Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mathematics and Intuition Boos
Mathematics and Intuition Boos
!"
$ %!!"!!&' ()&(*+
-.- /01213124 563718191 :17; . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.= >? 263@6AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.D E01048 8 F0G9GH I6JG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
# L!*(M'"(NO ! MPQ
=.- S8? TBFB56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
=.= VF? 63@6II4? A10I6W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
=.D XB9BFAB 3622?@066 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, YMQ!Z [(\N (!+(+]
D.- ^:?_6`6AB n 6T2?0?I6a . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.= >? 5?0@18b6IB
76W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R Y d)Q( )(Q( OQ'e f(*&!"
<.- g67761I 1h7B3@?a 3 1hb?a 90BI6_?a . . . . . . .
<.= iA3612B 84h10B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
<.D EB0BF1A3 jBIBkB l mB03A191 . . . . . . . . . . . .
<.< nBT048IB; 76I?aIB; `GIA_6; . . . . . . . . . . .
<.U n?J?I6? @0?@o?a :01h7?24 V67oh?0@B . . . . . .
q r +QQ!& !&+(& OQ'e Zd O&(&!"
U.- m?10?2B j0BGs0B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U.= tI?096; I?9B@68B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U.D ^:013 IB 0?B7oI4? I?:06;@I13@6 . . . . . . . . .
-
#
,
<
C
K
$R
-U
-C
-K
#R
=U
=c
,$
DD<
DU
DC
Dp
R$
<<D
<<
u ((!*' )*!QPQ!&
C.- wI@G6_6; 8 J1A? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.= >B8BxF?I6? 0B8I1313@B87?II13@6 . . . . . . . . .
y z(\(*( &! "!N&Q!&]
c.- {1:0?A6 1x6FBI6;2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c.= w3@15I6A6 TBh7GxF?I6a . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c.D E01A7;@6? 676 :1FB01AW . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
} !"!Q' f' !M&[Z(+
p.- E013@B; 718GJAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
p.= E06?2 86TGB76TB_66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
p.D S12BJI6? TB91@18A6 m810_B . . . . . . . . . . . .
v ~fd*(+ *(&(&!f'
K.- E0656I4 2?@B210`1T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K.= ^@0GA@G0IB; G3@1a56813@o . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K.D E1F81FIB; 5B3@o Ba3h?09B . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$ !Q M!'" " )*!QPQ!&O
-|.- ?0@84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-|.= GIA_61IB7oI4a BIB76T . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-|.D h1hb?II4? `GIA_66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$$ L &!
--.- E;@4a :13@G7B@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--.= j7GxFBI6? 8:1@o2Bk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--.D wTF?8B@?7o3A6? @?10?24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--.< 1AG3 7?aIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--.U S0G9B; 3@101IB 2?FB76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--.C >?A1@104? :1F01hI13@6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$# (*+N *(* !&(Q d&
-=.- nB3:0?F?7?I6? 3A1013@?a. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-=.= g10B7o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-=.D 1I@0B3@ :0656I 6 37?F3@86a . . . . . . . . . . .
-=.< wF?17196; 6I8B06BI@I13@6 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rv
UU=
qq
UU
Uc
C|
u#
C=
CD
CU
uv
c|
cc<
y}
cK
ppD
}q
pU
pC
pc
pp
pK
KvR
K<
KC
Kc
KK
376 k15?Jo h4@o 3AG5I42 918106
83?.
{mn
{ 7Hh1a 1h7B3@6 :17?TI1 1ABTB@o3; 8 :1Fk1F;b?a 30?F?
G3@I191 1hb?I6; 9F? 134:B?@3; AI6xIB; J?7GkB. mB2 6I19FB
I65?91 I? 2?I;?@3; :1 3G@6 TB@1 81TI6AB?@ 5G83@81 :1:BFBI6;
8 A17?H 6 1381h1xF?I6; 1@ F192. S7; IBGA6 A1@10B; 83?9FB 8
2B3A? s@1 131h?II1 8BxI1. ^G@o TB ABF012 :?0?F 97BTB26
A0Gx?8B. w 8?5I1 5?91@1 I? k8B@B?@. m1 :013@1@4 @1 371xI1
3@6 FB @15I1 6 I? 1:0?F?76Jo 5?91. @1@1 AGFB@1 JB9B?@
@4 IB 1h156I? B 80?2; Gk1F6@ 8 :?31A I? 91810; 1 x6TI6.
SB7?? :0?F:06I62B?@3; :1:4@AB 3F86IG@o 36@GB_6H 3 2?
3@B 21F?760G; :63o2?IIGH 30?FG 9F? 3:BFBH@ :1A0184.
{I?JI;; ABI8B 31F?0xBI6; h17??2?I?? I?;3IB 6T 197B87?
I6; I1 97B8IB; _?7o @B 5@1 TB ABF012. ^I;@o 8GB7o 9062
Gh0B@o F?A10B_66. E?0?G:013@6@o FBx? :0680B@o 37?9AB 6h1
F1T6018BI6? :0B8F4 A0B?G917oI4a AB2?Io 1h;3I?I6;. n?
TG7o@B@4 :?0?90Gx?II4? F?@B7;26 I? :017?TBH@ AGFB IBF1.
TB0?I6? 37G5B?@3; A19FB :GkIGbB; 91718B :018B768B?@3; IB
G018?Io F8BxF4 F8B 8 @1 80?2; ABA 35?@ 6F?@ IB 267761I4.
mBAB; Gx @G@ F6B7?A@6AB.
S6B:BT1I 56@B@?7?a :0?F:17B9B?@3; 3B24a J601A6a I1
ABxF4a ?3@?3@8?II1 F?a3@8G?@ IB 381a 3@0Bk 6 063A. E06
2?0I1 p| @?A3@B 1:60BH@3; 76Jo IB 30?FI?? 1h0BT18BI6?
97B84 I?TB863624 F0G9 1@ F0G9B. ^11@I1J?I6? :1I;@I191 6
I?:1I;@I191 ABA 8 x6TI6.
<
TIBH
981TFo G 2?I; 8 3B:19?
A1J2B0I?a 5?2 `BI@BT6; G V?@?.
gi{^w
>68k6 Bh1069?I4 ^BkB76IB F1 I?FB8I?91 80?2?I6 62?76
0BTI4? 56376@?7oI4? F7; A0G974k :0?F2?@18 6 :01F17918B
@4k. { 36@GB_6;k @06 19G0_B 6 @06 :126F10B I65?91
1hb?91.>B2 @BA1? Gx? @0GFI1 :0?F3@B86@o. E1I;@6? Bh3@0BA@
I191 5637B 3@B71 hBIB7oI13@oH. t@BA62 A60:656A12 2601
81TT0?I6; 811h0BT6@o 1@3G@3@86? A1@10191 :15@6 I?81T21xI1.
E1s@12G 918106@o 1 97Gh6I? 6 8?76566 :1I;@6; 637B 3?91FI;
371xI1. x? I6A@1 I? :1I62B?@ 83? :0684A76.
>1 ?3@o F0G96? Bh3@0BA_66 A1@104? :1AB IBk1F;@3; ABA h4
IB F0G91a 3@BF66. m1 76 8 :01_?33? @1 76 I? 83? IB3?7?I6?
3 I626 62??@ F?71. w @B2 ?3@o 81T21xI13@o :1321@0?@o IB
36@GB_6H 38?x62 8T97;F12.
{1To2?2 563718GH :137?F18B@?7oI13@o a
n
G3@01?IIGH :1 :0B867G
-.-.-
31 3@B0@18426 G37186;26 a = a = 1 .
S1:G3@62 I?1hk1F62B `102G7B n91 57?IB.
m?106; 0?AG00?I@I4k :137?F18B@?7oI13@?a IB3 8 FBII4a
212?I@ I? 6I@?0?3G?@ 6 24 :013@1 813:17oTG?23; 91@1842 0?
_?:@12 n4a 57?I 6b?@3; 8 86F? a = x 5@1 :137? :1F3@B
I18A6 8 -.-.- FB?@
0
n
1 1
n
2 2
x1 = 1 + i,
x2 = 1 i,
:17G5B?@3; @BA1a
(1 + i) + (1 i)
a =
,
-.-.D
2
676 3 G5?@12 6T8?3@I4k @0691I12?@065?3A6k Gk6b0?I6a
n
a = ( 2) cos
.
-.-.<
4
C
n
= a1 = 1
n
2
3
ln (1 + x) = x x + x . . . ,
2
3
ax = b
{1T80BbB;3o A A12:7?A3I42 5637B2 IBF1 ?b? 1@8?@6@o
:15?2G 1I6 ABA h4 I?1x6FBII1 83:748BH@ 8 3B24k 0BTI4k
1h7B3@;k.SB :1@12G 5@1 83; 2B@?2B@6AB 3@16@ IB 63:17oT18B
I66 371x?I6; 6 G2I1x?I6; F7; A1@104k A12:7?A3IB; :713
A13@o I?6Th?xI4a `6IB7 0B3J60?I6; IB@G0B7oI191 0;FB.
K
z = r(cos + i sin ).
y
r
z = x + iy
-|
!
$ %&
"#
' ( )
*
& "
+
-x = {x1 , x2 , x3 },
y = {y1 , y2 , y3 }
x + y = {x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 }.
xy = |x| |y| cos ,
z = x y,
z
y
, ,&
"
-
$
%&
"#
+
.
|z| = |x| |y| sin ,
x y
xy
(a b) c 6= a (b c)
x y 6= y x
(x + y) u = x u + y u.
&
"
9 8
7 8
- & )
+ "
)
z = x + iy
i2
1
1
+i
(i2 = 0)
-D
(i2 = 1)
: & :
"
,
;
) )
+
Z = + i + j + k,
1 i j k
" ) + &
i2 = j 2 = k 2 = ijk = 1,
1
ij = ji = k,
jk = kj = i,
<
$
.
=
*
> +
?
@
ki = jk = j.
v
r
O
A B C
* (
@
-<
R3
R3
.
D
+
"#
$ E&
"
& "
& -
v = r,
v1 = 1 r
v2 = 2 r
<
v = 1 r + 2 r = (1 + 2 ) r,
= 1 + 2
-U
G H I
GJ
SB7?A1 :1aF?@ @1@ A@1 I? TIB
?@ AGFB 6F?@.
KL M
S1 >oH@1IB 8 B3@01I1266 _B067B h17oJB; I?0BTh?06kB.
nBTI1917136_B `BA@18 @?106a h?T1@8?@I4? :15?2G 81@
`1I IB A1@1012 1FIB `102G7B
m m
F =
=.|.-
R
:?0?8?0IG7B 83H B3@01I126H 6 2?kBI6AG. j?3A1I?5I4? :15?
2G 376763o 8 1FI1. i210`IB; 2B33B B3@01I1265?3A1a IB
GA6 I?1x6FBII1 ABA h4 A063@B776T18B7B3o ABxF4a `BA@
TBI;7 3197B318BII1? 3 =.|.- :171x?I6?. j1x?3@8?II4? TB
A1I4 ?:7?0B 1ABTB763o s7?2?I@B0I426 37?F3@86;26. {1TI6A
?F6I4a :10;F1A.
t@1 k101J6a :062?0 F86x?I6; IBGA6 8 IB:0B87?I66 :06
56I. E062?0 A1I?5I1 63@1065?3A191 2B3J@BhB. >1 @?IF?I_66
:1F1hI191 01FB 6I@?0?3I4 6 IB 26A01G018I?. E06 0?J?I66
TBFB5 97B8I1? ABA I6 3@0BII1 I? 0?TG7o@B@ B 3:131h ?91
F13@6x?I6;
.
-C
1
O
P Q RS 3TU3TV W
QTR3S 3Y 1Z[ V W 3U Y Z3TV W Q] Z[2 Q^
X
X\
X
X
P X
_W T3`a QTR3S 3Y
1ZW 1 U3V 3 [2 2 Q QUV 1 W] 1V WTb cbdb ef^
\
X
X
X
X
\
X
g W 1 UQTQV 1S hZ[ 1 U UQY _34 RQX 1 3UX \ Y Z3TV 14 R 1X 1T1UQi V Tj
S 1Y QV ZQ 3_Z34
` V 3kUQ2 a a b l 3UQ] QV ha kV 3 a a
A B C
R jm 34 b A B C
X
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn
nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn
nnnn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn nn
B
A
A o
A, B, C
p 9 9
A o
_`WY V Tj TV 3^
x1V [ 1 U3Tm Wk1TUW2 U3 QfSj a a a
X
X
\
X
A B C D
_[
R
R3TV
3
jm
3S
WZ14Z3a
UQY
4
T3
T`314
3j
ZZ34
TU3 3TV hi b
y X
X
P WUQUW1 _`Q U TQ Z1 RQ QSS 1S hZ[a ZWUQUW1 V W z Z1 R1 1^
\X
X
X
X
R3RQ Z3
T1UQi V Tj ` 3_Z34 V 3kU1b { ] `1TV Z3a kV 3 a a
A
B
C
X
`TV 1kQS WTh m 1Y _ T3f34a Q
`TV 1kQS Tj T
W b l 3UQ^
D
A B
X
\
X
] QV ha kV 3
`TV 1V WV Tj T b
D
C
X
> (x + . . . + x ) + (y + . . . + y ) )
21xI1 F1ABT48B@o 0BTI426 :G@;26. E0656IG =.=.= G7B8
768B?@ :1xB7Ga 063. D.D :1ABT48BHb6a 5@1 8 FBII12 37G
5B? 0?5o 6F?@ 1 :013@12 9?12?@065?3A12 `BA@? F76IB 1@0?TAB
2?IoJ? F76I4 712BI1a 31?F6I;Hb?a @? x? @15A6.
2
1
2
1
2
n
2
n
y
yn
y1
x1
xn
A A 9
6 (x + . . . + x )(y + . . . + y )
6T;bI1 6 :013@1 F1ABT48B?@3; B79?h0B65?3A6. 5?86FI1
1 1
2
1
n n
2
n
2
1
2
n
-K
)
", ,
&
=|
1
1 1
2
1
n n
2
n
2
1
2
n
<
+
, , &
"
+
"
& +
, , &
"
x = Ax
+
+
;
x(t) = c1 e1 t + . . . + cn en t .
:0?F?7?II4a 6I@?0?3 8 FBII12 A1I@?A3@? :0?F3@B87;?@ 81
:013 1 A1765?3@8? :0B867oI4k 2I19190BII6A18.
S1ABx?2 :0?F8B06@?7oI1 `102G7G ta7?0B
V R + G = 2,
=.D.C
9F? V 56371 8?0J6I R 0?h?0 G 90BI?a 7Hh191 0B3
32B@068B?2191 2I19190BII6AB.
A
=-
56371
I184k
8?0J6I. E1s@12G
k
0
V 0 R0 + G0 = V R + G = 2,
A
h0B@623; @?:?0o A 37G5BH :0B867oI191 2I19190BII6AB
A1@104a kB0BA@?06TG?@3; @?2 5@1 8 ABxF1a 8?0J6I? 3k1F6@3;
1FI1 6 @1 x? 56371 K 0?h?0 6 1FI1 6 @1 x? 56371 N 0?h?0
190BI6568B?@ ABxFGH 90BIo. 5?86FI1
:13A17oAG :?0?35?@ 0?h?0 2I19190BII6AB ABA 3 :121boH 6F?6
@BA 6 3 :121boH KV FB?@ 2R 6h1 8 @12 6 F0G912
NG
37G5B? ABxF1? 0?h01 356@B?@3;
F8BxF4. mBA62 1h0BT12 I?1h
k1F621
N G = 2R,
K V = 2R,
2
2
1+
K
N
==
R = 2.
.
.
)
+
(
=
& )
"
. +
*
;
)
=D
R3
ab
R3
2
2
+
>1
K
N
K N >2
( ;
) + )
- .
-
=
:
:
"
& )
5
[P(QN
!M! QQN 6
#
) $
" &
& 9 9
,
" &
) + "
+ )
$
*
n
L0 = r1 F1 + . . . + rn Fn ,
LC
" &
, $ %&
"
)
, $ %&
"
) +
>
.
*
=<
F = F1 + . . . + Fn
rC
L0 = LC + rC F.
LC = (r1 rC ) F1 + . . . + (rn rC ) Fn = L0 rC F.
)
=
=
=U
G H
)
)
:
?
i>Sm
{ 3?2IBF_B@12 8?A? n?I? S?AB0@ 1@A047 s``?A@68I4a 2?
@1F 0?J?I6; 9?12?@065?3A6k TBFB5 3 :121boH B79?h0B65?3A1
91 1:63BI6; 8 A110F6IB@Bk A1@104? @?:?0o IBT48BH@3; F?
AB0@18426. ^ABx?2 :713A13@o 8 R 1:6348B?@3; G0B8I?I6?2
86FB
D.|.-
ax = a x + a x + a x = ,
?
( .
<
: D +
<
D
)
)
)
)
)
(
(
1 1
2 2
=C
3 3
ax = ,
bx = ,
cx =
22
=c
2
-2
-2
=p
r = n 1,
}
nB3321@062 ] Q_Qk \ 3 `[ R \ US [2 m Z3 y3 yX QZZWUQ2 a \ U3V 3X [2
UQY _[ 1 _`1 `1 WZ[ T31_WZ1Z[ 1f 3m b ^:0BJ68B?@3; ABA1?
X X
2BA362B7oI1? X56371 8?0J6I 21x?@
62?@o @BA1a 2I19190BI
I6AW >B :713A13@6 R GABTBII42 381a3@812 1h7BFB?@ 76Jo
@0?G917oI6A 2BA362B7oI1? 56371 8?0J6I m = 3 . { R
@?@0BsF0 (m = 4) . { :013@0BI3@8? 5?@40?k 6T2?0?I6a 6 84J?
@BA1a 2I19190BII6A m 3Y 1V Wm 1V h `1X WZ TU3S hU3 \ y3_Z35
t@1 Gx? I?1x6FBII13@o AB5?3@8?II191 kB0BA@?0B6 ?? 21x
I1 :18?0IG@o @BA 32. FB7?? 5@1 6I@G6@68I1 1IB hGF?@ ABTB@o
3; 3183?2 I?:06?27?21a.
E1AB 13@BI18623; IB F1ABTB@?7o3@8?. nB3321@062 @BA IB
T48B?24a WUS Wk1TUW4 m Z3 y3 yX QZZWU 8 R 3 7Hh42 563712
8?0J6I 7?xBb6k IB A0681a
x( ) = {, 2 , 3 , 4 },
> 0.
o
@BA :018?3@6 :713A13@o H 8 FBII12 37G5B? @0?k2?0IGH A17o
0?5o 6F?@ 1h 5@1 83? 13@B7oI4? @15A6 x( ) hGFG@ IBk1
F6@o3; :1 1FIGR 3@101IG H .
E1ABx?2 s@1. nB3321@062 `GIA_6H
4
( ) = ( t)2 ( s)2 = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 ,
hx = h1 x1 + h2 x2 + h3 x3 + h4 x4 .
(t) = (s) = 0.
A
E13@016@o 311@8?@3@8GHb6a :062?0 0B3:17B9B; 21F?7oH
_6A765?3A191 2I19190BII6AB M 3183?2 7?9A1. gI19190BII6A
+
$ , ,&
"
)
.
c
x(t)
x(s)
D-
6
ABxF4a
A1IG3
8 @15I13@6 31F?0x6@ 1FIG 6T @0?k2?0
M
I4k 90BI?a.
E17G5B?@3; :062?0 5?@40?k2?0I4k A1IG318 A1@104?
:1:B0I1 31:06AB3BH@3;.m{ 7Hh12 :713A12 @0?k2?0I12 3?5?
I66 I? :01k1F;b?2 5?0?T 0 s@6k A1IG318 81TI6AB?@ :062?0
:1:B0I1
31:06AB3BHb6k3; (m 1) @0?k2?0I4k 2I19190BII6
A18.
n
Mc
D=
I
V10;5B; A04JAB IB AB3@0H7?
8497;F6@ @BA x? ABA k171F
IB;.
KL M
B
C
. )
&
"
&
"
DU
x = x(t) y = y(t) z = t
z
\
` UQY _3m m Z3Y 1TV `1
m 3Y Z3 `[ f QV h
X
X
R3 3_Z3m S 1m 1ZV b
\
\
<.=.-
wI426 3718B26 3Gb?3@8G?@ `GIA_6; 84h10B 3@B8;bB; 8
311@8?@3@86? ABxF12G X s7?2?I@ f (x) X .f
S1 ?02?71 G@8?0xF?I6? <.=.- J601A1 63:17oT18B713o 8
2B@?2B@65?3A6k 0B33GxF?I6;k ABA 3B2115?86FI4a `BA@ I1
hGFG56 ;8I1 3`102G76018BI1 -K|< 9. 84T8B71 1x?3@15?IIGH
A06@6AG. w h471 TB 5@1. XBFG2B?23; IB:062?0 I? 219G@ 76
81TI6AIG@o @0GFI13@6 :06 GABTBI66 s7?2?I@B I?A1@10191 2I1
x?3@8B X W E?0842 F?712 IB G2 :06k1F;@ 36@GB_66 9F? @BA6k
@0GFI13@?a I?@. >1 ... gI1x?3@81 = [0, 1] I?35?@I1 B 2I1
x?3@81 62?I 35?@I1. E1s@12G 35?@I1I 2I1x?3@81
Wm 1Z 1m [2
Y
\
kWT1S . BA @19FB GABTB@o s7?2?I@ 8
X = I \ Y,
_1S
, X
1ZWj k1 1] T2 3_Wm 3TV h R3TS 1_3`QV 1S hZ3TV 14 b
X
SBx? 8 @?k 37G5B;k A19FB 21xI1 1h1a@63o h?T <.=.- 63:17o
T18BI6? BA36124 84h10B 5B3@1 FB?@ 846904J 8 :013@1@? 6
1h1T06213@6. E1s@12G 1@ABT 1@ I?? 8497;F6@ A0BaI? I?x?7B
@?7oI42.
{ @1 x? 80?2; <.=.- :0681F6@ A 37?F3@86;2 A1@104? ABA
918106@3; I? 7?TG@ I6 8 ABA6? 8101@B. {1@ IB6h17?? ;0A6a
:062?0.
<.D.=
<.D.=
R W U3V 3 3m W]
a
m 3Y Z3 T3TV Q`WV h R 1 1_`WY 1ZW1m
X
X
X
B
UQU V `1 _[2 V 1S R1 1Z3T RS i T R3`3 3V a Q `_`31 f3S h 1 yj3
X
X
X
X
)
+
Dc
Dp
p
p
= (1) ,
q
q
i i
DK
1 3 + 2 2 = 0
|
nB8I18?76A6? 2I191G917oI6A6 0B8I1313@B87?I4 @. ?. 1F6I 6T
I6k 21xI1 0BT0?TB@o IB 2?IoJ6? 2I191G917oI6A6 6 371x6@o
6T I6k F0G91a. t@1@ `BA@ 3Gb?3@8?II1 G:01bB?@ G5?I6? 1
:71bBF;k. E06 1:0?F?7?I66 x? 1h?218 2I19190BII6A18 8 R
:06k1F6@3; 63:17oT18B@o 371xI4a :0?F?7oI4a :?0?k1F. >?1h
k1F6213@o s@1 676 0B8I18?76A6? 2I19190BII6A6 @1x? 0B8I131
3@B87?I4W { s@12 81:013? 31h3@8?II1 6 TBA7H5B7B3o @0?@o;
:01h7?2B V67oh?0@B A1@10GH 1@06_B@?7oI1 0?J67 SsI ?b?
3@1 7?@ IBTBF -K|| 9.. mBA62 1h0BT12 1ABTB713o 5@1 :06 :?
0?k1F? 1@ R A R 36@GB_6; :06I_6:6B7oI1 2?I;?@3;.
+
(4) =?
<|
(4) = 0
() = ,
k
i
T
i
()
<-
T
i
<=
I
I
376 G I6k IB >?h?3Bk I?@ J1
A17BFB ; 13@BIG3o TF?3o.
KL M
T(x)
x
F(x)
6 F?`10260G; 8IG@0?II13@o B :01hG?2 0B3:7B3@B@o JB0 :1
90BI65I1a 3`?0?. ?9A1 86F?@o 5@1 I? 0BT048B; JB0 3F?7B@o
s@1 I?81T21xI1.
102B76TB_6; FB?@ 1@06_B@?7oI4a 0?TG7o@B@
P 1 T g 1TV ` 1V Z1R 1 [ `Z3 y 3 3V 3f QY 1ZWj Q Q ` y Q^
\
\
X X
X
X B
X
ZWkZ i T 1
a U3V 3 31 `T1 V 3kUW 3TV Q`Sj 1V Z Q m 1TV 1 .
\
X\ S
X
S
>?9B@68I4a kB0BA@?0 G@8?0xF?I6; I? G2B7;?@ ?91 _?II1
3@6 6h1 IBF7?xBbB; :?0?`102G76018AB :0681F6@ A :1T6@68
I12G 0?TG7o@B@G V 13X 1m 1 X Q \X Q
X X
X
X B
1V Z 1R3_`WY Z i V 3kU a V b 1b
\
\
U.-.-
_Sj Z 1U3V 3 3 y 3
.
xB
X
t@1 _?II4a
6I3@0G2?I@
F7; 84;3I?I6; 0BT0?J6213@6 G0B8
I?I6a. @ :0?F4FGb?91 I?9B@68I191 0?TG7o@B@B F1 @?10?24
j0BGs0B hGA8B7oI1 1F6I JB9.
{ :0?F:171x?I66 :01@68I191 x 6= T (x) F7; 7Hh191 x B
31?F6I62 x 6 T (x) 1@0?TA12 :0;21a
6 :01F17x62 ?91 TB
@15AG x F1 :?0?3?5?I6; 31 3`?01a S 8 @15A? F (x) . E1I;@I15@1
I?:0?048I1? 1@1h0Bx?I6? B 8 S 13@B87;Hb?? 3`?0G
F (x)
IB
2?3@?.
E01@6810?56?.
S
x = T (x)
<<
{1@ :062?0 6T F0G91a 1h7B3@6. 376 :01h7?2B 318:BF?I6; P 6
A7B3318 :176I126B7oI1 0BT0?J624k 6 :?0?h10I4k TB
NP
FB5 62??@ 1@06_B@?7oI1?
0?J?I6? 6= N P s@1 8 ABA12@1
32437? :71k1 :1@12G 5@1 h17oJB;P2B33B
TBFB5 13@B?@3; h?T
s``?A@68I4k B79106@218 0?J?I6;. >1 s@1 k101J1 F7; A06:
@190B`66 hBT60GHb?a3; 8 13I18I12 ABA 0BT IB :0?F:171x?
I66 P 6= N P . @1@1 21x?@ :1FG2B@o I? FBa h19 P = N P
6 3?A0?@I13@o
0GkI?@. >? 0GkI?@. E013@1 hGF?@ 0BT868B@o3; 8
I184k G37186;k. SB ?b? @0GFI4? :1AB TBFB56 1ABxG@3; 7?9A1
0?JB?2426 6 h17oJB; 90G::B 2B@?2B@6A18 :1@?0;8 0Bh1@G
IB:0B86@ 3@1:4 21x?@ h4@o ABA 0BT 8 A06:@190B`6H.
nBTG2??@3; AB5?76 81TI6ABH@ I? 83?9FB. @06_B@?7o
I4? :1 1bGb?I6H 0?TG7o@B@4 5Bb? 1ABT48BH@3; _?II4 3B26
:1 3?h? B I? :1@12G 5@1 6k 63:17oT18BI6? 8 A1IAG060GHb?a
1h7B3@6 FB?@ I?5@1 A1IA0?@I1 :171x6@?7oI1?.
{T;@o k1@; h4 h17oJGH 90G::G 2B@?2B@65?3A6k `BA@18
A1@104? :06I;@1 IBT48B@o A1I@0:062?0B26. m?026I17196;
IBF1 :06TIB@o I?3A17oA1 3@0BIIB;. { 0BT0;F A1I@0:062?018
1h45I1 :1:BFBH@ 3B24? @6:65I4? 36@GB_66. ^ABx?2 :15@6
83? I?:0?048I4? `GIA_66 I?F6``?0?I_60G?24 I1 :062?0
{?a?0J@0B33B I69F? I?F6``?0?I_60G?21a `GIA_66 s@1 A1I@0
:062?0. 1I@0:062?0 :1@12G 5@1 6I@G6_66 @BAGH k62?0G
@0GFI1 811h0BT6@o. E1s@12G @0HA {?a?0J@0B33B :016T8?7 8
381? 80?2; IB 2B@?2B@65?3A1? 311hb?3@81 367oI1? 8:?5B@7?
I6?. 0A6? s21_66 31:0181xFB76 1@A04@6; 6 F0G96k @6:65
I4k `BA@18 6 1h?A@18 600B_61IB7oI13@o 2 F0?8I6? 90?
A6 @0BI3_?IF?I@I4? 5637B 6G8677o I?0BT0?J624? 2I1
x?3@8B I?F1ABTG?24? G@8?0xF?I6;
6 @. :.
E0687?AB@?7oI4 @BAx? 6 2?I?? 2B3J@BhI4? ;87?I6; ABA
IB:062?0
X
1 W3_Wk1TUQj ZUWj
a Z1 Wm 1i g Qj Z QW^
\
X
f (x) 6= const
m 1Zh 1 y 3 R 1 W3_Q
X
*
+
+
) +
NP
f (x) = 1
f (x) = 2
<U
.
w3@1A6 :06@;9B@?7oI13@6 TF?3o F13@B@15I1 15?86FI4. :4@
IB K| 313@16@ 6T I?GFB5 6 :10Bx?I6a. S17x?I 313@1;@o
6IB5? :0B8?FI4? :G@6 hGFG@ 863?@o 8 81TFGk? I? 62?; `GI
FB2?I@B 6 A1I@0B3@B. E1s@12G :71k6? `GIA_66 2I1x?3@8B
`BA@4 :17oTGH@3; :184J?II42 3:01312. E062?0I1 ABA F?
@?A@684. m1 6 F0G91? @1I6T60G?@ IB:126IB; 1 I?:06;@I13@;k
A1@104? :1 TBA1IB2 xBI0B F17xI4 h4@o :0B8F1:1F1hI4 6
x6TI?II4 B 24 F17xI4 @0?I6018B@o3; 5@1h4 6Th?9B@o...
Q] [ `Z Qj S WZ 14Z Qj ZUWj Tm b yS Q`
X
\
\
n?B7oI13@o 2B@?2B@65?3A6k I?:06;@I13@?a 301FI6 :0B8F681
3@6 76@?0B@G0I4k 1h0BT18. { :0?F4FGb?a 97B8? IB:062?0
G:126IB7B3o BI12B7oIB; 36@GB_6; @0?k 6 h17?? 1h7B3@?a 62?
Hb6k 1hbGH 90BI6_G. BA@ h?TG3718I1 ;0A6a I1 5?0?35G0
IBFG2BII4a 801F? h4. E1s@12G GF1817o3@86? 1@ I?1x6FBI
I13@6 367oI1 1h?3_?I68B?@3; G8?0?II13@oH 5@1 IB :0BA@6A?
@BA1? I? 83@0?5B?@3;.
ABT48B?@3; 83@0?5B?@3; 5 :065?2 8 3B24k hBIB7oI4k
36@GB_6;k. w@?0B_61IIB; :01_?FG0B
U.D.=
IB A12:7?A3I1a :713A13@6 845637;?@ A10?Io AGh65?3A6a 6T
?F6I6_4 ABA184k 62??@3; @06
1 + i 3
1 i 3
1,
,
,
U.D.D
2
2
6 ?3@o 311@8?@3@8?II1 @06 1h7B3@6 :06@;x?I6; B C . E01
_?33 U.D.= 3k1F6@3; A 1FI12G 6T A10I?a U.D.D 8ATB8636213@6
1@ @191 ABA1a 1h7B3@6 :06IBF7?x6@ z .
EG3@o @?:?0o 1h1TIB5BH@ 90BI6_4 1h7B3@?a A
. >?8?01;@I1 I1 `BA@
B C
zk+1 = zk
zk3 1
3zk2
A = B = C ,
<C
!9
E15?2G IB:062?0 3@B7B TIB2?I6@1a @BA IBT48B?2B; R3_^
U3`Q m 14S Q W mB2 8?Fo :1 3G@6 83? 15?Io :013@1 6 FBx? hB
IB7oI1. nB332B@068B?@3; s7?2?I@B0I1? :0?1h0BT18BI6? f (x)
?F6I65I191 A8BF0B@B 8 3?h;. 8BF0B@ 84@;968B?@3; 8 :0;21
G917oIGH :1713AG 8431@1a 1 :137? 5?91 :1713AB GA7BF48B
3
?@3; IB A8BF0B@ 8 86F? :1FA184
ABA :1ABTBI1 IB 063. C.=.
t@1 6 ?3@o 1@1h0Bx?I6? f . ^2?a7 TB2?@67 5@1 6I@?0?3I4?
8?b6 :0163k1F;@ :06 6@?0B_6;k f . { 8?0@6AB7oI12 3?5?I66
+
:
<c
. ) &
"
+
"
&
.
&
$&
"
"
+
&
"
f ()
f ()
f (x) = 0
f ()
f ()
f ()
f ()
f ()
0
h(x, )
h(x, 0) f (x),
f ()
h(x, 1) w 6= 0,
h(x, ) 6= 0
<p
f ()
w 6= 0
f()
f()
A 7
p 7
-
B
p 9
+
.
* > )
)
&
+ "
x [0, 1]
f ()
w 6= 0
. .
+ " &
, * +
+
+
+
*
<K
h(x, ) = (1 )x + f (x).
x
f (x) =
f (x)
0,
1,
fk (x) f (x)
k ,
.
+
+ <
) +
U|
J
w 36F; 3 2671a IB @0B8? :062;@1a
m4 hGF?Jo 3 xB012 918106@o 7Hh;
^718B 5@1 h476 3ABTBI4 A19FB@1.
m4 TBh7GxFB@o3; hGF?Jo 8?0; 38;@1
@1 ; I? 9181067 6k F1 @?h;.
i^ > w{
j?3A1I?5I13@o I?FB012 6T8?3@IB ABA 2?3@1 9F? :0163k1F6@
@1 5?91 I? h48B?@. BAB; 6T F8Gk :137?F18B@?7oI13@?a
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, . . .
C.|.-
C.|.=
1, 4, 9, 16, . . . , n , . . .
n n2 ,
x + x + 2 = 2.
C.|.D
S81aAG :1F 0BF6AB712 TB2?I62 IB 7?8GH 5B3@o C.|.D 6 :1
8@1062 s@G 1:?0B_6H h?3A1I?5I1? 56371 0BT. { 0?TG7o@B@? C.|.D
:?0?aF?@ 8 G0B8I?I6?
r
q
x + x + x + ... = 2
C.|.<
3 h?3A1I?5I42 563712 0BF6AB718 F81aAB GJ7B TB 9106T1I@.
E13A17oAG h?3A1I?5I13@o 26IG3 1F6I 1:;@o h?3A1I?5I13@o
G0B8I?I6? C.|.< sA868B7?I@I1
x + 2 = 2,
S1791? 80?2; 83? h?3A1I?5I13@6 356@B763o ABA h4 0B8I426
F0G9 F0G9G. n?817H_6H 8 :1I62BI66 s@191 81:013B 318?0J67
V?109 BI@10. E?0842 F?712 1I TBFB73; _?7oH 84;3I6@o AB
A6? h?3A1I?5I13@6 sA868B7?I@I4 IB@G0B7oI12G 0;FG 6 ABA6?
:0?813k1F;@ ?91 :1 21bI13@6. E?081? ?3@?3@8?II1? :0?F:171
x?I6? 5@1 0B_61IB7oI4k 563?7 h17oJ? 5?2 _?74k 1ABTB713o
71xI42. wk 1ABTB713o 3@17oA1 x?. S7; G3@BI187?I6; s@191
`BA@B 0B_61IB7oI4? 5637B 0B3:17B9BH@3; 8 86F? h?3A1I?5I1a
A8BF0B@I1a @Bh76_4 6 IG2?0GH@3; 8F17o 3@0?715?A ABA IB
063. c.-.
{ 0?TG7o@B@? 56371 1 :17G5B?@ I12?0 1 1 I12?0 2 2
2
I12?0 3 6 @BA FB7??. 1nBI?? 83@0?5B8J6?3; 5637B
:01:G3AB1
H@3;. ?9A1 86F?@o 5@1 @BA1a 3:131h G3@BIB8768B?@ 8TB62I1
1FI1TIB5I1? 311@8?@3@86? 2?xFG 2I1x?3@812 0B_61IB7oI4k
563?7 6 IB@G0B7oI42 0;F12. Hh1? 2I1x?3@81 sA868B7?I@
I1? 8 s@12 32437? IB@G0B7oI12G 0;FG IBT48BH@ Tk1V Z[m .
SB7?? ABA k101J1 6T8?3@I1 BI@10 :1ABTB7 5@1 2I1x?
3@81 F?a3@86@?7oI4k 563?7 1@0?TAB [0, 1] Gx? I?35?@I1. {
UD
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . ,
C.-.U
b = 0, 1 , 2 . . . ,
x = 0, 1 2 . . . ,
y = 0, 1 2 . . .
z = 0, 1 1 2 2 . . .
x
1
-
" &
D
)
"
& +
7
.
< 7
"
&
> *
x
y [0, 1]
{x y} = {k}
k
Z
[0, 1]
Z
Z k = {Z + k}.
Zk
Z p (p > k)
(p k)
Zk
Zk
1 (p k)
Zp
Zk
p<k
[0, 1]
Z k
Z k
[0, 1]
[0, 1]
[0, 106 ]
{Z k }
{Z k }
[0, 1]
R3
(
+
<
UC
[0, 1]
{z + k} z Z
Zp
Zk
Z k
{Z k }
Zk
{Z k }
H
Uc
2 2
2 2.
5 1
1 1.
Up
4 4
0 0.
3 3
3 3.
A > B,
B > C,
C > D.
{1:013
676 D > A ?
A>D
:0?F3@B87;?@3; FBx? I?7?:42. m?2 I? 2?I?? D 8469048B?@ G
B I? A G D 3 8?01;@I13@oH 2 . BA 918106@3; :06?kB76.
A
3
O
1J6h1A 6I@G6_66 2I191 63@15I6A18. { :137?FI?2 37G5B?
IB :18?0kI13@6 7?x6@ 6I?0_6; 24J7?I6; :?0?I13 :06845
I4k 381a3@8 @0BIT6@68I13@6 IB 1h?A@4 6I1a :0601F4. >1
?3@o 6 1hbB; :0656IB. SBx? 8 3B24k :013@4k 8?01;@I13@I4k
TBFB5Bk 8TB621F?a3@8GH@ I?3A17oA1 `BA@1018. g4J7?I6? x?
h17oJ? :063:131h7?I1 F7; BIB76TB 76I?aI4k _?:15?A :0656I
6 37?F3@86a. i ?376 h?T F6:712B@66 @1 Gx? F8B 8TB621F?a
3@8GHb6k `BA@10B 3@B8;@ 0BTG2 8 @G:6A.
{1@ :013@?aJB; 36@GB_6;. S1:G3@62 5@1 ABA 8 xI12
:17GJB066 @BA 6 8 ^?8?0I12 :01_?I@ 04x6k 30?F6 2Gx56I
84J? 5?2 30?F6 x?Ib6I. g1xI1 76 IB s@12 13I18BI66
G@8?0xFB@o 5@1 :01_?I@ 04x6k 30?F6 2Gx56I 811hb? 84J?W
g1xI1 F?0xB@o :B06 5@1 KK IB3?7?I6; 1@8?@;@ :171x6
@?7oI1 k1@; A @12G I?@ I6ABA6k :0?F:13471A. EG3@o IB:06
2?0 8 xI12 :17GJB066 -| x?Ib6I 6T I6k 1FIB 04xB; 6
K| 2Gx56I -| 04x6k. { ^?8?0I12 AB0@6IB F0G9B; K|
x?Ib6I pK 04x6k -| 2Gx56I 83? 04x6?.
{ ABxF12 :17GJB066 :01_?I@ 04x6k 2Gx56I F?a3@86
@?7oI1 84J?
1 10
89
10
>
,
>
.
90
10 10
90
UK
1
1
1
+ 4 + . . . + 2n n + . . . = 1 + 1 + . . . ,
2
4
2
100
200
100
100
1
.
4
c.=.=
^ I?TB8636213@oH A 6 B 6I@G6_6; 3197B3IB I1 I? 3 I?TB8636
213@oH A 6 C 676 B 6 C . w G I?? ?3@o 13I18BI6;. >?TB8636
213@o c.=.= 62??@ ABA h4 B06`2?@65?3A6a kB0BA@?0 ;87;
?@3; 0?TG7o@B@12
5637?II191 318:BF?I6;. B5?3@8?II4? 1@76
56; 8TB62138;T?a 31h4@6a 84;87;H@3; :06 IB0GJ?I66 362
2?@066 21I?@. S7; I?3622?@065I4k 21I?@ 3 8?01;@I13@oH
84:BF?I6; 9?0hB 6= 1/2 381a3@81 I?TB8636213@6
6 86FB
A B
c.=.-
31k0BI;?@3;
B
81@
0B8?I3@8B
IB0GJBH@3;.
XF?3o G2?3@I1 TB2?5BI6? 1hb?91 kB0BA@?0B. gB@?2B@65?
3A1? 1:63BI6? 7Hh1a 0?B7oI1a 363@?24 83?9FB I?@15I1 8 0?
TG7o@B@? I?6Th?xI4k 1J6h1A :06 1:0?F?7?I66 :B0B2?@018
:0?I?h0?x?I66 2B71TIB5Bb626 `BA@10B26 6 @. :. E06 s@12
?3@?3@8?II15@1 21F?7o 21x?@ :0?F3@B87;@o :0BA@65?3A6a 6I
@?0?3 76Jo :06 IB76566 1:0?F?7?II1a I?5G83@86@?7oI13@6 A
2B742 ?? 6T2?I?I6;2 81T2Gb?I6;2. { :01@68I12 37G5B? I?@
I6ABA6k 9B0BI@6a 5@1 8481F4 311@8?@3@8GH@ :18?F?I6H 6
381a3@8B2 6TG5B?2191 0?B7oI191 1h?A@B.
t@1 311h0Bx?I6? ABxF4a 0BT 6T87?AB?@3; IB 38?@ A19FB
@B 676 6IB; @?106; 3@B7A68B?@3; 3 BI12B76;26 86FB 2B74?
C-
Ln (x) =
x1 + . . . + xn
.
n
TS Wa Z QR Wm 1 a `1S WkWZ[
Q`Z3m 1 Z3 QTR 1_1S 1Z[ ZQ
xi X
X
X
X X
X
W `[ R3S Zj 1V Tj TS 3`W1 bcbc
a V3 R W
ZUWj
\
X
[0, 1]
n \
QTWm RV 3V Wk1TUW R3TV 3j ZZQb
fn (x)
C=
-
x1 + . . . + xn
n
)
*
x1 . . . xn =
X = (x1 + . . . + xn )/n
CD
G
p 9
IG7?81a @15A?. h;TBIB 76 8 s@12 37G5B? `GIA_6; (x, y) @1
x? 62?@o 26I62G2 8 IG7?W
wI@G6_6; 813:6@BIIB; IB :013@4k :062?0Bk FB?@ :171
x6@?7oI4a 1@8?@. E0B867oI4a 1@8?@ 1@06_B@?7oI4a.
{1To2?2 :013@GH 36@GB_6H
z = 2x 3x y + y .
p.-.-
>B 7Hh1a :0;21a y = ax `GIA_6;
4
z = 2x4 3ax3 + a2 x2
9F?
`GIA_6; p.-.- 1@06_B@?7oIB. E1s@12G 8
cx
<2
IG7? 1IB1 I?< c21x?@
62?@o 26I62G2. E0656IG :1I;@o 7?9A1
TB:63B8 z 8 86F?
2 2
z = (y x2 )(y 2x2 ),
O O
376 G I?:0?048I1a `GIA_66 1FI191 :?0?2?II191 62??@3; ?F6I
3@8?II4a 71AB7oI4a 26I62G2 6 1@3G@3@8GH@ 71AB7oI4? 2BA
362G24 @1 s@1@ 26I62G2 B8@12B@65?3A6 1ABT48B?@3; 971hB7o
I42.
g1xI1 76 @1 x? 3B21? 3ABTB@o 1 `GIA_66 F8Gk :?0?2?I
I4kW
XF?3o GF1hI1 24376@o 8 @?026IBk 76I6a G018I;. EG3@o
IB:062?0 (x, y) :06I62B?@ 8 IG7? 26I62B7oI1? TIB5?I6?
3ABx?2 IG7o. >B56IB?2 0?TB@o 90B`6A z = (x, y) 9106T1I
@B7oI426 :713A13@;26 A1@104? :?0?3?ABH@
13o z 8 @15ABk
6
@BA
FB7??.
{
3?5?I6;k
hGFG@
:17G5B@o3;
76I66 :1
, 2, 3
3@1;II191 G018I;. 376 6k 3:01?A@6018B@o IB :713A13@o (x, y)
21x?@ :17G56@o3; AB0@6IAB ABA IB 063. ...
{1@ F0G91a 8B06BI@ 063. .... XF?3o `GIA_6; 62??@ ?F6I
3@8?II4a 71AB7oI4a 26I62G2
I1 1I I? 971hB7oI4a. E06 s@12
G `GIA_66 I?@ I6ABA6k F0G96k sA3@0?2B7oI4k @15?A I6 26
I62G218 I6 2BA362G218 I6 3?F7184k @15?A.
@1h4 2437?II1 :0?F3@B86@o 90B`6A s@1a `GIA_66:17?T
I1 0B3321@0?@o `6T65?3AGH 21F?7o. {1To2?2 F8B h?3A1I?5I4k
JIG0B 6 84@;I?2 6k :1 76I6;2 G018I; -. XBA0?:62 JIG04
IBh01362 38?0kG 96hAGH :7?IAG :06A7?62 ?? A JIG0B2 6 hG
F?2 :01FB8768B@o... >G 8 1hb?2 @BA 5@1h4 :17G56713o ABA
IB AB0@6IA?.
t@1 A3@B@6 GF1hI4a 6I3@0G2?I@ 9?12?@065?3A191 24J7?
I6;. E1s@12G ?376 I? :17G56713o 3@16@ :1:01h18B@o ?b? 0BT
I? 0BF6 TBFB56 B 0BF6 6I3@0G2?I@B.
S7; 0?J?I6; 2B@?2B@65?3A6k :01h7?2 I?0?FA1 :06FG24
8B763o IB97;FI4? 21F?76. m1@ A@1 IBbG:48B7 :01FGA@68IGH
38;To 676 x? IBk1F67 213@ 8?FGb6a IB F0G91a h?0?9 3@BI1
8673; 1h7BFB@?7?2 817J?hI1a :B715A6. t@1 h17oJB; @?2B F7;
1@F?7oI191 0BT91810B.
b? 1F6I :062?0. E18?0kI13@o 910 21xI1 0B332B@068B@o
ABA 90B`6A `GIA_66 F8Gk :?0?2?II4k z = (x, y) . 376 ?3@o
CC
mg
kx2
2mgx + const.
2
2;9A1 91810; I?71965I1. 06@?06a FB?@ 1:0?F?7?II13@o _?76
I1 @0?hG?@ G5?@B 0BTI4k 2?7A6k F?@B7?a A1@104? A 0?B7oI1a
TBFB5? 1h45I1 I? 62?H@ I6ABA191 1@I1J?I6;. w IB1h101@ 3G
b?3@8?II4? `BA@104A1@104? I? GFB713o 1@0BT6@o 8 1:63BI66
21F?76 811hb? 13@BH@3; TB h10@12 1:@626TB_66.
{ 0?TG7o@B@? :17G5BH@3; 0?J?I6; @6:B F8Gk 8?F?0 GA3G
3B 8 AB5?3@8? 1:@62B7oI1a F6?@4. >?7?:13@o GA3G3I191 0?J?
I6; 37B8B h19G 15?86FIB B 81@ sA1I1265?3A6? :7BI4 IB6
7G5J?91 0BT86@6; I? @BA IB97;FI4.
c|
mg
O
S6IB265?3A6? `1AG34 5B3@1 1:0?F?7;?@ 3@B@6AB. 376 IB:06
2?0 363@?2B 1:6348B?@3; F6``?0?I_6B7oI42 G0B8I?I6?2 8
@12 5637? 8?A@10I42
K.-.-
x = F (x, ),
F (x, ) = 0,
d
= x3 + 2 x + 1 = 0.
dx
UQV QTV 3 [ Tf3 UW
X
X
1 2
x4
x2
x2
x4
x
1
2
S
E
C
F
A
ABA12@1 s@B:? 1h?3:?5671 @?1066 I?1h4AI18?IIGH :1:G7;0
I13@o 5@1 3 1FI1a 3@101I4 k101J1. ^ F0G91a 1h0BT18B7B3o
@BAB; ABJB 5@1 I? 0BTh?0?Jo 9F? 2B@?2B@6AB B 9F? :6B0.
31h1 8BxIGH 017o 8 @?1066 AB@B3@01` 690B?@ 3@0GA@G0
IB; G3@1a56813@o. S?71 8 @12 5@1 0BT765I4k 86F18 3T3f1ZZ3^
TV 14 :06I_6:6B7oI1 21x?@ h4@o 3A17oA1 G91FI1 6 :0?F2?@
6TG5?I6; 0B3:17TB?@3;. { @1 x? 80?2; ;3I1 5@1 I?@ 32437B
6TG5B@o @? AB@B3@01`4 A1@104? 635?TBH@ :06 2B7?aJ?2 81T
2Gb?I66 363@?24. t@1 6 37Gx6@ 0BTG2I42 13I18BI6?2 F7;
71AB76TB_66 8I62BI6; IB 90Gh4k 3@0GA@G0I1 G3@1a5684k
36@GB_6;k.
V1810;@ 5@1 @?106; AB@B3@01` :1;867B3o 376JA12 :1TFI1.
IBF? TBI62B?@3; 81:013B26 A1@10426 h471 h4 ?3@?3@8?II1
TBFB@o3; TBF1791 F1. >B:062?0.. .
E18?F?I6? `GIA_66 f (x) 3AB7;0I1a :?0?2?II1a x 21xI1
c<
9F? a = f (0) .
h45I1 k!190BI6568BH@3; 0B3321@0?I6?2 I?A1@10191 1@0?T
AB s@191 0;FB A1@104a FB?@ F13@B@15I1 k101J?? :06h76x?I6?
. ^ABx?2 ?376 f (0) = 0 @1 1 kB0BA@?0? A06@65?3A1a @15
f (x)
A6 x = 0 21xI1 3GF6@o
:1 :?0812G I?IG7?812G 57?IG 0;FB
msa710B :06 a > 0 26I62G2 :06 a < 0 2BA362G2 6
@BA FB7??.
601A1 0B3:013@0BI?I 26` 5@1 F7; `GIA_6a 2I196k :?
0?2?II4k F?71 1h3@16@ BIB71965I42 1h0BT12. >B 3B212 F?7?
s@1 I? @BA 6 0BT;3I?I6? 36@GB_66 1FIB 6T TBFB5 @?1066
AB@B3@01`.
GIA_6;
(k)
101
cU
f(y)
84@?AB?@
>6 2I191 I6 2B71 h71A3k?2B :0?F
3ABT48B?@ hGFGb??. E1I;@I1 5@1h4 GF?0xB@o3; 8 0B2ABk F1T
817?II191 IBF1 :?0?k1F6@o IB h17?? @1IA1? 1:63BI6? F6IB26
A6 1:;@o G56@48B; 876;I6? :B0BT6@I4k :B0B2?@018 6 3B21?
97B8I1? TB:G3A :01_?33B.
y
A
>B s@G 2?7oI6_G 7oH@ 81FG 2I196? :062?04. ^ABx?2 :B
0BF1A3 E?I7?8? 81TI6ABHb6a :06 F86x?I66 2B;@I6AB 3 @15
A1a :1F8?3B A1@10B; 21x?@ 3Gk1 3A17oT6@o :1 9106T1I@B7o
I1a :0;21a 063. -|.< .S?@B7oI1? 1:63BI6? I?:06;@I13@?a TF?3o
TBI;71 h4 2I191 2?3@B I1 IB2 F13@B@15I1 0?TH2?. iIB76T F6
IB26A6 :1ABT48B?@ 5@1 F86x?I6? @15A6 :1F8?3B 87?81 < 0
I?81T21xI1 ?376 2B;@I6A 1@A71I?I 87?81 B 8:0B81 xI?1F
I1TIB5I1. ^:B3B; 2?kBI6AG >oH@1IB 3I18B :06k1F6@3; 84k1
F6@o TB 0B2A6 G:01b?II1a 21F?76.
m?:?0o IBF1 :1;3I6@o :06 5?2 @G@ h6`G0AB_66. S?71 8
@12 5@1 8 90BI6_Bk 21F?76 K.-.- I? 83?9FB ;3I1 ABA hGF?@
cc
x
mg
mg
8?3@6 3?h; 0?B7oIB; 363@?2B. E06 6T2?I?I66 8F0G9 IB56IB?@
269B@o 369IB7oIB; 7B2:15AB. t@1 21x?@ h4@o 5@1 G91FI1
1 1ZWj ] Q U3Z1kZ31 ` 1m j 2 3_j V ` f1TU3Z1kZ3TV h WS W
X
\
X
R W2 3_j V W] a
X
m 3_1S h Z QkWZ Q1V R 1_TUQ][ `QV h f _ g 11a
X
\ \
UQU31
QV
h a
1 1ZWj `1V `j V Tj
`[ fW
X
X
.
)
?
+ + +
+
*
.
f2 (x, y) = x2 y 2
x = y
x=y
x = y
f2
(x, y)
u v
.
+
$ $&
"
?
+ " $ $&
f1
f (x1 , . . . , xn )
2
2
f = z12 + . . . + zk2 zk+1
. . . zn
,
f (0) = 0
cK
G
J I
676
x=2
x
x3
x5
+
...
1!
3!
5!
(1)k+1
sin kx
,
k
x (, ),
x = x1 e1 + . . . + xn en ,
p|
max f (x)
Z1
xdx
,
1 + (y 0 )2
y(0) = 0,
y(1) = 1
f1(x)
f(x)
x
O
a)
1
b)
9
max |f (x)| = 1.
F7;
f
(2x)
x
0,
2
f (x) =
F7;
f
(1)
x
,
1
,
2
:06 s@12 `GIA_6; IB 063. --.-B :?0?k1F6@ 8 `GIA_6H IB 063.
--.- 3 :121boH F?`102B_66
F7;
f
(
x)
x
0,
h(, x) =
F7;
,1
x
f (1)
:06 6T2?I?I66 1@ - F1 =.
>B 8@1012 JB9? 83? f (x) F?`10260GH@3; 8`GIA_66
.
f (x)
V0B`6A f (x) 318:BFB?@ 3 90B`6A12 f (x) IB 0, 1 B :0B84?
x[0,1]
p=
[0, 1].
O
{4F86x?I6? IB :?0?FI6a :7BI :1I;@6; `GIA_61IB7oI191 :01
3@0BI3@8B 32?3@671 BA_?I@4 6 FB71 @1751A BIB76TG 8 I1812
IB:0B87?I66. mBA191 310@B :18101@I4? 212?I@4 8 0BT86@66
IBG5I4k F63_6:76I F7; :18?0kI13@I191 8T97;FB 3183?2 I?TB
2?@I4 :13A17oAG 0?5o 6F?@ 1 :0?xI6k TBFB5Bk 0BT8? 5@1
:1F I?3A17oA1 6I42 G9712 T0?I6;. E?081? 80?2; ABx?@3; 5@1
8 s@1a 2?@B210`1T? h17oJ? 26IG318 5?2 :7H318. >1 2B71
:12B7G :0?62Gb?3@8B IBAB:768BH@3; 6 81TI6AB?@ s817H_6
1II4a 3AB51A. >?1x6FBII1 84;3I;?@3; 5@1 :13@01?I F810?_.
n17o `GIA_61IB7oI4k :013@0BI3@8 :1F1hIB 0176 F?a3@86
@?7oI4k 563?7 A1@104? 3B26 :1 3?h? I6A12G I? IGxI4 8 @BA12
A1765?3@8? I1 1I6 :0?1h0BxBH@ 6 1x687;H@ 2B@?2B@6AG. t@1
@17oA1 IB :?084a 8T97;F ABx?@3; 5@1 h?T 600B_61IB7oI4k
563?7 21xI1 1h1a@63o :13A17oAG I?@ IGxF4 8 h?3A1I?5I1a
@15I13@6 845637?I6a. >?3A17oA1 TIBA18 :137? TB:;@1a 81@
1h45IB; :0BA@6AB.
>1 F?a3@86@?7oI4? 5637B I?1hk1F624 8183? I? F7; 84563
7?I6a. wk 97B8IB; 017o 8 @125@1 1I6 F?7BH@ 0Bh1@13:131hI4
26 2I196? 2B@?2B@65?3A6? 6I3@0G2?I@4. >B 3B212 97Gh1A12
G018I? s@1 :06FBI6? TBA1II13@6 :0?F?7oI42 :?0?k1FB25@1
1h?3:?568B?@ F6``?0?I_6018BI6? 6I@?906018BI6? 63:17oT1
8BI6? @BA6k `GIA_6a ABA sin x 6 @. :.
>?3A17oA1 G:01bB; 36@GB_6H21xI1 3ABTB@o5@1 8?3o BIB
76T hBT60G?@3; IB :1I;@66 :0?F?7B F7; 5?91 3Gb?3@8?II1
5@1h4 :0;2B; :1k1F67B IB 3:71JIGH F1019G. 376 FBx? 0B3
32B@068B@o 63A7H56@?7oI1 0B_61IB7oI4? :137?F18B@?7oI13@6
pD
@6:B
an =
1
1
+ ... + n,
2
2
31h191 G:126IBI6; TB37Gx68BH@ 1h1hb?II4? `GIA_66.
S1 ABA191@1 212?I@B 0BT86@6? :1I;@6a :01k1F671 8 0B2ABk
:0?F3@B87?I6; 1 `GIA_66 ABA 1 5?2@1 62?Hb?2 90B`6A. ^
I?A1@101a IB@;xA1a A1I?5I1. >?:0?048I4? :1@12 6T2?06
24? 676 3G2260G?24? 3 ABA1a@1 3@?:?IoH... I? 8?TF? 1FI1
TIB5I1 1:0?F?7?II4?... >1 @BA 676 6IB5? f (x) 1TIB5B71 5@1
:15@6 8?TF? B09G2?I@G x 3@B86@3; 8 311@8?@3@86?
y = f (x).
pC
>
=
KL M
pK
+
:
: & +
"
#
+
=
) * + ) )
>B:0;x?I6? 81T0B3@B71. ^6@GB_6; IGxFB7B3o 8 0BT0?J?
I66. :;@o 83:747B 6F?; 1 2I621a 3`?0? I1 5?@A1 840BT6@o
?? I? GFB8B713o. w @17oA1 8 -pCp 91FG 5?0?T 3101A 3 76J
I62 7?@ :137? :?081a 0Bh1@4 1hB5?83A191 j?7o@0B26 IBA1
I?_ :1ABTB7 5@1 I18B; 9?12?@06; 84:17I;?@3; IB :18?0kI1
3@;k :13@1;II1a 1@06_B@?7oI1a A0686TI4 6 8 @1a x? 3@?:?I6
I?:01@6810?568B 5@1 6 BIB76T.
n?J?I6? 81:013B 9?12?@018 I? 8:17I? GF187?@810671 F7;
5?91 h476 1:0?F?7?II4? 13I18BI6;. n?5o 83? x? J7B 1 71
AB7oI1a 0?B76TB_66 9?12?@066 1hB5?83A191 IB :3?8F13`?0?
:1AG315I1.
a + b = b + a,
C
B
5?3@8? :713A13@6 8IG@0?II13@o A0G9B 8 AB5?3@8? :0;24k
k10F4 ?3@?3@8?II1 h?T A1I_?84k @15?A. ?0?T @15AG C 063.
-=.- :01k1F6@ _?74a :G51A :0;24k k10F I? :?0?3?ABHb6k
.
AB
{1@ @BAB; 21F?7o 9?12?@066 1hB5?83A191. j?T :0?G8?76
5?I6; 843J6a :671@Bx 5 E7H3 A @12G :13A17oAG 21F?7o 3@01
6@3; ABA s7?2?I@ 1h45I1a 9?12?@066 @1 1IB 8 @1a x? 3@?:?I6
I?:01@6810?568B.
N
>BJ? 8I62BI6? F1 36k :10 h471 3`1AG36018BI1 IB @?5?I66
6F?a. @1 6 ABAW BA184 :0?:;@3@86;W mGFB 76 :1@1A 84I?3
AGFB IB:0B87;73;W E15?2G F1791W @AGFB F0B2B@G096;W
E06 @BA12 0BAG03? 63:17I6@?76 8@1065I4. E1s@12G 2I1
96k 24 FBx? I? G:12;IG76 B @B2 h476 84FBHb6?3; G5B3@I6
A6 :01_?33B. g7BFJ6a j17o;6 :17G568J6a @? x? 0?TG7o@B@4
5@1 6 1hB5?83A6aI1 817?a 3GFoh4 13@B8J6a3; 8@1042. {?76
A6a 30?F6 8?76A6k VBG33 :13@0168J6a @G x? 9?12?@06H G 3?h;
8 5?0I186ABk TBF1791 F1. V?I6B7oI4a n62BI :0156@B8J6a
?b? 8 -pU< 91FG 84FBHbGH3; 7?A_6H 1 I1812 9?12?@065?3A12
:1Fk1F? 8 0B2ABk A1@10191 9?12?@066 8A76FB 6 1hB5?83A1
91 :013@4? 5B3@I4? 37G5B6.
K-
D +
> + <
#
"
#EE
> & )
>1 s@1 F0G9B; @?2B 6T 3`?04 I?3197B318BII13@6 31F?0
xBI6; 6 `1024. w3:17I6@?7o A13265?3A191 TB2437B hGFG56
?F6I 8 F8Gk 6:13@B3;k ?b? ?3@ 3:6@ 6 @;I?@ 1F?;71 IB 3?h;
5@1 :06 F1h01x?7B@?7oI1a :1T6_66 84T48B?@ G74hAG 362:B
@66 6h1 @BA18B :0601FB. >Bh7HFB@o s@G 90BIF61TIGH AB0@6
IG GF1817o3@86? 6 IBGAB I1 s@1 318?0J?II1 F0G91? TBI;@6?
6 k101J1 h4 IBT48B@o ?91 I? 63@106?a 2B@?2B@6A6 B ABA@1
6IB5?.
b? k101J1 h471 h4 Ga@6 1@ 81:013B A@1 :?0842 3ABTB7
i A1@104a 83?9FB :10@6@ B@213`?0G. F6I 6T TBA1I18 @6:B
gs0`6 l EB0A6I31IB 3B0AB3@65?3A6 G@8?0xFB?@ P WkV 3 Z 1
f[S 3 Z Q] `QZ3 Wm 1Z 1m R 1 `33V U [ `QV 1Sj b
X
i 5@1 8 s@12 :71k191WX m?2 h17??
?376 @BA18 TBA1I. wF?H
FB086I183A191 1@h10BIB:062?0 21xI1 83@0?@6@o ?b? G F0?8
I6k. 102G7B taIJ@?aIB
E = mc2
7
KU
F
H
`1S WkWZ[
xi
Z1] Q`WTWm [a V b 1b
KC
-=.-.-
p(x)
-=.-.=
:13@1;IIB IB 3`?0Bk
-=.-.D
S0G9626 3718B26 `GIA_66 -=.-.= 6 -=.-.D 62?H@ 1F
I6 6 @? x? :18?0kI13@6 G018I; B s@1 81T21xI1
76Jo A19FB
6k I102B76 90BF6?I@4 A1776I?B0I4 1F6IBA181 676 :01@6
81:171xI1 IB:0B87?I4 @. ?. ln p(x) = x . t@1 FB?@ n
0B8?I3@8
x2 = x21 + . . . + x2n = const.
p0i (xi )
+ 2xi = 0,
pi (x)
pi (xi ) = ki exi .
ki e
x2i
dx = 1,
A1I5B@?7oI1
p(x) =
n
(2 2 ) 2
Kc
x21 +...+x2n
22 .
-=.-.<
XF?3o ?3@o IBF 5?2 TBFG2B@o3;. E01`?3361IB7oI4a 013@ 15?Io
367oI1 TB8636@ 1@ @191 6T87?ABH@3; G01A6 6T 1:4@B 676 I?@.
n?5o I? 1 @12 5@1 6I`102B_6; :01:G3AB?@3; 2621 GJ?a. ^AB
x?2 :068?F?II4a :062?0 21x?@ h4@o :1I;@ 131TIBI I1...
I? A7B336`6_6018BI. { 0?TG7o@B@? 1I I? :1:BFB?@ 8 IGxIGH
;5?aAG I? 6I6_660G?@ 0BT24J7?I6a 8 1:0?F?7?II12 IB:0B8
7?I66 I? 1@A048B?@ 9106T1I@18. BA h4 ?b? 1FIB 6TH26IAB
6 @6J6IB.
>B 8481F -=.-.< 21xI1 321@0?@o 3 0BTI4k :1T6_6a. {
FBII12 37G5B? IB3 6I@?0?3G?@ 0BAG03 6I8B06BI@I13@6 I?5G8
3@86@?7oI13@6 :1 1@I1J?I6H A @?2 676 6I42 :0?1h0BT18BI6
;2. w3k1FI4a 0BT91810 @6:B 81TF?a3@8Ga 6 321@06 G3718?I.
E1F0BTG2?8BH@3; 2437?II4? 2BI6:G7;_66 IB A1@104? 1h
?A@ I? 0?B960G?@. mBA6? 81TF?a3@86; I? 2?I;Hb6? G0B8I?I6a
F86x?I6; @?k 676 6I4k `GIA_6a 0?J?I6a A06@65?3A6k TIB
5?I6a 6 @. :. :06FG2B@o 1h45I1 7?9A1. >1 :06 s@12 5B3@1
ABx?@3; 5@1 83? s@1 @0686B7oI1 6 I? 3@16@ 84?F?II191 ;a_B.
>B 3B212 x? F?7? GABTBI6? :0?1h0BT18BI6a IB A1@104? 1h
?A@ I? 0?B960G?@ FB?@ 15?Io 2I191 6I`102B_66 6 97B8IB;
:01h7?2B TBA7H5B?@3; 8 :0?1F17?I66 :?33626T2B. >1 :0BA@6
AB :1ABT48B?@ 5@1 s@1 ABA 0BT 371xI1 k1@; 83?91@1 I?1hk1
F621 37?F18B@o :013@12G :0B867G 15?0568Ba 6I8B06BI@I4?
:0?1h0BT18BI6; 6 8481F6 37?F3@86;.
w2?II1 8 s@12 6 TBA7H5B73; 3?A0?@ G3:?kB gBA38?77B B I?
8 F8Gk :137?FGHb6k 3@015ABk 8T;@6; 90BF6?I@18. g1xI1 F?0
xB@o :B06 5@1 hGFo TBFB5B :13@B87?IB 8 86F? ABA18B `GIA
_6; p(x) GF187?@810;HbB; F8G2 G37186;2 ?? h4
0?J67 ABxF4a @0?@6a 3@GF?I@ B :1F1h0B7 h4 p(x) ABxF4a
8@101a. ^71xI13@o 8 :13@BI18A? TBFB56. i F7; s@191 IGxI1
h471 TBFB@o3; 81:01312 @1 21xI1 356@B@o 6T8?3@I42 1@
I136@?7oI1 p(x)W. XF?3o h4 Gx? 7Hh1a 3@GF?I@ GABTB7 .
>1 @G@ 6 :0163k1F6@ 3h1a. ^A?:@6A I? 21x?@ TB3@B86@o 3?h;
FG2B@o FB7oJ?. 2G ABx?@3; 5@1 6T @BA1a 15?86FI1a 5?:Gk6
I65?91 I?7oT; 848?3@6.
:@6263@18 0BTG2??@3; I? 2?IoJ? 5?2 3A?:@6A18 I1 G
I6k F0G9B; h?FB. w2 I?6I@?0?3?I 63k1FI4a 81:013 1I6 k1@;@
:17G56@o 0?TG7o@B@ 6T I65?91.
mBA62 1h0BT12 G3:?k gBA38?77B 1:0?F?767B 1h4AI18?I
Kp
n+1
n+1
7?9A1 :0681F6@ A
uv
1 + uv
-=.D.C
. ?
n
X
k=1
1
n
= arctg
.
1 + k + k2
n+2
arctg
KK
+
3
-||
dx
I? 2?I;?@3; :1F F?a3@86?2 :0?1h0BT18BI6a
x = x0 u,
y = y 0 2u,
y,
y
-=.<.p
dx
x3
-|-
x2
y=
1 0
y.
k
0B8I?I6? @?:71:0181FI13@6
T
2T
=a
t
x2
d2 T
a dT
+
= 0.
d 2
2 d
(x2 x + 1)3
(x2 x)2
-|=
H3 (x) =
1
,
1x
H4 (x) =
x
,
x1
H5 (x) =
x1
.
x
-|D
H
k+1
-|c
y = 28x y xz,
8
z = z + xy.
3
-|p
"
' ;
$ &
"#
k+1
k+1
C(p)
x1 , . . . , xp
x1 = xp
-|K
ABA18B A1IA0?@I1
`GIA_6; f (x, ) . { 5B3@I13@6 8 :137?F18B
@?7oI13@6 , , . . . h6`G0AB_61II4k TIB5?I6a :B0B2?@0B
6 FBx? 8 5637?II12 1:63BI66 3B26k _6A718 C(p) 84;87;?@3;
IB7656? \ ZW`1X TQS hZ[2 U3ZTV QZV 5?91 F1 6337?F18BI6a
?a
9?IhBG2B I6A@1 I? 1x6FB7.
b? 1FIB GF686@?7oIB; TBA1I12?0I13@o W 1X QX 2 Wj WUS 3`
Q U3`TU3 y 3 . 376 8 -D.<.U 6T 3Gb?3@818BI6; _6A7B
X
37?FG?@
3Gb?3@818BI6?C(n) :6JG@ m n . B0A183A6a C(m)
G3@B
I1867 1hbGH TBA1I12?0I13@o
1
3 5 7 ... 3 2 5 2 7 2 ...
3 22 5 22 7 22 . . . 23 22 2 1.
--|
---
J I
I
SG2BH I? 1J6hG3o ?376 I65?91 I?
3ABxG.
KL M
1,
0,
"#)1 2 ,&+,
1,
k,
E17B9B; k = 2 p = 2q :17G5B?2
m
.
+
k
f (n)
f (n)
)+
(
+ # & .
"# ##
+
D
) +
+
"
&
.
&
" -
+
"
&
g(n) = fn (n) + 1.
n = 1
n=2
f1
f2
fn (n)
f (n)
f (n)
f (n)
, ,&
"#
+
, ,& +
"#
u(a, n) = 0,
n = f (a)
--<
<
-
(
. +
. +
+
(
.
.
. )
+
gI1x?3@81 IBT48B?@3; X 1U \X TW`Z[m ?376 3Gb?3@8G?@ s``?A
@68IB; :01_?FG0B F7; 84;3I?I6;
@191 :06IBF7?x6@ 676 I?@
:016T817oI4a s7?2?I@ s@12G 2I1x?3@8G.
gI1x?3@81 IBT48B?@3; X 1U \X TW `Z3 R 1X 1kWTS Wm [m ?376 3G
b?3@8G?@ s``?A@68IB; :01_?FG0B
F7; :137?F18B@?7oI191 :1
01xF?I6; ?91 s7?2?I@18 A1@10B; 8 :0?F?7? 635?0:48B?@ 83?
2I1x?3@81.
w2??@ 2?3@1 37?FGHb6a `GIFB2?I@B7oI4a 0?TG7o@B@.
1TV ` 1V 1U TW `Z3 R 1 1kWTS Wm 31a Z3 Z1 1U TW`Z31
\ g
\
X \X
X
X \X
m Z3Y 1TV `3 R3S 3Y WV 1S hZ[2 1S [2 kW T1S .
^k?2B F1ABTB@?7o3@8B :013@B. ^IB5B7B G3@BIB8768B?@3; 3:0B
8?F76813@o 37?FGHb?91 `BA@B m Z3Y 1TV `3 R3S 3Y WV 1S hZ[2
1U TW`Z3 V 3 y _Q W V 3S hU3 V 3 y _Qa U3 y _Q 1^
1S [2 kWT1S
S X \X
X
U TW `Z3 R 1 1kWTS Wm 3 Z1 V 3S hU3 a Z3 W a 9F? 1h1TIB5B?@
S
S
S
\X
X
F1:17I?I6? S @1 ?3@o 2I1x?3@81 :171x6@?7oI4k _?74k 56
3?7 A1@104? I? :06IBF7?xB@ S .
S1ABTB@?7o3@81 s@191 :0?F3@B87;?@ 31h1a I?371xI1? G:0Bx
I?I6?.SB7oI?aJ6a k1F 0B33GxF?I6a @BA18.EG3@o S , S , S , . . .
s``?A@68I1? :?0?5637?I6? 83?k 0?AG0368I1 :?0?5637?II4k
--U
1
--C
)
- . )
P (x1 , . . . , xk )
p(a, x1 , . . . , xk ) = a P (x1 , . . . , xk ) = 0
.
+
Q(a, x1 , . . . , xl ) = 0
--c
k=1
*
)
x(1 Q2 (a, x1 , . . . , xl ))
>
>
L"( Z([P(QN 6
"# &
--K
I6;
F63@06hG@68I4a TBA1I a(b + c) = ab + ac .
(ab) = a b , (a ) = a .
E06 s@12 A1I?5I1 0BT0?J6@o 81T8?F?I6? 8 3@?:?Io 6 :06 TB
:636 @1xF?3@8. jGFG@ 76 8 s@12 37G5B? F1ABTG?24 83? :0B
867oI4? @1xF?3@8BW :01h7?2B mB03A191.
E13@?:?II1 3@B71 ;3I1 5@1 s@1 15?Io @0GFIB; TBFB5B. w
@17oA1 7?@ 5?0?T =| 1IB h47B 0?J?IB 1@06_B@?7oI1. 67A6
IBJ?7 8?0I1? @1xF?3@81
a+b
a b
c c
b c
bc
-<.C.c
I?F1ABTG?21? 3 :121boH BA3612 A + -<.C.C.
{ @BA6k 36@GB_6;k ?3@?3@8?II1 81TI6AB?@ 31h7BTI :0631
?F6I6@o -<.C.c A A + -<.C.C 5@1h4 :17G56@o 83?@BA6 A1
I?5I4a hBT63. >1 Gx? I65?91 I? :17G5B?@3;. jB0o?0 0BTI11h
0BT6; 30?F3@8 :0?1F17?I 6 V 13X 1m [ ZQkWZQi V X Q]m Z3Y QV h^
Tj f[ TV 11a k1m _3UQ] QV 1S hTV `Qb
b? X1F6I 13@04a 81:013 ABA GFB?@3; F1ABTB@o I?F1ABTG?
213@o -<.C.cW {?Fo 21xI1 A1I3@B@6018B@o 5@1 ?b? I? :17G
56713o. >1 ABA 9B0BI@6018B@o 5@1 6 I? :17G56@3;W ABT48B
= [(1 + a)b + (1 + a + a2 )b ]a [(1 + a3 )a + (1 + a2 + a4 )a ]b ,
0
-=-
.
? , # %
-==
.
?
H
-
gBA362676BI {171J6I
BA G3@01?I 260 :1k1x? I6A@1 I? TIB?@ I1 I?A1@104? F?
7BH@ 86F... E137?FI?? 367oI1 TB:G@48B?@ 36@GB_6H TB@1 FB?@
0Bh1@G h17oJ1a B0266 G5?I4k.
^B2B; h17oJB; TB9BFAB 13213B @BaIB h?3A1I?5I13@6. @1
@BA 3ABTB@o TB 9106T1I@12W mBA191 01FB 81:013B26 83? :?
0?h17?76 8 @1a 676 6I1a 2?0? I1 I6A@1 I? 84TF1018?7 :17I1
3@oH. E1s@12G h17oJ6I3@81 :0?F:156@B?@ 1:?0?@o3; IB taI
J@?aIB. S?3AB@o ?91 @?106; 1@I136@?7oI13@6 83? 1h;3I;?@.
-=D
-=<
D
A
nB3321@062 :013@1a :062?0. ^8?@ 6T A 8 B :06k1F6@ TB
80?2; 32. 063. -D.-
4t =
h
.
c
4t =
x2 + h2
.
c
-U.=.-
9F? = v . 376 @?:?0o 8 A 6 B 0B3:171x6@o T?0AB7B 6 TB
c
3@B86@o `1@1I
38?@B h?9B@o @GFB3HFB :17G5B@3; 5B34 31
-=U
4t0 =
4t
,
(1 2 )
-U.=.=
38;T48BHb6? A110F6IB@4 @15A6 {x, y, z, t} 8 6I?0_6B7oI1a 36
3@?2? 3 A110F6IB@B26 s@1a x? @15A6 8 363@?2? F86xG
b?a3; K1@I136@?7oI1 K 31 3A1013@oH v 8F17o 136 xK.
wT -U.=.= 84@?AB?@ IB:062?0
x0
t0 +
x + vt
c
x= p
, y = y0 , z = z 0, t = p
,
2
1
1 2
0
4x0 =
p
1 2 4x,
-=C
-=c
p=
E
,
c
hbB; @?106; 1@I136@?7oI13@6 m 3183?2 F0G9B; J@G
AB. XF?3o taIJ@?aI ?F6I1765I4a
B8@10 B @?106; ABA 2I1
96? 356@BH@ 367oI1 1:?0?xB?@ 381? 80?2;. E1 s@1a :0656I?
;3I1? F?71 1IB IGxIB 8 13I18I12 `6T6AB2 :17G5BHb62 TB0
:7B@G TB 1k0BIG h?0?918.
)
+
)
) ;
+
+
(
-
+
{?0I?23; A m. m?106; 01F67B3o 6T TB9BFA6. E15?2G 318
:BFBH@ 6I?0@IB; 6 90B86@B_61IIB; 2B334W { @0?@o?2 TBA1I?
>oH@1IB
-U.D.<
mw = F,
: .
)
2
-=K
A
? :
-
;
$ ,&
#
( "
.
)
<
+
:
BA@ 318:BF?I6; 90B86@B_61II191 TB0;FB 3 A1s``6_6?I
@12 6I?0_66 A1I?5I1 GF686@?7?I 6 h471 ;3I1 5@1 1I 386F?
@?7o3@8G?@ 1 ABA1a@1 97Gh6II1a 38;T6 0BTI101FI4k ;87?I6a.
>1 I6A12G 8 91718G I? :06k1F671 k1@; h4 I?5@1 :0B8F1:1F1h
I1? 8 AB5?3@8? 1h;3I?I6;.
taIJ@?aI 318?0J67 9?I6B7oI4a :01048 TB2?I68 90B86
@B_6H 6 I?6I?0_6B7oI4? 3674 63A0687?I6?2 :013@0BI3@8B.
{T97;F IB {3?7?IIGH 0BF6AB7oI1 6T2?I673;. ^@B71 :06845
I42 0B33GxFB@o 1 TB2AIG@4k 21F?7;k {3?7?II1a @6:B @0?k
2?0I1a 3`?04 676 @10B. {3A174kIG763o 2B@?2B@65?3A6? TB
91@18A6 I?76I?aI4k 9?12?@06a. {1TI6A71 1hJ60I1? :17? F7;
6337?F18BI6a.
1?A@1 G@8?0xFB?@ 5@1 m B I?A1@104? F1hB87;H@ 6
^m 3B2B; h17oJB; 1J6hAB =|91 8?AB. XF?3o I? 2?3@1 3:1
06@o. >1 FBx? ?376 1J6hAB @1 1IB 3?a5B3 @BA 1@J76`18BIB
5@1 7G5J? 83;A1a :0B8F4. @12G x? ?b? I?6T8?3@I1 1@ 5?91
h17oJ? :17oT4. g1F?7o B@12B n?T?0`10FB IB:062?0 :01@6
810?568JB; 83?2 24376242 6 I?24376242 TBA1IB2 `6T6A6
3490B7B 8 381? 80?2; A17133B7oIGH :171x6@?7oIGH 017o.
A
-D|
H
H
>oH@1I G3@BI1868J6a 8 381? 80?2; 817I18GH :0601FG 38?@B 8
TB2?5B@?7oI4k 1:4@Bk :1 6I@?0`?0?I_66 6 F6`0BA_66 :1@12
I?1x6FBII1 84F86IG7 A10:G3AG7;0IGH @?106H. S?3AB@o 38?@
s@1 :1@1A 5B3@6_.
?0?T F8?3@6 3 76JI62 7?@ F? j01a7o ABA h4 1@8?5B; IB
GFB0 A1I3@B@6018B7 5@1 5B3@6_4 @6:B s7?A@01IB s@1 817
I4. {481F h47 5?0?35G0 0BF6AB7?I 5@1h4 30BTG 3197B36@o3;
I1...
wTG5?I6? 26A01260B 8T108B71 :0?F3@B87?I6; A7B3365?3A1a
`6T6A6. g1F?7o B@12B n?T?0`10FB :1 @6:G 317I?5I1a 363@?
24 0GkIG7B :1F 90GT12 :01@6810?56a. {0BbBHb6?3; 81A0G9
;F0B s7?A@01I4 F17xI4 h476 h4 I?:0?048I1 6T7G5B@o 6 @?
0;; sI?096H :BFB@o IB ;F01. g1F?7o j10B A1?ABA TB7B@B7B
:010?k6 I1 h17oJ? :1k1F67B IB 3:631A 5GF?3. @ s7?2?I@B0
I4k 5B3@6_ 13@B763o 1FI6 IBT8BI6;. t7?A@01I 6T s7?A@06
5?3A6 TB0;x?II191 JB06AB :0?80B@673; 8 `6A_6H 1h;TBI
IGH :0?h48B@o 8 I?:1I;@I4k 313@1;I6;k 6 318?0JB@o ABA6?@1
A8BI@184? 3AB5A6. 1015? 91810; I6 ;3I13@6 I6 _?2?I@60G
Hb?91 IB5B7B.
w 81@ A19FB F? j01a7o TB9181067 1 817IBk 2B@?066 8 81T
FGk? :18637B ?3@?3@8?IIB; B331_6B_6;. XBA0?:7?IIB; 3@0GIB
A17?h7?@3; 3 1:0?F?7?II426 5B3@1@B26. S63A0?@I4? 3:?A@04
:01I6T48BH@ 83H @?106H A17?hBI6a. >? @BA18B 76 :0601FB
F63A0?@I13@6 6T7G5?I6; B@12BW
0?F6I9?0 :1F1h0B7 -K=< 9. G0B8I?I6? A17?hBI6a A1@1
01? h4 3197B31848B713o 3 sA3:?062?I@B7oI426 FBII426. @1
A17?h7?@3; h471 I?;3I1 :1s@12G 36? F?;I6? I6A@1 8A7H5B;
3B2191 0?F6I9?0B 83?0o?T I? 813:06I62B7. E1@12 :1:01h1
8B76 6 8@;IG763o. @1 A17?h7?@3; F1 36k :10 I?;3I1 I1 `1AG3
0Bh1@B?@. {1:013 1 :0601F? A17?hBI6a TBA04@ 817IB26 8?01
;@I13@6. 3@B@6 B8@106@?@ @?1066 Gx? @BA 8?76A 5@1 s@6
817I4 8?01;@I13@6 21xI1 8:17I? TB2?I6@o sA868B7?I@I1a
`102G76018A1a A17?h7?@3; I?:1I;@I1 5@1. 1015? 91810;
:01_?33 TB8?0J673; :1 E7BIAG A1@104a 9181067 5@1 IBG5IB;
63@6IB @10x?3@8G?@ :1 2?0? @191 ABA 84260BH@ ?? :01@68I6
A6. 6I6A h4 @G@ F1hB867 5@1 :1 2?0? @191 @10x?3@8G?@ I?
F
-D=
@17oA1 63@6IB.
*
&
"# # #
)
)
)
. > +
+
& *
"#
##
+
E = E0 ei(tkr) ,
r = {x, y, z}
( = 2) k
,&
"# #
&
"# # #
$&
"# #
) .
+ ,&
"# #
+ ,&
"# #
i
(r, t) = 0 e ~ (Etpr) ,
E = ~,
p = k~,
2
*
&
"# #
D
"# # &
^:G3@623; 3 I?h?3 IB X?27H. :0?F?762 3A1013@o 0B3:01
3@0BI?I6; 62:G7o3B 3xB@6; 8F17o 3@?0xI; 3 3?5?I6?2c S 063.
-<.-. EG3@o 8 62:G7o3? FB87?I6? G8?765?I1 IB 4P B :71@
I13@o IB 4 . XB 80?2; 4t 5?0?T S :01aF?@ 2B33B
8?b?3@8B
.
4m = 4Sc4t
-DD
i
= E,
t
~
i~
=
t
2m
=E
2
2
2
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2
^67B F?a3@8GHbB; IB :71bBFAG S 15?86FI1 F = 4P S .
wT2?I?I6? A1765?3@8B F86x?I6; 0B8I1
62:G7o3G 3674 @. ?.
1@AGFB
4mc = F 4t
4Sc2 4t = 4P S4t,
-C.=.U
-
=
+ :
)
, & )
"#
)
, &
"#
c=
c=
E/
PV =
P = RT
dP
.
d
m
RT,
dP = RT = P
d
P
.
"#
, %&
- , %&
"#
"# , &
c=
-D<
+
g?xFG :01562 A 8481FG `102G74 -C.=.U 21xI1 h471
h4 :0?F;86@o 2I191 :0?@?IT6a IB56IB; 3 I?1:0?F?7?II13@6
3B2191 :1I;@6; 3A1013@6 c . >B:062?0 `102B 62:G7o3B 21x?@
TB863?@o 1@ t 6 @19FB I?:1I;@I1
5@1 @BA1? . >1 24 83? s@1
13@B87;?2 TB ABF012 @?2 h17?? 5@1 8 :?0812c :06h76x?I66
0?TG7o@B@4 8?0I4.
+ #
*
#
+
h0B@62 @?:?0o 8I62BI6? IB F0G9GH 3@101IG F?7B. 376
3@?0x?Io 0B3:171x?I 8F17o 136 x @1 3@?:?Io 3xB@6; u(x, t) 8
1hb?2 37G5B? hGF?@ `GIA_6?a F8Gk :?0?2?II4k. >BaF?2 F6`
`?0?I_6B7oI1? G0B8I?I6?A1@1012G GF187?@810;?@ u(x, t) .nB3
321@062 F8B 3?5?I6; x 6 x + 4x 063. -<.= B @BAx? TBA7H
5?II4a 2?xFG I626 1h?2
. ^67B F?a3@8GHbB;
4V = S4x
P/ = const
c=
P/
p
x
x+ x
IB 3?5?I6? x 0B8IB
kS
u
,
x x
x+4x
-DU
x2
-C.=.K
9F? c = pk/ 3A1013@o 817I4 ?376 918106@o 3 IB@;xA1a
G3A10?I6?.
u/t
.
2u
2u
= c2 2 ,
2
t
x
2u
= c2
t2
2u
2u
2u
+
+
2
2
x
y
z 2
S7; 8481FB G0B8I?I6; 0B3:013@0BI?I6; @?:7B h17oJGH 5B3@o
0B33GxF?I6a :0?F4FGb?91 0BTF?7B 21xI1 13@B86@o h?T 6T2?
I?I6a. {2?3@1 -C.=.K :17G5B?@3;
T
T
=a
,
-C.D.-|
t
x
9F? T (x, t) @?2:?0B@G0B ABA `GIA_6; x 6 t . iIB71912 3674
-C.=.p 8 FBII12 37G5B? hGF?@ A1765?3@81 @?:7B
F
Q = kS
2T
4x,
x2
T
4t,
t
(
"
&
(
"
&
+
& )
"
?
) )
" & .
+
)
+
) ) ) &
)
"
)
.
+ .
+ )
+
+ ?
#
+
)
+
+ &
"
+
=
: )
+
&
"# ##
) .
?
<
-Dc
F
KL M
F = k z
F =0
z = 0
KL LM
F =
k
z
I
= k
k
m
x = kx
L
q=
q
,
C
q/C
cos t
cos t
i sin t
eit
(e
it 0
) = ie
it
+
*
* &
+
## +
"#
+ .
+
+
&
" &
"#
+##
-
+ ?
eit
ei
ei(n+1) 1 it
e .
i
e
1
-
*
=
S = Re()
XB:6J?2 G0B8I?I6? 0?F6I9?0B -C.-.< F7; 1FI12?0I191 37G
5B;
i~
=
.
-C.U.-=
t
2m x
g1xI1 3ABTB@o 5@1 -C.U.-= 8 ABA12@1 32437? 848?F?I1 6T
:0?F:171x?I6; 1 86F? 817I181a `GIA_66 -C.-.=.m?:?0o ?3@?
3@8?II1 :1321@0?@o ABA6? `GIA_66 GF187?@810;H@ -C.U.-=.
ABT48B?@3; 6k 2I191 @1 ?3@o h17oJ? 5?2 TBFG248B713o.
+
N
-Dp
iEt/~
iEt/~
= a sin(kx + b),
2mE
k=
.
~
2ml
B TIB56@ 6 5B3@1@ 8 367G -C.-.D.
>?IB2I191 371xI?? 1:0?F?7;?@3; F63A0?@I4a 3:?A@0 B@1
2B 81F101FB. ^11@8?@3@86? sA3:?062?I@B7oI42 FBII42 TB24
AB?@ A0G9 6 @?106; :17G5B?@ 1`6_6B7oI4a 3@B@G3 ABA 0Bh1
@13:131hI4a 6I3@0G2?I@. Hh6@?76 6I@?0:0?@B_6a :06FG24
8BH@ 26`4 6 :6JG@ G5?hI6A6.
t@1 3ABTBI1 1@IHFo I? 8 GA10 `6T6AB2 A1@104? IB 3B212
F?7? TB37Gx68BH@ 813k6b?I6;. 7B3365?3A6a 2B@?2B@6A IB
6k 2?3@? :101kG h4 I? 84FG2B7 hGFG56 :18;TBI 6I42 G3@B
812. 376 :1321@0?@o IB s3A6T A101@A1a _?:15A6 8?FGb?a
1@ -C.-.= A -C.U.-U @1 7196AG TF?3o 3:131hI4 0B3321@0?@o
+ +
n
2 2
-DK
-<|
H I
J J
E
{ G5?hI6ABk :1 9BT181a F6IB26A? 1 @BA12 :63BI1 I? h471.
E06J713o h0B@o3; TB :?01. wI@?0?3I1 5@1 :06 s@12 I6A12G
8 91718G I? :06J71 6337?F18B@o 1h@?ABI6? 9BT1842 :1@1A12
I? @1 5@1 :01`67; 3B217?@B I1 FBx? h0?8IB. ^IB5B7B 8T;76
:013@?aJGH G:0G91 TBA0?:7?IIGH :7B3@6IAG 8 9BT1812 :1@1
A? TB:63B76 G0B8I?I6; 6 F1791 :01h18B76 6 1J6hB763o :1AB
I? :1a2B76 s``?A@ IBT8BII4a :1@12 `7B@@?012.
{4;3I6713o 5@1 :06 1:0?F?7?II4k 311@I1J?I6;k :B0B
2?@018 3A1013@o G:0G913@o 0BT2?04 81TI6AB?@ 131h191 01FB
F6IB265?3AB; I?G3@1a56813@o 8T048I191 kB0BA@?0B. {:137?F
3@866 0BTG2??@3; h471 2I191 F0G96k 6337?F18BI6aF633?0@B
_6a sA3:?062?I@18 8 Bs01F6IB265?3A6k @0GhBk I1 @B 3B2B;
:?08B; TBFB5B 3 :0;21G917oI1a :7B3@6IA1a 3490B7B 83?@BA6
0?JBHbGH 017o 83A048 3G@o ;87?I6; 6 ?91 AB5?3@8?II4? TB
A1I12?0I13@6.
w90GJ?5I4? TBFB56 FBH@ 1@8?@4 :06 TB2Bk? FBx? IB {3?7?I
IGH. /Bhh7 6337?F18B8J6a A0B3I1? 32?b?I6? G3@BI1867
0BTh?9BI6? 9B7BA@6A 31 3A1013@oH v :01:10_61IB7oI1a 0B3
3@1;I6H r F1 _?I@0B 0BTh?9BI6;
v = Hr,
-c.=.-
9F? H :13@1;IIB; /Bhh7B.
XB ABF012 @?1066 0B3J60;Hb?a3; {3?7?II1a 2I1962 :0?F
3@B87;?@3; 15?Io 371xIB; 2B@?2B@6AB. BA h4 311h0BTI1 90BI
F61TI13@6 0?JB?21a TBFB56... m?2 I? 2?I?? 1@8?@4 IB 2I196?
-<=
O
-c.=.D
2
R
84@?AB?@ 37?FGHb??. 376 A1I3@BI@B 8 -c.=.D h17oJ? | @1
0B3J60?I6? hGF?@ :01F17xB@o3; h?3A1I?5I1
R
2
R
2
R
2
vR
= 2
M
+ k,
R
k=
const
,
4m
R
1:0?F?7;?@ :190BI65IGH 36@GB_6H.E1F3@B87;;
8 -c.=.< v =
6
= HR
2
R
:17G5B?2
4 3
R ,
3
8
2
2
R H
= 0,
3
M=
3H 2
,
8
-<D
-c.=.U
v =
= 2 ,
-c.=.C
dt
R
676 RdR = 2dt 5@1 :137? 6I@?906018BI6; 1@ 0 F1 R 6
1@ 0 F1 t FB?@
p
2
R = 2 t.
-c.=.c
3
n?JB; @?:?0o 3182?3@I1 -c.=.C -c.=.c 6 dR = HR :17G5B
dt
?2 81T0B3@ {3?7?II1a
R
3
2
7?@ .
{ 6T71x?II12 GF686@?7?I A1I@0B3@ 2?xFG 371xI13@oH TB
FB56 6 :013@1@1a 21F?76. t7?2?I@B0I4a F1 IB68I13@6 :1Fk1F
:1T817;?@ ABA I6 3@0BII1 918106@o 1 31@810?I66 260B I?
8:BFB; 8 367oI4? :01@6810?56; 3 3180?2?II1a A13217196?a.
j6h76; 0BTG2??@3; 13@B?@3; 8I? A1IAG0?I_66.
t=
2
1010
3H
:01b?II4? 21F?76 1h45I1 813:06I62BH@3; ABA 80?2?IIB;
G3@G:AB 1h3@1;@?7o3@8B2.E1F0BTG2?8BH@3; :?FB91965?3A6? _?
76 6 ;A1h4 :0?F:17B9B?@3; 5@1 IB 37?FGHb?2 s@B:? F1 A1@1
0191 I6A19FB I? F1k1F6@ hGF?@ 0B3321@0?IB IB3@1;bB; :13@B
I18AB TBFB56 31 83?26 :1F01hI13@;26.
>B 3B212 F?7? s@1@ 37?FGHb6a s@B: 8 h17oJ6I3@8? 37G
5B?8 I? IGx?I 6 FBx? 80?F?I 6h1 IB:G3AB?@ @G2BI.
-<<
.
8h
,
g
"#
%$ E&
&
"
+
*
&
"
+
%$ E&
"#
"
&
+
E013@?aJB; F6IB265?3AB; 21F?7o k6bI6A l x?0@8B 1:6
348B?@3; 363@?21a F6``?0?I_6B7oI4k G0B8I?I6a
x = ( y) x,
-c.D.K
y = (x ) y,
9F? x y 311@8?@3@8?II1 5637?II13@6 x?0@8 6 k6bI6A18
817A18. ^A1013@o x :01:10_61IB7oIB x I1 A1s``6
18?_ 6:01:10_61IB7oI13@6
_6?I@
@?2 2?IoJ? 5?2 h17oJ?
y
817A18. w IB1h101@ A1s``6_6?I@
013@B :1:G7;_66 k6b
x
I6A18 @?2 h17oJ? 5?2 h17oJ? 18?_.
g1F?7o 8 TIB56@?7oI1a 3@?:?I6 G3718IB 6 :06h76T6@?7o
IB I1 1IB 1@0BxB?@ 0?B7oI4? s``?A@4. iIB76T :1ABT48B?@
5@1 0?J?I6; -c.D.K 62?H@ A17?hB@?7oI4a kB0BA@?0 363@?2B
F86x?@3; :1 TB2AIG@42
A06842 @6:B s776:318 063. -.=. >B
:0BA@6A? @BA191 310@B A17?hBI6; F?a3@86@?7oI1 62?H@ 2?3@1.
SB7??. E0?F3@B862 5@1 8 @15A? A :016T81F6@3; 1@3@0?7 817
A18 6 363@?2B :?0?:04968B?@ 8 @15AG B .SB7oI?aJ?? F86x?I6?
hGF?@ :0163k1F6@o :1 s776:3G 2?IoJ?91
0BT2?0B 5@1 6I@G6
@68I1 1x6FB?21. m?:?0o G2?IoJ62 5637?II13@o 817A18 8 @15
A? C . ^63@?2B :?0?aF?@ 8 D 6 hGF?@ F869B@o3; :1 h17oJ?2G
s776:3G. i2:76@GFB A17?hBI6a G8?7656@3;. t@1 Gx? :01@681
0?56@ 6I@G6_66 I1 :0BA@6AB :1F@8?0xFB?@ @BA191 01FB 2?@B
210`1T4. {4h10 212?I@B 1@3@0?7B 1ABT48B?@3; 3Gb?3@8?II1
876;?@ IB :18?F?I6? 363@?24.
-<U
l=v
3%
1,5%
3%
+
.
+ )
*
+
)
>
+
(
.
)
(
.
+
g1xI1 76 F8B @?7B 0BTI4k @?2:?0B@G0 :068?3@6 8 A1I@BA@
@BA62 1h0BT12 5@1h4 1I6 1h2?I;763o @?2:?0B@G0B26W gI1
962 81:013 :1ABx?@3; I?7?:42 6h1 k101J1 6T8?3@I1 5@1 :06
A1I@BA@? @?:71 :?0?k1F6@ 1@ 910;5?91 @?7B A k171FI12G. 19FB
@?2:?0B@G04 30B8I68BH@3; :01_?33 :0?A0BbB?@3; 6 IB3@G:B
?@ 0B8I18?36?. m?2 I? 2?I?? :0B867oI4a 1@8?@ R3S 3Y W^
V 1S hZ[ 4 .
XBFB5G 0?JB?@ F6IB265?3A6a A1I@BA@. g4 I? hGF?2 FB
8B@o @15I191 0?J?I6;.nB3321@062 690GJ?5IGH 21F?7o.EG3@o
62??@3; F8B @?7B ABxF1? 6T A1@104k 313@16@ 6T F8Gk :1
7186I1A A = {A A, AB} B = {B , B } . m?:71:?0?FB5B 2?xFG
:17186IAB26 1FI191 @?7B 15?Io 2?F7?IIB; 2?xFG A B
h43@0B;.
P
A1
A2
B1
B2
A o
-
&
"
Q
-<C
A1
A2
B2
B1
9
A2
B2
9
A1 , B1 75 ,
A2 , B2 25 .
A1 50 , A2 25
B1 75 , B2 50 .
A1
B1
A2
B2
o 9
>
+
) +
.
+
+
. +
D
+ =
; = )
R2 r 2
-<p
,
+
.
+
* +
.
T
m g l
rm g l
l
g
T =k
l
,
g
)
+
?
+
+
"
&
"
& ( +
% &
"# #
) ) )
) )
"#% #&
E, , m, , l, v,
v2
,
E
,
E
m
,
l3
m
,
E l3
+
-
E
% &
"# ##
% &
"# ##
+
(
&
"
)
v=
-<K
g
l
g
=
l
$ )
(
. > &
"
D ##
&
" ) :
&
"
) *
-
" &
*
?
"
&
wi
ki
wi
wi
ki
ki
wi
wi
ki
B
A B
<
+
-U|
J H
)
) ;
)
)
)
) +
)
)
) )
)
; ,,
) &
+
"
+
)
+
#
xX
X Y X Y X\Y
Y
X
X Y
R2
R3
Rn
i2 = 1
z = x + iy
z = r(cos + i sin )
x = {x1 , . . . , xn }
xi
xy x y
x y
df (x)
dx
f (x)
f 0 (x)
x0 (t)
u
x
f (x)
f (x)
f
f
,...,
x1
xn
+
x
f (x)
f (x)
-U-