ing .e.+ersB t#at !e .a! sa%e !o"r
?#o&e +o*!. For +! so acting !e s#a&& e*i/! !o"rse&%es
Nan! sc#o&ars conc&"*e t#at t#ere is so.e /or. o/ *een*ence #ere
+eca"se o/ 1K t#e e-&icit re.iniscence o/ Pa"&5s &ettersI 'K t#e si.i&arities in t#e
&atter #a&/ o/ P#i&. 11:2 JPa"& +oasting a+o"t t#e /ait#/"&ness o/ t#e c#"rc# to ot#er
c#"rc#esKI an* 3K t#e si.i&arities +et?een P#i&. 11:2 J=+e !e t#en .o*erate in
regar* to t#is .atterB an* *o not co"nt s"c# as ene.iesAK an* ' T#ess. 3:11 J=(et
*o not regar* #i. as an ene.!B +"t a*.onis# #i. as a +rot#er.AK. T#e ro+&e.B o/
co"rseB is t#at Po&!car is ?riting to t#e c#"rc# in P#i&ii an* Pa"& ?as
a**ressing ' T#essa&onians to t#e c#"rc# in T#essa&onica.
L'
T?o so&"tions #a%e +een o//ere*. Nassa"- s"ggests t#at =*"e to a .e.or!
&aseB t#e Bis#o o/ S.!rna attri+"te* to t#e P#i&iians ?#at Pa"& sai* a+o"t t#e
T#essa&onians.A
12'
T#is is certain&! ossi+&eB esecia&&! i/ Po&!car ?as ?riting
+ase* on #is .e.or! rat#er t#an #a%ing a&& o/ Pa"&5s &etters srea* o"t +e/ore #i..
On t#e ot#er #an*B BarnettB /o&&o?ing Harnac3B +e&ie%es t#at =Po&!car 3ne? t#e
&etters o/ Pa"& as a co&&ectionB an* #e ro+a+&! regar*e* t#e .essage o/ eac# &etter
as /or e%er! congregation. He .ig#tB t#ere/oreB %er! &ogica&&! ta3e II T#ess. 1:3B 2
as a&ica+&e to t#e P#i&iians.A
123
i. Re/erence to a Co&&ection o/ Ignati"s5 Letters
Po&!car5s &etter is a&so "se/"& in ?#at it te&&s "s a+o"t ear&! C#ristian
attit"*es to?ar*s &etter co&&ections. Fro. Po&!car 13 ?e &earn t#at t#e c#"rc# in
P#i&ii #a* re>"este* t#at Po&!car sen* a&& o/ Ignati"s5 &etters to t#e. /or t#eir
co&&ection. T#e signi/icance o/ t#is is t?o/o&*. I/ t#e P#i&iians ?ere so 3een on
co&&ecting t#e &etters o/ Ignati"sB #o? ."c# .ore 3een ?o"&* t#e! +e on co&&ecting
t#e &etters o/ t#e Aost&e Pa"& @ ?riting ear&ier an* ?it# .ore a"t#orit!C It see.s
t#at &etter co&&ecting ?as i.ortant to t#e ear&! C#"rc#. T#e secon* oint is t#at
Po&!car a&rea*! #a* a n".+er o/ Ignati"s5 &etters @ .ore t#an t#e one ?e 3no?
Ignati"s ?rote to #i.. AgainB i/ Ignati"s5 &etters ?ere a&rea*! co&&ecte* +!
Po&!car in S.!rnaB #o? ."c# .ore &i3e&! t#at Pa"&5s ?ere as ?e&&C T#"sB
Po&!car5s &etter a&so *e.onstrates t#e &i3e&i#oo* o/ an ear&! C#ristian e//ort to
gat#er a co&&ection o/ Pa"&5s &etters.
1. ' C&e.ent J1')412) A0K
P&ace o/ Origin: Ro.eQCorint#
0estination: Ro.eQCorint#
Letters Cite*: 1 an* ' Corint#iansB Ga&atians
T#o"g# t#e ro%ence an* *ate o/ ' C&e.ent is "ncertain @ eit#er Ro.e or
Corint# are t#e .ost &i3e&! &aces o/ origin @B t#is #o.i&! ro%i*es a**itiona&
e%i*ence o/ t#e ?i*e circ"&ation o/ an* re&iance on 1 an* ' Corint#ians an*
Ga&atians in t#e C#ristian c#"rc#es +! t#e ear&! secon* cent"r!.
a. Citation o/ 1 an* ' Corint#ians
12'
Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 2).
123
BarnettB op' cit'B age 1LH.
L3
' C&e.. H:3 J=,e ."st t#ere/ore reser%e t#e /&es# as t#e te.&e o/ Go*.AK.
As note* +! Nassa"-B t#e e-ression =te.&e o/ Go*A a&ie* to t#e #".an +o*!
=is >"ite Pa"&ine.A Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 1L. Correson*ing Pa"&ine assages
inc&"*e 1 Cor. 3:1<I <:1HI an* ' Cor. <:1<.
Fro. t#e oint o/ %ie? o/ .eaningB t#e ara&&e& c&osest to t#is
assage is 1 Cor. <:1HB ?#ere t#e Aost&e ai.s at in*i%i*"a&
C#ristians an* reco..en*s "rit! o/ t#eir +o*!B 8"st as Pse"*o4
C&e.ent *oes in t#e i..e*iate conte-t J' C&e.. 7:<K.
122
+. Citation o/ Ga&atians
T#ere is a&so t#e c"rio"s si.i&ar "se o/ Isaia# 12:1. In ' C&e.ent ':1 an*
Ga&atians 2:'LB t#e a"t#ors >"ote Isaia# 12:1 an* e>"ate t#e c#"rc# ?it# t#e +arren
?o.an o/ Isaia#.
Ot#er seci/ic i.ages an* a&&"sions in t#e #o.i&! reca&& t#e ?ritings
o/ Pa"&. T#e /irst is t#e i.age o/ t#e otter an* t#e c&a! at 7.143. As
o+ser%e* a+o%eB o"r a"t#or res".a+&! +orro?s t#is i.age /ro.
:ere.ia# 17. (etB once againB Pa"& #i.se&/ .a3es a si.i&ar a&&"sion
in Ro.ans H:1H4'2. A**itiona& ara&&e&s .a! *eri%e /ro. Pa"&5s
correson*ence ?it# t#e Corint#ians. Reca&& t#e &ea in ' C&e.ent
L:14< t#at eac# C#ristian co.ete as an at#&ete o/ Go*I t#is see.s to
re/&ect Pa"&5s i.ager! in 1 Corint#ians H:'24'L. So too o"r a"t#or5s
?arning in 3.1 not to ?ors#i or .a3e sacri/ices to *ea* go*s
ro+a+&! s#o"&* +e rea* against Pa"&5s o?n co..an* in 1
Corint#ians 7:1. An* /ina&&!B ' C&e.ent5s association +et?een t#e
#".an +o*! as t#e c#"rc# into ?#ic# C#rist #as co.e +ears
interesting ara&&e&s ?it# Pa"&5s insistence t#at t#e +o*! is t#e te.&e
o/ C#rist in 1 Corint#ians <:1'4'). S"c# i.ager! strong&! s"ggests
t#at o"r a"t#or #a* an e-tensi%e 3no?&e*ge o/ Pa"&5s t#eo&og!B an*
ro+a+&! #a* access to so.e /or. o/ 1 Corint#ians.
121
<. Narcion J13) A0K
Letters Cite*: Ro.ansB 1 an* ' Corint#iansB 1 an* ' T#essa&oniansB
122
Nassa"-B op' cit'B age 1L.
121
:e//or*sB op' cit'B age 131.
L2
E#esiansB P#i&e.onB Ga&atiansB Co&ossiansB P#i&iians
Narcion ro.ote* #is o?n @ a&+eit corr"te* @ co&&ection o/ Pa"&5s &ettersB
?#ic# inc&"*e* Ro.ansB 1 an* ' Corint#iansB 1 an* ' T#essa&oniansB E#esiansB
Ga&atiansB P#i&e.onB Co&ossiansB an* P#i&iians. Tert"&&ian ro%i*es a *etai&e*B
o/ten &ine4+!4&ineB resonse to Narcion5s %ersion o/ Pa"&5s canon in #is /i%e
%o&".e A!ainst 1arcion. Beca"se t#e e%i*ence o/ e-tensi%e Narcion re*actions
to t#e Pa"&ine eist&es is "n*enia+&eB #is co&&ection o/ a corr"te* %ersion o/ s"c#
te-ts in t#e ear&! secon* cent"r! is strong e%i*ence t#at t#ere e-iste* a ?i*e&!
circ"&ate* Pa"&ine cor"s +! t#e ear&! secon* cent"r!.
L. ' Peter J.i*4/irst or ear&!4secon* cent"r! A0K
T#e Secon* Eist&e o/ Peter is re&e%ant +eca"se it .entions at &east so.e o/
Pa"&5s &etters.
ERFegar* t#e atience o/ o"r Lor* as sa&%ationI 8"st as a&so o"r
+e&o%e* +rot#er Pa"&B accor*ing to t#e ?is*o. gi%en #i.B ?rote to
!o"B as a&so in a&& his &ettersB sea3ing in t#e. o/ t#ese t#ingsB in
?#ic# are so.e t#ings #ar* to "n*erstan*B ?#ic# t#e "nta"g#t an*
"nsta+&e *istortB as they do a&so t#e rest o/ t#e Scrit"resB to t#eir
o?n *estr"ction.
' Peter 3:1141<
6n/ort"nate&!B it is *i//ic"&t to assess t#e e%i*ence o/ t#is &etter +eca"se its
*ate an* ro%ince are so *is"te*. Tra*ition /a%ors Petrine a"t#ors#i an* a *ate
aro"n* <14<7 A0. Nan! conte.orar! sc#o&ars re8ect Petrine a"t#ors#i an*
accet a *ate as &ate as t#e ear&!4secon* cent"r!. As /or its a"*ienceB t#e &etter
sa!s si.&! t#at it is a**resse* =EtFo t#ose ?#o #a%e recei%e* a /ait# o/ t#e sa.e
3in* as o"rsB +! t#e rig#teo"sness o/ o"r Go* an* Sa%iorB :es"s C#rist.A ' Peter
1:1. Nor is it c&ear ?#ic# Pa"&ine &etters t#e a"t#or o/ ' Peter ?as a**ressing.
6n*er eit#er *atingB it s#o?s t#at so.e o/ Pa"&5s &etters ?ere 3no?n +! so.e
gro" o/ C#ristians an* t#is a"t#or #a* a #ig# %ie? o/ Pa"&5s a"t#orit! Jco.aring
#is &etters to =t#e Scrit"resAK.
7. Ot#er Secon* Cent"r! ,ritings
In #is in*isensa+&e t#ree4%o&".e ana&!sis o/ t#e "se o/ t#e Ne? Testa.ent
scrit"res +! t#e ear&! C#ristian ?ritersB Nassa"- a&so conc&"*es t#at 1K t#e
)hepard of (ermas J1))41<) CEKB re&ies on 1 Corint#iansB E#esiansB '
Corint#iansB an* Ro.ansI 'K t#e %des of )olomon J1))4')) CEKB re&ies on 1
Corint#iansB Co&ossiansB Ro.ansB an* P#i&e.on J?it# ot#er a&&"sions &i3e&!KI an*
L1
3K t#e *hristian )i+ylline %racles Jsecon* cent"r!KB re&ies on Ro.ans an* 1
Corint#ians. AgainB ?#i&e t#e ro%ince o/ t#ese *oc".ents cannot +e /ir.&!
esta+&is#e*B t#e! ro%i*e /"rt#er con/ir.ation t#at Pa"&5s &etters ?ere ?i*e&!
circ"&ate* an* consi*ere* a"t#oritati%e +! t#e ear&! secon* cent"r!.
H. Conc&"sion
T#is ana&!sis o/ t#e ear&! C#ristian ?riters /ir.&! esta+&is#es t#e
?i*esrea* "seB as a"t#oritati%eB o/ Pa"&5s &etters +! t#e &ate4/irst cent"r! to ear&!4
secon* cent"r!. In*ee*B /ro. 1 C&e.ent JH2 A0K into t#e ear&! secon* cent"r! ?e
C#ristian ?ritings t#at *oes not re/er to so.e o/ Pa"&5s &etters as a"t#oritati%e are
e-cee*ing&! rare. It see.s c&ear t#at +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst cent"r! at t#e &atestB t#e
Pa"&ine cor"s ?as ?i*esrea* an* signi/icant eno"g# to *e.an* L"3e5s
attention. It is %er! "n&i3e&! t#at #e ?o"&* ignore t#e. as otentia& so"rces
J"n&ess #e #a* +etter so"rces @ "n&i3e&! in t#e secon* cent"r!K an* is 8"st as
"n&i3e&! t#at #is a"*ience ?o"&* not +e e-ecting to #ear a+o"t t#e &etters.
B. 0i* Acts C#oose to Ignore Pa"&5s LettersC
It #as +een arg"e* +! :o#n 9no- an* ot#ers t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as ?e&&
a?are o/ Pa"&5s &etters +"t si.&! c#ose not to "se t#e. +eca"se t#e! ?ere +eing
"se* +! ear&! #eretics. T#"sB t#e /ai&"re to "se t#e &etters is irre&e%ant to *ating.
T#e .ain ro+&e. ?it# t#is t#eor! is t#at t#e e%i*ence in*icates t#at t#ere ?as
ne%er an! /ear o/ Pa"&5s &etters a.ong t#e =ort#o*o-.A Fro. 1 C&e.entB to
Ignati"sB to Po&!carB t#ere is no #esitation in "sing Pa"&5s &etters. In*ee*B t#e! are
ass".e* to +e 3no?n an* resecte* +! t#e resecti%e *estinations o/ t#e &etters.
In s#ortB t#e e%i*ence co.&ete&! contra*icts 9no-5s roose* e-&anation.
A re&ate* arg".ent t#at I #a%e enco"ntere* on t#e Internet act"a&&! ass".es
t#at Pa"&5s &etters ?ere ?i*e&! circ"&ate* an* canoniMe* %er! ear&!. So ear&! in
/actB t#at e%en i/ ?ritten in t#e /irst cent"r!B t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ."st #a%e 3no?n
a&& t#e &etters an* si.&! c#ose to ignore t#e.. Beca"se #e eit#er ignore* t#e
&etters in t#e /irst cent"r! or in t#e secon* cent"r!B t#e &ac3 o/ re&iance on Pa"&5s
&etters is *ee.e* irre&e%ant to its *ate. T#is arg".entB #o?e%erB &i3e?ise /ai&s to
ers"a*e.
As an initia& .atterB t#o"g# ' Peter .a! +e ta3en as so.e e%i*ence o/ an
ear&! circ"&ation an* resect /or Pa"&5s &etters J.ost roonents o/ a &ate *ating o/
Acts ?o"&* a&so arg"e /or a &ate *ating o/ ' PeterKB it is si.&! inco.ara+&e to t#e
e%i*ence /or a ?i*e4srea* canon o/ Pa"&5s eist&es in t#e &ate4/irst cent"r! to
ear&!4secon* cent"r!. A**itiona&&!B e%en i/ t#e &etters o/ Pa"& ?ere i..e*iate&!
grante* ?i*e4srea* circ"&ation an* resectB it is "n*erstan*a+&e t#at a co.anion
L<
o/ Pa"& ?o"&* ?rite ?it#o"t reco"rse to #is &ettersB ?#ereas it is %er! "n&i3e&! t#at
a secon*4cent"r! a*.irer ?o"&*. As Pro/. E&&is notesB a co.anion o/ Pa"& ?o"&*
#a%e &itt&e nee* to re&! on #is &etters:
It is concei%a+&e t#at a co.anion ?o"&* resent Pa"& in*een*ent
o/ #is &etters an* in so.e *i%ersit! /ro. t#e.. B"t ?o"&* a ost4
aosto&ic a*.irer o/ t#e Aost&e #a%e *one soC T#e aocr!#a&
DActs5 an* DAoca&!se5 o/ Pa"& s#o? t#at &ater ?riters c&ot#e* t#eir
DPa"&5 ?it# c&ear a&&"sions to #is &etters. T#e in*een*ent case o/
L"3e4Acts arg"es against a"t#ors#i +! a &ater a*.irer. It &en*s
so.e s"ort to L"3an a"t#ors#iB /or on&! a co&&eag"e ?o"&* ?rite
t#e stor! ?it#o"t reco"rse to Pa"&5s &etters.
12<
In*ee*B t#e Acts of Pa"l not on&! a&&"*es to Pa"&5s &ettersB +"t it narrates Pa"&5s
recei%ing anot#er &etter /ro. Corint# an* ?riting a resonse. AgainB t#is is not
s"rrising /ro. an a"t#or t#at 3ne? Pa"& ri.ari&! as a &etter ?riter.
Accor*ing&!B t#e /ai&"re o/ Acts to re&! on Pa"&5s &etters re.ains ers"asi%e
e%i*ence o/ a /irst4cent"r! co.osition *ate.
III. A"oi(ing Anachronis$s
To a rat#er re.ar3a+&e *egreeB Acts is *e%oi* o/ anac#ronis.s t#at ?o"&*
+etra! secon*4cent"r! a"t#ors#i. I/ ?ritten into t#e secon* cent"r!B #e again an*
again asses " oort"nities to +etra! rece*ing e%ents.
A roosa& t#at L"3e ?as ?ritten a+o"t 13) Jc&ose to t#e &atest
ossi+&e *ateK ?o"&* #a%e to conce*e t#at t#e a"t#or s#"t o"t o/ #is
.in*B or at &east 3et o"t o/ #is ?or3B at &east 1) !ears5 ?ort# o/
e%ents. T#ere isB /or e-a.&eB no re/erenceB e%en in co*e* &ang"ageB
to t#e ersec"tion o/ arts o/ t#e c#"rc# "n*er 0o.itian Jin t#e .i*4
H)sK. T#e a"t#or o/ L"3e4Acts #e&* t#e %ie? t#at Go* "nis#e* t#e
:e?s /or re8ecting :es"sB an* #e see.s to #a%e seen t#e *estr"ction
o/ t#e te.&e JL) A0K in t#is &ig#t Jsee +e&o?K. B"t in 111411L t#ere
?ere .a8or re%o&ts o/ t#e :e?s against Ro.e in Eg!tB C!rene an*
C!r"sB re%o&ts ?#ic# *estro!e* cities an* &e* to ."c# +&oo*s#e*.
T#ere is no #int o/ /"rt#er D"nis#.ent5 o/ t#e :e?s in L"3e4ActsB
?#ic# co"nts as e%i*ence /or *ating #is ?or3 +e/ore 111411LB an*
ossi+&! +e/ore t#e .i*4H)s. A t#eor! t#at L"3e ?rote %er! &ate
."st +e +ase* on t#e s"osition t#at #e s"ccess/"&&! .aintaine* #is
/oc"s on an ear&ier erio*. Fe? a"t#ors can +e entire&! s"ccess/"& in
s"c# an e//ort.
12L
12<
E&&isB op' cit'B age 1).
12L
E.P. San*ers an* Nargaret 0a%iesB )t"dyin! the )ynoptic GospelsB age 1L.
LL
T#e /&i si*e o/ t#e coin is t#at L"3e5s t#eo&og! o/ten see.s to +e ?#at
so.e ca&& =ri.iti%eA:
T#e ict"re L"3e aints o/ &i/e in t#e ear&iest Pa&estinian c#"rc#es is
consistent ?it# ?#at ?e ?o"&* e-ect. N"c# o/ t#e t#eo&og! ?#ic#
#e attri+"tes to t#ose ear&iest C#ristian +e&ie%ers #as a /ar &ess
so#isticate* c#aracter t#an t#e t#eo&og! o/ Pa"& or t#e c#"rc#B &ater
in t#e /irst cent"r!. For e-a.&eB :es"s is sti&& re/erre* to as Dt#e
Nessia#5 JC#ristK in Acts ':3<I 3:')I 2:'LB an* #e can +e ca&&e* Dt#e
Ser%ant o/ Go*5 JActs 3:13B '<I 2:'143)KB or e%en Dt#e Son o/ Nan5
Ja tit&e ."c# "se* +! :es"s #i.se&/ +"t /o"n* no?#ere in t#e rest o/
t#e Ne? Testa.ent e-cet Acts L:1<KB an* t#e c#"rc# itse&/ is Dt#e
,a!5 JActs H:'I 1H:H4HB '3I '2:12B ''K. . . . EAF&& t#is as
De-traor*inar! rea&istic t#e narrati%es o/ Acts are /"&& o/ e&e.ents
ta3en *irect&! /ro. t#e &i/e an* e-erience o/ t#e c#"rc#5.
127
A&so nota+&e is t#at Acts #ig#&ig#ts ro+&e.s t#at ?o"&* #a%e +een
irre&e%ant in t#e secon* cent"r!B s"c# as t#e :e?is#4Genti&e contro%ers! t#at t#e
ear&! C#"rc# /ace* as t#e ne? /ait# srea* +e!on* its :e?is# +eginning.
It is signi/icant t#at t#e .a8or interests o/ t#e a"t#or o/ Acts are t#ose
re%a&ent in t#e ear&iest erio* o/ c#"rc# #istor!B +"t ?#ic# ?ere not
so re&e%ant in &ater ti.es. T#e :e?is#4Genti&e contro%ers! is
*o.inant an* a&& ot#er e%i*ence aart /ro. Acts s"ggests t#at t#is
?as a %ita& iss"e on&! in t#e erio* +e/ore t#e /a&& o/ :er"sa&e..
E%en +! t#e ti.e o/ Pa"&5s &ater &etters it #a* cease* to +e a +"rning
iss"e. Noreo%erB t#e >"estion o/ Genti&e inc&"sion ?as ta3en /or
grante* ?#en once t#e "ni%ersa& c#aracter o/ t#e C#ristian c#"rc#
#a* +een esta+&is#e*. AgainB t#e reocc"ation ?it# /oo*
re>"ire.ents in t#e reort o/ t#e *ecisions o/ t#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&
oints to an ear&! stage o/ C#ristian *e%e&o.ent. Be/ore t#e /a&& o/
:er"sa&e. a&& t#ese /actors ?ere o/ %ita& i.ortance.
12H
A**itiona&&!B as note* a+o%eB Acts5 *isc"ssion o/ t#e re&e%ant &ega& s!ste.s
is re.ar3a+&! acc"rate an* ti.e aroriate. Nost signi/icant is Acts5 treat.ent o/
Pa"&5s Ro.an citiMens#i in genera&. T#e i.ortance t#at Acts &aces on Pa"&5s
Ro.an citiMens#i ?as tr"e *"ring t#e ear&! to .i* /irst cent"r!B +"t #a*
*issiate* +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst cent"r!.
127
:o#n 0raneB Introd"cin! the New TestamentB age '2).
12H
G"t#rieB op' cit'B age 31H.
L7
T#e genera& i.ortance attri+"te* to t#e Ro.an citiMens#i in Acts
/its t#e ear&! erio* . . . . E,F#at ca&&s /or attention is t#e toneB t#e
in*ignant toneB in ?#ic# t#ese t#ings are .entione*B an* t#e a&ar.e*
reaction o/ t#ose ?#o /in* t#at "n?itting&! t#e! #a%e .a&treate* a
Ro.an citiMen.
11)
T#e signi/icance o/ Ro.an citiMens#i c#ange* +! t#e en* o/ t#e /irst
cent"r!. As S#er?in4,#ite notesB =EtF#e /orce o/ t#is /ee&ing "&ti.ate&! etere*
o"t ?it# t#e &arge e-tension o/ t#e citiMens#i t#ro"g# t#e ro%incesB 8"st as t#e
ri%i&eges o/ Ro.ans ca.e to +e ?#itt&e* *o?n at a si.i&ar rate.A
111
F"rt#erB
Acts +reat#es t#e c&i.ate o/ t#e ear&ier #ase. Fi/t! !ears &ater t#e
&iterar! P&in!B t#o"g# steee* in CiceroB ?#en #e co.es to *e&ore
t#e sa%ager! o/ rocons"& to?ar*s Ro.an citiMens /orgets to *?e&&
on t#eir ri%i&ege* stat"s as citiMensB an* c#aracteristica&&! /or #is
generationB concentrates on t#e socia& stat"s o/ a %icti. ?#o ?as a
Ro.an 3nig#tB instea* o/ #is &ega& stat"s as a citiMen. T#e *ra.atic
*ate o/ Acts +e&ongs to t#e erio* ?#en t#e srea* o/ Ro.an stat"s
in t#e ro%inces ?as sti&& on a s.a&& sca&e. T#e sca&e o/ e-tension
?as a .atter o/ great *e+ate at Ro.e in t#e ti.e o/ t#e e.eror
C&a"*i"s. T#ere ?as sti&& organiMe* oosition at Ro.e to t#e o%er4
rai* e-tension o/ Ro.an ri%i&ege in t#e ro%inces at t#at ti.e. In
t#e #a&/4cent"r! a/ter C&a"*i"s t#e ti*e o/ e-tension /&oo*e* /ast an*
#ig#B t#o"g#B as ?i&& resent&! aearB not so /ast or so #ig# in t#e
eastern ro%inces as in t#e ?est. In re/erences to t#e citiMens#iB
Acts get t#ings rig#t +ot# at t#e genera& &e%e&B in its o%era&& attit"*eB
an* in seci/ic asects s"c# as ?ere *isc"sse* in t#e &ast &ect"re@t#e
t!e o/ na.es an* t#e cent"rionsB t#e re%a&ence o/ +ri+er! in t#is
conte-t "n*er C&a"*i"s.
11'
In s".B t#e a+sence o/ o+%io"s anac#ronis.s an* correctB ti.e4sensiti%e
c#aracteriMations o/ t#e ear&! C#"rc# an* Ro.an &ega& rocee*ingsB a**s ?eig#t to
a /irst4cent"r! *ate /or a"t#ors#i.
I!. The *estern Te5t o6 Acts
T#ere are t?o ?e&&4atteste* an* ear&! .an"scrit tra*itions /or t#e Acts o/
t#e Aost&es. T#e A&e-an*rian Jor Eg!tianK te-t is t#e one "se* /or o"r Eng&is#
11)
A.N. S#er?in4,#iteB ,oman Law and ,oman )ociety in the New TestamentB
age 1L'.
111
S#er?in4,#iteB op' cit.B age 1L3.
11'
I+id'
LH
trans&ations o/ Acts. T#e ot#erB t#e ,estern te-tB is &onger an* co..on&! +e&ie%e*
to +e an e-ansion on t#e A&e-an*rian te-t Jor a co..on ancestorK. T#e ri.ar!
Gree3 ?itness /or t#e ,estern Te-t is t#e Co*e- BeMaeB ro+a+&! ?ritten in
,estern E"roe *"ring t#e /i/t# cent"r!. Co*e- BeMae contains +ot# Gree3 an*
Latin te-ts o/ Acts. It is a&so atteste* +! t#e Harc&ean S!riac %ersion:
T#e Harc&ean S!rian #as /re>"ent&! +een ta3en to +e a re%ision .a*e
in <1< +! T#o.as o/ Har3e& JHerac&eiaK o/ t#e P#i&o-enian %ersion
o/ 1)7. T#o.as5s re%ision consiste* aarent&! /or t#e .ost art in
+ringing t#e P#i&oMenian into &ine ?it# t#e re%a&ent te-tB +"t in Acts
#e a&so gi%es a &arge n".+er o/ D,estern5 rea*ings .ain&! in
.argina& notes J#c&..+KB +"t a&so in so.e H1 asteris3e* a**itions in
t#e +o*! o/ #is te-tB ?it# t#e res"&t t#atB ne-t to 0B t#e Harc&ean
S!rian is o"r .ost i.ortant a"t#orit! /or t#e D,estern5 te-t o/
Acts.
113

Ot#er ear&! e%i*ence inc&"*es t#ree artia& Gree3 .an"scrits *ating /ro.
as ear&! as t#e t#ir* cent"r!. =EP37F +e&ongs to t#e en* o/ t#e t#ir* cent"r! or
+eginning o/ t#e /o"rt#B an* its te-t is *eci*e*&! ,estern.A
112
P'7 an* P27 a&so
*ate /ro. t#e t#ir* or /o"rt# cent"ries an* are note?ort#! +eca"se o/ t#eir
Eg!tian J=EasternAK origins.
111
Ear&ier sti&& are t#e O&* S!riac an* O&* Latin
.an"scrit tra*itionsB =+ot# o/ ?#ic# go +ac3 to t#e &ater *eca*es o/ t#e secon*
cent"r!.A
11<
Signi/icant&!B t#e S!rian an* Latin tra*itions are in*een*ent o/ eac#
ot#er @ attesting to an ear&ier co..on so"rce.
Fina&&!B t#ere are t#e ear&! C#ristian ?riters ?#o re&! on t#e ,estern Te-t o/
Acts. =Ear&! c#"rc# /at#ers s#o? /a.i&iarit! ?it# t#e ,estern tra*itionB a.ong
t#e. Irenae"sB Tert"&&ianB C!rianB an* A"g"stine. In s#ortB t#e ,estern tra*ition
is ?e&&4atteste* in t#e %er! ear&! ?itnessesB so.e o/ ?#ic# *ate +ac3 to t#e secon*
cent"r!.A
11L
FitM.!er notes esecia&&! t#e "se o/ t#e ,estern Te-t +! t#e Latin
Fat#ersB Tert"&&ianB C!rianB an* A"g"stine.
117
He a&so /in*s signi/icant t#e "se o/
t#e ,estern Te-t +! E#rae. o/ S!ria in a co..entar! *ating /ro. t#e /o"rt#
cent"r!.
11H

Gi%en t#e *i%ersit! o/ ,estern Te-t tra*itionsB sc#o&ars "t its origins as
ear&! as t#e .i*4secon* cent"r!. C.H. Ta&+ert sees in t#e ,estern Te-t a
113
Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesB ages L14L'.
112
I+id'B age L'.
111
I+id.
11<
I+id.
11L
:o#n Po&#i&&B Acts 3The New American *ommentary4B ages 3H42).
117
:ose# FitM.!er$ The Acts of the ApostlesB age L).
11H
I+id'
7)
ers"asi%e arg".ent /or a /irst4cent"r! *ating. =ESFince t#e ,estern te-t o/ Acts is
%er! ear&! @ at &east .i*4secon* cent"r! @ i/ Acts is &ateB t#ere is no ti.e /or t#ese
%ariants to arise.A
1<)

!. Conc#usion
T#e en*ing o/ Acts an* atristic re/erences to Acts set a range o/ ossi+&e
co.osition *ates +et?een <' A0 to 1') A0. T#at Acts s#o?s no *een*ence on
Pa"&5s &etters @ ?i*e&! "se* +! t#e ear&! secon* cent"r! @ co"nts to?ar*s a /irst4
cent"r! *ate. T#at Acts a%oi*s anac#ronis.s an* acc"rate&! reresents t#e
signi/icance o/ Ro.an citiMens#i an* &ega& rocee*ings /or t#at ti.e erio*
rein/orces a /irst4cent"r! *ate. N! conc&"sions regar*ing a"t#ors#i @ *isc"sse*
in t#e ne-t section @ a** /"rt#er ?eig#t to t#is conc&"sion. A&& to&*B a *ate +et?een
<' A0 an* H) A0 is t#e +est ans?er to t#e e%i*ence.
CHAPTER 7: THE A8THOR OF THE ACTS OF THE APOST'ES
,#o ?rote t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&esC T#o"g# t#e a"t#or re/ers to #i.se&/ in
t#e re/ace an* @ as ?e ?i&& see @ at ti.es in t#e narrati%eB #e ne%er i*enti/ies
#i.se&/. T#"sB t#e ?or3 is =anon!.o"s.A T#is ter. is .is&ea*ingB #o?e%erB as
t#ere is no *o"+t t#at t#e /irst rea*ers an* *istri+"tors o/ Acts 3ne? t#e a"t#or5s
i*entit!. Be&o? I ?i&& re%ie? t#e so4ca&&e* =?e4sectionsA o/ ActsB e-terna&
e%i*enceB an* /"rt#er interna& e%i*enceB to i*enti/! its a"t#or.
I. The *e Passages o6 Acts as E"i(ence o6 Authoria# Participation
T#e .ost i.ortant e%i*ence o/ Acts5 a"t#ors#i +! a co.anion o/ Pa"& is
t#e =?e sectionsA J1<:1)41LI '):1411I '1:1417I 'L:14'7:1<K @ ?#ere t#e a"t#or
transitions /ro. *escri+ing e%ents in t#e t#ir* erson to *escri+ing t#e. in t#e /irst
erson &"ra&. =T#e .ost nat"ra& e-&anation is t#at t#e a"t#or #i.se&/ ?as
resent *"ring t#ose #ases o/ #is stor! ?#ic# #e recor*s in t#e 1st ers. @ t#at t#e
D?e5 o/ t#ose sections inc&"*es t#e DI5 o/ 1:1. . . . T#e "no+tr"si%e intro*"ction o/
t#ese D?e5 sections into t#e .ain narrati%e o/ ActsB +! a si.&e transition /ro. t#e
3r* ers. to t#e 1st ers. &"r. is +est acco"nte* /or i/ t#is is t#e a"t#or5s *e&icate
in*ication t#at at certain oints in t#e co"rse o/ e%ents #e #i.se&/ 8oine* Pa"& an*
ot#er /e&&o? tra%e&ers.A
1<1
C&assica& #istorian Ro+in L. Fo- reac#es t#e sa.e
conc&"sion: =*esite atte.ts +! sc#o&ars to *en! t#e o+%io"sB it stan*s o"t as t#e
?or3 o/ a co.anion o/ Pa"&.A
1<'
Accor*ing&!B t#e +est rea*ing o/ t#e te-t
in*icates t#at its a"t#or articiate* in so.e o/ t#e e%ents a+o"t ?#ic# #e ?rote.
1<)
C.H. Ta&+ertB =An Intro*"ction to ActsBA ,eview and E:positorB 221 JFa&& 1HL2K.
1<1
Br"ceB op' cit'B age 2.
1<'
Fo-B op' cit'B age 1'H.
71
II. O)9ections to Authoria# Participation
$ario"s o+8ections to t#e i*ea t#at t#e a"t#or o/ L"3e ?as a co.anion o/
Pa"& #a%e +een o//ere*. None are con%incing.
A. Literar! 0e%ice to Narrate Sea $o!ages
One o/ t#e .ore o"&ar atte.ts to re8ect t#e =?e4assagesA as e%i*ence
o/ a"t#oria& articiation is t#e t#eor! o"&ariMe* +! $ernon Ro++insB t#at t#e
/irst4erson &"ra& is a &iterar! *e%ice "se* to narrate sea4%o!ages an* is not .eant
to signa& t#e a"t#or5s articiation. So.e co..entators @ s"c# as Ro+ert Price
an* Ear& 0o#ert! @ #a%e "ncritica&&! accete* #is t#eor! as esta+&is#e*.
1<3
B"t /or
t#ose sc#o&ars ?#o #a%e act"a&&! ta3en t#e ti.e to e%a&"ate t#e +asis o/ Ro++in5s
t#eor!B t#ere aears to +e a "nani.o"s conc&"sion t#at it &ac3s .erit.
1<2

A%ai&a+&e on&ine are t?o artic&es re/"ting t#is a&ication o/ Ro++ins5
t#eor!. T#e /irst is .ine an* conc&"*es:
Critica& sc#o&ars#i5s conc&"sion t#at Ro++ins #as /ai&e* to
*e.onstrate t#at Acts5 =?e assagesA are t#e ro*"ct o/ a co..on
He&&enistic &iterar! *e%ice /or ortra!ing sea %o!ages is +orne o"t.
T#e e-a.&es o//ere* +! Ro++ins /ai& to s"ort #is t#eor!. In /actB
.an! o/ t#e.@s"c# as t#e $o!age o/ Hanno@act"a&&! reiterate t#at
t#e "se o/ t#e /irst4erson &"ra& in a narrati%e ?as inten*e* to
co.."nicate a"t#oria& articiation. Noreo%erB a&t#o"g# t#ere is no
e%i*ence t#at s"c# a &iterar! *e%ice e-iste*B e%en i/ it *i* it *oes not
aear t#at L"3e e.&o!e* it. L"3e is 8"st as &i3e&! to "se t#e /irst4
1<3
,eview of L"e= A *ritical )t"dy$ +y #riedrich )chleiermacher JGIn &ig#t o/ t#e
?or3 o/ $ernon Ro++insB ?#o a*e>"ate&! acco"nts /or t#e G?eG assages in Acts
as a con%ention o/ ancient sea %o!age narrati%esB .a! ?e not recogniMe an*
*is.iss t#e tire* o&* G,e So"rceG as anot#er #ar.oniMing *e%ice o/ t#e sa.e
t!eCGKB a%ai&a+&e at #tt:QQ???.*ets.*re?.e*"Q8#cQsc#&eier.#t.&I Ear& 0o#ert!
JGT#e "MM&e ?as so&%e* ?#en $ernon Ro++ins . . . .a*e a s&en*i*&! si.&e
o+ser%ation. A&& s"c# assages in Acts +egin ?it# an* .ost&! enco.ass sea
%o!ages. . . . L"3e is e.&o!ing a st!&istic *e%ice o/ He&&enistic &iterat"re.GK. The
&es"s P"88leB age 3<)B /n. 1'3
1<2
)ee Stan&e! PorterB Pa"l in ActsB ages 1'4'2I S"san N. Prae*erB GT#e Pro+&e.
o/ First Person Narration in Acts.G NovT 'HB ages 1H34'17 J1H7LKI :ose#
FitM!.erB L"e the Theolo!ianB ages 1<4'3I Co&in He.erB #irst Person Narrative
in Acts$ 'L4'7B TB 3<B ages L)41)H J1H71KI Ben ,it#eringtonB The Acts of the
ApostlesB ages 273472I C. 9. BarrettB GPa"& S#i?rec3e*BG in )cript"re= 1eanin!
and 1ethodB ages 13411.
7'
erson &"ra& to *escri+e e%ents on &an* an* t#e t#ir*4erson
ersecti%e to narrate sea %o!ages. None o/ Ro++in5s ro//ere*
criteria co"&* e-&ain t#is see.ing ar+itrar! "se o/ t#e /irst4erson
&"ra&.
1<1

Peter 9ir+! a&so ro%i*es a ers"asi%e re%ie? o/ Ro++in5s t#eor! as a&ie* to t#e
st"*! o/ Acts. His conc&"sion is t#e sa.e as .ine:
T#ere are no 3no?n e-a.&es o/ a si.&! generic /irst erson &"ra&
J?#ere t#e erson sea3ing is not resent +"t rat#er e.&o!ing an
e-ecte* st!&eK in an ancient sea %o!age stor!B an* t#is s"ggests
strong&! t#at an ancient a"t#or ?o"&* not #a%e s&ie* into t#e /irst
erson &"ra& in resonse to a s"ose* *e.an* o/ a sea tra%e& genre.
T#ere is no rece*entB an*B t#"sB t#ere is no s"c# &iterar! *e%ice.
1<<
T#"sB Ro++ins5 t#eor! t#at t#e ?e4assages are not .eant to +e rea* as
in*icating a"t#oria& articiation /ai&s.
B. Literar! 0e%ice to E.#asiMe I.ortant E%ents
So.e #a%e arg"e* t#at t#e =?e4assagesA ?ere 8"st a &iterar! *e%ice
inten*e* to e.#asiMe i.ortant asects o/ t#e .inistr! o/ Pa"&. Ot#ers #a%e
arg"e* t#at er#as t#e! are si.&! a /a&se c&ai. to articiation to #eig#ten t#e
a"t#or5s stat"re. Neit#er t#eor! #as ."c# to reco..en* it.
It is *one ?it# t#e e-ress "rose o/ s"ggesting t#at t#e a"t#or ?as
in t#e co.an! o/ Pa"& /or t#e ?#o&e o/ t#e conc&"*ing erio*
co%ere* +! t#e narrati%eB +"t ?as not in #is co.an! on an!
re%io"s occasionB e-cet /or t#e +rie/ %o!age /ro. Troas an* t#e
%isit to P#i&ii !ears +e/ore. T#at an act"a& co.anion o/ Pa"&
s#o"&* #a%e +een ?it# #i. on t#ese occasionsB an* on t#ese on&!B is
in no ?a! i.ro+a+&e. T#at a ersonB ?#o ?is#e* to create t#e
i.ression t#at #e #a* +een a co.anion o/ Pa"& in or*er to gi%e
?eig#t to #is stor!B s#o"&* &i.it #is c&ai. to +e an e!e4?itness in t#is
e-traor*inar! ?a! is >"ite incre*i+&e.
1<L
1<1
C#risto#er E. PriceB =T#e ,e Passages as a Literar! 0e%ice or Sea Tra%e&C A
Criti>"e o/ $ernon Ro++insB
#tt:QQ???.c#ristianca*re.orgQ.e.+erRcontri+QcR?eassages.#t.&B accesse* on
Ari& '2B '))1.
1<<
Peter 9ir+!B =First Person Persecti%e in Ancient Sea Tra%e&B
#tt:QQ???.c#ristianorigins.co.Q?esea.#t.& Jaccesse* on Ari& '2B '))1K.
73
I ?o"&* a** t#at t#e .ost signi/icant o.ission o/ t#e "se o/ t#e ?e4assages @ i/
t#e "rose ?as to &egiti.ate t#e acco"nt @ is in t#e Gose& o/ L"3e. In ot#er
?or*sB ?#en L"3e is act"a&&! narrating t#e .eans o/ sa&%ationB #e .a3es no c&ai.
to articiation at a&&.
C. A Tra%e& 0iar! o/ a Co.anion o/ Pa"&
A .ore &a"si+&e e-&anation is t#at t#e =?e sectionsA re/&ect t#e a"t#or5s
"se o/ anot#er erson5s *iar! @ a erson ?#o ?as a co.anion o/ Pa"&. T#o"g#
t#is ?o"&* e-&ain t#e acc"rac! an* %i%i*ness o/ t#ose sectionsB it "&ti.ate&! /ai&s
/or &ac3 o/ e%i*ence.
T#e arg".ent t#at L"3e is >"oting or #ea%i&! re&iant on so.eone
e&se5s *iar! or 8o"rna& in t#e D?e5 assages is ?ea3 /or t#e %er! goo*
reason t#at t#e st!&eB gra..arB an* %oca+"&ar! o/ t#e D?e5 assages
are %er! ."c# t#e sa.e as t#at /o"n* e&se?#ere in L"3e4Acts. In
ot#er ?or*sB aart /ro. t#e .ere "se o/ D?e5 itse&/B t#e t#eor! o/ a
non4L"3an so"rce #ere #as &itt&e concrete &ing"istic e%i*ence to
s"ort it.
1<7
:.C. Ha?3ins5 e-#a"sti%e st"*! o/ t#e &ang"age o/ L"3e an* Acts
conc&"*e* t#at t#ere ?as no &iterar! +asis to *isting"is# t#e =?eA assages
/ro. t#e rest o/ Acts as a ?#o&e. =ETF#ere is an i..ense +a&ance o/ interna&
an* e-terna& &ing"istic e%i*ence in /a%or o/ t#e %ie? t#at t#e origina& ?riter o/
t#ese sections ?as t#e sa.e erson as t#e .ain a"t#or o/ t#e Acts an* o/ t#e
T#ir* Gose&.A
1<H
A&t#o"g# it co"&* +e arg"e* t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts re?rote t#e *iar! in
#is o?n st!&eB it *oes not e-&ain ?#! #e retaine* t#e /irst4erson &"ra&. It
see.s "n&i3e&! t#at #e ?o"&* #a%e &e/t it in /or e.#asis +eca"se #e ne%er once
#ints ?#o t#e so"rce .ig#t +e. =Anot#er a"t#or incororating into #is #istor!
t#e *iar! o/ an e!e?itness ?o"&* ro+a+&! #a%e na.e* t#e ?riter o/ so
i.ortant a conte.orar! *oc".entB on or*er to en#ance its %a&"e in t#e e!es
o/ t#e rea*ers.A
1L)
F"rt#er.oreB t#ere *oes not see. to +e an! con%ention /or
1<L
B.H. StreeterB The #o"r Gospels$ A )t"dy of %ri!insB age 12H. )ee also
9"..e&B op' cit'B age 131 JGETF#e a"t#or #ar*&! ?o"&* #a%e inserte* t#e P?eP so
sora*ica&&! i/ #e inten*e* +! t#ese insertions to gi%e #is acco"nt t#e aearance
o/ an e!e?itness reort.GKI E&&isB op' cit'B age 22 JGT#eir occ"rrence is too
occasiona& an* "no+tr"si%e to +ear an arti/icia& c&ai. to Pe!e?itness stat"s.PGK.
1<7
,it#eringtonB op' cit'B age 13.
1<H
Ha?3insB (orae )ynopticaeB age 177.
1L)
Br"ceB op' cit'B age 2.
72
s"c# "se o/ so"rces.
1L1
Goo*see* o//ers a**itiona& reasons to *o"+t t#e *iar!
t#eor!:
ENFo e%i*ence #as +een o//ere* t#at t#e ancients 3et
*iariesI t#e s"ose* ara&&e&s in Oeno#on5s tra%e& notes4so
.an! *a!sB so .an! stagesB so .an! arasangs4is not a case in
ointB +"t >"ite t#e contrar!. T#ere ?e #a%e Oeno#onB a &iterar!
.anB .a3ing #is o?n tra%e& notes an* &ater "sing t#e. #i.se&/B
e-act&! as L"3e see.s to #a%e *one.
An*B /"rt#erB ?#at a .ar%e& it ?o"&* +e /or s"c# a *iar!B
3et s"ose*&! +! one o/ Pa"&5s tra%e& co.anionsB to #a%e
s"r%i%e* /or t#irt! or /ort! !ears an* t#en /a&&en into t#e #an*s o/
t#e .an ?#o #a* concei%e* t#e i*ea o/ ?riting t#e #istor! o/
t#ose tra%e&sT An* a+o%e a&&B #o? strange it is t#atB in "sing itB #e
s#o"&* #a%e /orgotten t#at it ?as not #is o?n ?or3 an*
.ista3en&! coie* t#e /irst ersons "na&tere* in it in se%ent!4
se%en instancesB ?#en #e s#o"&* o/ co"rse #a%e c#ange* e%er!
one o/ t#e. to t#e t#ir* ersonT ,e ."st #ere re.e.+er t#at t#is
a"t#or o/ L"3e4Acts is no stranger to "sB /or ?e #a%e seen #i.
care/"&&! "sing t#e Gose& o/ Nar3 an* ot#er so"rces in #is
gose& an* .a3ing no s"c# cr"*e +&"n*ers as t#is.
On t#e ?#o&eB it is sa/e to sa! t#at t#e i*ea t#at t#e ?e4
sections ?ere *ra?n +! t#e a"t#or /ro. so.e+o*! e&se5s *iar!
."st +e gi%en "B si.&! +eca"se it in%o&%es s"c# a series o/
i.ro+a+i&itiesB none o/ ?#ic# #as +een gra&e* ?it#B ."c# &ess
ans?ere*B +! its a*%ocates.
1L'
0. T#eo&ogica& 0i//erences
Anot#er o+8ection t#at is o/ten raise* against t#e a"t#oria&4articiation
t#eor! is t#e s"ose* irreconci&a+&e t#eo&ogica& *i//erences +et?een Pa"& an*
t#e a"t#or o/ Acts. T#is co"nter arg".ent /ai&s /or a n".+er o/ reasons.
FirstB it rests on t#e /a&se re.ise t#at a&& o/ Pa"&5s co.anions agree
?it# @ an* e-ress in t#e sa.e ter.s @ a&& o/ Pa"&5s t#eo&ogica& +e&ie/s /or t#eir
entire &i%es.
1L1
E&&isB op' cit'B age 22 JGETF#ere are /e?B i/ an!B ara&&e&s in ancient ?ritings /or a
?riter to "se anot#erPs notes in t#is /as#ion.GK.
1L'
E*gar :. Goo*see*B An Introd"ction to the New TestamentB ages ')14)'
J6ni%ersit! o/ C#icago Press 1H3LKB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
???.ear&!c#ristian?ritings.co.Qgoo*see*Qc#1'.#t.&
71
T#e &ac3 o/ an a"t#entic DPa"&inis.5 in L"3e is no co"nter4arg".ent
against t#e &ater tra%e&ing co.anion an* e!e?itness. Not e%er!
one o/ Pa"&5s tra%e&ing co.anions nee* #a%e re.aine*
t#eo&ogica&&! an* a"t#entica&&! =Pa"&inistA a&& #is &i/e. In t#e case o/
L"3eB contact ?it# t#e +earers o/ t#e seci/ic Pa&estinian :es"s
tra*ition ?#ic# #e ?or3e* into #is Gose& ?i&& a&so #a%e +ro"g#t
a+o"t a certain t#eo&ogica& c#ange o/ ositionB ossi+&! a&rea*!
*"ring t#e ti.e o/ Pa"&5s cati%it! in Caesarea.
1L3
F"rt#erB =E?Fe cannot 3no? to ?#at e-tent Pa"& ?as "n*erstoo* +! #is
co.anions in #is seci/ic t#eo&og!.A
1L2

Secon*B t#is arg".ent ignores t#e i.ortant oints o/ agree.ent
+et?een Acts an* Pa"&B e%en on .atters o/ t#eo&ogica& ersecti%e. T#e a"t#or
o/ Acts *e.onstrates /a.i&iarit! ?it# core +e&ie/s state* in Pa"&5s &etters Js"c#
as sa&%ation +! /ait#B t#e E"c#aristB t#e Genti&e .issionB an* resistance to
circ".cision /or genti&esK.
T#ir*B t#o"g# in/or.ati%eB Pa"&5s &etters are not an e-#a"sti%e
artic"&ation o/ #is t#eo&ogica& +e&ie/s. T#e! ?ere ?ritten .ain&! to eo&e ?#o
#a* a&rea*! con%erte* to C#ristianit! an* in resonse to seci/ic occasionsB
s"c# as t#e er"tion o/ otentia& #eres! or *i%isions. On t#e ot#er #an*B ."c#
o/ Acts reco"nts Pa"&5s .issionar! acti%ities to "n+e&ie%ers. A**itiona&&!B t#e
a"t#or o/ Acts ?as ?riting ?it# #is o?n t#eo&ogica& ersecti%e. ,e s#o"&*
not e-ect #i. to necessari&! s#are Pa"&5s /oc"s in #is &ettersB +"t ."st
recogniMe t#at #e #a* #is o?n stor! to te&&. It is na[%e to e-ect co.&ete
#ar.on! /ro. acco"nts ?it# s"c# *isarate en*s.
Fina&&!B i/ Acts is *ate* a/ter t#e /a&& o/ :er"sa&e. JL) A0KB t#e "s"a&
arg".ents a+o"t t#eo&ogica& *i//erences /ai& to acco"nt /or t#e assage o/ ti.e
an* occ"rrence o/ signi/icant e%ents.
Against t#isB #o?e%erB is "rge* t#at t#e ?riter cannot #a%e +een a
/o&&o?er an* co.anion o/ Pa"&B /or #e is not a goo* Pa"&inist
an* t#e ict"re #e gi%es o/ Pa"&5s attit"*e to :e?is# rit"a& is
#oe&ess&! o"t o/ 3eeing ?it# Pa"&5s o?n acco"nt o/ it in
Ga&atians an* e&se?#ere. B"t ?it# t#e &ase o/ ti.e t#e :e?is#
>"estion #a* cease* to +e i.ortant in t#e ear&! c#"rc#I it #a*
+eco.e a *ea* iss"e. T#e assage o/ ti.e #as recise&! t#e sa.e
e//ect "on .o*ern ?riters ?#o *ea& ?it# e%ents in ?#ic# t#e!
#a%e articiate*I it ?o"&* +e eas! to i&&"strate t#is. T#e .ista3e
?e #a%e +een .a3ing a+o"t t#e Acts is t#at ?e #a%e *ate* it too
ear&!I in a *oc".ent conte.orar! ?it# Pa"& s"c# a ict"re o/
1L3
Henge&B op' cit'B age H.
1L2
Feine4Be#. 9"..e&B Introd"ction to the New TestamentB age 1'H.
7<
#is attit"*e to?ar* :"*ais. is in*ee* inconcei%a+&e in one o/ #is
/o&&o?ers or in an!one e&se. B"t t#e Acts ?as not ?ritten in
Pa"&5s *a!B as ?e #a%e seen. C#anging iss"es in a &i%ing
.o%e.ent ?o"&* &ea* an! ?riterB ?#et#er a co.anion o/ Pa"&
or notB to c#ange* interests an* e.#ases.
S"re&! it is in t#e #ig#est *egree arti/icia& to t"rn a?a!
/ro. t#e nat"ra& interretation o/ t#e ,e4narrati%es an* regar*
t#e. ?it# s"sicion an* *istr"st as t#o"g# t#e ?riting o/ L"3e4
Acts ?ere a cri.eB t#e eretrator o/ ?#ic# #a* ta3en great ains
to co%er #is trac3s an* concea& #is i*entit!. T#e o+8ections
"s"a&&! "rge* against t#e L"can a"t#ors#i o/ L"3e4Acts /a*e o"t
?#en t#e tr"e *ate o/ t#e ?or3 is ercei%e*. T#e! are a&&
s"//icient&! e-&aine* +! t#e &ase o/ a generation.
1L1
E. 0i//erent Portraits o/ Pa"&
T#ere are a series o/ re&ate* arg".ents co.&aining o/ *i//erences
+et?een t#e ortra!a&s o/ Pa"& in Acts an* Pa"& in #is o?n &etters. For
con%enienceB I s#a&& re/er to t#e arg".ents .a*e +! an Internet co..entatorB
?#o #as a.asse* t#ese arg".ents on one site.
1L<
6&ti.ate&!B a&& o/ t#e
arg".ents rest on t#e re.ise t#at no co.anion o/ Pa"& co"&* #a%e ortra!e*
Pa"& so *rastica&&! *i//erent t#an Pa"& ortra!s #i.se&/. T#ere are a co"&e o/
+asic ro+&e.s ?it# t#is re.ise. FirstB Pa"&5s &etters ?ere #ig#&! occasiona&.
He ?rote not to gi%e a co.re#ensi%e #istor! o/ #is &i/e or a s!ste.ic
t#eo&ogica& resentation o/ #is +e&ie/sB +"t in resonse to seci/ic ro+&e.s or
iss"es t#at #a* arisen. In s#ortB t#e! cannot +e ass".e* to gi%e "s a co.&ete
an* acc"rate ortra!a& o/ Pa"&. Secon*B e%en a co.anion o/ Pa"& ?o"&* ?rite
?it# #is o?n "roses an* #is o?n "n*erstan*ing o/ t#eo&og! an* e%ents. A
co.anion o/ Pa"& ?#o ?as aarent&! not a con%ert o/ Pa"&B ?#o tra%e&e*
?it# #i. on&! occasiona&&!B ?#o #a* signi/icant contact ?it# ot#er ro.inent
ear&! C#ristian &ea*ersB an* ?#o ?as ?riting ossi+&! *eca*es a/ter Pa"&5s
*eat#B s#o"&* not +e ass".e* to s#are s&a%is#&! Pa"&5s ersecti%e an* %ie? o/
e%ents.
1. Pa"& as an Aost&e
One o/ t#e &ess i.ressi%e arg".ents against L"3an a"t#ors#i o/ Acts is
t#at L"3e an* Pa"& *isagree on ?#at it .eans to +e an aost&e. T#ere is no *o"+t
t#at Pa"& c&ai.e* to +e an aost&e +eca"se #e ?as ca&&e* +! :es"s to ser%e as a
1L1
Goo*see*B op' cit'B ages ')'4)2.
1L<
=T#e 6n#istorica& Portra!a& o/ Pa"& in ActsBA a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.geocities.co.Qa"&nto+inQ&"3ea"&.#t.& Jaccesse* :"&! 1B '))1K.
7L
.essenger to t#e Genti&es. Pa"&5s ro&e as an aost&e is atteste* in t#e /o&&o?ing
&aces: Ro. 1:1I 11:13I 1 Cor. 1:1I H:14'I 11:HI ' Cor. 1:1I 1':1'I Ga&. 1:1I E#.
1:1I Co&. 1:1I 1 Ti.. 1:1I ':LI ' Ti.. 1:1I 1:11I an* Tit"s 1:1. ,#i&e it is tr"e t#at
in 1 Cor. 11:HB Pa"& associates #is +eing an aost&e ?it# +eing co..issione* +!
t#e risen :es"sB it is a&so tr"e t#at t#is is not t#e on&! ?a! in ?#ic# #e "ses t#e
ter.. T#e ?or&* itse&/ is so.et#ing a3in to =sent .essenger.A Pa"& re/ers to
aost&es J=aosto&osAK t#at #e #as sent o"t as #is reresentati%es to anot#er c#"rc#
in ' Cor. 7:'3. A si.i&ar "sage o/ t#e ter. is /o"n* in P#i&. ':'1. T#is a&so
aears to +e #is "se o/ =aost&esA in 1 T#ess. ':<. So.e o/ t#e rest o/ t#e
re/erences *o not &en* t#e.se&%es to an eas! "n*erstan*ing o/ t#e recise
*e/inition +e!on* +eing secia&&! ca&&e* to act as a reresentati%e o/ C#ristB .ost&!
&i3e&! in t#e /o"n*ing o/ c#"rc#es.
T#e sit"ation is /"rt#er ."**ie* +! !et .ore %ariet! in t#e "se o/ t#e ter.
a.ong ear&! C#ristians. A c"rio"s e-a.&e o/ #o? t#e ter. co"&* +e "se*
*i//erent&! co.es /ro. t#e Eist&e to t#e He+re?s. T#e a"t#or o/ He+re?s re/ers
to :es"s #i.se&/ as =t#e Aost&e an* Hig# Priest o/ o"r con/ession.A JHe+. 3:1K.
T#e Gose& o/ Natt#e? "ses it to re/er to t#e t?e&%e *isci&es JNat. 1):'KB as *oes
t#e Gose& o/ Nar3 JNar3 <:3)K. T#e "sage in Nar3 is interesting in its /oc"s on
+eing sent +! :es"s. T#e t?e&%e are sent o"t as =*isci&esA +"t ?#en t#e! ret"rn
/ro. t#eir .issions t#e! are =aost&es.A JNar3 <:LB 3)K. Gi%en t#e te.ora&
ri.ac! o/ Nar3 an* t#e o"&arit! o/ Natt#e?B t#is association o/ t#e ter. ?it#
t#e T?e&%e ?asB at t#e &eastB >"ite co..on in t#e ear&! C#ristian c#"rc#es. L"3eB
/or t#e .ost artB /o&&o?s Natt#e? an* Nar3 +! "sing =aost&esA to genera&&! re/er
to t#e T?e&%e.
One s3etic arg"es: =In ActsB #o?e%erB t#e aost&es#i ?as resente* as an
o//ice ?#ic# co"&* on&! +e con/erre* on so.eone ?#o #a* +een ?it# :es"s ?#en
#e ?as a&i%e an* ."st +e one o/ t#e t?e&%e.A B"t t#is case is o%erstate*. T#e
%erses #e cites to c&ai. t#at Acts "ne>"i%oca&&! states t#at no one co"&* +e an
aost&e ?it#o"t #a%ing +ro3en +rea* ?it# :es"s are not a&ica+&e. In Acts 1:'14
'1B Peter *escri+es #o? t#e T?e&%e c#ose a s"ccessor to :"*as. A&t#o"g# Peter
sa!s t#at Natt#ias ?i&& ta3e #is &ace in t#is =.inistr! an* aost&es#iA /ro.
?#ic# :"*as t"rne* asi*eB #e *oes not e>"ate =aost&es#iA e-c&"si%e&! ?it# +eing
a .e.+er o/ t#e T?e&%e an!.ore t#an #e e>"ates #a%ing a =.inistr!A e-c&"si%e&!
?it# +eing a .e.+er o/ t#e T?e&%e.
T#e s3etic5s ot#er re/erenceB Acts 1):21B *oes not .ention an! =criterion
/or aost&es#i.A In /actB it *oes not re/er to aost&es#i at a&&. T#e sa.e is tr"e o/
Acts 13:3)431. T#ereinB Acts re/ers to t#ose ?#o /o&&o?e* :es"s /ro. Ga&i&ee
t#ro"g# t#e res"rrection. T#e! are ?itnesses J=mart"sAK to :es"s5 .inistr! an*
res"rrectionB not necessari&! aost&es. No?#ere is Pa"& =.a*e to accetA t#at #e is
not an aost&e +eca"se #e *i* not /o&&o? :es"s /ro. Ga&i&ee t#ro"g# #is
res"rrection. A**itiona&&!B as t#e s3etic ."st conce*e Ja&+eit in tin! rint in an
en*noteKB t#e a"t#or o/ Acts seci/ica&&! re/ers to Pa"& as an aost&e t?ice in Acts
12:2 an* 12:
77
=B"t t#e eo&e o/ t#e cit! ?ere *i%i*e*I an* so.e si*e* ?it# t#e :e?sB an*
so.e ?it# t#e aost&esBA an*B
=B"t ?#en t#e aost&es Barna+as an* Pa"& #ear* o/ itB t#e! tore t#eir ro+es
an* r"s#e* o"t into t#e cro?*B cr!ing o"t.A
T#e co..entator arg"es t#at it is irre&e%ant t#at Acts seci/ica&&! re/ers to
Pa"& as an aost&e on t?o occasions +eca"se t#e a"t#or is re&!ing on a so"rce /or
%erse 12. O/ co"rseB t#e a"t#or o/ Acts is a&so re&!ing on a so"rce JNar3K an* #is
"sage in L"3e ?#en #e re/ers to t#e T?e&%e as aost&es. An* #ere ?e er#as
#a%e t#e cr"- o/ t#e e-&anation. T#e a"t#or o/ Acts is so.e?#at +o-e* in +! t#e
esta+&is#e* "sage o/ t#e ter. =aost&esA in #is .ost i.ortant gose& so"rceB
Nar3. Ha%ing /ait#/"&&! /o&&o?e* Nar35s "se o/ t#e ter. in t#e Gose& o/ L"3e
Jan* consistent ?it# Natt#e? an* .ost &i3e&! a ?i*e&! esta+&is#e* "sage at t#e
ti.e #e ?roteKB t#e a"t#or o/ Acts contin"es to "se t#e sa.e ter. in t#e sa.e ?a!
in #is secon* %o&".e. Not#ing a+o"t t#is is inconsistent ?it# t#e a"t#or #a%ing
+een a co.anion o/ Pa"&. Si.&! +eca"se t#e a"t#or tra%e&e* ?it# Pa"& on
occasion *oes not .ean t#at #e ?as o+&igate* to .a3e an iss"e o"t o/ #o? t#e
ter. aost&e ?as "se*.
I/ it is tr"e @ as .an! c&ai. @ t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as atte.ting to
ortra! a ositi%e ortrait o/ t#e ear&! C#"rc#B an* i/ t#ere ?as a .ore accete*
"n*erstan*ing o/ t#e ter. =aost&eBA ?#! is #e o+&igate* to roc3 t#e +oatC T#ere
is no co.e&&ing reason to ic3 s"c# a /ig#t. E%en i/ it ?ere not a oint o/
contention at t#e ti.e #e ?roteB ?#! ?o"&* #e +e o+&igate* to "se t#e ter. in a
?a! t#at .ig#t con/"se a goo* ortion o/ #is rea*ersC He is not. Noreo%erB t#e
a"t#or o/ Acts .a! si.&! #a%e ?ante* to +e consistent in #o? #e "se* t#e ter.s
in +ot# %o&".es. Fo&&o?ing #is ri.ar! gose& so"rce #e "se* =aost&esA to re/er
to t#e T?e&%e an*B rat#er t#an 8". s#is .i*strea.B contin"e* ?it# t#at "sage o/
t#e ter. in Acts. S"re&! e%en a /rien* o/ Pa"& co"&* "se t#e ter. aost&e in t#e
sa.e ?a! #e "se* it in #is /irst %o&".e ?it#o"t *enigrating Pa"&. A/tera&&B Acts
?as ?ritten ro+a+&! 1) or 11 !ears a/ter Pa"&5s *eat#. It is not a +iogra#! o/
Pa"& or e%en a *e/ense o/ #is .inistr!. Rat#erB it is a #istor! o/ t#e rogress o/ t#e
gose& /ro. :er"sa&e. to Ro.e. PeterB :a.esB an* :o#n carr! t#e torc# in t#e /irst
#a&/. Pa"& in t#e secon*.
In an! e%entB ?#ate%er t#e s"+t&eties o/ Acts5 an* Pa"&5s "se o/ t#e ter.
=aost&eBA t#e! +ot# agree a+o"t t#e /acts "n*er&!ing t#e +asis o/ Pa"&5s aosto&ic
c&ai.. Pa"& enco"ntere* t#e risen :es"s an* ?as gi%en secia& a"t#orit! to +e #is
.essenger to t#e Genti&es. T#erea/terB Pa"& carrie* o"t a s"ccess/"& .inistr! to t#e
Genti&es. As F.F. Br"ce notesB =?#en Pa"& in &etters arg"es /or t#e %a&i*it! o/ #is
7H
aost&es#i +! an aea& to #is ac#ie%e.entsB t#e recor* o/ Acts ro%i*es a+"n*ant
in*een*ent con/ir.ation o/ #is arg".ent.A
1LL

Fina&&!B &et "s ret"rn to o"r t?o e-cetions in Acts @ ?#ere t#e a"t#or *oes
re/er e-&icit&! to Pa"& as an aost&e. ,#i&e ?e ro+a+&! cannot 3no? ?#! t#e
a"t#or o/ Acts s&is into "sing t#e ter. to re/er to Pa"&B ?#at %s. 2 an* 12 *o te&& "s
is t#at t#e a"t#or ?as not ignorant o/ Pa"&5s "sage o/ t#e ter.. Pa"& t#o"g#t o/
#i.se&/ as an aost&e. 1 Cor. H:< re%ea&s t#at Pa"& t#o"g#t Barna+as ?as one as
?e&&. T#e a"t#or o/ Acts 3no?s t#at Pa"& ?as ca&&e* an aost&e. He aarent&!
3no?s t#at Barna+as ?as ca&&e* one as ?e&&.
In s".B t#ere is no reason to *o"+t t#e a"t#ors#i o/ Acts +! a co.anion
o/ Pa"& +eca"se o/ #o? #e "ses t#e ter. aost&e.
'. Pa"&5s First $isit to :er"sa&e.
Anot#er arg".ent raise* +! t#e co..entator is t#at t#ere =is a&so a
*iscreanc! in t#e act"a& ti.ing o/ Pa"&5s /irst %isit to :er"sa&e..A Here is #o?
Pa"& *escri+es t#e ti.ing o/ t#at %isit:
B"t ?#en Go*B ?#o #a* set .e aart +e/ore I ?as +orn an* ca&&e*
.e t#ro"g# #is graceB ?as &ease* to re%ea& #is Son to .eB so t#at I
.ig#t roc&ai. #i. a.ong t#e Genti&esB I *i* not con/er ?it# an!
#".an +eingB nor *i* I go " to :er"sa&e. to t#ose ?#o ?ere a&rea*!
aost&es +e/ore .eB +"t I ?ent a?a! at once into Ara+iaB an*
a/ter?ar*s I ret"rne* to 0a.asc"s. T#en a/ter t#ree !ears I *i* go
" to :er"sa&e. to %isit Ce#as an* sta!e* ?it# #i. /i/teen *a!sI +"t
I *i* not see an! ot#er aost&e e-cet :a.es t#e Lor*5s +rot#er.
Ga&atians 1:1141H.
Accor*ing to t#e s3eticB =in Pa"&5s o?n ?or*sB #e *i* not go to :er"sa&e. "nti&
t#ree !ears a/ter #is con%ersion. Pa"&5s itinerar! #ere is 0a.asc"s4Ara+ia4
0a.asc"s4:er"sa&e.. T#e /irst 0a.asc"s is i.&ie* since Pa"& sai* #e ?ent +ac
t#ere.A
As an initia& ointB t#e ancients o/ten co"nte* !ears inc&"si%e&!. So art o/
a !ear co"&* co"nt as a !ear. J)ee also %. 23K. As a res"&tB e%en Pa"& is a &itt&e
%ag"e a+o"t t#e a.o"nt o/ ti.e #e ?aite* +e/ore going to :er"sa&e. a/ter #is
con%ersion. It ?as at &east t?o /"&& !earsB +"t +e!on* t#at ?e cannot +e .ore
seci/ic.
1L7

1LL
F.F. Br"ceB Apostle of the (eart )et #reeB age 11<.
H)
In an! e%entB *oes Acts contra*ict t#is t?o4to4t#ree !ear erio* +et?een
Pa"&5s con%ersion an* #is /irst %isit to :er"sa&e.C Accor*ing to t#is co..entatorB
t#e ans?er ."st +e !es.
T#e ict"re ainte* +! Acts is %er! *i//erent. Acts c#ater H narrate*
Pa"&5s con%ersion on t#e ?a! to 0a.asc"s JH:141)K. He ?as
.irac"&o"s&! #ea&e* a C#ristian in 0a.asc"s ca&&e* Ananias JH:1)4
1HK an* G/or se%era& *a!sG JH:1HK reac#e* in 0a.asc"s. T#en Ga/ter
so.e ti.eG t#e :e?s &otte* to 3i&& #i. an* Pa"& #a* to escae in a
+as3et &o?ere* /ro. t#e cit! ?a&&. JH:'34'1K. T#en Pa"&5s tri to
:er"sa&e. /o&&o?e* in Acts H:'<. T#"s t#ere is no .ention o/ a tri
to Ara+ia an* certain&! no in*ication t#at t#ree !ears #a* asse*.
It is c&earB #o?e%erB t#at t#ere is no contra*iction #ere +eca"se Acts *oes not te&& "s
#o? &ong Pa"& ?as in 0a.asc"s. :"st as3 t#is >"estion: ,#at is t#e *i//erence in
ti.e +et?een #o? &ong Acts sa!s Pa"& ?aite* +e/ore going to :er"sa&e. an* #o?
&ong Pa"& sa!s #e ?aite* +e/ore going to :er"sa&e.C Cannot ans?er t#e >"estionC
T#at is +eca"se Acts *oes not te&& "s #o? &ong Pa"& ?aite* +e/ore going to
:er"sa&e.. Eit#er #e *i* not 3no? or *i* not t#in3 it ?ort# .entioning. Ancient
#istorians ?ere ?ont to s"..ariMe an* genera&iMeB esecia&&! i/ t#e! &ac3e* e-act
in/or.ationI +"t so.eti.es si.&! to .o%e t#e narrati%e a&ong.
F"rt#er.oreB ?#en ?e &oo3 at ?#at Acts act"a&&! sa!s a+o"t Pa"&5s sta! in
0a.asc"sB it is c&ear t#at t#ere is no contra*iction @ Acts a&so conte.&ates a
&engt#! erio* o/ ti.e +e/ore Pa"& goes to :er"sa&e..
For se%era& *a!s #e ?as ?it# t#e *isci&es in 0a.asc"sB an*
i..e*iate&! #e +egan to roc&ai. :es"s in t#e s!nagog"esB sa!ingB
GHe is t#e Son o/ Go*.G A&& ?#o #ear* #i. ?ere a.aMe* an* sai*B
GIs not t#is t#e .an ?#o .a*e #a%oc in :er"sa&e. a.ong t#ose ?#o
in%o3e* t#is na.eC An* #as #e not co.e #ere /or t#e "rose o/
+ringing t#e. +o"n* +e/ore t#e c#ie/ riestsCG Sa"& +eca.e
increasing&! .ore o?er/"& an* con/o"n*e* t#e :e?s ?#o &i%e* in
0a.asc"s +! ro%ing t#at :es"s ?as t#e Nessia#. A/ter so.e ti.e
#a* asse*B t#e :e?s &otte* to 3i&& #i.B +"t t#eir &ot +eca.e 3no?n
to Sa"&. T#e! ?ere ?atc#ing t#e gates *a! an* nig#t so t#at t#e!
.ig#t 3i&& #i.I +"t #is *isci&es too3 #i. +! nig#t an* &et #i. *o?n
t#ro"g# an oening in t#e ?a&&B &o?ering #i. in a +as3et.
Acts H:1H4'3.
1L7
F.F. Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesB age '21.
H1
It ."st +e conce*e* o/ co"rse t#at Acts *oes not e-&icit&! re/er to a tri to
Ara+iaB +"t o.ission o/ s"c# a tangentia& s"+8ect is #ar*&! s"rrising an* *oes not
rec&"*e a"t#ors#i +! so.eone ?#o 3ne? Pa"&. L"3e #a* #is reasons /or ?riting
ActsB an* it ?as not to ?rite an e-#a"sti%e +iogra#! o/ Pa"&. =Here as e&se?#ere
L"3e oerates as a He&&enistic #istorianB not as a +iogra#er. He is intereste* in
signi/icant *ee*s t#at a//ecte* t#e /&o? o/ #istor!B not in +iogra#ica& %ignettes.A
1LH
Not e%en Pa"& *etai&s #o? &ong #e ?as in Ara+ia or /or ?#at reason. His /oc"s too
is 0a.asc"s. Noreo%erB t#o"g# "nnecessar! /or a *e/ense o/ L"3an a"t#ors#iB
so.e co..entators #a%e note* t#at t#e .ention o/ t?o te.ora& in*icators +!
Acts J%. 1H+B =no? /or se%era& *a!s #e ?as ?it# t#e *isci&es in 0a.asc"sA an* %.
'3B =?#en .an! *a!s #a* e&ase*AK in*icates an interr"tion o/ Pa"&5s sa! in
0a.asc"sB s"c# as /or a tri to Ara+ia.
T"rning o"r attention to t#e &engt# o/ ti.e in Acts t#at Pa"& *e&a!e* going
to :er"sa&e.B t#e arg".ent against a"t#ors#i rests on t#e ass".tion t#at t#e
#rase =a/ter so.e ti.e #a* asse*A ."st .ean a erio* o/ &ess t#an t?o !ears.
B"t s"c# a conc&"sion is +ase&ess. As Ger* L"*e.ann notesB t#is #rase is =a
co..on L"3an in*ication o/ ti.eA t#at =er.its no conc&"sion regar*ing
seci/ications o/ erio*s o/ ti.e in Acts or regar*ing L"3e5s 3no?&e*ge o/
s"c#.A
17)
Nartin Henge& notes t#at t#e "se o/ t#is #rase =?it# a te.ora& .eaning
is a /a%o"rite ?or* o/ L"3e5s an* in*icates a &engt#! erio* o/ ti.e.A
171
T#e
#rase is "se* in Acts 17:17 /or a erio* o/ a+o"t a !ear an* #a&/. Interesting&!B
t#is #rase is "se* in 1 9ings ':37 to re/er to a erio* o/ t#ree !ears.
A&t#o"g# c#rono&ogica&&! i.reciseB L"3e *oes gi%e a co"&e o/ c&"es
s"ggesting t#at Pa"&5s sta! in 0a.asc"s ?as &engt#!. Pa"& =+eca.e increasing&!
o?er/"&A in #is "+&ic sea3ing. Nore signi/icant is t#at ?#en Pa"&5s &i/e ?as
t#reatene*B =#is *isci&esA acte* to *e&i%er #i.. As :o#n B. Po&#i&& notesB =t#at
Pa"& #a* D*isci&es5 at t#is oint is so.e?#at s"rrising.A
17'
O/ co"rseB i/ Pa"& #a*
sent at &east t?o4t#ree !ears reac#ing an* con%erting :e?s at t#e S!nagog"eB #e
co"&* #a%e ac>"ire* *isci&es ?#i&e in 0a.asc"s. A s#ort sta! in 0a.asc"s /or
Pa"& ?o"&* not see. to &ea%e ti.e /or Pa"& to ac>"ire #is o?n *isci&es.
C&ear&!B t#ere/oreB t#e co..entator is ?rong to arg"e t#at Acts an* Pa"&
*isagree o%er t#e erio* o/ ti.e +et?een Pa"&5s con%ersion an* #is /irst %isit to
:er"sa&e.. To t#e e-tent t#e acco"nt in Acts5 s"ggests a ti.e erio*B it is a &engt#!
one t#at *oes not at a&& contra*ict Pa"&5s t?o4to4t#ree !ear erio*.
Ho?e%erB t#is *oes not reso&%e a&& o/ t#e tension +et?een Acts an*
Ga&atians. Acts sa!s t#at Pa"& .et ?it# =t#e aost&esA JActs H:'LKB ?#ereas
1LH
Ben ,it#eringtonB The Acts of the ApostlesB age 3'3B n. LL.
17)
Ger* L"*e.annB Pa"l$ Apostle to the Gentiles= )t"dies in *hronolo!yB age
'21.
171
Henge&B Pa"l Between Damasc"s and AntiochB age 32142<B n. '1H.
17'
:o#n Po&#i&&B The New American *ommentary$ Acts$ age '21.
H'
Ga&atians sa!s #e .et on&! ?it# :a.es an* Peter JGa&. ':HK. L"3e is &i3e&!
genera&iMing #ere as ?riters o/ ancient #istoriogra#! are ?ont to *o. In /actB
Br"ce .entions t#at L"3e .a! +e "sing a =genera&iMing &"ra&A in #is re/erence to
t#e aost&es.
173
Not#ing a+o"t s"c# a genera&iMation ?o"&* co"nt against
a"t#ors#i +! a co.anion o/ Pa"&. In*ee*B e%en i/ t#is is not a genera&iMationB it
co"&* +e arg"e* t#at L"3e is re&!ing on a Pa"&ine so"rce #ere gi%en t#at Pa"&
?o"&* #a%e consi*ere* Peter an* :a.es to +e =aost&es.A
Fina&&!B a/ter Pa"&5s /irst %isit to :er"sa&e.B #e re.ar3s t#at #e ?as =sti&&
"n3no?n +! sig#t to t#e c#"rc#es o/ :"*ea.A JGa&. 1:''K. In ActsB #o?e%erB Pa"& is
sai* to #a%e ersec"te* t#e c#"rc# in :er"sa&e.. JActs 7:1//K. E%en soB it /irst #as
to +e re.e.+ere* t#at Pa"& #i.se&/ c&ai.s to #a%e ?rec3e* great #a%oc on t#e
C#"rc# rior to #is con%ersion JGa&. 1:13K. Noreo%erB i/ not +eing 3no?n +! sig#t
is to +e ta3en to .ean +! t#e C#ristians in :er"sa&e.B Pa"& ?o"&* +e contra*icting
#is o?n state.ent a+o"t sen*ing 11 *a!s ?it# Peter an* .eeting :a.es JGa&.
3:1741HK. SoB t#ere are goo* reasons to +e&ie%e Pa"& .eant so.et#ing ot#er t#an
to sa! t#at no C#ristian in :er"sa&e. #a* seen #i.. As :a.es 0"nn e-&ainsB
=EsFince Pa"& ."st #a%e +een Dseen5 +! at &east a /e? o/ t#e Jnon4&ea*ingK
:er"sa&e. +e&ie%ersB Dt#e c#"rc#es in :"*ea5 res".a+&! ?ere not inten*e* to
inc&"*e :er"sa&e. ?it# ?#ic# #e #a* a&rea*! *ea&t.A
172
0"nn a&so ro%i*es se%era&
#e&/"& e-a.&es o/ genera&iMe* re/erences to :"*ea as *istinct /ro. :er"sa&e.:
Natt. 3:1I 2:'1I :o#n 3:''I Acts 1):3H. E%en :ose#"s .a3es s"c# a *istinction in
Anti-"ities 1):172. Accor*ing&!B t#at Pa"& ?as not 3no?n +! site to t#e c#"rc#es
in :"*ea *oes not /orec&ose t#e /act t#at Pa"& ?as 3no?n to so.e C#ristians in
:er"sa&e.. T#"sB t#ere is no reasonB +ase* on t#ese %ersesB to *o"+t L"3an
a"t#ors#i.
3. Pa"& t#e Orator
Ne-t " in t#e co..entator5s arg".ents against L"3an a"t#ors#i is t#e
s"ose* *isagree.ent +et?een Pa"&5s r#etorica& s3i&&s as *eicte* in Acts an* in
Pa"&5s &etters. Accor*ing to t#e co..entatorB =Pa"& is e%er!?#ere resente* in
Acts as an o"tstan*ing orator. He *e/en*e* #i.se&/ ?it# e&o>"ence in /ront o/
Tert"&&"s JActs '2:14'1K. T#ro"g# #is .aster! o/ "+&ic sea3ingB Pa"& ?as a+&e to
3ee a t"."&t"o"s :e?is# cro?* si&ent /or so.e ti.e JActs '1:2)4'':'1K.A B"tB
=t#e ict"re ?e get /ro. Pa"&5s o?n &etters is t#e e-act oositeT Pa"& #i.se&/
reco"nte* #is oonents5 criti>"e o/ #i.: =For t#e! sa!B DHis &etters are ?eig#t!
an* strongB +"t #is ersona& resence is "ni.ressi%e an* #is seec#
conte.ti+&e.G ' Cor. 1):1).
173
F.F. Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesB age '23.
172
:a.es 0.G. 0"nnB The Epistle to the GalatiansB age 71.
H3
T#is arg".ent res".es to 8"*ge t#e sea3ing s3i&&s o/ Pa"& @ in t#e
r"nning /or t#e .ost in/&"entia& e%ange&ist o/ a&& ti.e @ /ro. 'B))) !ears *istance
+ase* on t#e ins"&ts cast +! Pa"&5s ene.ies. ,#! s#o"&* ?e ta3e Pa"&5s ene.ies
at t#eir ?or*C A/tera&&B Pa"& "s#es +ac3. To t#ose ?#o conce*e t#e strengt# o/
#is &etters ?#i&e *i.inis#ing t#e o?er o/ #is orationB Pa"& ?arnsB =Let s"c#
eo&e "n*erstan* t#at ?#at ?e sa! +! &etter ?#en a+sentB ?e ?i&& a&so *o ?#en
resent.A ' Cor. 1):11. T#at *oes not so"n* &i3e a concession. A**itiona&&!B
=EtF#ere are t#ose ?#o ta3e t#is an* ot#ers as #is "ti&iMation o/ t#e categories o/
r#etoricB esecia&&! t#at o/ ass".ing a s"ita+&e &e%e& o/ #".i&it! ?it# regar* to #is
oratorica& s3i&&. T#is is esecia&&! aroriate in a +oo3 s"c# as ' Corint#iansB
?#ere Pa"& ?is#es to +e seen +oasting not in #is o?n a+i&itiesB +"t in ?#at #as
+een acco.&is#e* a.ong t#e +e&ie%ers in Corint# @ t#e! are #is
co..en*ation.A
171
Note Pa"&5s state.ent in ' Cor. 3:143:
Are ?e +eginning to co..en* o"rse&%es againC Or *o ?e nee*B as
so.eB &etters o/ co..en*ation to !o" or /ro. !o"C

(o" are o"r
&etterB ?ritten in o"r #eartsB 3no?n an* rea* +! a&& .enI +eing
.ani/este* t#at !o" are a &etter o/ C#ristB care* /or +! "sB ?ritten not
?it# in3 +"t ?it# t#e Sirit o/ t#e &i%ing Go*B not on ta+&ets o/ stone
+"t on ta+&ets o/ #".an #earts.
F"rt#er.oreB Corint# itse&/ ?as a cit! 3no?n /or t#e #ig# %a&"e it &ace* on
/or.a& r#etoric. T#eir acc"sation against Pa"& co"&* +e not#ing .ore t#an t#e
sno++is# assess.ent t#at Pa"& ?as not as s3i&&e* in /or.a& r#etoric as t#e! ?ere.
Anot#er signi/icant /actor to consi*er is Pa"&5s s"ccess as an e%ange&ist. Pa"& ?as
not si.&! a &etter ?riterB #e ?as a /o"n*er o/ c#"rc#es. I/ Pa"& ?as s"c# a /ai&"re
at "+&ic sea3ingB #o? *i* #e esta+&is# so .an! c#"rc#es in so .an! *i//erent
citiesC Co"&* Pa"& #a%e +een s"c# a s"ccess/"& e%ange&ist i/ #e ?as a at#etic
sea3erC $er! "n&i3e&!. Esecia&&! ?#en t#e on&! co"nter%ai&ing e%i*ence is an
ins"&t cast against Pa"& +! #is ene.ies t#at Pa"& re8ects. F"rt#er.oreB to &a"*
Pa"&5s &etters +"t not #is orator s3i&& is ro+&e.atic. =ETF#ere is a +asic
contra*iction in t#is criticis.B since t#e t#eo&ogica& content o/ #is reac#ing ."st
#a%e +een o%er?#e&.ing: ot#er?ise #e co"&* not #a%e ?ritten s"c# &etters an*
#a%e +een s"ccess/"& as a .issionar!.A
17<
In t#e /ina& ana&!sisB #o?e%erB t#is arg".ent is si.&! not %er! re&e%ant to
t#e iss"e o/ a"t#ors#i. Ha%ing c#osen to se&ect Pa"& as #is #ero /or t#e secon*
#a&/ o/ ActsB t#e a"t#or @ e%en i/ a co.anion o/ Pa"& @ is not o+&igate* to ortra!
Pa"& as a +".+&ing i*iot o/ a sea3er. O/ co"rseB a +".+&ing i*iot o/ a sea3er
?o"&* not #a%e +een t#e s"ccess/"& e%ange&ist t#at Pa"& ?asB an* ?o"&* not #a%e
.erite* s"c# a &ace in Acts5 #istor! in t#e /irst &ace. Stac3e* " against s"c# a
171
Stan&e! E. PorterB Pa"l in ActsB age 1H<.
17<
Henge&B Pa"l Between Damasc"s and AntiochB ages 342.
H2
?eig#t o/ co"nter e%i*enceB t#e state.ent in ' Cor. 1):1)B is ins"//icient to raise an
iss"e as to L"3an a"t#ors#i.
2. Pa"& t#e Nirac&e ,or3er
It is a&so arg"e* t#at Pa"& ortra!s Acts as a .irac&e ?or3er ?#i&e Pa"&5s
&etters *o not.
Acts resents Pa"& as a .irac&e ?or3er. T#e er/or.ance o/ .irac&es
/or.s a .a8or art o/ Pa"&5s aost&es#i. He ?as s"ose* to #a%e
.a*e a +&in* .an see again JActs 13:<41'KB to #a%e ena+&e* a cri&e
to ?a&3 JActs 12:741)K an* to #a%e raise* a !o"ng .an /ro. t#e
*ea* JActs '):L4'K. E%en #is #an*3erc#ie/ #a* .irac"&o"s o?ers
JActs 1H:1'KT His .irac"&o"s o?ers a&so ena+&e* #i. to s"r%i%e
stoning "nscat#e*B a&t#o"g# t#ose ?#o stone* #i. t#o"g#t #e ?as
*ea* JActs 12:1H4')K an* to s"r%i%e ?#at ?o"&* #a%e +een a &et#a&
sna3e+ite JActs '7:34<K.
T#is arg".ent +egins +! o%erstating Acts5 ortra!a& o/ Pa"& as a .irac&e
?or3er. It is tr"e t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts narrates t#e er/or.ance o/ t#ree .irac&es
+! Pa"& JActs 13:<41'I 12:741)I '):L41'KB as ?e&& as t#e eo&e #ea&e* +! contact
?it# c&ot#ing t#at #a* +een in contact ?it# Pa"& JActs 1H:1'K. T#is &atterB
#o?e%erB is .ore si.i&ar to t#e "rorte* #ea&ing e//ects o/ re&ics or sacre* s#rines
t#an ortra!ing Pa"& #i.se&/ as a .irac&e ?or3er. T#e raising o/ t#e *ea* +o! is
ortra!e* as a .irac&eB +"t it is so/t e*a&e* as Pa"& #i.se&/ sa!s t#at t#e +o!s5
sirit #a* not &e/t #i.. Regar*ing Pa"& s"ose*&! s"r%i%ing Jit no?#ere sa!s t#at
#e ?as "nscat#e*K stoning +! =.irac"&o"s o?ersBA Acts 12:1H4') *oes not
attri+"te Pa"&5s s"r%i%a& to #is .irac&e ?or3ing. E%en i/ t#e state.entB =B"t ?#en
t#e *isci&es s"rro"n*e* #i.B #e got " an* ?ent into t#e cit!BA .eans to i.&! t#e
&a!ing on o/ #an*s an* #ea&ing o/ Pa"& J?#ic# I *o"+tKB t#e .irac&e ?or3ing is not
*one +! Pa"&. In /actB +! stressing t#at Pa"& on&! aeare* to +e *ea*B t#e a"t#or
o/ Acts aears to +e r"&ing o"t a .irac&e a&toget#er. F"rt#erB ?e 3no? /ro.
Pa"&5s o?n &etters t#at #e s"r%i%e* .an! +eatingsB inc&"*ing a stoning. 1 Cor.
11:'1.
Fina&&!B as note* +! Stan&e! PorterB t#ere is *eci*e*&! &ess e.#asis on
.irac&es in t#e =?e4assagesA t#an in t#e rest o/ ActsB as ?e&& as t#e /act t#at t#e
=?e4assagesA o/ten ass o%er oort"nities to e.+e&&is# Pa"&5s .irac&e ?or3ing.
J=T#e a"t#or o/ t#e D?e5 so"rce ro%i*es a cre*i+&e ortrait o/ Pa"& t#e aost&eB
?it#o"t e-aggeration or e.+e&&is#.ent. Not on&! is Pa"& not *eicte* as a .irac&e
?or3erB +"t c&ear oort"nities to *eict #i. as s"c# are asse* +!.A
17L
K. SoB
17L
PorterB Pa"l in ActsB age <'
H1
co.are* to t#e .irac&e ?or3ing o/ #is /irst %o&".eB Acts is act"a&&! >"ite ta.e.
Ne-tB t#e co..entator states:
(et ?e /in* %er! &itt&e o/ s"c# c&ai.s o/ .irac&es in t#e a"t#entic
eist&es. In #is o?n state.ents a+o"t t#is Pa"& "se* %ag"e ter.s &i3e
Gsigns o/ t#e Aost&eG JII Corint#ians 1':1'KB G*e.onstration o/ t#e
Sirit an* o/ o?erG JI Corint#ians ':2K an* Gt#e o?er o/ signs an*
?on*ersG JRo.ans 11:1741HK. Pa"&5s tone in t#ese re.ar3s ?as
genera&&! *e/ensi%eB s#o?ing "s t#at t#ese ?ere .a*e in *e/ense
against so.e acc"sations o/ #is oonents. In II Corint#ians
Jc#aters 1)41'K /or instanceB #e ?as *e/en*ing against t#e criti>"es
o/ #is resence an* "+&ic sea3ing s3i&&s J1):L411KB o/ #is stat"s as
an aost&e J11:L411K an* t#at #e ?as grante* no %ision J1':141)K.
,it#in t#is conte-t t#enB t#e criticis. ?#ic# /orce* Pa"& into %erse
1':1' ."st +e t#at #e #a* er/or.e* /e? an* "ni.ressi%e .irac&es.
T#is arg".ent is ?rong on at &east t?o co"nts. FirstB t#ere is no e%i*ence t#at
Pa"&5s oonents *enie* #e er/or.e* .irac&es. Secon*B Pa"& c&ear&! c&ai.s to
#a%e er/or.e* .irac&es.
T#e s3etica& co..entator %ag"e&! c&ai.s t#at Pa"& ?as +eing =*e/ensi%eA
a+o"t so.et#ing ?#en #e *isc"sse* #is .irac&es. T#e on&! e-a.&e #e gi%esB
#o?e%erB #as Pa"& *e/en*ing #i.se&/ a+o"t #is "+&ic sea3ing s3i&&s. Not#ing is
sai* a+o"t #is .irac&e ?or3ing. In*ee*B i/ an!t#ingB t#e .irac&e ?or3ing is
conce*e*. In /actB t#ere is no e%i*ence in an! o/ Pa"&5s &etters t#at #e ?as acc"se*
o/ an ina+i&it! to er/or. .irac&es. Instea*B Pa"&5s er/or.ance o/ .irac&es see.s
ass".e* +! t#ose #e ?rites to an* is e-ress&! c&ai.e* +! Pa"& #i.se&/.
FirstB &et "s &oo3 c&oser at ' Corint#ians. T#ereinB Pa"& states t#at #e
er/or.e* t#e =signs o/ a tr"e aost&eA a.ong t#e..
Beca"se o/ t#e s"rassing greatness o/ t#e re%e&ationsB /or t#is
reasonB to 3ee .e /ro. e-a&ting .!se&/B t#ere ?as gi%en .e a t#orn
in t#e /&es#B a .essenger o/ Satan to tor.ent .e @ to 3ee .e /ro.
e-a&ting .!se&/T Concerning t#is I i.&ore* t#e Lor* t#ree ti.es
t#at it .ig#t &ea%e .e. An* He #as sai* to .eB GN! grace is
s"//icient /or !o"B /or o?er is er/ecte* in ?ea3ness.G Nost g&a*&!B
t#ere/oreB I ?i&& rat#er +oast a+o"t .! ?ea3nessesB so t#at t#e o?er
o/ C#rist .a! *?e&& in .e. T#ere/ore I a. ?e&& content ?it#
?ea3nessesB ?it# ins"&tsB ?it# *istressesB ?it# ersec"tionsB ?it#
*i//ic"&tiesB /or C#rist5s sa3eI /or ?#en I a. ?ea3B t#en I a. strong.
Act"a&&! I s#o"&* #a%e +een co..en*e* +! !o"B /or in no resect
?as I in/erior to t#e .ost e.inent aost&esB e%en t#o"g# I a. a
H<
no+o*!. The signs o6 a true apost#e +ere per6or$e( a$ong you
+ith a## perse"erance- )y signs an( +on(ers an( $irac#es.
' Corint#ians 1':L41'.
T#ere is no *o"+t t#at Pa"& #ere is c&ai.ing t#at #e er/or.e* .irac&es a.ong t#e
Corint#ians. In a**ition to re/erring to =signs an* ?on*ersA Ja+o"t ?#ic# see
.ore +e&o?KB Pa"& a&so re/ers to .irac&es. T#is ter.B G*"na.isBG is "se* e&se?#ere
to re/er to .irac&esB not %isions or sea3ing in tong"es. Consi*er He+ ':2 J=Go*
a&so testi/!ing ?it# t#e.B +ot# +! signs an* ?on*ers an* +! %ario"s .irac&es an*
+! gi/ts o/ t#e Ho&! Sirit accor*ing to His o?n ?i&&.AK esecia&&!B as ?e&& as L"3e
1):13 J=For i/ t#e .irac&es #a* +een er/or.e* in T!re an* Si*on ?#ic# occ"rre*
in !o"B t#e! ?o"&* #a%e reente* &ong agoB sitting in sac3c&ot# an* as#es.AKI Nar3
<:' J=,#ere *i* t#is .an get t#ese t#ingsB an* ?#at is t#is ?is*o. gi%en to Hi.B
an* s"c# .irac&es as t#ese er/or.e* +! His #an*sCAKI Natt#e? 11:'3I Acts ':''
J.irac&es er/or.e* +! :es"sK an*B er#as .ost nota+&!B Acts 1H:11 to re/er to t#e
.irac&es er/or.e* +! Pa"& J=Go* ?as er/or.ing e-traor*inar! .irac&es +! t#e
#an*s o/ Pa"&BAK. Gi%en o"r co.arison o/ Acts an* Pa"&5s &ettersB t#e "se o/ t#e
sa.e &ang"age /or .irac&es +! Pa"& in Acts as "se* +! Pa"& to re/er to t#e .irac&es
#e er/or.e* is a&& t#e .ore re&e%ant.
A**itiona& e%i*ence o/ Pa"&5s stat"s as a .irac&e ?or3er is gaine* /ro. #is
/irst &etter to t#e Corint#ians:
For I *eter.ine* to 3no? not#ing a.ong !o" e-cet :es"s C#ristB
an* Hi. cr"ci/ie*. I ?as ?it# !o" in ?ea3ness an* in /ear an* in
."c# tre.+&ingB an* .! .essage an* .! reac#ing ?ere not in
ers"asi%e ?or*s o/ ?is*o.B +"t in (e$onstration o6 the Spirit
an( o6 po+er. . . .
1 Corint#ians ':'42.
Accor*ing to Gra#a. H. T?e&/treeB =EiFn contrasting #is ?ea3nessB /ear an*
so3en ?or* ?it# t#e *e.onstration o/ t#e gose&B Pa"& is ro+a+&! re/erring not
on&! to t#e Corint#ians5 enco"nter ?it# Go*5s o?er to trans/or. t#eir &i%es in
con%ersionB . . . +"t a&so to t#e .irac&es in%o&%e* in #is .ission as t#e
*e.onstration or roo/ o/ #is gose& Jc/. ' Cor. 1':H41)I 1 T#ess. 1:HK. For in
Ro.ans 11:1H t#e o?er o/ t#e Ho&! Sirit is ara&&e&e* ?it# t#e o?er o/ signs
an* ?on*ersB an* ?#en t#e Ga&atians recei%e* Pa"&5s .essage t#e! e-erience*
t#e gi/t o/ t#e Sirit an* .irac&es.A
177
Gi%en T?e&/tree5s re/erence to Ro.ansB ?e
t"rn t#ere ne-t.
177
Gra#a. T?e&/treeB =SignsB ,on*ersB Nirac&esBA in Pa"l and (is LettersB age
7L<.
HL
T#ere/ore in C#rist :es"s I #a%e /o"n* reason /or +oasting in t#ings
ertaining to Go*. For I ?i&& not res".e to sea3 o/ an!t#ing
e-cet ?#at C#rist #as acco.&is#e* through $eB res"&ting in t#e
o+e*ience o/ t#e Genti&es +! ?or* an* *ee*B in t#e po+er o6 signs
an( +on(ers- in the po+er o6 the SpiritI so t#at /ro. :er"sa&e.
an* ro"n* a+o"t as /ar as I&&!ric". I #a%e /"&&! reac#e* t#e gose&
o/ C#rist.
Ro.ans 11:1L41H.
Pa"& c&ai.s t#at .irac&es ?ere er/or.e* =t#ro"g# .e.A T#o"g# it #as
+een s"ggeste* t#at er#as Pa"& is on&! re/erring to %isions or /ee&ing t#e
o?er/"& resence o/ Go*B t#e &ang"age o/ =signs an* ?on*ersA is t!ica&
:e?is# &ang"age /or .irac&es.
17H
It is "se* +e/ore Pa"& in t#e LOO an* a/ter
Pa"& t#ro"g#o"t t#e rest o/ t#e Ne? Testa.entB to re/er to .irac&es. Not to
%isions. Regar*ing t#e LOOB consi*er t#e re/erences to t#e .irac&es er/or.e*
+! Noses: E-o*. L:3I 0e"t. 2:32I 'H:'I 32:11I Ps 131:HI an*B Isa. 7:17. In t#e
NTB consi*er :o#n 2:27 J:es"s5 #ea&ing a %er! sic3 c#i&*KI Natt#e? '2:'2
J?on*ers er/or.e* +! /a&se ro#etsKI Acts 2:3) J#ea&ing .irac&es er/or.e*
+! t#e *isci&esKI 12:3 J.irac&es er/or.e* =+! t#e #an*sA o/ Pa"& an*
Barna+asKI 11:1' J.irac&es er/or.e* +! Pa"& an* Barna+asK. For t#e sa.e
ter.sB +"t re%erse* JG?on*ers an* signsGKB consi*er Acts ':'' J.irac&es
er/or.e* +! :es"sKB 23 J.irac&es er/or.e* +! t#e aost&esKI L:3< J.irac&es
er/or.e* *"ring t#e E-o*"sK. T#at Pa"& ca.e " ?it# #is %er! o?n "ni>"e
.eaning /or t#is #rase t#at ?as "nre&ate* to #o? :e?s an* C#ristians a&i3e
"se* it is "n&i3e&!.
T#e si.i&arit! o/ Ro.. 11 to Pa"&5s re/erence to t#e o?er o/ Go*5s sirit
t#ro"g# #i. in 1 Corint#ians ':2 is a&& t#e .ore reason to rea* t#at %erse as
re/erring to Pa"&5s er/or.ance o/ .irac&es.
1H)

17H
:ose# FitM.!erB ,omansB age L13.
1H)
T#ere is anot#er &i3e&! re/erence to .irac&es in 1 T#essa&onians:
Pa"& an* Si&%an"s an* Ti.ot#!B To t#e c#"rc# o/ t#e T#essa&onians
in Go* t#e Fat#er an* t#e Lor* :es"s C#rist: Grace to !o" an* eace.
,e gi%e t#an3s to Go* a&?a!s /or a&& o/ !o"B .a3ing .ention o/ !o"
in o"r ra!ersI constant&! +earing in .in* !o"r ?or3 o/ /ait# an*
&a+or o/ &o%e an* stea*/astness o/ #oe in o"r Lor* :es"s C#rist in
t#e resence o/ o"r Go* an* Fat#erB 3no?ingB +ret#ren +e&o%e* +!
Go*B His c#oice o/ !o"I /or o"r gose& *i* not co.e to !o" in ?or*
on&!B )ut a#so in po+er an( in the Ho#y Spirit an* ?it# /"&&
con%ictionI 8"st as !o" 3no? ?#at 3in* o/ .en ?e ro%e* to +e
a.ong !o" /or !o"r sa3e.
1 T#essa&onians 1:141.

H7
SoB Pa"& t#ree ti.es c&ai.s to c#"rc#es #e /o"n*e* t#at #e er/or.e*
.irac&es a.ongst t#e.. In /actB t#e .irac&es #e er/or.e* &a!e* a ro&e in
con%incing t#e. to /o&&o? C#rist an* in t#e /o"n*ing o/ t#eir c#"rc#es. T#is
c&ai. ?as .a*e to eo&e ?#o ?o"&* #a%e 3no?n i/ t#e! ?ere +ase&ess.
A**itiona&&!B Pa"& c&ai.s to t#e C#ristians in Ro.e t#at #e #as er/or.e*
.irac&es. Accor*ing&!B Pa"& c&ear&! an* e-&icit&! c&ai.e* to #a%e er/or.e*
.irac&es as art o/ #is ?or3 in esta+&is#ing c#"rc#es.
T#"sB arg".ents against L"3an5s a"t#ors#i +ase* on t#e s"ose*
*i//erence in ortra!a&s o/ Pa"&5s .irac&e ?or3ing are +ase&ess. E%en i/ so.e o/
Pa"&5s ene.ies *enie* #e #a* er/or.e* an! .irac&es @ an* t#ere is no e%i*ence
o/ t#is @ Pa"&5s &etters c&ear&! s#o?e* t#at #e +e&ie%e* #e #a* er/or.e* .irac&es
an* t#at so.e in t#e c#"rc#es #e /o"n*e* agree* ?it# #i.. ,#! ?o"&* L"3eB a
co.anion an* /rien* o/ Pa"&B si*e ?it# Pa"&5s oonents against t#e ?or* o/ Pa"&
#i.se&/C
1. T#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&
So.e #a%e arg"e* t#at L"3e co"&* not #a%e ?ritten Acts +eca"se o/ t#e
*i//erent ?a!s in ?#ic# Acts an* Pa"& *escri+e t#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&.
Ho?e%erB t#e a"t#or o/ Acts *oes not c&ai. to #a%e +een resent at t#e
:er"sa&e. Co"nci&. Noreo%erB t#is arg".ent ass".es t#at t#e e%ents *eicte*
in Acts 11 Jt#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&K correson* ?it# t#e e%ents *escri+e* +!
Pa"& in Ga&atians ' JPa"&5s .eeting ?it# t#e :er"sa&e. C#"rc# =i&&arsAK. Here
is #o? t#e! see t#e tris to :er"sa&e. &a!ing o"t:
1. Acts H:'<4'7 Y Ga&. 1:174') JFirst Post4Con%ersion Tri to :er"sa&e.K.
'. Acts 11:'L43) Y No Pa"&ine Coro&&ar! JFa.ine $isitK.
3. Acts 11:'43) Y Ga&. ':141) Jt#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&K.
2. Ga&atians ?ritten to Nort#ern Ga&atian c#"rc#es /o"n*e* on Pa"&5s '
n*

.issionar! 8o"rne!.
T#e ro+&e. "s"a&&! raise* is t#at Acts5 acco"nt o/ t#e :er"sa&e.
Co"nci& *i//ers too ."c# /ro. Pa"&5s acco"nt in Ga&atians. Pa"& reco"nts a
ri%ate .eeting ?it# :o#nB :a.esB an* Peter a**ressing t#e iss"e o/
circ".cisionB ?#ereas Acts reco"nts a +igger .eeting a+o"t genti&e a*#erence
to t#e &a?B ?it# t#e circ".cision art! as ?e&& as t#e +roa*er &ea*ers#i o/ t#e
:er"sa&e. C#"rc# Jinc&"*ing :a.es an* PeterK articiating. It is a&so arg"e*
t#at Pa"& is c&ear t#at at t#e ti.e #e ?rote #e #a* .a*e on&! t?o ost4
con%ersion tris to :er"sa&e.B ?#ereas Acts &ists at &east t#ree +! t#at ti.e.
Pa"& is c&ear t#at #e *i* not 8"st reac#B +"t con%ince* t#e. o/ t#e Gose&
=in o?er an* in t#e Ho&! Sirit.A Again Pa"& is c&ai.ing +e/ore an* a"*ience t#at
?o"&* 3no? t#at #e er/or.e* .irac&es in t#eir .i*st.
HH
As an initia& .atterB a n".+er o/ sc#o&ars #a%e recogniMe* t#e
*i//erences in t#e t?o acco"nts ?#i&e sti&& acceting L"3an a"t#ors#i. :ose#
FitM.!erB /or e-a.&eB accets L"3an a"t#ors#i +"t e>"ates Acts 11 ?it#
Ga&atians '. He notes t#e *i//erences +"t conc&"*es t#atB =None o/ t#ese
*i//erences . . . is signi/icant eno"g# to "n*er.ine t#e s"+stantia& agree.ent o/
t#e t?o reortsB L"can an* Pa"&ine.A
1H1
Nartin Henge& a&so e.#asiMes t#e
si.i&arities. ,#i&e ac3no?&e*ging *isagree.ents +et?een t#e t?o acco"ntsB
Henge& e.#asiMes t#e *i//erent ersecti%es an*B >"ite *i//erentB .oti%es
*ri%ing t#e resecti%e acco"nts.
1H'
FitM.!er an* Henge& a&so +e&ie%e t#at L"3e
"se* so"rces in a**ition to Pa"& to reco"nt t#e e%ents in :er"sa&e. re&ating to
t#e Genti&e contro%ers!. Not#ing a+o"t t#e *i//erencesB in t#e oinion o/ so.e
o/ t#e .ost resecte* Ne? Testa.ent sc#o&arsB necessari&! rec&"*es L"3an
a"t#ors#i.
A signi/icant .inorit! o/ sc#o&arsB #o?e%erB +e&ie%es t#at t#e a+o%e
ti.e4ta+&e is /&a?e* in its assess.ent o/ t#e ?riting o/ Ga&atians. A&t#o"g# it
is genera&&! agree* t#at t#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci& too3 &ace aro"n* 2H41) A0B
.an! #ig#&! resecte* Ne? Testa.ent sc#o&ars @ F.F. Br"ce an* Ric#ar*
Longenec3er a.ong t#e. @ +e&ie%e t#at Ga&atians ?as ?ritten +efore t#e
:er"sa&e. Co"nci& e%en too3 &ace: aro"n* 2742H A0. As a res"&tB Ga&. ' is not
to +e e>"ate* ?it# Acts 11B +"t ?it# Acts 11 Jt#e Fa.ine $isitK. T#e ti.e4ta+&e
o/ t#is t#eor! is as /o&&o?s:
1. Acts H:'<4'7 Y Ga&. 1:174') JFirst Post4Con%ersion Tri to :er"sa&e.K.
'. Acts 11:'L43) Y Ga&. ':141) JFa.ine $isit \ Pri%ate Neeting ?it# Pi&&arsK.
3. Ga&atians ?ritten to So"t#ern Ga&atian c#"rc#es /o"n*e* on Pa"&5s 1
st

.issionar! 8o"rne!.
2. Acts 11:'43) Y No Pa"&ine Coro&&ar! Jt#e :er"sa&e. Co"nci&K.
In t#is scenarioB Pa"& tra%e&e* to :er"sa&e. ?it# Barna+as an* Tit"s ?it#
.one! /ro. t#e Antioc# c#"rc# to assist t#ose s"//ering /ro. /a.ine in :er"sa&e..
Acts 11 notes t#at t#ere ?ere ro#ets ?#o #a* ear&ier to&* o/ a ?i*esrea*
/a.ine. As a res"&tB t#e Antioc# c#"rc# co&&ecte* toget#er re&ie/ an* sent it ?it#
Pa"& an* Barna+as to :er"sa&e.. T#is corre&ates ?e&& ?it# t#e ot#er?ise
"ne-&aine* state.ent in Ga&atians ' t#at t#e! ?ent " to :er"sa&e. =+eca"se o/ a
re%e&ation.A It a&so ?o"&* e-&ain t#e /ina& e-c#ange +et?een t#e i&&ars an* Pa"&
as Pa"& ?as ret"rning to Antioc#: =T#e! on&! as3e* "s to re.e.+er t#e oor@t#e
%er! t#ing I a&so ?as eager to *o.A
T#"sB it aears t#at Pa"& tra%e&e* to :er"sa&e. +eca"se o/ t#e re%e&ation
a+o"t ro%i*ing re&ie/ to t#e oorer c#"rc# t#ere. ,#i&e in :er"sa&e.B t#e iss"e o/
1H1
:ose# FitM.!erB Acts of the ApostlesB age 12). )ee also :o#n B. Po&#i&&B Acts
3The New American *ommentary4.
1H'
Nartin Henge&B Pa"l Between Damasc"s and AntiochB ages ')24'1.
1))
circ".cision ca.e " in a ri%ate .eeting ?it# :a.esB PeterB an* :o#n. At t#e
conc&"sion o/ t#e triB t#e i&&ars as3 Pa"& to re.e.+er t#e oor an* Pa"& notes
t#at t#is ?as a&rea*! ?#at #e ?as intent on *oing.
T#ere are ot#er iss"esB s"c# as in*icia in Ga&atians t#at it ?as ?ritten %er!
ear&!B t#at it ?as ?ritten to c#"rc#es in So"t#ern Ga&atiaB an* t#at it ?as ?ritten
+e/ore Pa"&5s secon* .issionar! 8o"rne!. F"&&er4&engt# treat.ents o/ t#ese iss"es
can +e /o"n* in Ben ,it#erington5s co..entar! on Ga&atiaB Grace in GalatiaB an*
0a%i* ,en#a.5s artic&e in The Acts of the Apostles in its Ancient Literary
)ettin!.
1H3
A&& to&*B =EtF#e si.&est so&"tion ?#ic# res"&ts in t#e .ost satis/actor!
an* con%incing reconstr"ction an* &ea%es t#e /e?est &oose en*s . . . is t#at
Ga&atians ':141) correson*s to t#e =/a.ine %isitA o/ Acts 11:3).A
1H2
III. A((itiona# Interna# E"i(ence o6 Authorship
A. 0etai& in t#e =,e PassagesA
A&t#o"g# t#ere are no *iscerna+&e &ing"istic *i//erences +et?een t#e ?e4
assage sections o/ Acts an* t#e rest o/ t#e +oo3B t#ere is a *i//erence in t#e
&iterar! %i%i*ness. T#is *i//erence #as +een note* +! .an! sc#o&ars.
T#e ?e4sections are *isroortionate&! &engt#! an* *etai&e*B in
co.arison ?it# t#e rest o/ ActsB ?#ic#B in narrati%eB is "s"a&&! +ris3
an* s"ccinct. T#e /act t#at t#e ?e4sections #a%e not +een c"t to a
s"ita+&e &engt# strong&! s"ggests t#at t#e! are e-ten*e* ersona&
re.iniscence in ?#ic# e!e?itnesses so.eti.es in*"&ge.
1H1

1H3
Ben ,it#eringtonB Grace in GalatiaB ages '4')I 0a%i* ,en#a.B =Acts an* t#e
Pa"&ine Cor"sBA in The Boo of Acts in its Literary )ettin!B agesB ''<423. )ee
also F.F. Br"ceB =Ga&atian Pro+&e.sBA B:RLB 11411I Co&in He.erB The Boo of
Acts in the )ettin! of (ellenistic (istoryB ages '2L4L)B 'LL43)LI 0ona&* G"t#rieB
New Testament Introd"ctionB ages 2<1473. T#ere is a&so a #e&/"& o%er%ie? o/
t#e resecti%e arg".ents in H. ,a!ne Ho"se5s *hronolo!ical and Bac!ro"nd
*harts of the New TestamentB ages 13<413H.
1H2
Ric#ar* N. Longenec3erB The 1inistry and 1essa!e of Pa"lB age 3H.
1H1
:.N. Gi&c#ristB =T#e Historicit! o/ Pa"&5s S#i?rec3BA &o"rnal for the )t"dy
of the New TestamentB age 3L. )ee also BarnettB op' cit'B age ')H JG,#ere
t#e a"t#or is art o/ t#e narrati%e in t#e P?eP assagesB t#e *etai& gi%en is .ore
intense t#an in ot#er assages ?#ere #e is *een*ent on t#e ora& testi.on! o/
t#ose ?#o #a* +een resentB ?#ic# t#e a"t#or #as note*.GKI :er%e&&B op' cit.B
age 11L JGT#ere is a ?ea&t# o/ *etai&s in t#ese sections co.are* to ot#er
arts o/ ActsB e%en *etai&s ?it# no signi/icance /or #is acco"nt.GK.
1)1
No e-ertise is nee*e* to o+ser%e t#is #eno.enon. Pro/. Gi&c#rist
s"ggests t#e /o&&o?ing *istinctions t#at an! &a!erson .a! o+ser%e in a care/"&
re%ie? o/ t#e te-t:
JaK T#e .ain +o*! o/ Acts na.es t#e &aces %isite* +! Pa"& *"ring
t#e tri".#ant rogress o/ t#e gose&I +"t t#e ?e4sections &ose t#eir
sense o/ roortionB e%en na.ing is&an*s g&i.se* in t#e *istance
JActs ').13411I '1.143K. J+K Acts 3ees t#e .ission a&?a!s to t#e
/ore: t#e ?e4sections ?an*er /ro. t#e oint. JcK E-cet in t#e ?e4
sectionsB Acts is scarce&! intereste* in Pa"&5s eri&s at sea J' Cor.
11.'1KI +"t in Acts 'L an* '7B e%er! *etai& is .entione*. J*K A&.ost
e%er!t#ing in t#e .ain +o*! o/ Acts #as t#eo&ogica& signi/icance:
+"t ?#!B /or e-a.&eB *o t#e ?e4sections reco"nt an "ne-&aine*
t#irt!4.i&e ?a&3 JActs ').13KC
1H<
T#e +est e-&anation /or t#e increase* attention to *etai& an* %i%i*ness o/ t#e
narrati%e in t#e ?e4sections is t#at ?e ta3e it at /ace %a&"eI t#e a"t#or ?as
resent *"ring t#ose arts o/ t#e stor!.
B. T#e Acc"rac! o/ t#e Tra*itions in Acts
As *isc"sse* in C#ater 'B Acts contains a re.ar3a+&e a.o"nt o/
acc"rate in/or.ation a+o"t t#e ti.e o/ ?#ic# #e ?rites. Nost nota+&e #ere is
t#e a"t#or5s *etai&e* 3no?&e*ge a+o"t Pa"& an* #is .inistr!. Ot#er t#an Acts
itse&/ an* t#e Pa"&ine cor"sB t#ere is no e%i*ence t#at a s"+stantia& a.o"nt o/
s"c# in/or.ation ?as reser%e* in an! ot#er tra*ition. On t#e ot#er #an*B
3no?&e*ge o/ ot#er ear&! C#ristian e%ents not in%o&%ing Pa"& is .ore &i.ite* in
Acts. T#at Acts ?as ?ritten +! a co.anion o/ Pa"& is t#e +est e-&anation /or
t#e 3no?&e*ge *e.onstrate* t#erein.
C. Is T#ere a 0octor in t#e Te-tC
T#ere are a n".+er o/ /eat"res a+o"t t#e Gose& o/ L"3e t#at are
s"ggesti%e&! re&ate* to #!sicians an*Qor t#e ancient ractice o/ .e*icine.
A&t#o"g# t#is e%i*ence .a! not +e eno"g# to esta+&is# a"t#ors#i +! a
#!sician @ s"c# as L"3e @ it a**s ?eig#t to t#e c"."&ati%e case /or L"3an
a"t#ors#i.
1. Re*acting o"t a negati%e ortra!a& o/ *octors
1H<
Gi&c#ristB op' cit'B age 3L.
1)'
T#e narrati%e o/ t#e +&ee*ing ?o.an ?#o so"g#t #ea&ing /ro. :es"s is
/o"n* in a&& o/ t#e s!notic gose&s. Nar3 e.#asiMes t#at s#e =#a* en*"re*
."c# at t#e #an*s o/ .an! #!siciansA an* #a* =sent a&& t#at s#e #a*A on t#e.
+"t #a* recei%e* no #e&. Nar3 1:'2432. L"3eB on t#e ot#er #an*B &ea%es so.e o/
t#is te-t o"t. He *oes not .ention t#at t#e ?o.an #a* sent a&& #er .one!
atte.ting to get #ea&e*. Nor *oes #e .ention t#at =#!siciansA #a* not +een a+&e
to #e& #er. He si.&i/ies a&& o/ t#is +! .ere&! noting t#at s#e =co"&* not +e
#ea&e* +! an!one.A L"3e 7:2342L.
1HL
Natt#e? si.&i/ies t#e stor! *o?n so /ar #e
.a3es no .ention o/ an! atte.ts to +e #ea&e*. Natt#e? H:')4''. 6n&i3e
Natt#e?B #o?e%erB L"3e is not a++re%iating t#e stor!. L"3e si.&! genera&iMe* a
s.a&& art o/ t#e te-tB so as to a%oi* sing&ing o"t #!sicians. T#e e-&anation /or
t#is re*action is not aarentB "n&ess ?e ta3e t#e i*ea o/ L"3an a"t#ors#i
serio"s&!.
'. A #ig# /e%er
It is a&so nota+&e t#at ?#en ?riting a+o"t Peter5s sic3 .ot#er4in4&a?B t#e
Gose& o/ L"3e @ ot#er?ise *een*ent on Nar3 @ a**s a .e*ica& ter. to
seci/! t#e se%erit! o/ t#e /e%er in%o&%e*.
No? Si.on5s .ot#er4in4&a? was lyin! sic with a feverI an*
i..e*iate&! t#e! so3e to :es"s a+o"t #er. An* He ca.e to #er an*
raise* #er "B ta3ing #er +! t#e #an*B an* t#e /e%er &e/t #erB an* s#e
?aite* on t#e..
Nar3 1:3)431.
T#e Gose& o/ Natt#e? /o&&o?s c&ose&! t#e Nar3an te-t.
1HL
T#ere is so.e *is"te a+o"t t#e origina& #rasing o/ t#is %erse. T#e Ne? Li%ing
Trans&ation an* t#e 9:$ retain in L"3e t#e re/erence to t#e ?o.an sen*ing #er
.one! on *octors. T#e NI$ an* NA6B #o?e%erB &ea%e o"t t#e entire section. T#e
NRS$ &aces t#e ?or*s in +rac3etsB =in*icating *o"+t ?#et#er t#e! #a%e t#e rig#t
to stan* t#ere.A Br"ce N. NetMgerB A Te:t"al *ommentary on the Gree New
TestamentB age 1'1. For .eB t#is artic"&ar >"estion is reso&%e* +! t#e
.an"scrit e%i*ence an* t#e in*icia o/ re*action. S"c# a si.&i/ication is t!ica&
o/ L"3e5s "se o/ Nar3. Nore i.ortantB t#e #rase is not /o"n* in PL1B t#e
ear&iest o/ t#e L"3an .an"scrits. Nor is it /o"n* in %ario"s ot#er ear&! ,estern
an* A&e-an*rian ,itnesses. In*ee*B NetMger *escri+es t#e .an"scrit e%i*ence as
=?e&&4nig# co.e&&ing.A I+id.
1)3
,#en :es"s ca.e into Peter5s #o.eB He sa? #is .ot#er4in4&a? lyin!
sic in +ed with a fever. He to"c#e* #er #an*B an* t#e /e%er &e/t #erI
an* s#e got " an* ?aite* on Hi..
Natt#e? 7:13411.
Bot# Nar3 an* Natt#e? c#ose to in*icate t#e se%erit! o/ t#e /e%er +!
in*icating t#at Peter5s .ot#er4in4&a? ?as +e*ri**en. B"t t#e Gose& o/ L"3e
ta3es a *i//erent tact:
T#en He got " an* &e/t t#e s!nagog"eB an* entere* Si.on5s #o.e.
No? Si.on5s .ot#er4in4&a? was s"fferin! from a hi!h feverB an*
t#e! as3e* Hi. to #e& #er. An* stan*ing o%er #erB He re+"3e* t#e
/e%erB an* it &e/t #erI an* s#e i..e*iate&! got " an* ?aite* on
t#e..
L"3e 2:3743H.
T#e Gree3 ter. trans&ate* =#ig#A is an =ancient .e*ica& ter. EF /or a
#ig#4gra*e /e%er t#at .ig#t #a%e inc&"*e* *!senter!.A
1H7
T#e *istinction .a*e
+! #!sicians ?as +et?een =greatA or =#ig#A /e%ers an* =s.a&&A ones.
1HH
Ot#er
co..entators +e&ie%e L"3e ?as si.&! e.#asiMing t#e greatness o/ :es"s5
.irac&e. E%en i/ tr"eB t#is *oes not re+"t t#e oint a+o"t t#e "se o/ .e*ica&
ter.ino&og!. A/ter a&&B Nar3 &ea%es no *o"+t t#at t#e /e%er is a signi/icant one
as Peter5s .ot#er4in4&a? ?as +e*ri**en +! #er sic3ness. SoB tooB ?it#
Natt#e?. T#e /act t#at L"3e ?as t#e on&! one ?#o c#ose to "se a .e*ica&
ter. to e.#asiMe t#e sic3ness @ #e &ea%es o"t t#e re/erence to #er =&!ing sic3
in +e*A @ is sti&& a nota+&e *istinction in*icating a greater a?areness o/ t#e
.e*ica& arts. ,#ate%er #is .oti%eB L"3e is a?are o/ t#e aroriateness o/ t#e
.ore recise *escrition.
3. T#e in/&"ence o/ tec#nica& treatises on t#e Pre/ace
T#ere is e%i*ence t#at t#e Pre/aces to L"3e an* Acts ?ere in/&"ence* +!
t#e re/aces "se* in ancient tec#nica& treatises @ s"c# as ?ere "se* in t#e
.e*ica& /ie&*.
'))
I/ t#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?ere a *octor atte.ting to ?rite #istor!B
an =a.ate"r #istorianA as Pro/essor A"ne *escri+es #i.B t#e re/aces ?e #a%e
are t#e re/aces ?e .ig#t e-ect. In ot#er ?or*sB t#e a"t#or ?as atte.ting to
1H7
0arre&& Boc3B L"e ;=;.<=B>B age 23<.
1HH
:BL 21 J1H'<K 1H24H1B as cite* +! :o#n No&&an*B L"e ;=;.<=0>B age '11.
'))
Lo%e*a! A&e-an*erB =L"3ePs re/ace in t#e conte-t o/ Gree3 re/ace4?ritingBA
Nov"m testament"mB '7 no 1 :a 1H7<B ages 274L2.
1)2
?rite accor*ing to t#e con%entions o/ ancient #istoriogra#! +"t ?as
in/&"ence* +! t#e ?ritings ec"&iar to #is tra*e.
2. Ne*ica& %oca+"&ar!
In 177'B ,.9. Ho+art "+&is#e* The 1edical Lan!"a!e of )t' L"eB in
?#ic# #e ro%i*e* e-tensi%e &ing"istic e%i*ence t#at t#e %oca+"&ar! o/ L"3e
?as ara&&e&e* t#e &ang"age o/ Gree3 .e*ica& ?ritings. T#is see.e* strong
e%i*ence o/ a"t#ors#i +! a #!sicianB s"c# as L"3e. Ho?e%erB in 1H') H.:.
Ca*+"r! "+&is#e* a st"*! *e.onstrating t#at t#e &ang"age Ho+art #a* re&ie*
on ?as not "ni>"e to .e*ica& ?ritingsB +"t in .an! cases ?as si.&! t#e
&ang"age o/ e*"cate* Gree3s.
')1
So Ho+art5s corre&ations cannot +ear t#e
?eig#t t#e! ?ere inten*e* to.
A&& t#at can +e sai* o/ t#e state o/ t#e >"estion is t#at t#e %oca+"&ar! o/
L"3e4Acts oints to a Gree3 a"t#or o/ #ig# &earning an* c"&t"re. T#o"g# t#is
is consistent ?it# a #!sicianB it is a&so consistent ?it# 8"st a+o"t an!one in a
osition to ?rite ?#at #e *i* /or a atron s"c# as T#eo#i&"s.
I!. E5terna# E"i(ence o6 Authorship
Ear&! C#ristian ?riters +eginning in t#e secon* cent"r! .aintaine* t#at
t#e Gose& o/ L"3e an* t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es ?ere a"t#ore* +! L"3e t#e
P#!sicianB a co.anion o/ Pa"&. T#is section ?i&& e-a.ine t#e e-terna&
e%i*ence /or a"t#ors#i o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e an* t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es.
T#e L"3e o/ tra*ition is i*enti/ie* +! Pa"& in P#i&e.on '2 as a =/e&&o? ?or3erA
an* Co&. 2:12B ?#ere #e is i*enti/ie* as =t#e +e&o%e* #!sician.A He is a&so
.entione* in ' Ti.ot#! 2:11B as Pa"&5s =so&e co.anion.A
A. T#e Pa!r"s Bo*.er@PL1 J1L1 4 ''1 A0K
T#e ear&iest .an"scrit o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3eB PL1B is /o"n* in t#e
Bo*.er Pa!ri. T#e tit&e =e%ange&ion 3ata Lo"3anA J=Gose& accor*ing to
L"3eAK is /o"n* in PL1. 0ating +et?een 1L1 an* ''1 A0B t#is .an"scrit
ro%es t#at +! aro"n* t#e en* o/ t#e secon* cent"r!B t#e a"t#ors#i o/ L"3e
?as so strong&! associate* ?it# t#is Gose& t#at it #a* ?or3e* its ?a! into t#e
.an"scrit tra*ition.
Is it ossi+&e t#at t#is ?ritten association ?it# L"3e goes +ac3 to t#e
origina& a"togra#C Nan! sc#o&ars +e&ie%e t#at it *oes. L"3e o+%io"s&! ?rote
/or a atron o/ #ig# stat"s. At t#at ti.e in t#e He&&eniMe* ?or&*B ri%ate
&i+raries ?ere co..on a.ong t#e ric#. La+e&ing +oo3s +! t#eir a"t#or ?as an
')1
=T#e St!&e an* Literar! Net#o* o/ L"3eBA (arvard Theolo!ical )t"dies J1H')KB
ages 3H4L'.
1)1
inno%ation o/ t#e Gree3s.
')'
=Be/ore &acing a +oo34ro&& in t#e &i+rar! it ?o"&*
+e tagge* /or rea*! re/erence ?it# a tit&e an* t#e a"t#or5s na.e. In a&&
&i3e&i#oo* L"3e5s %o&".es ?ere so tagge* +! T#eo#i&"s since t#is ?as t#e
co..on c"sto..A
')3
Accor*ing&!B t#ere is a strong ossi+i&it! t#at t#e Gose&
o/ L"3e an* t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es ?ere &a+e&e* +! a"t#or /ro. t#e
+eginning o/ t#eir e-istence.
B. :"stin Nart!r J111 A0K
:"stin Nart!r is one o/ t#e /irst C#ristian ao&ogists. T#o"g# #e *oes
not seci/ica&&! na.e L"3e as t#e a"t#or o/ t#e Gose& or ActsB #e ro%i*es
so.e "se/"& in/or.ation on t#e s"+8ect: =For in t#e .e.oirs ?#ic# I sa! ?ere
*ra?n " +! His aost&es an* t#ose ?#o /o&&o?e* t#e.. . . .A Dial' 1)3:1H
Nart!r5s co..ent in*icates t#at aro"n* t#e .i**&e o/ t#e secon*
cent"r!B t#e c#"rc# ?as circ"&ating ?ritings t#at ?ere #e&* to +e a"t#ore* +!
=t#ose ?#o /o&&o?e*A aost&es. It a&so see.s c&ear t#at Nart!r 3ne? o/ .ore
t#en one +oo3 so ascri+e* J=t#oseBA o+%io"s&!B is &"ra&K. O+%io"s can*i*ates
?o"&* +e Nar3 an* L"3e Jan*B +! associationB ActsK.
C. Iranae"s J1L1 A0K
T#e ear&iest s"r%i%ing e-&icit re/erences to L"3e as t#e a"t#or o/ t#e Gose& o/
L"3e an* Acts are +! Irenae"s. In A!ainst (eresiesB #e ?rites:
A/ter t#eir *eart"reB Nar3B t#e *isci&e an* interreter o/ PeterB *i*
a&so #an* *o?n to "s in ?riting ?#at #a* +een reac#e* +! Peter.
L"3e a&soB t#e co.anion o/ Pa"&B recor*e* in a +oo3 t#e Gose&
reac#e* +! #i. JPa"&K. A/ter?ar*sB :o#nB t#e *isci&e o/ t#e Lor*B
?#o a&so #a* &eane* "on His +reastB *i* #i.se&/ "+&is# a Gose&
*"ring #is resi*ence at E#es"s in Asia.
3.1.1
T#at t#is L"3e ?as inseara+&e /ro. Pa"& an* ?as #is co&&a+orator in
Ereac#ingF t#e gose&B #e #i.se&/ .a3es c&earB not +! +oastingB +"t
&e* on +! t#e tr"t# itse&/. For a/ter Barna+as an* :o#nB ?#o ?as
ca&&e* Nar3B #a* arte* co.an! ?it# Pa"& an* #a* sai&e* /or
')'
R.F. Stro"tB LCB 1H1<B L.
')3
E&&isB op' cit'B age <1.
1)<
C!r"sB #e sa!s D,e ca.e to Troas. ,#en Pa"& sa? a .an o/
Nace*onia in a *rea. sa!ingB DCo.e o%er to Nace*oniaB5 Pa"&B an*
D#e& "s5B i..e*iate&! #e sa!sB D?e so"g#t to set o"t /or Nace*oniaB
rea&iMing t#at t#e Lor* #a* s"..one* "s to reac# t#e gose& to
t#e.. So ?e set sai& /ro. Troas an* steere* o"r co"rse to?ar*
Sa.ot#race. T#en #e care/"&&! in*icates a&& t#e rest o/ t#eir 8o"rne!
as /ar as P#i&iiB an* #o? t#e! *e&i%ere* t#eir /irst a**ress. . . .
An* &ater #e reco"nts DB"t ?e sai&e* /ro. P#i&i a/ter t#e *a!s o/
6n&ea%ene* Brea* an* arri%e* at Troas . . . ?#ere ?e sta!e* se%en
*a!s. A&& t#e rest ?it# Pa"& #e sets /ort# in *"e or*er. . . . In t#is
?a! #e s#o?s t#at L"3e ?as a&?a!s associate* ?it# #i. an*
inseara+&e /ro. #i..
3.12.1
0. C&e.ent o/ A&e-an*ria J17'4')) A0K
A t#eo&ogian in c#arge o/ t#e C#ristian sc#oo& at A&e-an*riaB C&e.ent
re/ers to L"3e4Acts in t#e &ate secon* cent"r!:
It re.ains t#at ?e "n*erstan*B t#enB t#e 6n3no?nB +! *i%ine graceB
an* +! t#e ?or* a&one t#at rocee*s /ro. Hi.I as L"3e in t#e Acts
o/ t#e Aost&es re&ates t#at Pa"& sai*B =Nen o/ At#ensB I ercei%e t#at
in a&& t#ings !e are too s"erstitio"s. For in ?a&3ing a+o"tB an*
+e#o&*ing t#e o+8ects o/ !o"r ?ors#iB I /o"n* an a&tar on ?#ic# ?as
inscri+e*B To t#e 6n3no?n Go*. ,#o. t#ere/ore !e ignorant&!
?ors#iB Hi. *ec&are I "nto !o".
)tromataB 1.1'.7'
E. Tert"&&ian J')'4)2 JA0K
A C#ristian o/ t#e &ate4secon* an* ear&!4t#ir* cent"riesB Tert"&&ian is t#e
ear&iest Latin C#"rc# ?riter. He ?as >"ite ro&i/icB +"t /or o"r "roses it is
#is ?ritings against Narcion t#at are o/ interest. Here are t#e re&e%ant
se&ections:
L"3eB #o?e%erB ?as not an aost&eB +"t on&! a .an o/ aosto&ic
ti.esI not a .asterB +"t a *isci&eB in/erior in*ee* to a .aster@an* at
&east as ."c# &ater Jt#an t#e!B as t#e Aost&e ?#o. #e /o&&o?e*B
"n*o"+te*&! Pa"& J?as &ater t#an t#e ot#ersK.
1)L
Narcion 2:'
Tert"&&ian a&so re/erre* to Pa"& as L"3e5s =insirerA an* L"3e5s Gose&
as =t#e gose& o/ #is teac#erA or a =*igestA o/ Pa"&5s gose&. J2.1.'41K.
F. N"ratorian Frag.ent J1L)417) A0K
T#e N"ratorian Frag.ent is a &ist o/ Ne? Testa.ent +oo3s reser%e* in
Latin. It is t#e ear&iest canonica& &ist an* .a! #a%e +een ?ritten in Gree3.
T#o"g# a /e? sc#o&ars #a%e *ate* it to t#e /o"rt# cent"r!B t#e .a8orit! osition
re.ains t#e &ate4secon* cent"r!. It re/ers to Acts as =t#e Acts o/ a&& t#e
aost&es.A T#is ancient *oc".ent states:
T#e t#ir* +oo3 o/ t#e Gose&: Accor*ing to L"3e. T#is L"3e
?as a #!sician. A/ter t#e ascension o/ C#ristB ?#en Pa"& #a*
ta3en #i. a&ong ?it# #i. as one *e%ote* to &ettersB #e ?rote it
"n*er #is o?n na.e /ro. #earsa!. For #e #i.se&/ #a* not seen
t#e Lor* in ersonB +"tB inso/ar as #e ?as a+&e to /o&&o? Jit a&&KB
#e t#"s +egan #is acco"nt ?it# t#e +irt# o/ :o#n.
G. Anti4Narcionite Pro&og"e o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e J11)41H) A0K
So.e ear&! Latin co*ices containing t#e gose&s a&so #a%e t#e sa.e
ro&og"es resecti%e to eac# gose&. 6ni>"e&!B t#e ro&og"e /or t#e Gose& o/
L"3e J?#ic# .entions ActsK is a&so reser%e* in Gree3. As a res"&t o/ t#e anti4
Narcionite ten*encies o/ a&& o/ t#e ro&og"esB t#e! are 3no?n as t#e =Anti4
Narcionite Pro&og"es.A T#e ro&og"es to t#e Gose&s o/ L"3e an* :o#nB
#o?e%erB aear esecia&&! inten*e* to co"nter Narcionite t#o"g#t. Noreo%erB
t#ere is goo* reason to t#in3 t#at t#e ro&og"e /or t#e Gose& o/ L"3e ?as
ear&ier t#an t#e rest.
')2

T#e anti4Narcionite /eat"res o/ t#e L"3e ro&og"e are t#e e.#asis on
=t#e integrit! o/ t#e /irst c#aters o/ L"3e E?#ic# Narcion #a* c"t /ro. #is
%ersionF
')1
?it# t#e gose& as a ?#o&e an* t#e essentia& c#aracter o/ :o#n t#e
Batist5s .inistr! in L"3e 3:'4''.A
')<
T#ese /eat"res are o+%io"s resonses to
NarcionB ?#o ?as acti%e in t#e ear&!4to4.i**&e secon* cent"r!.
Accor*ing&!B ?#en co.+ine* ?it# t#e /act t#at t#is is t#e on&! one o/
t#e ro&og"es reser%e* in Gree3B t#ere is goo* reason to *ate t#e anti4
Narcionite ro&og"e o/ t#e Gose& o/ L"3e /ro. t#e .i*4to4&ate /irst cent"r!.
')2
He&."t 9oesterB Ancient *hristian GospelsB age '23.
')1
Id.
')<
F.F. Br"ceB The *anon of )cript"reB age '11.
1)7
Here is t#e ortion o/ t#e ro&og"e re&ate* to a"t#ors#i:
L"3e ?as a S!rian o/ Antioc#B +! ro/ession a #!sicianB t#e *isci&e
o/ t#e aost&esB an* &ater a /o&&o?er o/ Pa"& "nti& #is .art!r*o.. He
ser%e* t#e Lor* ?it#o"t *istractionB ?it#o"t a ?i/eB an* ?it#o"t
c#i&*ren. He *ie* at t#e age o/ eig#t!4/o"r in BoeotiaB /"&& o/ t#e
#o&! Sirit. . . .
T#o"g# gose&s ?ere a&rea*! in e-istenceB t#at accor*ing to
Natt#e?B co.ose* in :"*eaB an* t#at accor*ing to Nar3 in Ita&!B #e
?as ro.te* +! t#e Ho&! Sirit an* co.ose* t#is gose& entire&!
in t#e regions a+o"t Ac#aia. He .a*e %er! c&ear in t#e ro&og"e t#at
ot#er Jgose&sK #a* +een ?ritten +e/ore #i.B +"t t#at it ?as
necessar! to set /ort# /or Genti&e con%erts t#e acc"rate acco"nt o/ t#e
*isensation t#at t#e! .ig#t not +e *istracte* +! :e?is# /a+&es or
*ecei%e* +! #eretica& an* /oo&is# /antasiesB an* so .iss t#e tr"t#
itse&/. Fro. t#e %er! +eginning Jo/ #is gose&K ?e #a%e recei%e* as
o/ no &itt&e i.ortance Jt#e stor! o/K t#e +irt# o/ :o#nB ?#o is t#e
+eginning o/ t#e Gose&. He ?as t#e Lor*5s rec"rsorB t#e one ?#o
s#are* in t#e artic"&ation o/ t#e goo* ne?sB in t#e .inistering o/
+atis.B an* in t#e co.an! o/ t#e Sirit. O/ t#is *isensation a
ro#et a.ong t#e T?e&%e .a3es .ention. Later t#e sa.e L"3e
?rote t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es.
H. A**itiona& Re/erences
OrigenB :ero.eB an* E"se+i"s a&so recor* e-&icit tra*itions attri+"ting
t#e Gose& o/ L"3e an*Qor t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&es to L"3e. T#o"g# in an* o/
t#e.se&%es t#e re/erences .a! +e too /ar re.o%e* to +e consi*ere* *irect
e%i*ence o/ a"t#ors#iB t#e! are nota+&e in t#eir "nani.it! an* /ai&"re to recor*
an! co.eting tra*itions:
T#e .an! assages in St. :ero.eB E"se+i"sB an* OrigenB ascri+ing
t#e +oo3s to St. L"3eB are i.ortant not on&! as testi/!ing to t#e
+e&ie/ o/ t#eir o?nB +"t a&so o/ ear&ier ti.es. St. :ero.e an* Origen
?ere great tra%e&&ersB an* a&& t#ree ?ere o.ni%ero"s rea*ers. T#e!
#a* access to ractica&&! t#e ?#o&e C#ristian &iterat"re o/ rece*ing
cent"riesI +"t t#e! no?#ere #int t#at t#e a"t#ors#i o/ t#e Gose&
Jan* ActsK ?as e%er ca&&e* in >"estion. T#isB ta3en +! itse&/B ?o"&*
1)H
+e a stronger arg".ent t#an can +e a**"ce* /or t#e .a8orit! o/
c&assica& ?or3s.
')L
T#ese ?itnesses a** ?eig#t to t#e a&rea*! ?e&&4esta+&is#e* tra*ition o/
L"3an a"t#ors#i an* to t#e signi/icance o/ t#e a+sence o/ an! co.eting
tra*itions.
I. S"..ar! o/ Ear&! C#"rc# ,itnesses
Beca"se t#e Aosto&ic Fat#ers ?ere &arge&! a?are o/ eac# ot#er5s
?ritingsB it is "nc&ear #o? .an! in*een*ent tra*itions t#is recitation o/
so"rces e%i*ences. Ho?e%erB t#e tra*ition in PL1 aears to +e in*een*ent o/
t#at in Irenae"s an* C&e.ent. Noreo%erB it is signi/icant t#at @ t#o"g# t#e
attri+"te* a"t#or is no aost&e @ t#ere is no *is"te as to a"t#ors#i.
It #as +een arg"e* t#at t#e e-terna& e%i*ence s#o"&* +e *is.isse*
+eca"se it is +ase* entire&! on s"r.ises o/ t#e ear&! C#"rc# /at#ersB g&eane*
/ro. rea*ings o/ t#e te-t o/ Acts.
')7
B"t an o"t4o/4#an* *is.issa& o/ t#is
e%i*ence is not ca&&e* /or:
It ?i&& not +e *enie* t#at an initia& con8ect"re .a! +e reeate* +!
s"ccessi%e ?itnesses "nti& it +eco.es .ista3en /or /actB as t#e
#istor! o/ .o*ern criticis. a+"n*ant&! i&&"stratesB +"t Ca*+"r!5s
s"ggestion in%o&%es a re.ar3a+&e an* #ig#&! i.ro+a+&e rocess.
,#ere %ario"s ossi+i&ities e-iste*B ?#at go%erne* t#e c#oice o/
L"3eC Ca*+"r!B ?it# so.e #esitationB s"ggests a rocess o/
e&i.inationB +"t *oes not e-&ain #o? it is t#at s"c# a rocess &e* so
ine%ita+&! to L"3e. ,#! not Nar3 or Ea#rasC In an! caseB ?#!
*i* not t#e secon*4cent"r! c#"rc# attri+"te +ot# t#e t#ir* gose& an*
Acts to an aosto&ic na.e rat#er t#an t#e insigni/icant L"3eC An*
#o? *i* t#e in/erence *ra?n /ro. t#e +oo3s t#e.se&%es gain s"c#
"n*is"te* s?a! a.ong t#e C#"rc# Fat#ersC T#ese >"estions nee*
.ore concrete ans?ers t#an Ca*+"r! gi%es +e/ore t#e tra*ition can
so rea*i&! +e set asi*e as re&ati%e&! "ni.ortant in *isc"ssion o/
')L
C. A#ereneB =Gose& o/ L"3eBA Cat#o&ic Enc!c&oe*iaB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.ne?a*%ent.orgQcat#enQ)H2')a.#t. Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1<B '))2K.
')7
H.:. Ca*+"r!B =T#e Tra*itionBA in The Be!innin!s of *hristianityB e*. Foa3es
:ac3son4La3eB ages ')H4'<2.
11)
a"t#ors#i.
')H
E%en i/ t#e ear&! C#ristian rea*er ?as ast"te eno"g# to narro? t#e
ossi+i&ities *o?n to t#ose co.anions o/ Pa"& .entione* in t#e cati%it!
eist&es @ t#"s coor*inating t#e /ina& =?e sectionA ?it# Pa"& "n*er arrest in
Ro.eB L"3e is not t#e on&! or t#e .ost o+%io"s c#oice. A.ong t#ose ot#er
co.anions o/ Pa"& resent at t#at ti.e +"t not .entione* in Acts are :es"s
:"st"sB Ea#rasB 0e.asB an* Ea#ro*it"s. Fina&&!B it ."st +e recogniMe*
t#at t#e ear&! C#ristian ?riters *isc"sse* a+o%e no?#ere sa! t#at t#e!
*iscerne* t#e i*entit! o/ t#e a"t#or +! e%a&"ating t#e te-t. Accor*ing&!B t#e
"nani.o"s e%i*ence o/ c#"rc# tra*itionB +eginning in t#e .i*4secon*
cent"r!B strong&! attests to L"3an a"t#ors#i.
!. Conc#usion
T#e interna& e%i*ence /or a"t#ors#i +! a co.anion o/ Pa"& is
con%incing. Once s"c# a"t#ors#i is accete*B t#e e-terna& e%i*ence an* so.e
interna& #ints con%incing&! oint to L"3eB t#e #!sicianB as t#e a"t#or o/ t#e
Gose& o/ L"3e an* Acts. T#e i.&ications o/ t#is conc&"sion are signi/icant.
Pro/essor Fo- s"..ariMes t#e incre*i+&e %a&"e t#at L"3an a"t#ors#i +esto?s
on Acts:
I regar* it as certainB t#ere/oreB t#at #e 3ne? Pa"& an* /o&&o?e* arts o/ #is
8o"rne!. He sta!e* ?it# #i. in :er"sa&e.I #e sent ti.e in CaesareaB
?#ere #e &o*ge* ?it# an ear&! .e.+er o/ t#e Se%enB P#i&iB ?#o #a* /o"r
ro#etic *a"g#tersB a&& %irgins JActs '1:74HK. It ."st #a%e +een >"ite an
e%ening. He #a* no ?ritten so"rcesB +"t in Acts #e #i.se&/ ?as a ri.ar!
so"rce /or a art o/ t#e stor!. He ?rote t#e rest o/ Acts /ro. ?#at
in*i%i*"a&s to&* #i. an* #e #i.se&/ #a* ?itnesse*B as *i* Hero*ot"s an*
T#"c!*i*esI in .! %ie?B #e ?rote /ina&&! in Ro.eB ?#ere #e co"&* sti&& ta&3
to ot#er co.anions o/ Pa"&B eo&e &i3e Aristarc#"s Ja so"rce /or Acts
1H:'3 //.I c/ Acts 'L:'B 1L:1411K or er#as A>"i&a an* Prisci&&a J?#ence
17K. Fro. P#i&i #e co"&* a&rea*! #a%e #ear* a+o"t t#e Et#ioian e"n"c#
JP#i&i .et #i.KB or Ste#en an* t#e Se%en JP#i&i ?as ro+a+&! oneKB or
t#e con%ersion o/ t#e Genti&e Corne&i"s in Caesarea JP#i&i5s resi*enceKI
')H
0ona&* G"t#rieB New Testament Introd"ctionB age 111. )ee also
FitM!.erB op' cit.B age 21 JGB"t t#e arg".ent t#at t#e secon*4cent"r!
c#"rc# in/erre* /ro. t#e NT itse&/ t#at L"3e ?as t#e a"t#orB ?#i&e in se
ossi+&e is a&& too at. T#at an in*i%i*"a& in t#e secon* cent"r!@or e%en
se%era& in*i%i*"a&s@.ig#t #a%e so reasone* is certain&! ossi+&eI +"t t#at
s"c# in/erences /ro. t#e NT te-t are t#e so&e +asis o/ an ot#er?ise
"nconteste* or "na.+ig"o"s tra*ition J"n&i3e t#at o/ t#e First Gose&K is
*i//ic"&t to accet.GK.
111
/ro. t#e ro#et Aga+"sB ?#o. #e .et at '1:1)B co"&* co.e 3no?&e*ge o/
Aga+"s5 ear&ier ro#ec! in 11.'7.
'1)
CHAPTER :: 1I1 '8;E 8SE ,OSEPH8S4 ANTIQUITIES
So.e #a%e arg"e* t#at t#e a"t#or o/ Acts co"&* not #a%e +een a
co.anion o/ Pa"& +eca"se #e re&ie* on :ose#"s5 Anti-"itiesB "+&is#e* in H3
A0. E%en i/ tr"e t#ere is not#ing a+o"t t#e "se o/ Anti-"ities t#at ?o"&*
rec&"*e a"t#oria& articiation. For e-a.&eB i/ t#e co.anion o/ Pa"& ?as '1
?#i&e tra%e&ing ?it# Pa"& #e ?o"&* +e <3 ?#en :ose#"s "+&is#e* Anti-"ities.
As Peter 9ir+! #as recogniMe*B t#ere/oreB a"t#ors#i +! a co.anion o/ Pa"&
?o"&* not rec&"*e a *ate o/ Acts " "nti& t#e secon* cent"r!. Ne%ert#e&essB
t#e >"estion o/ t#e re&ations#i +et?een Acts an* Anti-"ities raises ot#er
i.ortant iss"es.
I. A Con"incing Consensus Against 1epen(ence
T#ere is a +roa* consens"s against L"3e5s *een*ence on :ose#"s. In
/actB t#e sc#o&ar&! co.."nit! #as so a&igne* against t#is roosition t#at a
&ea*ing sc#o&arB ?#o is no conser%ati%eB #as rono"nce* t#at =EtF#e *een*ence
o/ Acts "on :ose#"s #as rig#t&! +een gi%en ".A
'11

In a**ition to t#e genera& ?ea3ness o/ t#e case /or *een*ence @
*isc"sse* in *etai& +e&o? @ I +egin t#e *isc"ssion +! o"t&ining t#ree reasons /or
re8ecting L"3an *een*ence on Anti-"ities.
FirstB =EtF#ere is no e%i*ence /or *irect &iterar! re&ations#i +et?een
t#e..A
'1'
0isc"ssing t#e "s"a& assages "se* to s"ort *een*enceB Po&#i&&
notes t#at =EnFone o/ t#ese assages . . . s#o?s t#e &east &iterar! *een*ence on
:ose#"s.A
'13

Secon*B t#e s"+8ect .atter t#at t#e t?o ?ritings #a%e in co..on ?o"&*
#a%e +een co..on 3no?&e*ge /or :e?s or t#ose ?it# :e?is# so"rces. T#ere is
si.&! no reason to s"ose t#at t#e a"t#or o/ L"3e4Acts co"&* on&! #a%e
&earne* t#e t#ings #e ?rites a+o"t /ro. :ose#"s. In*ee*B #e *e.onstrates a
%ast a.o"nt o/ acc"rate 3no?&e*ge a+o"t :e?is# an* Genti&e #istor!B o&iticsB
geogra#!B an* re&igion t#at is in*een*ent o/ :ose#"s. F"rt#er.oreB as
a*.itte* +! one o/ t#e /e? roonents o/ L"3an *een*ence on Anti-"itiesB
'1)
Fo-B op' cit'B age '1).
'11
F.B. 9"..e&B Introd"ction to the New TestamentB age 13'. )ee also E&&isB op'
cit'B age 11 JGT#e arg".ent t#at L"3e "se* t#e #istorianB :ose#"s JA0 H3KB ?as
ne%er /"&&! con%incing. . . . To*a! it is se&*o. resse*.GK.
'1'
I+id.
'13
Po&#i&&B op' cit'B age 3).
11'
a&t#o"g# /e? ot#er acco"nts o/ ancient :e?is# #istor! #a%e s"r%i%e* to t#is
*a!B t#ere ?ere .an! ot#ers t#at s"r%i%e* to t#e &ate nint# cent"r!.
'12
T#ir*B t#e oints o/ contact roonents o/ *een*ence re&! on are
act"a&&! so *i//erent t#at t#e! *e/eat t#e arg".ent. =I/ eit#er "se* t#e ot#erB #e
.is"se* #i.. T#e! are s"re&! in*een*entB an* /o&&o? in*een*entB in*ee*
con/&ictingB so"rces.A
'11

Accor*ing&!B t#e co.+ination o/ an a+sence o/ &iterar! e%i*ence o/
*een*enceB t#e genera& a%ai&a+i&it! o/ t#e in/or.ation reco"nte* +! +ot#
a"t#orsB an* t#e *i%ergent nat"re o/ t#e oints o/ contactB #a%e con%ince* t#e
%ast .a8orit! o/ sc#o&ars t#at Acts *i* not "se Anti-"ities as a so"rce.
II. E5a$ining the Case 6or 1epen(ence
0esite t#e consens"s o/ sc#o&ars to t#e contrar!B in #is 1HH' +oo3
&oseph"s and the New TestamentB Ste%e Nason arg"es t#at L"3e4Acts is
*een*ent on Anti-"ities. Nason can*i*&! conce*es t#at #e is /ig#ting an
"#i&& +att&e: =Neit#er osition #as ."c# o/ a /o&&o?ing to*a!B +eca"se o/ t#e
signi/icant *i//erences +et?een t#e t?o ?or3s in t#eir acco"nts o/ t#e sa.e
e%ents.A
'1<
,#ate%er accetance Nason5s ?or3 #as ac#ie%e* a.ong Internet
s3eticsB it #as not ca"se* an! *iscerna+&e s#i/t in sc#o&ar&! attit"*es.
Nason5s arg".ents are not no%e& an* rest on t#e a&rea*! re/"te* notion
t#at t#e *iscreancies +et?een L"3e4Acts an* :ose#"s can +e acco"nte* /or
+! oor rea*ing or oor .e.or! on L"3e5s art. B.H. Streeter reson*e* to
t#is t#eor! se%era& *eca*es ago an* carrie* t#e aca*e.ic *a!.
'1L
Ne%ert#e&essB
Nason arg"es t#at t#ere are t#ree oints o/ corre&ation +et?een Acts an*
Anti-"ities t#at *e.onstrate &iterar! *een*ence.
A. T#e Cens"s
FirstB Nason arg"es t#at L"3e5s re/erence to t#e cens"s "n*er ;"irini"s
is *een*ent on :ose#"s5 Anti-"ities.
In t#e /e? &ines t#at #e *e%otes to t#e cens"sB L"3e .anages to
associate it ?it# +ot# ;"irini"sB go%ernor o/ S!riaB an* :"*as t#e
Ga&i&ean. T#ese oints agree ?it# :ose#"s5 resentation in a
consic"o"s ?a!. Beca"se o/ #is &iterar! ai.sB :ose#"s is t#e
one ?#o .a3es t#e oint t#at t#e cens"s s!.+o&iMe* Ro.an
occ"ation an* so ?as oose* +! t#e arc#4re+e& :"*as t#e
'12
NasonB op' cit'B age 1H.
'11
He.erB op' cit'B ages 3L'4L3.
'1<
NasonB op' cit'B age '11.
'1L
StreeterB op' cit'B ages 11L417.
113
Ga&i&ean. ,e s"sect t#at ot#er ?riters ?o"&* not #a%e gi%en t#e
cens"s s"c# ro.inence or .a*e s"c# connections ?it# t#e re+e&
s!c#o&og!. T#ese o+ser%ations s"ggest t#at L"3e ?as /a.i&iar
?it# :ose#"s5 ?or3.
Ot#er?iseB it ?o"&* +e a re.ar3a+&e coinci*ence t#at #e a&so
c#ooses to /eat"re t#e cens"s an* to .ention its connection ?it#
:"*as t#e Ga&i&ean. (et i/ L"3e #a* 3no?n :ose#"sB it is *i//ic"&t
to "n*erstan* ?#! #e &ace* ;"irini"s5 cens"s at t#e en* o/
Hero*5s reignB /&at&! contra*icting :ose#"s. Per#as t#ese
circ".stances are +est e-&aine* i/ L"3e 3ne? so.e #ig#&ig#ts
o/ :ose#"s5 stor! +"t *i* not reca&& or ?as not concerne* ?it#
t#e *etai&s.
'17
T#is arg".ent is "ncon%incing +eca"se it ass".es t#at :ose#"s ?as
t#e on&! erson ?#o ?o"&* #a%e reorte* Jor re.e.+ere*K t#e e%ents at iss"e.
T#e on&! 8"sti/ication Nason o//ers /or t#is ass".tion is t#at #e =s"sectsA it
is so. T#e cens"s "n*er ;"irini"sB #o?e%erB ?as a *e/ining e%ent +eca"se it
*e.onstrate* Ro.e5s ass".tion o/ *irect contro& o%er :"*ea. It ?as t#is
*irect ass".tion o/ o?er t#at ca"se* t#e re%o&t &ea* +! :"*as t#e Ga&i&ean.
,#! .ention ;"irini"s at a&& in t#is %erseC . . . T#e si.&e
ans?er to t#is is t#at t#e cens"s "n*er ;"irini"s .ar3e* a t"rning
oint an* ?as *ecisi%e in t#e /&o? o/ :e?is# #istor!. Certain&! it
?as so /or :ose#"sB an* e%en Tacit"s Ann. '.2' J/o&&o?ing t#e
*isc"ssion o/ t#e #".+&ing o/ Arc#e&a"s t#e O&*erB *isc"sse*
a+o%eK .a3es .ention o/ t#e ro+&e.s o/ ta-ation in S!ria an*
:"*aeaB >"ite &i3e&! in re/erence to t#e ;"irinian cens"s an* t#e
e%ents s"rro"n*ing it. It ?o"&* on&! +e nat"ra& t#at t#is cens"s
?as a .e.ora+&e oneB . . . i/ /or no ot#er reason t#an +eca"se it
ca"se* a re+e&&ionT
'1H
Accor*ing&!B gi%en t#e signi/icance o/ t#e cens"s "n*er ;"rini"sB its
*e.onstration o/ Ro.e5s ass".tion o/ *irect contro& o%er :"*eaB an* t#e
re+e&&ion +! :"*as it ca"se*B t#ere is no reason to +e&ie%e t#at L"3e ."st #a%e
o+taine* t#is in/or.ation /ro. Anti-"ities.
B. T#e Re+e&s
'17
NasonB op' cit'B age 'L<4LL.
'1H
Broo3 PearsonB GT#e L"can Cens"sesB Re%isite*BG *atholic Bi+lical
C"arterlyB <1:' JAri&B 1HHHKB ages 'LL4L7.
112
Nason /in*s it signi/icant t#at +ot# Acts an* :ose#"s .ention t#ree
=re+e& &ea*ersA: :"*asB T#"e*asB an* t#e Eg!tian. =,#en ?e t"rn to L"3e4
ActsB ?e are str"c3 +! t?o /acts: JaK t#e a"t#or #aens to .ention t#e sa.e
t#ree /ig"res ?#o are /eat"re* +! :ose#"sB an* J+K #e associates t#e. in ?a!s
re.iniscent o/ :ose#"s5 narrati%es.A
'')
T#o"g# Nason is correct t#at +ot#
a"t#ors .ention :"*asB T#"e*asB an* t#e Eg!tianB t#e ?a! in ?#ic# t#e!
*escri+e t#ese /ig"res co"nts againstB not /orB &iterar! *een*ence.
FirstB it is so.e?#at .is&ea*ing to sa! t#at L"3e .entione* t#e =sa.e
t#ree /ig"resA as =/eat"re*A in :ose#"s. :ose#"s na.es an* *isc"sses .ore
t#an t#ese t#ree /ig"res. In*ee*B in a**ition to :"*asB T#"e*asB an* t#e
Eg!tianB :ose#"s .entions eig#t ot#er s"c# &ea*ers in Anti-"ities a&one:
U E&eaMarB t#e son o/ 0ineasI
U Sa**"cB a P#ariseeI
U Si.onB t#e son o/ GiorasI
U Nana#e.B t#e son o/ :"*asI
U :o#n o/ Gisc#a&aI
U E&eaMar t#e arc#4ro++erI an*B
U :a.es an* Si.onB sons o/ :"*as.
:ose#"s *isc"sses e%en .ore re+e&s in WarsB s"c# as =t#at arc#4ro++er
HeMe3iasBA =t#e t?o t#o"san* o/ Hero*5s %eteransBA an* =At#ronge"s.A T#"sB
at .ost L"3e .entions 3 o/ 12 re+e& /ig"res Jor gro"sK a&so .entione* +!
:ose#"s.
Secon*B Nason5s arg".ent ass".es t#at :ose#"s5 .ention o/ t#e t#ree
?as ar+itrar!B rat#er t#an re&ate* to t#eir act"a& #istorica& ro.inence. Beca"se
o/ t#e notoriet! o/ t#e t#ree .entione* +! L"3e an* :ose#"sB 3no?&e*ge o/
t#e. ?o"&* #ar*&! +e restricte* to :ose#"s. As ?e sa? a+o%eB L"3e #a*
access to ot#er :e?is# so"rces so t#ere is no nee* to s"ose L"3an
*een*ence on :ose#"s /or t#is in/or.ation.
I/ ?e ret"rn /or a .o.ent to t#e &ist Nason gi%es o/ i.ortant
correson*ences in .a8or /ig"res an* e%ents +et?een :ose#"s
an* L"3eB it ?i&& +e i..e*iate&! seen t#at in eac# case ?e are
ta&3ing a+o"t .a8or o&itica& /ig"res ?#ose &i%es an* e-&oits
?ere ?i*e&! 3no?n a.ong :e?sB esecia&&! a.ong :e?s in t#e
Ho&! Lan*. It is /ar /ro. "n&i3e&! t#at L"3e co"&* #a%e #a*
in*een*ent in/or.ation o/ t#ese /ig"res an* t#eir &i%es /ro.
so"rces ot#er t#an :ose#"s.
''1

'')
NasonB op' cit'B age 'L7.
''1
,it#eringtonB op' cit'B age '3L.
111
T#ir*B t#e ?e&&43no?n *is"te +et?een L"3e an* :ose#"s as to t#e
n".+er o/ /o&&o?ers t#at t#e Eg!tian #a* *e.onstrates t#at L"3e is re&!ing on
a searate @ an* .ore acc"rate @ so"rce. :ose#"s "ts t#e n".+er o/ re+e&s at
3)B)))B ?#ereas L"3e "ses t#e .ore &i3e&! n".+er o/ 2B))). L"3e a&so notes
t#e &ea*er5s *eat#B ?#ereas :ose#"s is si&ent as to #is /ate. As a res"&tB it
see.s .ore reasona+&e to conc&"*e t#at t#e reason L"3e5s acco"nt is .ore
acc"rate is +eca"se #e #a* in*een*ent in/or.ation.
F"rt#er co"nting against Nason5s arg".ents t#at L"3e #a* a oor
.e.or! an* t#at n".+ers in ancient ti.es ?ere /&"i*B is L"3e5s "se o/
n".+ers /o"n* in Nar3. For e-a.&eB Nar3 .entions t#e /ee*ing o/ 1B)))
.enB ?it# 1 &oa%es an* ' /is#B an* so *oes L"3e. In*ee*B :ose#"s s#o?s
."c# .ore o/ a roensit! to &a! ?it# #is n".+ers t#an L"3e.
'''

,it#erington o//ers t#ese /"rt#er criticis.s o/ t#e oor4.e.or!Q#ast!4
er"sa& t#eor!:
Poor .e.or! .ig#t &ea* to a 8".+&ing " o/ so.e /actsB +"t it
#ar*&! acco"nts /or t#e *i//erence in t#e n".+ers o/ /o&&o?ers @
are ?e to t#in3 L"3e ic3e* a n".+er at ran*o.B not
re.e.+ering at a&& ?#at :ose#"s sai*C Is it not .ore &a"si+&e
to conc&"*e t#at L"3e an* :ose#"s #a* in*een*ent tra*itions
a+o"t t#e Eg!tian t#at *i//ere* on so.e i.ortant .attersC . . . .
Nason oints to t#e sa.e or*er in :ose#"s5 *isc"ssion o/ t#ese
t?o /ig"res in Ant. ').HL4HHB 1))41)'. He s"ggests t#at L"3e
re.e.+ere* t#e or*er o/ :ose#"s5s *isc"ssion +"t /orgot t#at
:ose#"s #a* in*icate* t#at :"*as ?as a ."c# ear&ier /ig"re. In
s#ortB #is .e.or! ?as se&ecti%e an* ?#at #e re.e.+ere* ?as
not t#e act"a& s"+stance o/ :ose#"s5 acco"nt +"t t#e or*er. It
."st +e a*.itte* t#at t#is see.s strangeB esecia&&! ?#en one is
ta&3ing a+o"t an ancient #istorian &i3e L"3e ?#o ?as /ar .ore
&i3e&! to concentrate on .atters o/ s"+stance t#an .atters o/
c#rono&ogica& or*er.
''3
Fi/t#B /ro. ?#at ?e 3no? o/ t#e a"t#or o/ ActsB #e ?o"&* not #a%e
.a*e s"c# s&o! "se o/ one o/ #is so"rces. Nason5s t#eor! /ai&s to *ea& ?it#
?#at ?e 3no? a+o"t t#e a"t#or5s "se o/ so"rces in L"3e. As *isc"sse* a+o%eB
t#e a"t#or o/ Acts .a*e e-tensi%e "se o/ Nar3 an* ; Jor Natt#e?K in ?riting
#is Gose&. A&t#o"g# L"3e s.oot#e* o"t t#e Gree3 #e is a so+er e*itor o/ #is
'''
I+id'B age '37B /n. 1L1 JGIn %ie? o/ :ose#"s5s trac3 recor* ?it# n".+ersB it is
easier to +e&ie%e #e e-aggerate*B t"rning /o"r t#o"san* into .an! .oreB t#an t#at
L"3eB ?#o #a* no o+%io"s reason to c#ange t#e /ig"resB *i* t#e oosite.GK.
''3
,it#eringtonB op' cit'B ages '3L437.
11<
so"rce .ateria& rat#er t#an a creati%e a"t#or. He *i* not "se so"rces care&ess&!
or #a&/4re.e.+ere*.
Fina&&!B Acts acc"rate&! reco"nts .an! e%ents con/ir.e* +! so"rces
ot#er t#an :ose#"s. FirstB t#ere are t#ose :e?is# e%ents or eo&e reorte* +!
:ose#"s +"t a&so atteste* +! in*een*ent so"rces. S"c# is tr"e o/ t#eir
acco"nts o/ t#e *eat# o/ Hero*B
''2
t#e re/erence to t#e ena&t! o/ *eat# /or
Genti&e entr! into t#e Te.&eB
''1
t#e P#arisaic +e&ie/ in res"rrectionB an* :o#n
t#e Batist. A**itiona&&!B t#e /o&&o?ing /acts /ro. C#ater 'B Section 'B
t#o"g# .entione* +! :ose#"sB are con/ir.e* +! ot#er :e?is# so"rces: Nos. '
JCo"rt o/ t#e Genti&esKB 3 JGenti&e inc"rsion into Te.&e "nis#a+&e +! *eat#KB
an* H JTi.e o/ Pra!er on t#e Te.&eK. Secon*B t#ere are t#ose :e?is# e%ents
or eo&e in Acts t#at are not .entione* +! :ose#"s +"t con/ir.e* +! ot#er
so"rces. T#is inc&"*es L"3e5s acco"nt o/ t#e e-"&sion o/ t#e :e?s /ro.
Ro.eB ?#ic# is not .entione* +! :ose#"sB +"t is con/ir.e* +! t#e Ro.an
#istorianB S"etoni"sB The Life of *la"di"s '1.2. A**itiona&&!B t#e /o&&o?ing
/acts /ro. C#ater 'B Section ' are con/ir.e* +! ot#er so"rces +"t not
.entione* +! :ose#"s: Nos. 1 JPra!er in t#e Si-t# Ho"rKB < J0escrition o/
t#e Te.&eKB 7 JPriest&! 0"ties Se&ecte* +! LotKB 1) JLa.e Nan Not A&&o?e*
Into Te.&eKB 11 JSo&o.on5s PorticoKB 1' JA Sa++at# 0a!5s :o"rne!K an* 13
JFie&* o/ B&oo*K. C&ear&!B t#ere/oreB L"3e ?rote ?it# access to ot#er so"rces o/
:e?is# in/or.ation in*een*ent o/ :ose#"s.
C. S"ose* Ling"istic Si.i&arities
A&t#o"g# .ost sc#o&ars #a%e /o"n* no &ing"istic e%i*ence
*e.onstrating Acts5 "se o/ Anti-"ities. Nason a.asses ?#at e%i*ence #e can
to arg"e /or *een*ence. None o/ it is ers"asi%e.
1. sicarri
T#e .ost ro.inent o/ t#e scant &ing"istic si.i&arities Nason5s re&ies on
is :ose#"s5 an* L"3e5s "se o/ t#e ter. sicarri to re/er to a gro" o/ :e?is#
re+e&s. Nason goes on to arg"e t#at =EiFt is e%en .ore re.ar3a+&e +eca"se
sicarii is a Latin ter. /or assassins. :ose#"s see.s to #a%e +een t#e /irst to
+orro? t#is ?or* an* .a3e it a tec#nica& ter. /or t#e :e?is# re+e&s in #is
Gree3 narrati%e. Ho? t#en *i* L"3eB ?#o a&so ?rites in Gree3B #aen "on
t#e ?or*CA
''<
''2
Br"ceB The Acts of the ApostlesB age 22 JGOne o/ t#e .ost i.ortant oints o/
contact +et?een t#e t?o re&ates to t#e *eat# o/ t#e e&*er Agria it is >"ite &ain
t#at #ere eac# is in*een*ent o/ t#e ot#er.GK.
''1
Henge&B Between &es"s and Pa"lB age 1)3.
''<
NasonB op' cit'B age '71.
11L
Nason5s ass".tion t#at :ose#"s ?as t#e /irst to "se t#e ter. sicarii to
re/er to t#ese :e?is# re+e&s is "ns"orte*. In*ee*B t#ere see.s to +e no
reason ?#! :ose#"s ?o"&* =+orro?A t#e ter. in t#e /irst &ace. :ose#"s
so3e an* ?rote in Ara.aic an* J&ess ro/icient&!K Gree3. None o/ #is
?ritings are in Latin. It is ."c# .ore &i3e&! t#at :ose#"s "se* t#is ter.
+eca"se t#ese :e?is# re+e&s ?ere a&rea*! 3no?n +! t#at ter.. A/ter a&&B t#e
eo&e .ost &i3e&! to "se a Latin ter. to *escri+e assassins in Pa&estine ?o"&*
+e Ro.an so&*iers an* o//icia&s statione* in Pa&estine. T#is accor*s ?e&& ?it#
L"3e5s "se o/ t#e ter.. Acts *oes not #a%e a :e? or a Gree3 "se t#e #raseB
+"t a Ro.an so&*ier. T#is rat#er o+%io"s oint is a+sent /ro. Nason5s
*isc"ssion.
Nota+&!B t#e ter. a&so /o"n* its ?a! into ot#er :e?is# &iterat"re ?it# no
aarent connection to :ose#"s.
In Latin =sicari"sA is a co..on ter. /or an assassinB as in t#e
tit&e o/ t#e &a? ro."&gate* +! S"&&aB t#e =Le- Cornc&ia *e
SicariisAI an* t#e ?or* #as t#e sa.e genera& .eaning in t#e
Nis#na# JBi3. i. 'B ii. 3I Git. %. <I Na3s#. i. <K. T#e Nis#na#
.entions a =si3ari3onA &a? enacting t#at tit&e to a iece o/
roert! #e&* +! a =ro++erA .a! +e ta3en in case it #as +een /irst
"rc#ase* /ro. t#e o?ner an* t#en /ro. t#e =ro++erA Js"c#
+eing t#e .eaning o/ t#e ?or* in t#is assageKB +"t not %ice
%ersa.
''L
T#"sB t#ere is no reason to ass".e t#at L"3e co"&* on&! #a%e &earne* o/
t#is ter. /ro. :ose#"s. It is ."c# .ore &i3e&! t#at it ?as a co..on ter.
"se* to *escri+e Mea&ots.
'. T#e Eg!tian
In a re&ate* arg".entB Nason /in*s it signi/icant t#at L"3e an* :ose#"s
+ot# re/er to t#is re+e& as =t#e Eg!tian.A
Pres".a+&!B #is arents *i* not ca&& #i. Dt#e Eg!tianB5 +"t ga%e #i.
a ersona& na.e. It is eas! eno"g# to "n*erstan* ?#! :ose#"s
s#o"&* #a%e c#osen t#e geogra#ica& eit#et a&oneB gi%en #is
#osti&it! to?ar* Eg!tians. It is #ar*er to e-&ain L"3e5s "se o/ t#is
ter.B rat#er t#an a ersona& na.eB i/ #e #a* in*een*ent access to
in/or.ation. T#ere ?ere .an! :e?s /ro. Eg!t in :"*ea.
''7

''L
Ric#ar* Gott#ei&B =SicarrieBA #tt:QQ???.8e?is#enc!c&oe*ia.co.Q%ie?.8sC
arti*Y<71V&etterYSVsearc#Ysicari"s Jaccesse* on Ari& '2B '))1K.
''7
NasonB op' cit'B age '7).
117
Again ?e see Nason ass".ing t#at :ose#"s #i.se&/ ."st #a%e coine* t#e
ter. at iss"e: t#e Eg!tian. I/ t#is &ea*er ?as 3no?n +! anot#er na.e it is
o** t#at :ose#"s *oes not .ention it. T#at #e *i* not &i3e Eg!tians is not an
a*e>"ate e-&anation /or s"c# an o.issionB as :ose#"s co"&* 8"st as easi&!
#a%e i*enti/ie* #is nation o/ origin as ?e&& as #is na.e Jas #e *oes /or ot#er
Eg!tians at Ant' 1:H2I 1:17LI 1:'')I ':3HI <:3<)K. It see.s .ore &i3e&! t#at
t#is ?as si.&! #o? t#is artic"&ar re+e& ?as 3no?n. As /or t#ere +eing
=.an! :e?s /ro. Eg!tBA t#is is irre&e%ant. T#e iss"e ?o"&* +e #o? .an!
Eg!tian :e?s ?ere signi/icant re+e& &ea*ers *"ring t#e /irst cent"r! rior to L)
A0. I/ t#ere ?ere .an!B no *o"+t :ose#"s ?o"&* not #a%e asse* " t#e
oort"nit! to *isarage Eg!tians again. T#"sB t#e .ore &i3e&! e-&anation is
t#at signi/icant Eg!tian re+e& &ea*ers in :"*ea ?ere so rare t#at it t#e
aearance o/ one ?as occasion eno"g# /or #i. to +e 3no?n +! #is
nationa&it!.
''H

3. P#i&oso#ica& Sc#oo&s
Nason5s &ast atte.t to *e.onstrate &iterar! *een*ence a&so /a&&s s#ort.
Nason is i.resse* +! t#e /act t#at L"3e an* :ose#"s *escri+e :e?is# sects as
Gree3 #i&oso#ica& sc#oo&s:
It is tr"&! re.ar3a+&e t#at Acts ta3es o%er :ose#"s5 c&assi/ication o/
t#e P#arisees an* Sa**"cees as =#i&oso#ica& sc#oo&sA JhaireseisI
1:1LI 11:1I '<:1KB as i/ t#is ter.ino&og! ?ere se&/4e%i*ent&!
aroriate.
'3)
Gi%en t#e co..on He&&eniMe* a"*ience an* socia& setting o/ t#e a"t#ors
o/ Acts an* Anti-"itiesB it &i3e&! was =se&/4e%i*ent&! aroriateA /or t#e. to
*escri+e :e?is# sects in t#is .anner. Ho? e&se is a ?riter to e-&ain :e?is#
sects to a Gree3 a"*ienceC Esecia&&! gi%en t#at t#e a"t#or o/ L"3e4Acts ?as a
Gree3 #i.se&/. T#ere/oreB t#is corre&ation is "nre.ar3a+&e an* +est e-&aine*
+! s#aring si.i&ar a"*iences.
T#ere are ter.s re&ate* to #i&oso#! t#at Nason re&ies on to arg"e
*een*ence. He notes t#at :ose#"s an* L"3e re/er to tra*ition +eing =#an*e*
*o?n.A B"t t#is is t!ica& :e?is#B esecia&&! P#arisiac &ang"ageB an* it s#o"&*
t#ere/ore co.e as no s"rrise t#at it is "se* +! L"3e to re/erB ?e&&B to t#e
''H
Nason5s a**itiona& arg".ents t#at t#e sicarri ?o"&* not #a%e gone into t#e
?i&*erness or +een associate* ?it# t#e Eg!tian are "ners"asi%e sec"&ation.
Si.&! +eca"se t#e na.e *eri%es /ro. *aggers *oes not .ean t#e! ?o"&* not #i*e
o"t ?#ere .ost re+e&s #i* @ in t#e *esert. Noreo%erB as Nason #i.se&/ rea&iMesB
ca"tion ."st +e e-ercise* ?#en rea*ing :ose#"s5 acco"nt o/ t#e re+e&sB +eca"se
#is o&itica& an* ao&ogetic interests signi/icant&! a//ect #is narrati%e.
'3)
NasonB op' cit'B age 13L.
11H
#an*ing *o?n o/ tra*ition. Pa"& a&so "ses t#is &ang"age in 1 Cor. 11:'3 an*
11:'3B as *o ot#er ear&! C#ristians in :"*e 1 an* ' Peter ':'1. T#e sa.e .a!
+e tr"e /or L"3e an* :ose#"s5 "se o/ t#e #rase =.ost recise sc#oo&A to
*escri+e t#e P#arisees. T#o"g# ara&&e&s are not /o"n* +e!on* L"3e an*
:ose#"s5 ?ritingB it is a /&attering resentation t#at co"&* #a%e +een "se* +!
t#e P#arisees t#e.se&%es. It see.s t#at t#e t?o ancient #istorians .ost
3no?&e*gea+&e a+o"t P#arisees ?riting to a Gree3 a"*ience are L"3e an*
:ose#"s. AgainB t#e congr"ence is not nota+&e. T#e rest o/ Nason5s &ing"istic
e-a.&es are not "ni>"e ?or*s or #rasesB +"t ar /or t#e co"rse in resenting
s"c# i*eas to a Gree3 a"*ience.
'31
Nason goes on to arg"e t#at L"3e5s /ai&"re to .ention t#e Essenes @
8"-taose* ?it# :ose#"s5 ositi%e *escrition o/ t#e. @ oints to?ar*s
*een*ence:
T#e o+%io"s e-&anation /or t#is o.ission is t#at in L"3e5s ortra!a&
t#e C#ristians ta3e t#e &ace o/ t#e Essenes. Reca&& t#at :ose#"s #a*
*eicte* t#at gro" as t#e .ost #i&oso#ica& o/ a&& :e?sB s#aring
e%er!t#ing in co..onB &i%ing eace/"& an* *isci&ine* &i%esB an*
accor*ing&! #a%ing o?ers o/ #ea&ing an* ro#ec!. In ActsB it is t#e
sc#oo& o/ t#e NaMarenesB or C#ristiansB t#at /"&/i&&s t#is ro&e. T#e!
s#are t#eir goo*sB &i%e in eaceB ractice #ea&ingB e-orcis.B an*
ro#ec!B an* s#a.e a&& ot#er :e?s ?it# t#eir &o%e o/ t#e tr"t#. To
inc&"*e t#e Essenes in #is narrati%e ?o"&* #a%e ca"se* nee*&ess
ro+&e.s /or t#e a"t#or o/ ActsB /or t#at gro" ?o"&* #a%e +een in
*irect co.etition ?it# t#e C#ristiansT
'3'
T#e ro+&e. #ere is one o/ roortiona&it!. L"3e *oes not "t
C#ristianit! /or?ar* as one o/ .an! :e?is# #i&oso#ica& sc#oo&sB +"t as t#e
/"&/i&&.ent o/ a&& :e?is# e-ectations. :ose#"s5 o?n resentation o/ t#e
sc#oo&s o/ :"*ais. is not so s&ante* in /a%or o/ t#e Essenes. T#e! are one sect
a.ong .an!. Better in so.e ?a!sB +"t not t#e on&! tr"e :"*ais..
F"rt#erB t#ere is a .ore &i3e&! e-&anation /or L"3e5s si&ence a+o"t t#e
Essenes. Ha%ing &arge&! iso&ate* t#e.se&%es in t#e ?i&*erness an*
*isassociate* t#e.se&%es /ro. t#e Te.&eB t#e Essenes ?o"&* #a%e #a* &itt&e
contact ?it# :es"s *"ring #is .inistr!. T#eir n".+ers ?ere re&ati%e&! /e?.
T#e! *i* not #a%e o&itica& or /inancia& o?er &i3e t#e Sa**"cees or t#e
P#arisees. T#e! si.&! ?ere not co.etitors ?it# :es"s or C#ristianit!. It
aears t#at gi%en t#eir o"&arit! an* si.i&arities in *octrine ?it# C#ristiansB
'31
:.P. Ho&*ing #as a #e&/"& &ine4+!4&ine *isc"ssion o/ t#ese ara&&e&s. L"3e
S3!?riterB #tt:QQ???.te3tonics.orgQ&Q&"3ean*8oe.#t.& Jaccesse* on&ine on Ari&
'2B '))1K.
'3'
NasonB op' cit'B age 121.
1')
t#e P#arisees ?ere t#e rea& :e?is# co.etitors ?it# C#ristianit!. B"t rat#er
t#an re&ace t#e P#ariseesB L"3e4Acts #ig#&ig#ts t#e con/&icts ?it# Jin L"3eK
an* con%ersions /ro. Jin ActsK t#at sect. A/tera&&B no ot#er ear&! C#ristian
?riter Jnot e%en t#e ot#er gose&sK .entions t#e Essenes. Nor *o t#e Ra++is
/or t#at .atter.
In a&& can*orB I /o"n* Nason5s atte.t to &in3 L"3e5s %ag"e resentation
o/ :e?is# sects in #i&oso#ica& ter.s ?it# :ose#"s e-&icit *escrition o/
:e?is# sects as #i&oso#ica& sc#oo&s to +e t#e .ost "ners"asi%e art o/ #is
arg".ent.
In s".B t#e e%i*ence s"orting *een*ence is ?ea3 an* o"t?eig#e* +!
t#e arg".ents against it. T#o"g# L"3e an* :ose#"s .a! #a%e s#are* si.i&ar
so"rcesB L"3e *i* not re&! on :ose#"s to ?rite Acts.
'33

III. An A#ternati"e to 1epen(ence
E%en i/ Nason is correct a+o"t :ose#an in/&"ence on L"3e4ActsB it *oes
not /o&&o? t#at L"3e ."st #a%e "se* Anti-"ities or Wars as a so"rce. Beca"se
t#e a"t#or o/ L"3e4Acts &i3e&! sent ti.e in Ro.e an* &i3e&! #a* a Ro.an
sonsor o/ so.e estee. it is ossi+&e t#at L"3e #ear* :ose#"s recite arts o/
#is &iterar! #istories in "+&ic. SoB to t#e e-tent so.e e-&anation is nee*e* /or
L"3e5s si.i&arities an* *i//erences ?it# :ose#"sB t#is see.s a +etter
e-&anation t#an L"3e si.&! *i* not rea* :ose#"s care/"&&! or /orgot .ost o/
?#at #e rea*. Nason ac3no?&e*ges t#is a&ternati%e ossi+i&it!.
A&t#o"g# Pro/essor Streeter re8ects t#e entire notion o/ *een*enceB i/
t#ere is re&ianceB #e e-&ains t#e reasons t#at it ?as .ore &i3e&! /ro. an ear&ier
&ect"re o/ :ose#"s:
EIF/ a gross .ista3e is to +e attri+"te* to i.er/ect notesB it ?o"&*
s"re&! +e .ore nat"ra& to s"ggest t#at t#e notes in >"estion ?ere
ta3en *o?n #"rrie*&! at so.e &ect"reB rat#er t#an in t#e co"rse o/
a er"sa& o/ a +oo3B esecia&&! as it ?as not so ossi+&e ?it#
ancient .et#o*s o/ ?riting as ?it# .o*ern rint to .a3e
.ista3es t#ro"g# r"nning one5s e!e rai*&! o%er t#e age.
No? t#ere is not t#e s&ig#test i.ro+a+i&it! in t#e s"osition
t#at L"3e #a* #ear* :ose#"s &ect"re in Ro.e. :ose#"s ?as
grante* +! $esasian roo.s in t#e I.eria& Pa&aceB an* re.aine*
in /a%o"r ?it# s"+se>"ent e.erors. L"3e a&soB I #a%e
'33
Nason a&so re/ers to so.e =.inor ara&&e&sA t#at #e conce*esB =E+F! t#e.se&%esB
EF are too %ag"e to esta+&is# a re&ations#i +et?een t#e te-ts.A NasonB op' cit'B
age '73. As s"c#B I *o not a**ress t#e.. To see t#e. *isc"sse*B #o?e%erB !o"
.a! rea* :.P. Ho&*ing5s artic&e on t#e s"+8ect.
1'1
s"ggeste*B #a* a connection ?it# t#e F&a%ian #o"se. T#e
?ritings o/ :ose#"s ?ere a**resse* to t#e Ro.an ?or&* at &argeB
an* it ?o"&* aear t#at a/ter A.0. L) #e /or t#e .ost art &i%e*
an* ?rote in Ro.e. In t#at caseB "n&ess #is ractice ?as >"ite
*i//erent /ro. t#at o/ ot#er conte.orar! ?ritersB it ?o"&* #a%e
+een a .atter o/ co"rse /or #i. to recite &arge ortions o/ #is
?or3s to "+&ic a"*iences +e/ore t#e! ?ere "+&is#e* in ?ritten
/or.. P&in! an* :"%ena& constant&! re/er to t#is c"sto.@t#e &atter
to e-atiate on t#e +ore*o. it in*"ce*. P&"tarc# te&&s "s t#at
?#i&e in Ro.eB at a+o"t t#is *ateB #e ?as so +"s! &ect"ringB an*
*oing .inor o&itica& +"sinessB t#at #e ne%er #a* ti.e to .aster
t#e Latin &ang"age@an o+ser%ation ?#ic# inci*enta&&! re%ea&s t#e
e-tent to ?#ic# Gree3 ?as a secon* &ang"age o/ t#e e*"cate*
Ro.an as ?e&& as t#e i..ense cit! o"&ation o/ /oreign origin.
T#e Anti>"ities o/ :ose#"s ?as "+&is#e* c. A.0. H3. It is a
&ong ?or3 an* ?o"&* #a%e ta3en .an! !ears to co.ose@
ro+a+&! .ost o/ t#e inter%a& since t#e "+&ication o/ #is ear&ier
?or3B T#e :e?is# ,arB +et?een L1 an* LH. :ose#"s ?as
e-tre.e&! conceite*B not at a&& t#e .an to &ose an oort"nit! /or
"+&icit!B an* #e ?o"&* *o ."c# to +e in t#e &iterar! an* socia&
/as#ion. Noreo%erB #is ?ritings ?ere &arge&! inten*e* /or
roagan*a "rosesI #e ?is#e* to *o #is +est to reinstate t#e
cre*it o/ t#e :e?is# eo&e. He ?o"&* certain&! #a%e recite*
arts o/ t#e Anti>"ities at inter%a&s *"ring t#e ten !ears +e/ore its
"+&ication.
'32

Accor*ing&!B a&t#o"g# I *o not +e&ie%e t#ere is an! nee* esta+&is# a
oint o/ contact +et?een :ose#"s an* ActsB i/ one is nee*e* t#en Streeter5s
#!ot#esis is .ore con%incing t#an Nason5s t#eor! o/ *irect &iterar!
*een*ence.
I!. Su$$ary
Ha%ing re%ie?e* t#e arg".ents in /a%or o/ L"3an *een*ence on
Anti-"itiesB it is c&ear t#at t#e .a8orit! osition is ?e&&4ta3en. T#ere is no nee*
to conc&"*e t#at L"3e4Acts is &iterari&! *een*ent on Anti-"ities.
CHAPTER <: CONC'8SIONS
1. Acts ?as ?ritten as a ?or3 o/ ancient #istoriogra#!B *escri+ing rea&
eo&e an* e%ents. As an ancient #istorianB L"3e ?o"&* #a%e ?ritten =?it#
'32
StreeterB op' cit'B ages 11L417.
1''
t#ree co.+ine* "rosesB t#o"g# t#e e.#asis co"&* %ar! great&!. Histor!
o"g#t to +e tr"t#/"&B "se/"&B an* entertainingB +"t it s#o"&* not +e entertaining
at t#e e-ense o/ tr"t# or "ti&it!.A
'31
T#e a**itiona& "rose o/ #is ?riting .a!
#a%e +een to contin"e ?ritingB as an e-tension o/ t#e O&* Testa.entB t#e
#istor! o/ Go*5s sa&%ation. B"t to e-ress t#is #istor! it see.s t#at it ?as .ost
in/&"ence* +! Gree3 #istoriogra#!.
'. T#o"g# t#e a"t#or o/ Acts /ace* t#e *a"nting o+stac&es o/ an!
ancient #istorian @ as t#ere ?ere %er! /e? acc"rate .as to #e& "n*erstan*
geogra#! an* /e?B i/ an!B so"rces o/ in/or.ation a+o"t &oca& c"sto.s an*
racticesB as ?e&& as an e%er c#anging &ega& an* o&itica& regi.e @ #e ?rites
?it# a #ig# &e%e& o/ acc"rac! regar*ing geogra#!B &oca& *etai&sB :e?is#
c"sto.s an* +e&ie/sB c"rrent e%entsB o&itica& sit"ationsB an* Ro.an &ega&
rocee*ings. T#e a"t#or5s acc"rac! s"ggests e-ce&&ent so"rces an*Qor
ersona& articiation.
3. A&t#o"g# L"3e *i* not "se Pa"&5s &etters as so"rce .ateria&B #e
acc"rate&! recor*s a s"+stantia& a.o"nt o/ in/or.ation a+o"t Pa"&5s .inistr!
an* t#e ear&! C#"rc#. He s#o?s *etai&e* 3no?&e*ge a+o"t Pa"&5s .issionar!
ro"tesB t#e ti.ing an* se>"ence o/ #is tra%e&sB Pa"&5s teac#ingsB an* @
esecia&&! @ Pa"&5s co.anions. AgainB t#e #ig# &e%e& o/ acc"rac! s"ggests
e-ce&&ent so"rces an*Qor ersona& articiation.
2. T#e notion t#at Acts *oes not re&! on Pa"&5s &etters +eca"se o/ a /ear
o/ "sing *oc".ents aroriate* +! #eretics @ s"c# as ear&! Gnostics or
Narcionities @ is "ns"orte*. T#ere is no e%i*ence t#at an! o/ t#e =ort#o*o-A
C#ristians #a* an! reser%ations a+o"t "sing Pa"&. In /actB t#e e%i*ence is to t#e
contrar!. A&.ost a&& t#e =ort#o*o-A C#ristian ?riters o/ t#is ti.e erio* re&ie*
on Pa"&5s &etters. In*ee*B t?o o/ t#e .ost signi/icant ear&! c#"rc# ?ritersB
Ignati"s an* Po&!carB are t?o o/ t#e .ost ent#"siastic "sers o/ t#e Pa"&ine
cor"s. T#e +etter e-&anation /or L"3e5s /ai&"re to "se t#e &etters o/ Pa"& as a
so"rce is t#at #e ?rote +e/ore t#e! +eca.e so ?i*e&! circ"&ate* an* accete*
as a"t#oritati%e. Noreo%erB it is .ore &i3e&! t#at a co.anion o/ Pa"& ?o"&*
re&! on #is in*een*ent 3no?&e*ge to ?rite a+o"t Pa"&B rat#er t#an see3ing o"t
t#e &etters o/ Pa"&.
1. Acts ?as ?ritten +et?een <' an* H) A0. T#e /act t#at Acts *oes not
narrate Pa"&5s *eat#B an* t#at L"3e re/ers to t#e *estr"ction o/ :er"sa&e.B are
too "ncertain o/ +asis to /"rt#er &i.it t#e range o/ *ates ?it#in ?#ic# Acts ?as
?ritten.
<. T#e a"t#or o/ Acts ?as a so.eti.e co.anion o/ Pa"&. T#e .ost
&i3e&! i*entit! o/ t#at co.anion is L"3e t#e P#!sician. T#e o+8ections to
L"3an a"t#ors#i are "ners"asi%e.
'31
A"neB op' cit'B age H1.
1'3
L. T#e t#eor! t#at L"3e "se* :ose#"s5 Anti-"ities is "ners"asi%e.
Rat#erB t#e e%i*ence *e.onstrates t#at L"3e an* :ose#"s s#are* so.e so"rces
in co..on .ost&! regar*ing nota+&e e%ents in :e?is# #istor!.
1'2
i)#iography
A#ereneB C. =Gose& o/ L"3eBA *atholic EncyclopediaB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.ne?a*%ent.orgQcat#enQ)H2')a.#t. Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1<B
'))2K.
A&e-an*erB Lo%e*a!B =L"3e5s re/ace in t#e conte-t o/ Gree3 re/ace4?ritingBA
in Nov"m testament"mB '7 no 1 :a 1H7<B ages 274L2.
A"neB 0a%i* E. The New Testament in Its Literary Environment ,est.inster
Press 1H7L.
Ba&c#B 0a%i*B =T#e Genre o/ L"3e4ActsBA )W&T JFa&& 1HH)KB ages 141H.
BarnettB A&+ert E. Pa"l Becomes a Literary Infl"ence 6ni%. o/ C#icago Press
1H21.
BarnettB Pa"& &es"s and the ,ise of Early *hristianity Inter$arsit! Press '))'.
BarrettB C. 9. =Pa"& S#i?rec3e*BA in )cript"re= 1eanin! and 1ethod e*. B. P.
T#o.son JH"&& 6ni%ersit! Press 1H7LK.
Boc3B 0arre&& L"e ;=;.<=B> Ba3er Aca*e.ic 1HH2.
Brosen*B IIB ,i&&ia. F.B =T#e Neans o/ A+sent En*sBA in (istory$ Literat"re
and )ociety in the Boo of ActsB e*. Ben ,it#erington JCa.+ri*ge 6ni%. Press
1HH<K.

Br"ceB F.F. The Acts of the Apostles ,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co. 1HH).
Br"ceB F.F. Apostle of the (eart )et #ree ,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co. '))).
Br"ceB F.F. =Ga&atian Pro+&e.sBA B:RLB 11411.
Br"ceB F.F. The New Testament Doc"ments Inter$arsit! 1H7'.
Br"ceB F.F. The *anon of )cript"re Inter$arist! Press 1H77.
B"rri*geB Ric#ar* A. #o"r Gospels$ %ne &es"s ,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co.
1HH2.
B"rri*geB Ric#ar* A. What Are the Gospels? Ca.+ri*ge 6ni%. Press 1HH1.
1'1
B"rtonB E.0.B =T#e Po&itarc#sBA A&T ' J17H7K.
Ca*+"r!B H.:B =T#e St!&e an* Literar! Net#o* o/ L"3eBA (arvard Theolo!ical
)t"dies J1H')K.
Ca*+"r!B H.:. =T#e Tra*itionBA in The Be!innin!s of *hristianityB e*. Foa3es
:ac3son4La3e JBaer 1HLHK.
Ca&*ersB ,.N.B =A C"&t o/ t#e Ho.ona*esBA *, '2 J1H1)K.
*lassical Teachin! ,eso"rces$ Pastoral D Two dimensions or three?B a%ai&a+&e
on&ine at #tt:QQ???.arsons*.co."3Qastora&.# Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
Cor?inB $irginia )t' I!nati"s and *hristianity in Antioch (a&e 6ni%. Press
1H<).
CrossB A.R.B =Genres o/ t#e Ne? Testa.entBA in Dictionary of New Testament
Bac!ro"ndB e*s. Craig E%ans an* Stan&e! E. Porter JInter$arsit! Press ')))K.
0"nnB :a.es 0.G. The Epistle to the Galatians Lon*on 1HH3.
E&&isB E. Ear&e The Gospel of L"e E"gene '))3.
Ferg"sonB E%erett Bac!ro"nds of Early *hristianity Secon* E*itionB Gran*
Rai*s 1HH3.
FitM!.erB :ose# L"e the Theolo!ian Pa"&ist Press 1H7H.
FitM.!erB :ose# ,omans Anc#or Bi+&e 1HH3.
Fo-B Ro+in L. The 7na"thori8ed 6ersion 9no/ 1HH'.
Fre*eric3sB S.C.B =L"cian5s Tr"e Histor! as SciFiBA )cience #iction )t"diesB
No. HB $o&. 3 JNarc# 1HL<KB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.*ea"?.e*"Qs/sQ+ac3iss"esQ7Q/re*eric3s7art.#t. Jaccesse* on
Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
Gas>"eB ,. ,ar*B =A Fr"it/"& Fie&*B Recent St"*! o/ t#e Acts o/ t#e Aost&esBA
Interpretations 2'.)2 J1HH7KB ages 11H4').
Gi&c#ristB :.N. =T#e Historicit! o/ Pa"&5s S#i?rec3BA &o"rnal for the )t"dy of
the New Testament No. <1 J1HH<KB ages 'H411.
1'<
Gott#ei&B Ric#ar* an* 9ra"ssB Sa."e&B =SicarriBA at
#tt:QQ???.8e?is#enc!c&oe*ia.co.Q%ie?.8sC
arti*Y<71V&etterYSVsearc#Ysicari"s Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
GrantB Ro+ert After the New Testament Fortress Press 1H<L.
Goo*see*B E*gar :. A (istory of Early *hristian Literat"reB re%ise* an*
en&arge* +! Ro+ert N. GrantB P#oeni- 1H<<.
Goo*see*B E*gar :. An Introd"ction to the New Testament 6ni%. o/ C#icago
Press 1H3LB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
???.ear&!c#ristian?ritings.co.Qgoo*see*Qc#1'.#t.& Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar!
11B '))1K.
GreenB :oe& B.B =Interna& Reetition in L"3e4ActsBA in (istory$ Literat"re and
)ociety in the Boo of Acts Ca.+ri*ge 6ni%. Press. 1HH<.
G"t#rieB 0ona&* New Testament Introd"ction Inter$arsit! 1HH).
HaggB To.as Narrative Techni-"e in Ancient Gree ,omancesB P. Astr]. 1HL1.
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Boo3s 1H7H.
Henge&B Nartin Between &es"s and Pa"l ,i/ V Stoc3 P"+&is#ers '))3.
Henge&B NartinB =T#e Geogra#! o/ Pa&estine in ActsBA in The Boo of Acts in its
Palestinian )ettin! e*. Ric#ar* Ba"3#a. J,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&. Co. 1HH1K.
Ho//.anB 0anie&B =T#e A"t#orit! o/ Scrit"re an* Aosto&ic 0octrine in Ignati"s
o/ Antioc#BA &ET) 17Q1 JNarc# 1H71KB age L1.
Ho&*ingB :.P.B L"e )ywriter$ Did the Wors of &oseph"s Infl"ence the Wors
of L"eB #tt:QQ???.te3tonics.orgQ&Q&"3ean*8oe.#t.& Jaccesse* on Narc# 1B
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Ho"se ,a!ne H. *hronolo!ical and Bac!ro"nd *harts of the New Testament
Aca*e.ie Boo3s 1H71.
Ho?e&&B Nart#a an* Pre%enierB ,a&ter #rom ,elia+le )o"rces$ An Introd"ction
to (istorical 1ethods Corne&& 6ni%. Press '))1.
1'L
:e//or*B C&a!ton N. ,eadin! the Apostolic #athers Hen*ric3son P"+&is#ers
1HH<.
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:o#nsonB L"3e T. The Acts of the Apostles Fortress Press 1H7<.
9ir+!B Peter Acts of the ApostlesB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQear&!c#ristian?ritings.co.Qacts.#t.& Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
9ir+!B Peter #irst Person Perspective in Ancient )ea TravelB a%ai&a+&e on&ine at
#tt:QQ???.c#ristianorigins.co.Q?esea.#t.& Jaccesse* on 0ece.+er 11B '))3K.
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Lean*er 9ec3 JFortress Press 1H7)K.
9oesterB He&."t Ancient *hristian Gospels Sc.. Press 1HH).
9"..e&B F.B. Introd"ction to the New Testament A+ing*on Press 1H<<.
Longenec3erB Ric#ar* N. The 1inistry and 1essa!e of Pa"l Gran* Rai*s
1HL1.
L"*e.annB Ger* Pa"l$ Apostle to the Gentiles= )t"dies in *hronolo!y Fortress
Press 1H72.
NagnessB :. LeeB =Senas an* A+senceBA )emeia )t"dies J1H7<K.
Narge"ratB 0anie& The #irst *hristian (istorian Ca.+ri*ge 6ni%. Press '))'.
NasonB Ste%e &oseph"s and the New Testament Hen*ric3son '))3.
Nassa"-B E*"oar* The Infl"ence of the Gospel of )aint 1atthew on *hristian
Literat"re +efore )aint Irenae"s$ Boo I trns.B Be&%a&B Nor.an :. an* Hetc#tB
S"Manne JNercer 6ni%. Press 1HH)K.
Nassa"-B E*"oar* The Infl"ence of the Gospel of )aint 1atthew on *hristian
Literat"re +efore )aint Irenae"s$ Boo 0 trns.B Be&%a&B Nor.an :. an* Hetc#tB
S"Manne JNercer 6ni%. Press 1HH'K.
1'7
Nassa"-B E*"oar* The Infl"ence of the Gospel of )aint 1atthew on *hristian
Literat"re +efore )aint Irenae"s$ Boo E trns.B Be&%a&B Nor.an :. an* Hetc#tB
S"Manne JNercer 6ni%. Press 1HH3K.
Nit/or*B T.B. The Inscriptions of 9o"rion P#i&a*e&#ia 1HL1.
Nic3&eB 9.F. The )ynoptic Gospels= An Introd"ction At&anta 1H7).
No&&an*B :o#n L"e ;.<=0> Ne&son Re/erence 1H7H.
O5ConnorB :ero.e N. )t' Pa"lFs *orinth Lit"rgica& Press 1HH).
Pa&.erB 0arr!& ,.B =Acts an* t#e Ancient Historica& Nonogra#BA in The Boo
of Acts in its Ancient Literary )ettin!B e*s. Br"ce ,. ,inter an* An*re? 0.
C&ar3e J,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&. Co. 1HH2K.
PearsonB Broo3B =T#e L"can Cens"sesB Re%isite*BA *atholic Bi+lical
C"arterlyB <1:' JAri& 1HHHK.
Po&#i&&B :o#n B. The Acts JNew American *ommentary4 Broa*.an V Ho&.an
P"+&is#ers1HH'.
PriceB C#risto#erB 1arcion$ The *anon$ The Law$ and the (istorical &es"s
'))'B a%ai&a+&e on&ine at #tt:QQ???.c#ristianorigins.co.Q.arcion.#t.&
Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
PriceB C#risto#erB The We Passa!es of Acts as a Literary Device for )ea
Travel '))3B a%ai&a+&e on&ine at #tt:QQ???.c#ristianorigins.co.Q.arcion.#t.&
Jaccesse* on Fe+r"ar! 1'B '))1K.
Ras3eB Brian Pa"l in ,oman *"stody$ The Boo of Acts in its #irst *ent"ry
)ettin! ,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co.an! '))2.
Soar*sB Narion L. &o"rnal of the American Academy of ,eli!ion 17.' JS"..er
1HH)KB ages 3)L41).
Stan&e! Porter Pa"l in Acts Hen*ric3son P"+&is#ers '))1.
S#er?in4,#iteB A.N. ,oman Law and )ociety in the New TestamentB O-/or*
6ni%. Press 1H<3.
StreeterB B.H. The #o"r Gospels$ A )t"dy of %ri!in T#e Nac.i&&an Co.an!
1H'1.
1'H
Ta&+ertB C#ar&es H. Acts 9no- P"+&. 1H72.
Ta&+ertB C#ar&es H. What is a Gospel? The Genre of the *anonical Gospels
Fortress Hi&& 1HLL.
Ta&+ertB C#ar&es H.B =An Intro*"ction to ActsBA ,eview and E:positorB 221
JFa&& 1HL2K.
,en#a.B 0a%i*B =Acts an* t#e Pa"&ine Cor"s II. Pa"&ine Para&&e&sBA in The Boo
of Acts in its Literary )ettin!B e*. Br"ce 0. ,interB An*re? 0. C&ar3e J,.. B.
Eer*.ans P"+&. Co. 1HH2K.
,it#eringtonB BenB =E*iting t#e Goo* Ne?sBA in (istory$ Literat"re and
)ociety in the Boo of ActsB e*. Ben ,it#erington JCa.+ri*ge 6ni%. Press
1HH<K.
,it#eringtonB Ben A )ocio.,hetorical *ommentary on the Acts of the Apostles
,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co. 1HHL.
,it#eringtonB Ben Grace in Galatia ,.. B. Eer*.ans P"+&is#ing Co. 1HH7.
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131