Introduction to the Finite Element Method

This section presents the general steps included in the finite element method.
Typically, for the structural stress analysis, it is required to determine the stresses and
deformation (strains) throughout the structure which is in equilibrium and is subjected to
applied loads.
The finite element method involves modeling of the structure using small units
(finite elements). A displacement function is associated with each finite element. The
followings are the steps used in finite element method. This will be followed by
illustration of the application of these steps on springs and plane stress cases.
Step 1. Discretize and Select Element Types
Divide the structure into an equivalent system of finite elements with associated nodes.
The simplest line elements, ig.!.a has two nodes, one at each end. The basic two"
dimensional elements, ig. !.b are loaded by forces in their own plane (plane stress).
They are triangular or quadrilateral elements. The common three dimensional elements,
ig.!.c, are tetrahedral and he#ahedral (bric$) elements. They are used to perform three
dimensional stress analysis in %"D solid bodies.
Step 2. Select a Displacement Function
&hoose a displacement function within each element using the nodal values of the
element. 'inear, quadratic, and polynomials are frequently used functions.
Step 3. Define the Stress/Strain elationships
! du/d"
! E
Step #. Deri$e the Element Stiffness Matri" and E%uations
The stiffness matri# and element equations relating nodal forces and displacements are
obtained using force equilibrium conditions or the principle of minimum potential energy.
Step &. 'ssem(le the Element E%uations to o(tain the )lo(al E%uations
Step *. Sol$e for the +n,no-n Displacements
Step .. Sol$e for the Element Strains and Stresses
Step /. Interpret the esults
The final goal is to interpret and analy(e the results for use in the design process.
Stiffness 0Displacement1 Method in Finite Element 'nalysis
The linear spring is introduced to provide a simple yet generally instructive tool to
illustrate the basic concepts of stiffness method.
The principle of minimum potential energy is introduced and applied derive the spring
element equations, and use it to solve a spring assemblage problem. This principle will be
illustrated using the simplest of elements (those with small numbers of degrees of
freedom) so that it will become a more easily understood concept when necessarily
applied to elements with large numbers of degrees of freedom in subsequent discussions.
Deri$ation of the Stiffness Matri" for a Sprin2 Element
The symbol $ is called the spring constant or stiffness of the spring.
Analogies to actual spring constants arise in numerous engineering problems.A prismatic
unia#ial bar has a spring constant $ ) A*+', where A represents the cross"sectional area
of the bar, * is the modulus of elasticity, and ' is the bar length. ,imilarly, a prismatic
circular"cross"section bar in torsion has a spring constant $)-.+', where - is the polar
moment of inertia and . is the shear modulus of the material. or one"dimensional heat
conduction, $)A/
##
+', where /
##
is the thermal conductivity of the material and one"
dimensional fluid flow through a porous media, $)A/
##
+', where /
##
is the permeability
coefficient of the material.
&onsider the linear spring element shown in igure!. The reference points !01 are called
the nodes of the spring element. The local nodal forces are d
!#
and d
1#
for the spring
element. These nodal displacements are called the degrees of freedom at each node.
A relationship between nodal forces and nodal displacements for a spring element need
to be developed. This relationship is the stiffness matri#. The nodal force matri# is related
to the nodal displacement matri# as follows2

'

1
]
1

'

x
x
x
x
d
d
k k
k k
f
f
1
!
11 1!
!1 !!
1
!
(!)
3here the elements $
ij
of the matri# in *q. (!) are to be determined.
Step 1 Select Element Type
&onsider the linear spring (ig.1) subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T. The
original distance between nodes before deformation is denoted by '.
Step 2 Select a Displacement Function
A displacement function u is assumed. 4ere a linear displacement variation along
the # a#is of the spring is assumed. Therefore

f
!#
, d
!#
igure ! 'inear spring element with positive nodal
displacement and force conventions
! 1
f
1#
, d
1#
$
'
#

x a a u
1 !
+ (1)
5n general, the total number of coefficients
a
is equal to the total number of
degrees of freedom associated with the element. 4ere the total number of degrees of
freedom is two 6 an a#ial displacement at each of the two nodes of the element. 5n matri#
form, *q. (1) becomes

[ ]

'

1
!
!
a
a
x u
(%)
*valuating u at each node and solving for
!
a and
1
a from *q.(1) as follows2

! !
) 7 ( a d u
x

(8)

x x
d L a d L u
! 1 1
) ( +
(9)
:r, solving *q. (9) for
1
a ,

L
d d
a
x x ! 1
1

(;)
:n substituting *qs.(8)and (;) into *q. (1), we have

x
x x
d x
L
d d
u
!
! 1
) ( +

(<)
igure 1 'inear spring subjected to tensile forces
d
!#
!
1
d
1#
$
#
T
'
!
1
#
5n matri# form, we e#press *q. (<) as

'

x
x
d
d
L
x
L
x
1
!
= ! >
(?)
or

'

x
x
d
d
N N u
1
!
1 !
= >
(@)
4ere
L
x
N !
!
and
L
x
N
1
(!)
are called the shape functions because the s N
i
,
e#press the shape of assumed
displacement function over the domain of element when the ith element degree of freedom
has unit value and all other degrees of freedom are (ero.
5n addition, they are often called interpolation functions because we are interpolating to
find the value of a function between given nodal values.
Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain elationships
The tensile forces T produces a total elongation (deformation) of the spring. or
the linear spring, T and are related through 4oo$eAs law by
k T (!!)
where is the deformation of the spring,

x x
d d
! 1

(!1)
Step # Deri$e the Element Stiffness Matri" and E%uations
Bodal forces are

T f
x

!
T f
x

1 (!%)
Csing *qs. (!!), (!1), and (!%), we have

) (
) !8 (
) (
! 1 !
! 1 !
x x x
x x x
d d k f T
d d k f T




) (
) !9 (
) (
! 1 1
! 1 !
x x x
x x x
d d k f
d d k f


Bow e#pressing *qs.(!9) in a single matri# equation yields

'

1
]
1

'

x
x
x
x
d
d
k k
k k
f
f
1
!
1
!
(!;)
,tiffness Datri# is
1
]
1

k k
k k
k
(!<)
Step & 'ssem(le the Element E%uations to 3(tain the )lo(al E%uations and
Introduce 4oundary 5onditions

N
e
e
k K K
!
) (
= >
and

N
e
e
f F F
!
) (
= >
(!?)
3here
k
and
f
are now element stiffness and force matrices e#presses in global
reference frame.
Step * Sol$e for the 6odal Displacements
The displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions and
solving a system of equations,
d K F
simultaneously.
Step . Sol$e for the Element Forces
inally, the element forces are determined by bac$"substitution, applied to each
element.