05 - Chapter05

Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts
5
5.1
PRELIMINARY DESIGN/LAYOUT OF BRIDGES AND CULVERTS

GENERAL
Preliminary bridge design is a part of the road design. The site for a bridge is usually governed by engineering, economic, social, environmental, aesthetic and safety considerations. The best preliminary bridge layout is not always the optimized solution. Because many factors are contradictory, the material, labor, and construction prices may vary from the time of preliminary design to actual construction. Also competition between bidders may result in completely new layouts. Sometimes bidders have their own falsework, moulding formwork, building methods and machines, which are not anticipated by ERA. This has to be considered at the bidding procedure. Subsequent to the Planning Stage (see Chapter 4: Planning, Feasibility, and Site Investigation), the alignment of the road should have been selected from the different proposed alternatives. The bridge designer may then propose the stations and approximate size of the footings for a more detailed geotechnical survey. Then the type and approximate depth of foundation shall be selected. The layout will begin with an estimation of possible loads, such as traffic loads, earth pressure, earthquake loads, temperature movements, etc. (see Chapter 3: Load Requirements). The second step will be to consider in what way these loads affect the bridge. Then, with the result from the soil investigation and in cooperation with the geotechnical surveyor, the static system can be selected. Once the bridge layout has been determined, a cost estimation should be made and compared with that from the planning stage. The selected bridge type should then be evaluated in terms of economics, aesthetics, constructability, maintenance, and environment. The bridge is normally shown on a layout drawing with plan, elevation and section. The main dimensions should be given. Other necessary technical information shall be given in the Preliminary Design Specification (PDS) for the particular bridge (see Chapter 16: Calculations, Drawings, and Specifications). 5.2 BASIC INFORMATION
5.2.1 TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP For the preparing of the Preliminary Design Drawings, the part of the road plan covering the bridge site should be reproduced at scale 1:100 or 1:250. It should include levels with contours at a one-meter interval from the field survey. It should also show:
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Proposed roadway including stations. The waterlines, and rivers with direction of flow indicated. Direction of north and if possible the coordinates. Islands or rock outcrops in the waterway. Name of the streams and of the road Other structures, which may affect the bridge such as buildings, walls, adjacent roads, railways, electric power and telephone posts and drainage channels/ditches. Placement, levels and dimensions for ducts and cables. 5.2.2 SURVEYING, BENCHMARKS, AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER DEPTHS Normally the ground at the bridge site should be surveyed along the road centerline, at 25 m increments, up to at least 20 m left and right from the alignment with 5 meters interval. All break points shall be surveyed. At larger bridges this should be modified according to the bridge designer. The length of the bridge survey should cover at least 20 m beyond the highwater-mark (HWM), or 2 m vertically above the HWM. At rivers the leveling should include profile and cross sections of the river according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Hydrologic Survey, Section 4.4: Data on streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands. The skew angle of the main stream should be indicated to analyze possible erosion problems. In rivers with deposits of silty loose material, the underlying harder strata should be measured if possible. The water level at the time of survey shall be indicated to compare it with the theoretically calculated levels determined as per the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology. Visible traces of high water marks shall be surveyed and indicated. A benchmark should be positioned as close to the bridge as possible. It shall however be placed sufficiently far from the site such that it will remain undamaged during and after the construction work. The ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Survey Requirements, Section 4.7: Benchmarks gives an example of a benchmark. (figure 4.1). At large rivers there should be one benchmark on each shore above the high-water mark. The benchmark shall be described on the Preliminary Design Drawing. If a local level system is used it shall be thoroughly described, and if possible tied to either the BMP, BMS or BMT Trigonometrical Stations of the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (see ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Survey Requirements, Section 4.5: Field Surveys). Then the level for the calculation of the free board clearance can be considered. Coordinates for the plan of bridge should if possible be according to the 1000 m Universal Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM Zone 36) or any other current system approved by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
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5.2.3 RIVER DATA To decide upon the placement of piers, span length and clearance height, as well as determining needs for realignment of the river and protection against scour/erosion, river data is required. The following information if appropriate should be given on the preliminary sketch: River basin (discharge area) and area of lakes in km2 (square kilometers). Water flow quantities in m3/s (The statistical highest high water flow every 100 years, design water flow, medium water flow, lowest low water flow and if possible also the normal high-water flow and normal low water flow). The elevations of important areas (fields, etc) upstream the proposed bridge site. Cross section of the waterway including river beds at least to 2-m above the high-water mark. Collecting of opening dimensions and levels of adjacent bridges. Collection of data from adjacent irrigation projects/channels. Sources of this information include the National Meteorological Services Agency, the Ethiopian Mapping Agency, Water Power stations, and the Ministry of Water Resources. 5.2.4 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS For all bridge types, at least two soil investigation points for each pier, abutment or spread footing should be made. In depth the borings shall be at least 3.0 m below the anticipated foundation level or the lower side of the footing. Settlement calculations on footings, in friction soil or over consolidated clay, should normally be made to the depth of 4 times the effective width of the footing. See the ERA Soils and Materials Investigation Manual-2002 for details. 5.2.5 BRIDGE REFERENCE NUMBER Every bridge in Ethiopia is given a unique bridge reference number associated with the road number (see ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 16: Appendices, Appendix A: Classification and Description of Roads) which can be obtained from the Bridge Branch of the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA). All drawings should refer to that number, i.e. road number - "bridge number" drawing number (A2-45-6). 5.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS Other information to be collected in an early stage is: Type of roadway, type of ditch, typical section, traffic flow and velocity. Clearance height and width requirements Aesthetical (architectural) requirements Environmental requirements Type of curbing
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5.3
Type of railings especially if a railing between the roadway and the walkway is to be used. Existing and planned cables and ducts Material to be utilized for bridge slopes. This will give the maximum slope inclinations, which in turn can give the total length of the bridge. GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
For geometric requirements, refer to Chapter 2: General Requirements. 5.4 LOAD ASSUMPTIONS
For load assumptions, including design vehicle load, traffic load, accidental loads and other loads, see Chapter 2: General Requirements. 5.5 FOUNDATIONS
5.5.1 GENERAL The most suitable way of founding a bridge will be determined from the geotechnical survey in cooperation with the geotechnical engineer. The foundations and their levels are dependent upon: Soil conditions, given the coefficients to calculate the bearing capacity of the soil, stability and settlement. Groundwater level or water level. Bridge type. Embankments of the adjacent road and the founding of them. Construction method. Proximity to existing structures. The selection of foundation type and level depends heavily upon the impact of underground conditions as indicated by the results of the soil investigation. The demands on the founding of bridges and access road embankments include a sufficient safety factor and minimal settlement in order to achieve a maintenance-free and long-life structure. During bridge design, stability and settlement should always be investigated. Foundations on rock will usually provide the simplest and most economically favorable solution, since the size of the footing will be less than that on soil. If the rock is not visible, investigations should be made in all four corners of the footing. Sometimes investigation pits are preferred. Bridges should not be placed on loose rock or sloping rock. It is recommended in such case to remove loose rock and to level the rock surface by blasting or other rock excavation and thereafter place the footing on compacted fill.
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If the soil consists of thick layers of clay or loose silt, investigations may indicate that the soil strata are not able to carry the load of the footing. If such layers are less than 3-4 m in thickness, it is advisable to remove the layers and exchange them with compacted stonefill. For conditions worse than this, piling is advisable. Regarding longitudinal settlement, the calculated difference in settlement between two supports should preferably not exceed 1/500 of the span length. Sometimes the transversal settlement also has to be considered in the pre-design stage. The construction method also affects the selection of foundation type. Temporary sheet piling shall be needed to achieve a certain foundation type or to build foundations close to existing structures such as railways. Generally the construction method should be considered before deciding upon foundation types, the placing of the piers, and levels. 5.5.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS ON ROCK The rock should usually be as horizontal as possible. Where this is not the case, it should be blasted to achieve a horizontal plane. For sloping rock along a pier it shall be advantageous to blast the rock in steps similar to a staircase. A footing directly on rock will result in a very stiff support. In some cases it shall be advantageous to place the footing on 0.5 m compacted gravel fill in order to have a more elastic founding. This applies especially to open frame structures with short legs/frontwalls. It is often not possible to give an exact level of the bottom of the foundation on rocks. Therefore often the level of the upper side of the footing is given on the Preliminary Layout Drawing 5.5.3 SPREAD FOOTING ON SOIL The foundation level is dependent on soil bearing capacity, settlement, scour/erosion and the method of construction. Normally the bottom of the footing shall be given on the Preliminary Layout Drawing. It has proved practical to extend the footing 0.5 m at concrete piers and 0.3 m at masonry piers as a cantilever from the face of the pier and 0.3 m at the sides for both types. At work inside sheet piling it shall be necessary to increase these dimensions. If existing structures are close to the footing or if the soil is very poor, it shall be necessary to make a rough calculation of the size of the footing before it is drawn on the Preliminary Layout Drawing. In case of cohesive type soil or very soft friction soil, the footing should be placed on a bed of at least 0.3 m compacted gravel fill. If the soil is very soft it is sometimes suitable to compact the soil in a several meters thick layer with a heavy falling weight (deep compaction) combined with normal surface compaction. The foundation level shall be raised
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several meters above the water level, as a foundation level above the water is often cheaper than under the water. If the water surface is close to the foundation level, consideration should be given whether it is possible to lower the groundwater level temporarily by pumping to some 0.5 m under the bottom of the footing. If the foundation level is less than 2 m under the water level it shall be advantageous to cast the footing above the water. This can be accomplished using watertight sheet piling and an underwater cast concrete slab heavy enough to resist the buoyancy when the water inside the piling is pumped dry, before casting the footing itself. 5.5.4 FOOTINGS ON COMPACTED FILL Sometimes it shall be suitable to raise the footing above the hard soil layer. This consists of excavating the soft material and replacing it with compacted well-graded stone fill. The stone size should preferably be 0 - 100 mm (d50 70 mm). In that case intensive compaction should be made in 0.3-0.6 m thick horizontal layers. Figure 5-1 below shows the normal method of constructing a fill with side supports made out of quarried stones or similar.
Distances in meters Figure 5-1 Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing
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5.5.5 PILE FOUNDATIONS Piling should be considered when footings cannot be founded on rock, stiff cohesive, or granular foundation material at a reasonable expense. At locations where soil conditions would normally permit the use of spread footings, but the potential for erosion exists, piles shall be used as a protection against scour. Piling can be made either with in situ bored piles or with prefabricated (prefab) RC piles. A typical prefab concrete pile with the dimensions 290x290 mm reinforced with 416 bars may typically carry 450 - 600 kN in the service limit state. If the soil investigation shows sulfuric soils, it should be indicated on the Preliminary Design Drawing that the concrete cover of the prefab piles should be at least 45 mm. Cast-in-place concrete piles include piles cast in driven steel shells that remain in place and piles cast in unlined drilled holes or shafts. Should the soil investigation show many boulders in the soil, steel piles should be considered. In some cases with very deep water it shall be suitable to use RC filled steel pipes with a diameter of 0.6 m. Wooden piles should normally be avoided due to deterioration and insect problems. The soil investigation report must clearly indicate: if the piles are to be of end bearing type or skin friction type (the latter used where the hard soil strata is deeper than some 30 m), expected overall length of piles, the grade of difficulty to perform the piling, especially in water, necessary soil parameters for the design Pile foundations with simultaneous large horizontal load and small vertical load such as retaining walls, will be large and should therefore be avoided. Often it will then be more economical to increase the span length (to make the retaining wall smaller) or change the type of bridge (to one without any retaining wall at all). 5.6 SCOUR/EROSION, RIPRAP, SHEET PILING, RIVER TRAINING, ETC
Scour protection is usually required where a bridge is built across a meandering stream, when the natural stone protection is removed or when some restriction to the flow of the design flood occurs at a bridge. Protection measures can take the form of: riprap on slopes or river bed gabion or Reno mattress aprons or revetments sheetpiled walls vegetation with deep roots river training works
Riprap riverbed protection consists of a carpet of loose stones, heavy enough to resist being washed away by maximum water velocities during a flood. If the velocity exceeds 1.0 m/s
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this protection should not be installed in a manner which reduces the area of the waterway. The main advantages of riprap are: low construction cost material often available close to the site a flexible protection easy to install and repair with appropriate lifting gear such as tripod, ginpole or tractorcrane.
The stones should be well-graded. Durable and heavy stones with a cubic shape are preferred. Flaky stones should be avoided. The thickness of the blanket should be at least the length of the largest stones and about the nominal mean diameter (d50). If no separate calculations of scour have been performed, scour protection should always be applied at least 3 m around piers and abutments with riprap of a minimum stone size according to Table 5-1 below. Max. Velocity at Riverbed (m/s) 1,3 2,2 3,0 3,2 Max. Velocity at stone slopes 1,5:1 (m/s) 0,9 1,5 2,0 2,2 Max. Velocity at gravel slopes 2:1 (m/s) 0,8 1,4 1,8 2,0 No. of Layers d50 mm 70 200 350 400 Crushed Stone Fraction (mm) 0-100 0-300 0-500 0-600
1 1 2 2
Table 5-1 Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections Gabions are rectangular baskets made of steel wire mesh with internal tie wires at every half-meter. They are normally filled at the site with natural or quarried stone. The gabion structure is more stable and durable if the stones are packed by hand. Standard sizes are 2, 3 and 4 m long by 1 m wide by 0.5 or 1 m high. Filter blankets should be applied to the back of the gabions or beneath the riprap if the riverbank consists of fine, non-cohesive material, to prevent such material from being washed away through the voids in the riprap or gabion lining. The filter blanket can consist of a 0.5 mm thick polyester non- woven textile carpet (minimum weight 250 g/m2) or multiple layers of stones with the finest layer closest to the river bank and the coarsest layer towards the water. The polyester carpet should be protected from sunshine, and should be placed, overlapped and anchored according to the manufacturer. Sheet piling of prefabricated RC or steel shall be driven to form a continuous wall. The resulting wall is less flexible than gabions or riprap and may fail due to movements in the ground. To withstand the earth pressure it should be designed through calculations. Only temporary sheet piling shall be made out of wood.
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Vegetation can be used to protect riverbanks. The most successful plants are those found growing naturally along the river. Plants with deep roots are preferred. River training works require extensive experience. It is useful to examine other structures in the area, observe the flow during the rainy season or at flood, and to examine plans and maps showing how the river shape has progressed, in order to understand where bank strengthening and guide walls are needed (Ref. 1). For further guidance on river training, refer to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002. 5.7 SUBSTRUCTURE (ABUTMENTS, PIERS, WINGWALLS, AND RETAING WALLS)
Every bridge is divided into substructure and superstructure. The division is normally made at the bearings. For frame bridges the limit between substructure and superstructure is at the joint between the top of the footing and the bottom of the front wall. An Abutment is a free, independent end of a bridge. It normally carries both the load from the superstructure and the load from the adjacent road embankment. Wing-walls are sometimes placed parallel to the roadway in order to minimize the overturning moment of the abutment (see Figure 5-2). Many existing abutments and piers in Ethiopia are made of stone masonry or mass concrete. If an abutment is higher than 8 m, it should preferably be of an open type without a frontwall under the level 1.5 m below the slope (see Figure 5-2 below). This configuration will reduce horizontal forces from earth pressure and the traffic load on the embankment. This type of abutment saves material and therefore more economical than one with a solid front wall. Piers are normally designed as a wall or as two braced columns. At large bridges a box type is sometimes used. Piers in high velocity streams should preferably be made as one single column or as a wall under the normal high water level (HWL), due to increased scour. For the same reason, such pier walls should if possible be parallel to the main stream flow. The minimum thickness of piers in water should not be less than 0.6 m or if the design water velocity (DWV) exceeds 1.5 m/s not less than 0.8 m and if pier height at the same time exceeds 8 m not less than 1.0 m. Edges should always be rounded at DWV exceeding 1.5 m/s or where debris is expected.
Elevation: Front Wall
Section: Open Type
Figure 5-2 Two Types of Abutments

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Wingwalls are made to take the difference in height at the abutments. In wingwalls attached to the abutment the size of the horizontal main reinforcement in wingwalls should be as small as possible ( 12 mm) and preferably not exceed 16 mm, to minimize the width of the cracks in the face of the wall towards the soil. The front wall should always be made 0.1 m thicker than the wingwall, unless a FEM (Finite Element Modeling) analysis or similar proves otherwise (See Figure 5-3 below). The shortest length of a wingwall in a slope is obtained by directing the wingwall to the bisector (half of the skew-angle, see Figure 5-3). In such case the bottom side of the wingwall should be parallel to the slope and at least 1.0 m deeper than the slope, measured perpendicular to the slope surface. If sheet piling is used for the footing, the wingwall will interfere with it and hence a wingwall parallel to the roadway is preferred.
Figure 5-3 Typical Parallel and 45 Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment Aesthetically the length of the wingwalls should never exceed the overall width or the span length. If the design length of the wingwall exceeds 5.0 m, the use of a retaining wall usually saves material and is therefore more economical (see Figure 5-4). In that case the attached wingwall should not exceed 3.0 m due to the deflection from earth pressure, which should match the deflection of the retaining wall. If the wingwall is too short the two footings may interfere with each other. To minimize the height of the retaining wall it can be raised to a higher level than the abutment footing by placing it on a compacted stonefill. Piled retaining walls in slopes should be avoided due to the large horizontal loads, which makes them very expensive.
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Figure 5-4 Typical Combined Attached Wingwall and Retaining Wall Examples of retaining wall design are given in the appendix RW: Retaining Wall Design. 5.8 LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS (FORDS, IRISH CROSSINGS, VENTED CAUSEWAYS, ETC)
In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively simple alternatives to conventional bridges. There are three basic types of low level crossing: Fords (also called Irish crossings) and bed-level causeways, which are in essence reinforced roadways on the bottom of the stream. Vented causeways, where low flow is handled by openings under the roadway level Submersible bridges, which are temporarily submersed low bridges.
All types are appropriate for roads with low traffic volumes or where a reasonably short detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. The crossing should be designed such that for most of the year the maximum depth of water over the crossing is less than 0.15 m. The service life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design as outlined in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges. Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional bridges, shall be constructed so that they cause little interference with the design flood. Since all water flowing in the river channel overtops fords and bed-level causeways, there is no reason to raise the road surface more than 0.1 m above the streambed.
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Fords (unpaved) are the simplest form of river crossing. They generally are placed where the stream is wide, shallow and slow, the approach gentle, and the surface firm. Improvements to the approaches are usually confined to reducing the gradient. The running surface in the stream can be strengthened and made more driveable by using stones imported and buried just below the surface (See Refs. 3 and 4). A more durable improvement shall be made to the running surface by replacing the stones with gabions or reno mattresses. The gabions should not rise more than 0.10 m above the natural bed level of the river, otherwise they may cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing. Bed level causeways (paved) shall be used where the traffic composition or the lack of a nearby all-weather crossing justifies the expense; a pavement shall be laid on the riverbed. A bed-level causeway is also called a paved ford, drift, paved dip or Irish bridge (Ref. 5). Figure 5-5 below illustrates three common designs. Further detail for low-level water crossings is presented in the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage, drawing BR-36. Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt river flow, and so are liable to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the riverbed or banks, which in turn may affect the road approaches to the crossing. These bridge types usually present a dry roadway for ordinary flows and are designed to be overtopped at less than an annual flood, or near the design flood as determined using the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Standards and Departures from Standard, Section 2.1: Design Storm/Flood.. Vented causeways are built where the river flow is too great for too many days in the year to allow the traffic to cross a ford or bed level causeway without significant disruptions. Structures include multiple pipe culverts for low flow and should be designed following the guidelines in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Standards and Departures from Standard, Section 2.4: Hydraulic Design Elements. However, the design flood used to calculate the vent/culvert sizes will be less than the annual flood (see ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Standards and Departures from Standard, Section 2.1: Design Storm/Flood), provided it is acceptable that the roadway shall be overtopped for a few days each year during the annual high flood. Submersible bridges shall be used where the traffic density justifies a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood, but the annual high flood is much greater than this. A submersible bridge designed to pass the ordinary flood but to be overtopped by the high flood will be considerably cheaper than a high level, all weather bridge. Submersible bridges have the advantage of being able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a causeway of the same height, but are more susceptible to damage by the river. Since the flood horizontal forces on the piers and bridge decks are quite substantial, submersible bridges should preferably be designed as multiple box culverts. Because of these difficulties submersible bridges are not recommended above any foundation other than rock, and even then a vented causeway or a conventional bridge is likely to be a more durable alternative. To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls are usually required on both sides of the roadway and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design flood.
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It is recommended that curtain walls should be to the minimal depths upstream and downstream as indicated in Figure 5-5, unless rock is reached before that depth. If the bed is inerodible, the causeway need not have curtain walls but the bed on both the upstream and downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
2.0
1.0
Figure 5-5 Bed Level Causeways, Common Types

Figure 5-5 type a) shows a section through a basic bed level causeway suitable for light traffic and maximum water velocity below 2.0 m/sec. The crossing shown in Figure 5-5 type b) requires good concrete technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is difficult to repair. Figure 5-5 type c) shows a design employing a good combination of concrete pavement with flexible protection. Generally, lean concrete is used and slabs are jointed using crack inducers every 5.0-m. All low level crossings should have guideposts and a depth gauge to alert the driver to the placement of the edges of the crossing and the water depth. Depth gauges should indicate the depth of water at the lowest point of the crossing. Simple black and white markings at every 0,1 m are best - with an indication of the units used. Posts should be of concrete 0.3 m in diameter or square, placed within easy vision of the approach but well away from possible impact damage by vehicles. Guideposts should be set each side of the roadway between 2 and 4 m apart, depending on the likelihood of catching floating debris. They should be sufficiently high to be visible during the highest expected floods and be made of concrete. An additional guide for vehicles shall be provided by building a ridge down the center of concrete causeways, as shown in Figure 5-5 type b). This ridge also offers restraint against sideways drifting of vehicles in strong currents. 5.9 FRAME BRIDGES
A reinforced concrete frame bridge is a simple and economical type of bridge. Its main feature is a low design height, which is shown in Figure 5-6 below. It can be made in one or several spans, several spans being a common configuration. The walls should preferably be of an equal height in order to achieve a balance between the earth pressures. If piled footings are necessary for an open single span frame bridge (without bottom slab) it is in most cases favorable to add some beams between the footings to eliminate the horizontal forces from the earth pressure on the piles. The most economical span/opening for a single span frame bridge is 6 20 m provided that the height of the walls are more than of the span length and that the soil is sufficiently stable, otherwise a slab or a girder bridge is preferred. The span length of a multiple span frame bridge, such as a double or triple box culvert, should not exceed 8 10 m for each span due to the required footing thickness and because larger structures are sensitive to movements from earthquakes. Multiple open span frame bridges (without bottom slabs) should be avoided because they are usually more expensive than continuous slabs or girders, unless the latter employs a very expensive type of bearings. The standard Single Box Culvert may also be used as underpasses for pedestrians (internal height 3.0 m), cattle (internal height 3.0 4.0 m) or for traffic (internal height 5.0 m). Skewed single open frame bridges are quite difficult both to design and construct; therefore 3-span slab bridges are more preferable. For a one lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding
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20 or a two-lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding 30 the design criteria according to Figure 5-7 below should be checked. Otherwise the earth-pressure might cause the bridge to rotate horizontally due to sliding and the sharp corners might have resulting uplift forces. In such cases the bridge and especially the deck should be designed with a refined method such as FEM-analysis or the finite strip method. A Girder Frame Bridge is an open single span frame bridge with girders under the bridge deck. It is economical for span lengths between 18 25 m in non-earthquake areas, under the same provisions as the single span frame bridge above.
Figure 5-6 Design Heights of Open Single Span Frame Bridges (H= Height of wall)
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a > 0.3 * b
a b
= skew angle b = length of front wall l = length of edge beam
Figure 5-7 Requirements for Skewed Frame Bridges Regarding the detailed design of frame bridges see section 12.7. 5.10 SLAB BRIDGES Single span slab bridges are perhaps the most common bridges in Ethiopia. They can be economical for spans from 1 m to 18 m. Above 15 m they should preferably be ribbed as shown in Figure 5-8 below. Instead of ribs there are several types of prefab forms (Texaspan, etc) that can be used by contractors, if the designer has considered that particular type.
SLAB
VOIDED SLAB
RIBBED SLAB
Figure 5-8 Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge. The required design depth is usually 5.5 - 6 % of the span length, due to the width of the cracks. If stressed reinforced concrete is used, the design depth shall be reduced to 4.5 % of the span length. The abutments at single or double span slab bridges should preferably be placed perpendicular to the bridge in order to avoid a skew in earth pressure, which may cause skew in the abutment front wall.
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The abutments shall be designed as simple walls if an end-wall with at least 1.5-m height is provided at each end of the slab. The end-wall must be designed for all the longitudinal forces from the superstructure as well as part of the earth pressure, and the wingwalls are fixed, supported in the end-wall. If the Slab Bridge is continuous and long, the active earth pressure on the end-wall may turn into a passive earth pressure, where the much larger kpcoefficient should be used in the design of the end-wall. Recent results show that raised piled footings hidden behind a rather high (approx. 3 - 3.5 m) end-wall, deleting all horizontal forces on the footing, has proved to be economical (see Figure 5-9). The piers are usually designed as walls. At skewed slab bridges it is however sometimes favorable to use one thick column if the width of the bridge is not more than 8 m. In such cases a check for punching of the slab above the column should always be made. Sometimes the top of the column can be tapered to avoid or minimize the punching reinforcement.
Figure 5-9 Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls
5.11 GIRDER BRIDGES A girder bridge is usually used for a single span bridge, or non-continuous girders for a multi-span bridge, in earthquake areas. They shall be used for span lengths between 12 - 20 m. Outside of earthquake zones, continuous girder bridges are preferred. In this case the exterior span length should be approximately 0.8 times the interior span. The LRFD design method usually minimizes materials used if the number of girders/beams is minimized. The cantilever should preferably not exceed 40 % of the spacing of the girders, or 2.8 m for a two-lane bridge.
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The design depth of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length depending on the number of beams used. If possible, a high stem of beam is preferred to a certain extent, both technically and economically. For construction reasons however, the height should be minimized. Esthetically a short bridge with a high superstructure close to the water surface should be avoided. Here a slender structure (slab) is more appealing. Regarding endwalls, the same restraints mentioned for slab bridges applies to girder bridges, as long as the total length of the continuous superstructure does not exceed 70-90 m. RC Box girder bridges are sometimes used for span lengths of between 30 - 90 m, especially if a slender structure is desired or for curved bridges with small horizontal curves where a great resistance to torsion is required. The interior height should not be less than 1.0 m and a 0.6-m wide manhole is required for maintenance reasons. Steel girder bridges are most favorable over deep or muddy waters since scaffolding from the ground is not necessary. The scaffolding is braced from the bottom flanges of the steel beams. Cost competitiveness versus a concrete bridge depends almost solely on the steel price compared to the concrete price, but also on the availability of competent welders, sizes of workshops and similar. Today rolled beams of 1.1-m height made of high quality steel shall be obtained from some of the largest steel plants. Such beams may span some 20m, and for composite bridges they may span 24m. However the most economical construction would be to import high tensile steel plates with a thickness between 10 mm (webs) and 50 mm (flanges) and fabricate the beams in local workshops. This however requires highly trained and licensed welders. The limited transportation facilities in the country make it practical to fabricate relatively short bridge pieces in the workshop and assemble them at the site. Steel box girders are quite complicated sections and should be considered only if most of the requirements for steel girder bridges above are fulfilled. Composite steel girder bridges will be used more in the future due to new research results on the interaction between the steel beams and the concrete bridge decks through shear connectors (studs). These are some 200 mm high with diameter 19, 22 or 25 mm welded to the top of the upper flange, which should be at least 20 mm thick. The reduction in material use is quite remarkable and makes steel bridges more competitive, although the design calculations are somewhat more difficult. The design depth of the superstructure is reduced to some 4 - 6 % of the span length. Since the weight is much less, this type of bridge can be used to replace an old concrete bridge, especially if the live load is increased. If an end-wall type of bridge is used, the overall length of the continuous bridge deck should not exceed 80 - 100 m due to temperature movements, which create a large passive earth pressure at the end-walls. The most common construction methods are either to lift the steel beams with one or more cranes from one or both the river shores, or to slide the steel structure on temporary sliding bearings from one abutment. The launching forces should be considered as Construction load.
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5.12 MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCH BRIDGES Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from granite or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe several 2000 year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred where weather-resistant rocks shall be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow any horizontal gliding between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be found. Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions, and south of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium sized bridges (below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and limestone can also be used, and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of stone masonry bridges. Hard burned clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized for this type of bridge. At span lengths over 20 - 25 m it is often advantageous to apply secondary arches on top of the main arch barrel. This requires both skilled and experienced designers and contractors. Regarding the structural design of this type of bridge it should be noted that temperature forces and settlement might cause pressure on the under side of the arch barrel at the crown and pressure on the topside of the arch barrel at the abutments. The preliminary main dimensions of the arches should be as in Table 5-2 below: Span opening (m) Thickness at crown (top) m Thickness at abutment m 8 0.55 0.80 9 0.60 0.90 10 0.70 1.00 12 0.75 1.00 15 0.86 1.20 20 0.90 1.35
Table 5-2 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring) Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite Element Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided. For detailed design see subchapter 12.7. Concrete arch bridges should preferably be designed with 3 hinges (joints) in order to minimize stresses in the arch barrel. This applies especially for earthquake zones. The design and construction of the hinges requires special skill and experience. The simplest type is the cross-reinforced hinge shown in Figure 5-10 at right. The highest accuracy is needed in placing the bars. The joint must be waterproofed and sealed to avoid corrosion.
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Figure 5-10 Cross-Reinforced Hinge
5.13 PREFABRICATED BRIDGES Prefabricated bridges usually have the following advantages: Falsework is not needed, e. g. crossing waterways or deep gorges. The erection time is reduced, which could be useful if there is no other place to cross the river. The same formwork made out of steel plate can be used over and over again, which reduces the need for timber formwork. Usually quality is high since the personnel in a pre-casting factory perform the same type of work repeatedly, compared to temporary laborers at a bridge site. Due to transport and lifting difficulties the weight of each panel should not exceed 20 tons (200 kN) and the length should be less than 12 -20 m unless adequate hauling devices are prevalent. Prestressed RC beams up to some 35 m length may however be used for bridges. The available design depth should be at least 5% of the span length. Sometimes prefabricated bridge deck panels are used together with composite steel or RC girders. In such cases the transversal joints should be made to interact with each other. Recent research has shown that high tensile steel dowels are most suitable to withstand the fatigue load. Prefab slab bridges shall be used for culverts up to 6-m spans. See Figure 5-11.
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T1 and T2 vary depending on the span length
Distances in millimeters Figure 5-11 Section of a Typical Slab Panel Prefab Girder bridges could be made of U-shaped panels as shown in Figure 5-12 or of Tshaped panels of stressed RC according to Figure 5-13. Another very common shape is the Ishaped beam panel shown in Figure 5-14. This type may also be used for pedestrian bridges with a slight alteration, as in Figure 5-15.
Distances in millimeters Figure 5-12 Section of U-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels
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Distances in millimeters Figure 5-13 Section of a Normal T-Shaped Type of Stressed RC Girder Panel
Figure 5-14 Section of Stressed I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels
Figure 5-15 Section of I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panel Bridge for Pedestrians
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Bridge Design Manual-2002
5.14 PEDESTRIAN FOOTBRIDGES Pedestrian footbridges are different from other bridges only regarding live loads and widths. 5.15 CATTLE UNDERPASSES The dimensional requirements of cattle underpasses are given in subchapter 2.5: Minimum Clearance above Waterways, Roads, and Railways. In all other respects, they are the same as standard single box or slab culverts, with the most favorable design including fill with gravel to a depth of 0.2m on the bottom slab. Sometimes guiding cattle fences are need at both ends of the culvert for road safety. Drainage by open channels is required from the lowest point. 5.16 OTHER TYPES OF BRIDGES (CABLE STAY, SUSPENSION, TRUSS, RAILWAY) Cable stayed bridges contain three main parts: cables, pylons (cable towers), and horizontal bracing, usually the bridge deck. The cables shall be arranged either parallel or fan shaped. This type of bridge is usually more economical than trusses, arches and suspension bridges for span lengths 100 - 500 m. The main advantage is that it can be built without falsework. It requires extraordinary experience both from designers and constructors apart from special types of cranes. During erection it is sensitive to strong sideways wind if it is not anchored horizontally with temporary stays. Suspension bridges contain the same parts as cable bridges and in addition, an anchor-block for the cables. The anchor-block may preferably be anchored in the rock itself. The suspension bridge is well suited for span lengths above 500 m, which are not common at present in Ethiopia. Truss bridges are usually made of steel. They are more economical than steel girder bridges in this country. Another advantage is that they are quite lightweight which makes them suited as temporary bridges during the time of construction, since they are easier to transport than a girder bridge. This type of bridge is especially suited to pedestrian bridges across highways, since they can be erected without interfering with the traffic on the roadway. The mounting of the superstructure can be made during nighttime when the traffic is low. The bridge deck can be made of some kind of steel plate, special impregnated wood or plastic planks. The free clearance above the roadway should be at least 5.3 m due to the risk of collision with overloaded trucks. They require a significant amount of welding. Railway bridges differ from highway bridges in the increased live load and dynamic allowance. Load induced fatigue strength state sometimes govern, which is almost never the case for highway bridges. At the transition between the abutment and the railway embankment the skew angle should not exceed 20 degrees and the joint should be square (90). Some typical sections together with suitable span lengths are shown in Figure 5-16.
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5.17 TEMPORARY BRIDGES Temporary bridge structures are intended to provide quick solutions to short-term access problems. Decisions relative to such construction include the high expense of a quick solution and the likelihood that benefits will accrue for only a limited period, hence the need to keep costs low. The principal reasons for requiring a temporary crossing are: damage to an existing bridge results in the need for a temporary structure on a nearby site while the disabled bridge is being repaired or replaced. (This could be an opportune time to consider upgrading the existing structure in terms of width, traffic capacity, clearance height above the water and durability.) upgrading the road requires a wider, higher or stronger bridge and a temporary crossing is needed for a detour to carry traffic while the new road and bridge are built on the old alignment. a river crossing is required urgently and for a short term by an Organization other than a roads department, e.g. an aid organization concerned with the delivery of emergency relief supplies temporary access to a construction site is needed in advance of the construction of a permanent roadway. The time factor is central to the decisions relative to such a crossing, influencing in particular the type of structure to be used. For example, a washed-out bridge on a strategic road will require substitution at the earliest possible moment, whereas a detour for a road upgrading project can be planned well in advance, enabling the most economic solution to be employed. The length of time that the temporary structure will be in service also influences its design and cost. A low-level structure shall be adequate for a short period, but if it is likely to be needed beyond the end of the dry season, a ford or culvert may not suffice and a temporary bridge with associated bank protection shall be required. A realistic estimate of the time needed to build a permanent replacement is necessary, together with a worst-case view of the weather and the projected traffic loading, before a firm decision can be made regarding the type of temporary structure to be built.
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Figure 5-16 Typical Sections of Railway Bridges and their Suitable Span Lengths Generally, the order of preference for the type of structure will follow the order of increasing cost, unless specific skills or materials are unavailable. This order of preference is likely to be: fords causeways temporary beam bridges prefabricated decks.
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A ford shall be no more than a prepared descent to and exit from a river bed, taking into account the traction requirements of known traffic on the slopes (See Low Level Water Crossings above). A vented earth causeway can be built using pipes stocked in most state road department depots, taking measures to prevent erosion of the fill around the pipes. A temporary surfacing may also be required. Though a ford or causeway may not be serviceable for use by general traffic at times of high water, it might be acceptable in the short term; an existing crossing of this type might even be found on a nearby older alignment. A Timber Beam Bridge shall be the best solution if material is readily available in the locality The design of timber bridge decks is detailed in Section 12.10. Timber beam bridges do not require preservative treatment for temporary duty. A manufacturer of timber girder bridges in presented in Table 5-3 below. Timber truss decks of the trestle type require special skills and it is no longer easy build one quickly. If steel or concrete beams are available for short-term use, it is necessary to ascertain their bending and shear characteristics and to employ them in a similar manner to timber beams with timber decking. Steel panel bridges such as the Bailey Bridge have been used worldwide for 50 years. The steel panels to make bridges of different lengths, widths and load capacity are assembled in a couple of days. Other well-known versions of unitary construction bridges are the Acrow Panel Bridge and the Callender Hamilton designs. Suppliers of these bridges are listed in Table 5-3. They issue detailed design and assembly instructions and provide a design and advisory service for customers. Most also have websites. Table 5-3 Suppliers of Premade Bridges Bailey Bridges Mabey and Johnson Ltd. Floral Mile, Twyford, Reading RGIO 9SQ, England. Bailey Bridges, Inc., Route 4 Box 188 Greenville, Alabama, USA 36037 Steel Panel Bridges Thos Storey (Engineers) Ltd. 52 Queens Road, Weybridge KT13 OAN, England. The Callender Hamilton Bridge: Balfour Beatty Power Construction Ltd. 7 Mayday Road, Thornton Heath CR7 7XA, England. Pedestrian Steel BILTOLAST Products, Inc. 119 40th Street NE, Fort Payne, Truss Alabama, USA. Timber Girder Western Wood Structures, Inc., P. O. Box 130, Tualatin, Oregon, USA 87062. Parts of old Bailey bridges can be found in most countries, but great care should be taken to identify these parts correctly. Detail design modifications for greater load-carrying capacities
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have been made over the years. New and old panels should not be assembled in the same structure. Old components must be used only in accordance with the corresponding manuals. Prefabricated steel bridges are unlikely to offer an economical solution to the need for temporary bridging, unless their facility for being dismantled and re-used can be properly exploited. However, their component parts are so easily transported that a stock held centrally by the Ethiopian Roads Authority could be made available at short notice nationwide in most instances. Abutments and Piers are often not needed since most temporary bridge decks can be assembled on existing or temporary abutments. Existing abutments, if they are sound and located on an acceptable alignment, have three important advantages: they have a proven record of sustaining the dynamic and static applied loads they have shown satisfactory resistance to attack by the river their use avoids the time and expense of building new abutments. Temporary abutments shall be made from gabions (see Figure 5-17), temporary steel sheet piling or logs. However, they are highly susceptible to scour and erosion, and should be constructed with great care using ties and anchors where possible, because they can be destroyed by a single flood.
Figure 5-17 Temporary Bridge on Gabion Abutments
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Where water flow is low, timber piled abutments and piers have proved successful. The use of piers reduces the section of the road bearing beams, and a whole bridge can be built with timber no larger than 0.3 m in diameter. If the engineer is satisfied that there is material of sufficient strength at bed level or a little below, open caisson piers shall be constructed using pre-cast concrete rings (See Figure 5-18 below). The first ring is placed in position and excavation takes place from inside it. Rings are added as the first progresses downwards until a firm base material is reached, then more rings are added until the required deck height is achieved. Lean concrete can be used to fill the caisson and stronger concrete is used at the top to take anchor bolts for the transoms. A height to diameter ratio of 3:1 should not be exceeded without careful calculations. The caisson pier type will also obstruct the water-flow, which could increase the scour. Temporary bridges must nonetheless offer reliable service over the required period of use. A guidance to the selection of the design flood and flow characteristics for smaller temporary structures is given in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology. The two key aspects of durability in temporary bridging are: load carrying adequacy protection from water damage.
Figure 5-18 Bridge Pier made of Concrete Rings
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A temporary bridge may not be completely adequate for all vehicles that normally use the road. If the temporary structure has any limitation in load capacity, width or height, this must be clearly marked at the entrances to the road on which the bridge is located and repeated on the approaches to the bridge. It shall be possible to divert large vehicles to a prepared ford, while small ones are permitted to use the bridge. If possible, physical barriers should be erected to prevent drivers of large vehicles from infringing the temporary regulations in areas where drivers are known to ignore warning signs. For most applications the two main precautions to be taken are: to allow adequate clearance between high water level and the temporary deck to build the sub-structure so that there is a minimum of interference to the flow. 5.18 BACKWATER Regarding a bridge over a stream, the opening must be large enough not to cause any damage due to backwater. Sometimes it shall be necessary to compensate for the backwater by means of training or relining the stream. If the local populace and/or livestock normally wander along the shores, sometimes the bridge opening needs to be widened to provide for such passage under the bridge at normal water levels. Calculation of backwater should always be made if the Design Water Velocity exceeds 1.0 m/s. Examples are shown in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section 8.7: Examples. 5.19 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE 5.19.1 SKEWED CROSSINGS Generally skewed crossings should be avoided, because skewed bridges are more difficult to calculate, are longer, and need more reinforcement, which means they are more costly. One lane open, framed, skewed bridges should be avoided due to the eccentric earth pressure on each of the frontwalls that may cause the whole structure to rotate. The moment from rotation has to be taken in consideration when the slide between the footing and the ground is calculated. However the bridge shall be made perpendicular even if the crossing is skewed as shown at Figure 5-19.
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Figure 5-19 Skewed (Bottom) and Perpendicular (Top) Bridge 5.19.2 ECONOMICAL ASPECTS The most economic overall bridge length and span length depends to a large extent upon the foundation costs. If the piers have to be founded deep under the water or if piling is needed, then longer spans up to a certain limit shall be more economical. At larger bridges and difficult soil conditions the most favorable locations of the piers should be sought. If no such locations can be located it may in some cases be more economical to realign the road to a more suitable bridge site, although all aspects should be re-investigated. The cost of the superstructure mainly depends on the span length and the available design depth. To compare the construction costs of different bridges it is practical to use the specific cost per square meter of bridge deck area. The construction costs from recently constructed bridges are valuable and therefore should be collected. If possible the costs should exclude costs for extraordinary scour protection, realignment of the river, etc, which do not form a portion of the bridge structure cost itself. Hence different bridge type alternatives can be compared at the same bridge site. As mentioned before, the geotechnical/soil conditions are very important in the total cost of the structure. If the soil conditions for the adjacent road embankment are very poor and require piling or a pile deck, this should be compared to the cost of a longer bridge. The
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same applies for very high embankments, where a longer bridge sometimes might be more economic due to the savings in earthworks 5.19.3 ARCHITECTURAL AND SCULPTURAL ASPECTS Close to cities or large towns the architectural and sculptural aspects of a bridge should be considered. If a pleasing bridge is desired a competition between architects shall be arranged before or parallel with the actual pre-design of the bridge. Preferably the winning sketch should be converted and elaborated into photographs of the proposed bridge by means of suitable computer software. The architect's viewpoints must be translated into the structural limitations available for the particular bridge. To avoid misunderstandings both the sketch and the actual bridge layout drawings should be submitted to the bidder. The winner may be invited to participate in the final design of the bridge and its details. 5.19.4 APPEARANCE AND SAFETY There are however some basic facts regarding the appearance of the bridge that the structural designer and the road engineer should consider: Normally the form of the bridge should coincide with the road both horizontally and vertically. If the bridge is close to a horizontal curve the skew transition should preferably be moved from the bridge deck. Curves and especially reverse-curves on a bridge should be avoided for safety reasons since the railing always reduces the sight length in the curve. A sag vertical curve should have the lowest point at the adjacent road embankment, not at the bridge, to achieve sufficient drainage of the bridge deck. A crest vertical curve with the highest point at the bridge is suitable as long as the sight length is sufficient. At longer bridges with esthetical demands it is advisable to arrange a horizontal curve as well. Then the bridge and its main superstructure shall be viewed from the side before entering the bridge itself. If the bridge is attractive, a parking facility shall be provided before the bridge to allow people to view the bridge and the water. 5.20 RAILINGS, AND PARAPETS Railings are designed as a part of the overall bridge design. For details, refer to Chapter 12: Detail Design of Bridges; the appendix for worked examples; and the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 2: Guardrail Drawings for design. 5.21 CHECKLIST FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN DRAWING(S) Information on the layout and sizing of the drawings is given in Chapter 16: Calculations, Drawings, and Specifications. The following information are required in the preliminary design stage:
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General Information the name and direction of the nearest town and/or the beginning and end of project, bench mark used and its location and elevation (if a local Bench mark is used it shall be described in detail and connected to the National Level Benchmark Network), coordinates, coordinate system used and north arrow, water / sewerage pipes electrical cables or lines fixed and expanding bearings and type of bearings type of expansion joints if any, type of hinges type of drainage outlets of bridge deck if any, type of fill behind the abutments (at frame structures the filling should be made at the same time at the same level behind both abutments, at abutments not founded on rock the backfill shall be made before the measure between the superstructure and the abutment is decided upon), which Loading Specifications and accidental loads have been used, which pavement type is to be used for the bridge deck, which guardrail / pedestrian railing / parapets are to be used, scale shown at each figure, run-on-slabs for roadway, cables, water-pipes, etc., protection pipe for water-pipe, Standards to be used for the detail design, Specifications to be used for the construction, Title block information, name of the bridge, scale used, bridge number plan with the contours or spot levels of the river bed and the surroundings. Foundations Provided details of: founding method for bridge supports, proposed elevations of footings, replacement of soft layer with compacted fill, piling and length of piles, type of piles (cast-in-place etc.), proposed level of pile cap, embankment reinforcement, i.e. piling, replacement with light weight material, etc., compaction methodology, requirements for fill, scour protection, type, material, thickness, protected area, sub water excavation, sub water casting of lean concrete slab under foundation, types of soil at every support, sheetpiling Soil Conditions Provide the following: reference to the Soil Investigation Report for the bridge, inclination of embankment slopes cross sections in the alignment as well as 5 m up-/downstream at elevation,
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the levels of different soil layers, level of bedrock the type of soil at every proposed support, ground water level with the date it was observed, Bridge Dimensions and Geometry overall length of bridge, span lengths, width of road, width of bridge, grade of bridge, angle of skew, angle of abutments and piers, width of columns (minimum thickness requirements), lowest allowable level of superstructure length of wingwalls adequate, type of supports, i.e. masonry or concrete, rounded piers, etc crossfall of bridge deck and/or superelevation, depth of substructure, chamfers to be utilized, retaining walls, type of bearings (fixed/expansion), the stations of the piers and abutments, profile of the road - schematic Information on the Stream name of the waterway, direction of flow, design water speed (=water speed at design water flow), quantities of flow, design water flow, normal and lowest water flow, design water level, normal and lowest water level, clearance heights, cross sections of the waterway in the alignment A sample preliminary design drawing is given in Figure 5-20. 5.22 CHECKLIST FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN STANDARDS (PDS) The contractor shall follow these requirements for the design of the bridge: General Requirements - Main tender (Preliminary Design Drawing No., minimum dimension requirements) - Contractors alternative Preliminary Design (requirements of width, height, radius, grade, other given dimensions, skew angle, bridge cones, slope and placement, profile) - Water levels and ground water levels (usually from the Drainage Investigation) - Formwork requirements - Traffic conditions during the Construction time (ADT; required width, height and speed; provisional bridge/load; fencing, etc.)
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Design requirements - Earth Pressure (backfill material) - Piling (tension forces, drag forces, etc.) - Buoyancy (Design Water Level shall be indicated on the drawing, level of pumping, etc.) - Settlement differences (if different from the LRFD Code) - Allowable creep of concrete (applicable only for unusual designs) - Allowable deformations and frequency (only if different from the LRFD Code) - Expansive soils (if the soil investigation indicates it) - Clearance requirements (over Design Water Level, roadway, walkway, railway, etc.) - Design Life requirements (according to the LRFD Code) Loading - General (Traffic load, if different from the LRFD Code) - Permanent loads (launching forces, dead load of unusual materials, displacement loads) - Live Loads (emergency traffic load on pedestrian bridges, load on walkway intended to be used as a traffic lane in the future, fatigue load, measured wind load for special bridges, stream pressure/drag, etc.) - Accidental Loads (level of collision load, etc.) - Loading combinations (if different from the LRFD Code) Foundation works - Soil Investigation used (dated, by whom) - Construction method proposed - Excavation works Excavation and casting of concrete above water Pumping of ground water (assumed method, 2 000 l/min. normally) Sheetpiling (underwater excavation and casting of lean concrete under the footing) Reporting to the Engineer at least 5 days before fill, casting of footings, etc.) - Fill works (level of fill, if different from Bridge Specifications) - Embankment piling (usually the embankment piling shall be made before the abutment piling) - Footings - Piling works prefab piles or cast-in place piles, concrete cover of piles tip bearing or skin friction piles (results of test piling already made, design length of piles at different supports, required number of test piles at each support, etc.) checking of foundation work (highest allowable groundwater level under the excavation level - normally 0.5 m; required additional checking of piling) - Protection works (erosion protection, sheet piling, scour protection)
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Concrete works - Superstructure (edgebeam type, larger concrete cover than required in the LRFD Code, if the slab shall be assumed continuous over supports, if expansion joints are necessary over supports, maximum allowable crossfall/superelevation) - Construction (if special methods are required, detail design drawings will be provided later) - Substructure - Footing (assumed bottom levels, if footing is allowed to be cast underwater) - Pier, Abutments, Retaining Walls and Cones (filling material, cone material, minimum dimension of pier/abutment if different from the LRFD Code) Steel and Timber works - Superstructure (coating, construction methods) Bridge Details - Drainage (only for curbs: type, outlet; drainage of box piers and girders) - Pipes and Ducts (dimensions, nos., placing and dead load of content) - Paving (water insulation under the surface coat, pavement type, coat thickness, material, traffic lane/pedestrian lane, islands) - Edge beam (type, standard or special) - Bearings (type, brand - only if required by ERA; lifting requirements at exchange of bearings; if bearings are excluded from the tender/delivered by ERA) - Expansion joints (type - open or waterproof, required brand - only if required by ERA) - Railing (type, parapet type, length, painting of railing and parapet) Miscellaneous - Inspection devices (manholes, inspection platforms, ladders) - Test loading (test program, calculations and evaluation to be made by the Contractor/by ERA) - Built-as specifications and drawings (only additional requirements not stated in the LRFD Code) - If military load should be applied or not.
All drawings and specifications supplied shall be signed and dated. 5.23 SAMPLE PRELIMINARY DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS Sample preliminary design specifications for a bridge are given in the next example (figure 5.20).
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Figure 5.20
EXAMPLE
PRELIMINARY BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS (PBS) BRIDGE No. A1-123
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY OROMIYA REGION ADDIS ABABA DJIBOUTI HIGHWAY A1
EXAMPLE
For the Construction of the
MOJO RIVER BRIDGE 1 KM NW OF MOJO VILLAGE

At Sta. 7+090, in the Oromiya Region
Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999 SABA Engineering, PLC
794509-72
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I
I.1
GENERAL General Requirements

Main Tender
In the Main Tender, the Bridge shall be built according to Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21). Dimensions shall be according to the requirements of Chapter 16: Calculations, Drawings, and Specifications.
Contractors Alternative Tender
If an alternative tender is given by the Contractor, the bridge shall be constructed with the same width, height, radius, grade, skew angle and other dimensions given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21). Bridge Cones shall not be steeper, or be placed closer to the water, than stated on the Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21). The profile of the road may not be altered. I.2 Construction Requirements
Water Levels and Ground Water Levels
Water levels shown have been calculated according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual2002, and ground water levels shall be as shown in the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998. The normal (mean) water level has been estimated after several field level measurements.
Formwork Requirements
Formwork requirements shall be as given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01. I.3 Design Requirements
Earth Pressure
Backfill material shall be granular soil graded in accordance with the Technical Specifications.
Piled Footings
All soil parameters which are not given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01, shall be according to "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998.
Tension forces in each pile shall not exceed 50 kN. Downdrag need not be considered.
Buoyancy
When designing the buoyancy for the pile slabs, the water level +2062.50 shall be used.
Clearance Requirements
Clearance above the Design Water Level (DWL) shall not be less than 0.9 m.
II
LOADINGS (NOT APPLICABLE)
III FOUNDATIONS
Soil Conditions
The soil parameters shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998.
Construction Work
Excavation and Casting of Footings for the supports shall be assumed above the water surface. The excavation shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998 and Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01. Excavation and Casting of Footings above water shall include pumping of ground water. At least 5 days before the casting of the lean concrete under the footing ERA shall be notified, in order to inspect the compaction of the fill under the footing.
Tip Bearing Piles
The length of the piles shall be determined by the contractor by 2 nos. of testpiles at each abutment. The Contractor is responsible for using the right length of the piles. The design length at each abutment given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 is to be used only for the bidding.
Protection for Scour
Temporary Protection for scour shall be included in the Bridge Construction work. Protection for scour shall be made of a 0.1-m layer of natural stones on top of 0.5 m layer of stones with the size 0-100 mm (d50 70 mm) up to 3.0 m from the bridge abutment edge according to Preliminary Design Drawing no. A1-123: 01. Bridge Cones surface shall be protected with a 0.3-m layer of stones sized 16-32 mm.
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IV CONCRETE WORK
IV.1 Superstructure
Edge Beams
Edge beams shall be developed under the deck surface. IV.2 Substructure
Footings
The elevations of the bottom side of the footings shall not exceed the levels given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
Piers, Abutments, Retaining walls
Fill shall be made with material with equal parameters as assumed in the design and stated in section 1.31 above. Fill shall be as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
BRIDGE DETAILS
V.1 Drainage The drainage of the bridge deck includes the delivery and casting in place of one no. of Standard Scupper Drain Type D1 according to Standard Detail Drawing No. DR-01. V.2 Bearings The bearings shall be of the steel reinforced elastomeric type, of a brand approved by ERA. When lifting the superstructure for the replacement of the bearings it shall be assumed that the jacks are 500 mm high and placed 600 mm inside the centerline of the bearings, as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01. V.3 Railings
Guardrail
Guardrail shall be made of concrete according to Standard Detail Drawing No. GR-1 as far as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01. The adjacent four nos. of RC Parapet Panels are not included in the Bridge Construction work. Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999 SAVA Engineering, PLC Tsahai Bekila (Bridge Engineer, B.Sc.)
REFERENCES 1. Farraday and Charlton, Hydraulic Factors in Bridge Design, Wallingford, Hydraulic Research Station Ltd., 1983. 2. Parry J D, 1981. The Kenyan Low Cost Modular Timber Bridge. TRRL Laboratory Report 1970. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory, England. 3. Bingham J, 1979. Low Water Crossings. Compendium 4. Washington: Transportation Research Board. 4. Hindson J, 1983. Earth Roads - A practical guide to earth road construction and maintenance. London: Intermediate Technology Publications. 5. Roberts P, 1986. The Irish Bridge - a low cost river crossing. Southampton: University of Southampton, Department of Civil Engineering. 6. TRRL Overseas Road Note no 9, A Design Manual for Small Bridges, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne Berkshire UK, 1992. 7. Brokonstruktion - en handbok (Preliminary Bridge Design A Handbook), Publication no. 1996:63, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority), Borlange, Sweden, 1996. In Swedish. 8. "Design Standard", Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 - 1989) 9. Brobygging I. Jernbeton, sten og trae (Bridge Design part I Reinforced Concrete, stone and tree) in danish, Prof Anker Engelund, Copenhagen 1934. 10. TRRL Overseas Road Note no 7, Vol. 2, Bridge Inspectors Handbook", Crowtorne Berkshire UK, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1988. 11. RTIM3 - Road Transport Investment Model", TRRL Overseas Centre Transport and Research Laboratory, TRRL, Berkshire UK, 1988. 12. Design manual for roads and bridges - Vol. 1: "Highway structures: approval procedures and general design", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998. 13. Design manual for roads and bridges - Vol. 3: "Highway structures: inspection and maintenance", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998. 14. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 1 "Basis of Design & Actions on Structures", 1995. 15. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 "Structural Use of Concrete", 1995. 16. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 "Design of Steel Structures", 1995. 17. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 "Utilization of Timber", 1995. 18. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 "Foundations", 1995. 19. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 "Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance", 1995. 20. Eurocode 1 "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures - Part 3 Traffic Loads on Bridges", European Prestandard ENV 1991-3, March 1995. 21. Eurocode 2 "Design of Concrete Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1992. 22. Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1993. 23. "BRO 94 - Brokonstruktionsbestammelser" (Bridge Design Code), Publication no. 1994:1-8, 57-1998, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority, in Swedish.), Borlange, Sweden, 1998. 24. "Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works", American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, 1995.
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Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

PRELIMINARY DESIGN/LAYOUT OF BRIDGES AND CULVERTS

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Distances in meters Figure 5-1 Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Elevation: Front Wall

Section: Open Type

Figure 5-2 Two Types of Abutments

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Figure 5-5 Bed Level Causeways, Common Types

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

= skew angle b = length of front wall l = length of edge beam

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Figure 5-9 Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts